WORLD BANK GROUP GENDER THEMATIC POLICY NOTES SERIES: EVIDENCE AND PRACTICE NOTE ADDRESSING SOCIAL AND GENDER NORMS TO PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY ANA MARÍA MUÑOZ BOUDET, TASMIA RAHMAN, NOUR NASR AND ABIGAIL DALTON OVERVIEW Social norms are context-specific informal rules about acceptable or appropriate behaviors in a given context. When social norms reinforce expectations that men and women will occupy distinct and unequal social roles, they reproduce and perpetuate gender inequality in access to resources and opportunities. Challenging unequal social norms is critical to achieving gender equality across domains, including more gender equal markets, institutions, laws, policies, households, and societies. Unequal social norms can be changed via policy interventions supported by a more informed, data-driven approach to social norms—not just attitudes. Building on ongoing efforts and lessons from various diagnostics, the World Bank can further invest in better quality social norms measurement and data collection tools to monitor sustained normative changes. Operational work and projects can increase effectiveness with better diagnostics and use of social norms information. Examples from the World Bank and academic research of interventions that have aimed to address unequal social norms show promise for change; however, longer-term measures of the sustainability of their impacts are needed. While there is a growing set of examples of interventions that aim to change social norms—by addressing attitudes or changing the contexts that support norms adherence—gaps remain. Norm changing interventions are not being implemented at scale and more effort needs to be made to assess the duration of impacts and whether more equitable norms prevail overtime. Lessons from recent societal shocks indicate that norms can re-entrench, and attitudes can change depending on changes in context. Policy interventions need to be norms-aware and use tools to support adoption of more equal gender norms when appropriate. All policy interventions, not only those targeting gender inequality, should consider norms in their design and implementation and whether they will play a role in potential gender differences in access to and benefits from the specific policy actions. Norms-aware interventions include an assessment of social norms enforcement mechanisms and how these can be overcome. A failure to consider norms is not norms neutrality, but norms blindness. Norms-blind policies can be inefficient, may not achieve their intended outcomes, and can inadvertently reinforce gender inequality. Norms-aware interventions have a clear understanding of the social norms at play and the main actors and channels enforcing them. As such, these interventions create the conditions that enable individuals, households, and communities to deviate or circumvent unequal norms at no or low cost. JULY 2023 TABLE OF CONTENTS OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION: WHY GENDER NORMS MATTER FOR GENDER EQUALITY 1 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL NORMS 3 Definitions: What do we mean by norms 3 Measuring social norms 5 CHANGING SOCIAL NORMS: IDENTIFYING AND 10 ADDRESSING MECHANISMS THAT SUSTAIN THEM Phase 1: Limited acceptance of a more gender egalitarian norm 11 Phase 2: Norm tipping point 12 Phase 3: Widespread acceptance of the gender egalitarian behavior 14 Preventing Norms reversals 15 CHANGING SOCIAL NORMS: EXAMPLES FROM SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTIONS 16 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 21 REFERENCES 24 This thematic policy note is part of a series that provides an analytical foundation for the update to the World Bank Group Gender Strategy (2024-2030). This series seeks to give a broad overview of the latest research and findings on gender equality outcomes and summarizes key thematic issues, evidence on promising solutions, operational good practices, and key areas for future engagement on promoting gender equality and empowerment. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work are entirely those of the author(s). They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group or its Board of Directors. This note has been prepared by Ana María Muñoz Boudet, Tasmia Rahman, Nour Nasr, and Abigail Dalton. The note has benefited from inputs and feedback by Helle Buchhave, Rachael Pierotti, Laura Rawlings, Mirai Maruo, Shabnam Hameed, Meg McClure, Varun Gauri, Juan Baron, and Nikolas Myint. ii INTRODUCTION: WHY GENDER NORMS MATTER FOR GENDER EQUALITY Social norms, or the unwritten shared expectations about communities, and households. For example, in a traditional what should or should not be done in different social view of gender roles, house and care work are allocated to situations, are part of the many social cues that guide women, and may be associated with a specific identity human behavior within a given social context. (Cislaghi (i.e., mother or wife). This is then linked to a series of social and Heise 2020; Bicchieri, 2006). Social norms are a tool expectations—such as, a “good mother” looks after her for collective coordination and part of the fabric of society. children—and a series of positive or negative sanctions, People follow norms when they value the behavior and including gossip or spousal disapproval. opinion of others who also follow the norms and believe everyone should follow them too, as there are rewards and These expectations and related choices not only sanctions for following (or not) the norms (Bicchieri 2017). permeate what is acceptable behavior, but also influence policies and institutions. Labor markets and employers, in Gender norms are the social rules and expectations particular, might value men and women differently, even about how women and men should act and the roles if they are equally matched in education and experience. they should play in society. Gender norms reflect gender Even employers who are theoretically neutral toward relations, including the power differences and inequalities gender in hiring may assume productivity will differ by that are part of these relations. A subgroup of gender norms gender due to care responsibilities and factors associated supports inequality and is disadvantageous to women or with gender, thus limiting opportunities for women.2 individuals that do not conform with the expected gender Formal state institutions might respond to the norm that behaviors.1 Norms that are used to justify or limit access to implies mothers should have a preference for caregiving opportunities on the basis of an individual’s gender are the by not investing in childcare services. Deprioritizing focus of this note. investments in formal childcare services can lead to low demand of such services and hamper the development The impact of social norms on gender outcomes is of a childcare market, reinforcing the social expectation. well documented. Social norms are one of the main Legislation might respond to these assumed female determinants of unequal gender outcomes across domains, preferences by focusing all childcare-related benefits just including women’s economic participation, gender-based toward women (e.g., maternity leave, employer-provided violence (GBV), sexual and reproductive health, and childcare), which, in turn, reinforces the labor market representation in political bodies (Jayachandran, 2021; perspective that women prioritize care. Together, these Paluck and Ball, 2010; Amin et al., 2018; World Bank 2012). signals indicate to women and households the expected As they shape individual and collective preferences and behaviors of women. Moreover, these social norms can behaviors, social norms permeate formal institutions, further impact regulations that reinforce power inequality policies, the operation of markets, legal frameworks, and in the household as women are not income providers.3 overall allocations of resources and power in societies, 1 F  or individuals with different sexual orientations or gender identities (SOGI), social norms related to gender tend to be applied in relation to their biological and/or observed sexual characteristics. These individuals are often seen as norms transgressors, deviating from the expected behaviors, and as such, threatening the societal expectations and balance that norms present. While this note does not delve into the specifics of social norms related to SOGI groups, there are several resources, such as Browne (2019); Schilt and Westbrook (2009); and Westbrook and Schilt (2014). Also see the thematic policy note in this series on SOGI Inclusion and Gender Equality. 2 Taste-based or statistical discrimination (Arrow 1998). 3  For example, in Ecuador or Chile, husbands had the right to manage solely community property. The Ecuador Civil Code was reformed in 1990, but in Chile, the Civil Code continues to uphold the husband as the head of the household and manager of the community property. 1 Gender norms are also prescriptions of behavior for Policies can benefit from a better understanding of social men and boys, as well as for individuals with different norms. This includes better data for policy design and gender identities. As with women, men and all other implementation that support greater gender equality, individuals are expected to conform to certain behavioral policy efficiency, and returns to human capital investments. prescriptions and social expectations. Masculinity norms Policies that address social norms and their determinants persist, like other norms, by imposing sanctions on those need adequate data and information about the presence who deviate from a norm and those who do not enforce and strength of social norms. Understanding gender norms them. The OECD (2021) identifies 10 of these norms that and how they operate has moved from “nice to have” to are associated with gender inequality, including norms a core element of policy intervention for gender equality around the role of men as the main breadwinner, financial (Harper et al. 2020). Advances in academic and applied dominance, household authority (including control of fields on the measurement of social norms and how they assets), and sexual dominance, among others. Norms interact with program design elements and innovative around male dominance support an imbalance of power interventions can help improve policy outcomes on gender and, in many cases, lead to suboptimal outcomes for men equality and other development goals. as well as women and households as a whole.4 This note discusses advances in measurement of social Addressing the social norms that perpetuate gender norms, how to identify possible interventions based inequality or limit access to opportunities based on gender on this knowledge, and successful examples of policy differences requires adequate policy interventions. actions to address and change social norms. It documents Norm-sensitive interventions that directly address both academic literature and examples from different underlying beliefs and expectations that uphold norms, institutions working on gender equality. To assess how address the structural and environmental factors that social norms theory and insights have been transferred reinforce them, and support the creation of new positive to World Bank Group operations, a document review norms are necessary for equality gains. The most effective was conducted of World Bank projects that had included interventions are not solely focused on social norms but a focus on social norms in their design during the period consider their institutional and economic context that 2017–2022.5 prevent norms from changing. Norms-blind policies ignore the presence and role of social norms, which can The evidence on interventions that have successfully cause them either to fail in achieving their objectives or to examined and changed social norms at scale remains reinforce existing norms and gender inequality. limited. To the extent possible, the note focuses on lessons from the literature and applied work on how to identify and address norms that impact the achievement of gender equality by restricting choices, limiting access to opportunities and resources, and sustaining power imbalances in decision making and physical autonomy. 4  or example, Blum, Mmari and Moreau (2017) and Muñoz Boudet et al (2013) document how gender norms impact boys’ risk behaviors. F Baranov et al (2018) document how historically male-biased geographic areas are characterized by more risk behaviors, such as violence and excessive alcohol consumption. Jewkes (2002) and Jewkes, Flood and Lang (2015) documents how intimate partner violence is related to social norms and male identity and reinforced by conditions, such as poverty. 5  In total, 111 Project Appraisal Documents (PADs) were reviewed that explicitly mention or flag the inclusion of social norms and/ or behavior change interventions related to social or gender norms. Interviews were conducted with Bank staff to understand the motivations, challenges, and rationale for including social norms in projects. The document reviewed are project design documents prior to implementation and not project implementation or completion ones. 2 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL NORMS Definitions: What do we mean by norms (i.e., what it means to be a “good person”). Attitudes, one of the most commonly used measures of social norms, reflect Social norms can be defined as a set of informal rules of personal beliefs and values that individuals might uphold behavior that dictate what is acceptable or appropriate even in the absence of a social sanction or expectation. to do in a given situation within a given social context Social norms are also different from customs, which tend (Cislaghi and Heise 2020; Bicchieri 2006). While there to be recurrent behaviors arising from repetition to foster are many definitions of social norms (see Box 1 for the social harmony or to meet individual need (in most cases, ones used in different World Bank reports), they all share without additional instrumental value) rather than being the following elements: that social norms are rules that reinforced by sanctions with social consequences (e.g., people follow irrespective of what others do because 1) holding a door open for someone). they believe others are following the norm, 2) they believe they are expected to follow the norm, and 3) they believe Social norms, in particular gender norms, are also often there are social sanctions for not following the social conflated with gender stereotypes and gender roles, that norm.6 People follow norms when they believe others, in some, but not all cases, are related to social norms. whose behavior they observe and whose opinions about Stereotypes are generalized assumptions of characteristics their own behavior they value, both conform to the norm regarding a group of people (Kite, Deaux and Haines, 2008). and believe everyone should too (Bicchieri 2017). Gender Stereotypes describe a characteristic and like norms, they norms operate the same way, but in relation to women’s or create conformity. They do this not by imposing sanctions, men’s behaviors. but via discrimination and influence on self-beliefs about available and appropriate opportunities. For example, Social norms are distinct from other drivers of behaviors— a stereotype that claims women are bad at politics can laws, morals, customs, or individual attitudes—because perpetuate preferences for men political candidates, people comply with norms based on anticipated social irrespective of their ability or experience, and make women sanctions for nonconformity. Social norms are upheld by reluctant to compete for political offices.7 Gender roles informal social sanctions, making them different from legal define the attributes men and women are expected to norms, which are written, formal codes of conduct enforced display and the actions they are expected to take in a given by punishments, or penalties for non-compliers. Social situation (e.g., a husband’s role is to be the main provider of norms are also different from moral norms, which are more the household). Some, but not all, gender roles are linked internally driven, value-based motivators of behavior that to social norms, as not all roles are interdependent of push individuals to behave in compliance with their own expectations by others or sanctioned when not met. ideal states for self and the world rather than those of others 6  hese different elements are also known as empirical expectations or descriptive norm (expected behaviors by others), normative T expectations or injunctive norms (expected beliefs by others), and personal normative beliefs (what I believe should happen). 7 For further discussions on stereotypes, see Bordalo et al. (2016 and 2019), Carlana (2019), Bertrand (2020). 3 BOX 1: DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL NORMS USED BY THE WORLD BANK While the World Bank’s work has highlighted the role of social norms in relation to gender inequality, social norms have not always been defined. Since 2000,8 and more systematically since the World Development Report 2012 on Gender Equality and Development, definitions of norms have become more specific. They are included in sectoral guidelines ranging from social protection to financial inclusion, among others.9 While there is no standard definition of social norms used across the institution, there are common elements to all of them, and they have evolved to include core elements agreed on by the broader academic literature on social norms. Source Definition Engendering Social norms and customs […] shape individual preferences and power relations between Development (2001) the sexes. Social norms thus create powerful incentives that guide people’s behavior, and behavior outside the accepted boundaries can unleash formal and informal systems of social sanction. World Development Patterns of behavior that flow from socially shared beliefs and are enforced by informal Report (2012) social sanctions. Inclusion Exclusion plays out through both tangible and intangible practices and processes […] it is Matters (2013) rooted in intangible social norms and beliefs, which in turn lead to stereotypes, prejudices, and stigmas. These intangible features are socially constructed and played out by both the excluder and the excluded. On Norms and Main characteristics- (a) regulates individual behavior in a society; (b) specifically prescribe Agency (2013) what behavior is expected and what is not allowed in specific circumstances; (c) tell a person what to believe others expect of her behavior and tell others what to expect from that person; (d) expected agreement, or belief that the agreement exists, on the content of the norm and an enforcement of such agreement or belief by whoever holds power. Voice and Powerful prescriptions reflected in formal structures of society and in its informal rules, Agency (2014) beliefs, and attitudes. Such norms are reinforced by sanctions, which can be positive or negative, imposed by people belonging to the same reference group or by the state (Mackie and LeJeune, 2009). World Development Broadly shared beliefs about what group members are likely to do and ought to do- Report (2015) (they) are informal governance mechanisms that exert a powerful influence on individual decision making and behavior. Addressing Gender Collectively held expectations and perceived rules for how individuals should behave Norms to Increase based on their gender identity (Burjorjee, El-Zoghbi and Meyers, 2017). Social norms have Financial Inclusion (2021) three key features: high prevalence (irrespective of personal preferences); expectations that others comply and expect them to do the same; and sanctions and rewards from reference group. 8 In publications such as Engendering Development (World Bank, 2001). 9  ee for example CGAP’s guidance on social norms (Koning, Ledgerwood and Singh, 2021), and the recent SPJ guidance note on S social norms. 4 Measuring social norms to care duties), individual attitudes or opinions that express Advances in definition of social norms have only recently commonly held views, or by the presence or absence of been matched with progress in measuring social norms specific legal norms or policies (e.g., divorce or inheritance presence and strength beyond proxies such as individual laws or parental leave policies).10 Among the most widely attitudes. Social norms are particularly difficult to measure used data sources on social and gender norms, the World and quantify, but progress is being made. Aside from Values Survey (WVS), the Demographic and Health Surveys qualitative data (e.g. Barboni et al. 2018 and Muñoz Boudet, (DHS), and the International Men and Gender Survey Petesch and Turk 2013), social norms are most commonly (IMAGES) all collect data on attitudes, and some outcomes, observed via proxy measures. These are outcomes that are as proxies for gender norms. More recently, WVS and the assumed to be strongly dependent on social norms (e.g., Gallup World Poll have expanded to include direct social child marriage, son preference, or women’s time allocation norms measures. 10 F  or example, the World Bank’s Gender Data Portal currently tracks only outcomes and attitudes under “norms and decision making.” Similarly, UNDPs Gender Social Norms Index uses attitudes questions from the WVS and the OECD Social Institutions and Gender Index (GINI) combines all three types of variables, namely legal frameworks, attitudinal variables, and practice variables or observable outcomes. 5 FIGURE 1: SHARE OF POPULATION AGREEING WITH THE STATEMENT “WHEN JOBS ARE SCARCE MEN SHOULD HAVE MORE RIGHT TO A JOB THAN WOMEN” (WVS 2017-2022 WAVE) More effort is needed to measure social norms directly can be a response to the types of jobs available in a given to understand them more fully. Efforts to document and economy; or can depend of the current economic situation identify the different elements that indicate the presence in a country at the time of the survey. Attitudes respond and strength of social norms (e.g., sanctions or behaviors to varying economic and political circumstances; hence people do because they assume they are expected are responses can also shift depending on the salience of the important to influence the type of policy intervention), circumstance for the respondent. and even whether policy action should focus on a specific social norm or not. Take, for example, attitudes about Direct measures of social norms ask respondents to job scarcity (see Figure 1). When asked if men have more estimate how common it is for people in their social group right to a job than women when jobs are scarce, the level to exhibit a behavior, whether they approve the behavior, of agreement varies widely across countries. In countries and the consequences of them. For example, the latest such as Indonesia, Jordan, and Pakistan respondents more round of the WVS included a larger gender module that strongly agreed than respondents from the United States, asked respondents about women in their communities Poland, and Guatemala. Attitudes questions like these (empirical expectations), women’s own behavior, and are a partial capture of social norms and may not be an possible negative impacts (sanctions) for women who work accurate reflection of the actual social norms at play. The for pay.11 Comparing Ethiopia and Kenya, two countries preference for men holding a job over women can be with similar levels of reported women working (at the attributed to a social norm that disapproves of women community and self), the possible social costs of working working (in all cases, and not only when jobs are scarce); appear to be very different (see Figure 2). Women in Kenya it might be related to a prevalent view of men as the main are more likely to face criticisms, family conflict, and breadwinners of households that can be normative or reputational costs. 11  anction questions are phrased as, “If a woman works outside of the home for money, how likely is it that the following consequences S might occur.” 6 FIGURE 2: NORMS AROUND WOMEN WORKING FOR PAY (WVS 2020, 2021) Measurement of both social expectations and personal Pluralistic ignorance is an important insight for policies as beliefs can reveal phenomena, such as pluralistic it indicates an opportunity to adjust social expectations ignorance (when personal beliefs are misaligned with the with information. Bursztyn et al. (2023) find a similar pattern expected social beliefs), that can be targeted with policy using similar questions construction in the Gallup World interventions. A recent survey by Meta and the World Poll. They find that misperceptions are common across Bank (see Figure 3) asked respondents to report both their countries, and that these misperceptions are different personal beliefs as well as those among people around between men and women (with men having higher levels them.12 The results show how there is a difference between of misperceptions).13 These insights are important, as the individual attitudes and social expectations. When asked belief that others have lower support for equality may lead if boys and girls should share household tasks equally, individuals to act in line with these misperceived societal respondents’ personal beliefs were more egalitarian than expectations, despite their own beliefs to the contrary.14 what they attribute to their neighbors. The findings were similar when asked about the norm of women’s role as care provider and homemaker or men’s role as economic provider. However, the survey finds that for respondents in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, individual and collective perceptions are aligned. 12 Q  uestions were phrased as “How much do you agree or disagree with the following statement?” and “Out of 10 of your neighbors, how many do you think believe that…,” respectively. 13 A similar difference was found by Gauri, Rahman, and Sen (2019) in Jordan, and in Iraq by Sen et al. (2022). 14 This is the mechanism and difference leveraged by Bursztyn, González, & Yanagizawa-Drott (2018) in Saudi Arabia intervention. 7 FIGURE 3: INDIVIDUAL ATTITUDES AND NORMATIVE EXPECTATIONS ON GENDER (META, SURVEY OF GENDER EQUALITY AT HOME) Better measurement of social norms is especially inform a policy intervention. These include changes in levels important for program design, monitoring, and impact of adherence and perceived adherence to a norm, changes assessment.15 The mechanisms through which social in the conditions under which a norm triggers sanctions— norms impact gender equality outcomes may be complex, see Figure 4 for example, the Jordan survey on social norms involve multiple actors at various levels (households, shows an important variation and decline of support on communities, societies), and operate differently depending women’s work depending on the specific conditions of on the heterogeneity of women’s opportunities, agency, such work, and a decline in personal beliefs (attitudes) and constraints. In many cases a complete norm change from a general question to one with more specificity. How might take time that goes beyond the lifetime of a program strong or weak the sanctions are for those who deviate or project. The same can happen with the observation of from the norm are also important to be observed as they changes in the outcomes that are expected to shift by a can indicate the strength of norm enforcement. All of these change in the social norm. Using tools that can reveal measures can indicate that the process of norm change intermediate changes in sanctions and other areas can is taking place, even if not yet reflected in outcomes or aggregate levels of individual perceptions. 15 I t should be noted that efforts such as the EMERGE (Evidence-based Measures of Empowerment for Research on Gender Equality) initiative that have compiled several tools aiming to measure social norms are part of the efforts to document what is available in terms of tools. 8 FIGURE 4: CONDITIONAL SUPPORT FOR WOMEN’S WORK (JORDAN) Source: Gauri, Rahman, and Sen (2019) In sum, work on social norms has made important advances—both in definition and measurement—which should be adopted more systematically. While data availability on social norms remains limited, proxy measures (such as attitudes) should be used with greater attention to the fact that they are only a partial view. They may not be reflective of the prevalent social norms, and additional data and information may be needed for successful intervention design. Efforts such as Bussolo et al. (2022) that bring together long-term trends in outcomes and attitudes on certain areas, such as female labor force participation, son preference, or age at marriage, that have been documented in the literature to respond to social norms, are some examples on how to approach proxy data on social norms and analyze it. Other approaches that look at the evolution of laws in relation to the economic and other context factors are also a way to identify societal preferences and distinguish between what are the formally expected behaviors to follow and what are the socially acceptable ones (see for example Hallward-Driemeier, Hasan and Rusu 2013 analysis of the evolution of women’s legal rights; and Lane, Nosenzo and Sonderegger, 2023 on laws effects on norms). 9 CHANGING SOCIAL NORMS: IDENTIFYING AND ADDRESSING MECHANISMS THAT SUSTAIN THEM An intervention to address a social norm should be Applied to, for example, women’s participation in paid developed based on how deeply engrained the norm is employment, the change from the social norm that within a given society as well as the mechanisms that dictates women should not work, to a new social norm allow the norm to persist. The relationship between the that accepts women working follows the S pattern. At the two interdependent elements of a norm—what others do start, only a small proportion of the population will agree and what I believe others believe should be done—can with the idea of women working and, similarly, very few will help identify the barriers to social norms transmission. agree with the idea that others believe women working is This relationship takes the form of an S-curve.16 Figure 5 an adequate behavior. In parallel, very few women are seen shows the process of adoption of new social norms. The to be working and few are willing to change their behavior. y-axis represents the share of people that adjusts their The cost to make the change at this point is extremely beliefs (personal and about others), increasing from zero high, as the likelihood of people deciding to abandon where almost nobody thinks the beliefs of others are a norm is tightly linked to individuals’ risk sensitivity and represented by the new norm. This is the rate of norm risk perception.17 As more people begin to change their adherence. The x-axis represents the change in observed beliefs (personal and collective), the rate of adoption of behaviors, similarly, departing from zero where nobody has the new behavior accelerates rapidly as change is less changed their behavior to an almost universal adoption of risky. It reaches a peak when the norm is widely accepted the behavior. This is the observed rate of norm adoption. by the majority of the population. At this point, the rate of adoption begins to slow down again as the remaining individuals who have not yet adopted the norm are likely more resistant to change.18 FIGURE 5: S-CURVE OF BARRIERS TO SOCIAL NORM ADOPTION 16 Adapted from Gauri, Rahman, and Sen (2019) that builds on Rogers’s (1962) S-curve for diffusion of innovation. 17 T  he first being dispositional or the degree to which people are risk-seeking or risk-averse; and risk perception being situational, or the level of certainty about the incurred risk of deviating from a particular social norm. 18 A good example of this process for the case of female labor force participation increases in the United States, as described in Fogli and  Veldkamp (2011) for the expansion of women’s labor force participation in the US. 10 A better measurement of norms can help to identify where personal and social identities (i.e., being a mother) can norm conformity falls on the S-curve and determine be derived from internalized social norms that support interventions best suited to overcome the main barriers gender inequalities.21 How much one values opinions that to change. The S curve in Figure 5 shows some of the others hold about these identities plays an important role most commonly observed barriers at each phase of norm on norm support, for example if these social identities adoption.19 When the wrong intervention is deployed, determine one’s social standing (Bursztyn and Jensen, behaviors can go into hiding and norms can be reinforced 2017; Bursztyn and Yang, 2021). instead of changed. For example, evidence shows that making female genital cutting (FGC) illegal had little effect. Widely prevalent and deeply internalized norms will In some instances, outlawing the practice led to driving the require intensive norm modification strategies that practice underground. But in communities where FGC was engage a collective to jumpstart change. For example, being contested, the legal framework encouraged people addressing masculinity norms that are strongly linked to abandon the practice (Shell-Duncan et al., 2013). to men’s identities and a status quo that gives men dominance requires redefining the elements of manhood or masculinity that make that norm. This is what Program Phase 1: Limited acceptance of a more H by Equimundo targeted with its interventions. It worked gender egalitarian norm with young men to challenge masculinity stereotypes that At early stages, the existing norm is likely sustained support gender inequality using a combination of school by strong barriers, including high transition costs for curricula and community campaigns led by men. The deviating from the norm, entrenched interests by program was successful in fostering more gender-equitable those who benefit from the status quo, and the norm attitudes among men and lowering the perpetration and prescription internalized in personal identities. Some acceptability of intimate partner violence in a number of acceptance or different behavior is observed among early contexts (Miller et al. 2020; Doyle and Kato-Wallace, 2021). adopters or trendsetters who may be willing to take on the This was due to its collective nature (not having to deviate risks and challenge the status quo, but, more commonly, alone), information about others’ acceptability of the new they have no alternatives but to transgress the norm for behaviors, and the sustained social identity it promoted. other reasons (e.g., women who must work to support a Similarly, strategic involvement of powerful groups sick husband). The costs of deviating from the norm can be or individuals can also facilitate transition away from expressed in social pressure, such as reputational damage restrictive norms by decreasing resistance and creating the to the woman, her family, or her spouse, and financial costs space for norm deviation (Vaitla et al., 2017). both direct (such as the cost of hiring domestic help) and indirect (such as higher income taxes). Entrenched interests, This early stage is also one where information diffusion particularly those of men who benefit from maintaining is important. Seeing is believing. In the absence of people the patriarchal status quo, can create resistance to change. doing things differently, and in the absence of information Power relations, including those within the household, of the consequences they face for such behavior, beliefs will can also influence the ability of individuals and groups of not actualize. Interventions that leverage communication people to change their behavior when active resistance channels and media to showcase examples of new is expected from powerful household members (Legros behaviors, or discussion on the prevalent norm, are an and Cislaghi, 2019).20 Lastly, an individual’s sense of both important first step (see Box 2). 19 The list is not exhaustive, and barriers can be present at other points in the S-curve. 20  This is what Bernhardt et al. (2018) find in India, where they observe that the perceived social cost of women’s work falls on men and that husbands’ opposition to female labor is associated with their wives’ lower uptake of employment. See also Pande and Hoy (2021) for a discussion on how intrahousehold norms and power relations impact women’s labor force participation. 21 Personal identify refers to an individual’s sense of self that is based on traits and attributes that make them distinct from others, while  social identify refers to an individual’s sense of self derived from group membership (Tajfel, 1979). 11 BOX 2: MEDIA AND INCENTIVES FOR NORMS CHANGE IN WORLD BANK OPERATIONS Many operational projects that target norms use incentives and mass media, which are typically helpful as early stages of norms transformation. Information interventions were common, like social and behavior communication campaigns (SBCC) or broad communication campaigns via social media, radio, and other platforms. The Productive Safety Nets for Socioeconomic Opportunities project in South Sudan implemented a communications campaign sensitive to norms. It engaged male champions to support sensitization and awareness raising activities to minimize harmful practices, including intimate partner violence and GBV. Other projects have used women’s and girls’ groups as venues for addressing harmful social norms. Projects also use incentives or other barrier removal interventions alongside communication campaigns. Examples include incentives for labor force participation or addressing GBV. However, evidence has shown that simply providing information on norms and gender attitudes is not enough to address deep-seated gender attitudes, especially among adults. Social media is another channel that has been successfully used to transform norms. In India, the World Bank’s Development Impact Evaluation (DIME) department used Facebook Messenger to test the impact of short edutainment videos on changing gender norms and reducing social acceptability of violence against women. Results show that in the short term, the intervention was successful in raising knowledge and awareness of gender practices and shifting gender norms in favor of more progressive views. In the medium term, the intervention also successfully encouraged users to publicly declare their stance again violence against women online (Donati, Orozco and Rao, 2022). Early norm change can also be encouraged through Phase 2: Norm tipping point economic incentives, such as transfers, subsidies, and The point at which norm transmission happens fast access to financial instruments. Financial incentives is typically referred to as the norm tipping point. This can alleviate some of the cost of changing behaviors falls along the gray portion of the S-curve (see Figure 5). under uncertainty of the consequences. Cash transfers— When it comes to the adoption of new social norms or the conditional or not—have delayed early marriage of young abandoning of harmful ones, there is a threshold share of girls and succeeded in keeping them in education for longer individuals that either relax their views on the norm (i.e., (Malhotra and Elnakib 2021, Chaudhury and Parajuli, 2010, enforce it less or with lower sanctions) or practice a new Baird et al. 2014), altered women’s bargaining power and norm. When that threshold is reached, social incentives norms about decision making in the household (Ambler reverse and propel rapid change as information on what and de Brow 2017), and reduced incidence of GBV (Baranov, happens if someone thinks and acts differently than de Haas and Grosjean, 2018). Similarly, Field et al. (2021) find prescribed is more available. Bicchieri (2017) notes that when that giving women access to savings accounts increased about a third of the population has already abandoned a their labor supply and changed gender norms regarding norm, moderately norm-sensitive individuals, who were women working outside the home. A shift in incentives previously unwilling to change their behavior when others can also be achieved by introducing new sanctions did not, consider shifting their behavior. When over half (via legal changes) that alter the assessment of costs of of individuals have already deviated, a tipping point is norm adherence. reached. However, the heterogeneity of experiences and conditions means different norms have different tipping points. Evidence also suggests that education levels, poverty rates, and population density (for diffusion) are all critical elements of tipping points. 12 To reach norms tipping points, social norms conformity Pluralistic ignorance can be tackled by information traps need to be addressed. Andreoni et al. (2017) define interventions that make visible the views held by others conformity traps as those that keep groups and individuals to close the information gap. There is compelling evidence in a bad equilibrium despite knowledge of inefficiency and of this in the context of female labor force participation in preferences for a different status quo. The trap is due to the Saudi Arabia. Disclosing private information to married pressure to conform to the behavior of the majority and men about views held by other married men who are the resistance to be the first deviant from the established supportive of women’s employment increased the former norm. In some cases, individuals need to be offered an group’s willingness to encourage their wives to work alternative to the norm via a role model, such as the case (Bursztyn, Gonzalez, and Yanagizawa-Drott, 2020).22 In of women working in non-traditional economic sectors Ethiopia, an intervention correcting men’s misperceptions (Campos et al. 2015, Alibhai et al. 2017). In others, they need about social norms regarding housework increased their to be supported by others when challenging the norm participation in so-called accepted tasks, such as firewood (Anukriti et al. 2022; Anukriti et al. 2020). collection (Assefa et al. 2022). In India, changing young men’s perceptions of their peers’ gender norms increased Around the tipping point, a commonly found conformity their likelihood of doing household chores and encouraging trap is pluralistic ignorance. Pluralistic ignorance occurs their sisters to pursue college (Dhar, Jain and Jayachandran, when there is a difference between the perceived norm 2018). However, correcting misperceptions may not always (what I believe others approve and expect), and reality. be sufficient, and may even result in negative spillovers if This difference will make people conform to a norm due used to reaffirm adherence to the norm.23 an incorrect assumption about other peoples’ actions and approval, even though most people have started changing their personal beliefs if not their behavior. 22  nother study (Alkhuzam, Incekara-Hafalir, and Wang, 2023) in Saudi Arabia that replicated Bursztyn et al.’s study with university A students found no treatment effects on expected labor market outcomes after correcting misperception about support for women’s work, likely due to family and childcare concerns being made more salient in the experiment. 23 Paluck and Ball (2010) show evidence of backfire in relation to GBV prevention campaigns. Banerjee, La Ferrara and Orozco (2019) also  find mix evidence depending on the identification of subjects with the characters in their edutainment intervention. 13 The other common barrier around at the tipping point for support new norm adherence. In India, gender quotas norms change are collective action challenges. These arise for local government bodies (Panchayats) created more when, despite their belief that changing the norm would be exposure of women in leadership roles with positive advantageous in the long run, people still prefer to continue spillovers, including in girls’ aspirations and women’s acting in accordance with the norm because of fear of the labor force participation (Beaman et al. 2012; Deininger costs associated with being an early adopter and not see et al., 2022). Similarly, self-help groups, which have been opportunities to act in coordination with others to offset widely implemented in South Asia, have helped mobilize that risk. Collective action challenges may be resolved by women to participate in income generating activities and creating space for people to question a norm or act on overcome the fear of consequences from engaging in these their beliefs without fear of negative consequences to their activities.24 Media interventions can also support on these social status or reputation (see Box 3). For example, Tostan’s efforts, such as those that highlight role models to reduce Community Empowerment Program, which focused on negative perceptions and sanctions around deviating from reducing FGC, created a safe and supportive space for the norm. community members to discuss their own cultural values and beliefs and engage in participatory and inclusive Phase 3: Widespread acceptance of the dialogues around the topic. It also encouraged participating gender egalitarian behavior communities to explore alternatives to FGC and develop Last mile challenges require targeted inventions, collection action plans (Diop et al., 2004; Easton, Monkman sometimes with specific groups that are most resistant and Miles, 2003). to change or hold very restrictive views. As acceptance The use of role models and group mobilization can of a new behavior or norm becomes widespread, and also support acceleration to pass norms tipping points. most individuals support and publicly express their Here is where affirmative action and creation of a visible support for the norm, small pockets or specific groups can critical mass of people doing things differently can remain strongly resistant to change. Two types of efforts BOX 3: COLLECTIVE COMMUNITY-BASED ACTION AND ALIGNMENT TOWARD NEW NORMS IN AFRICA Bossuroy et al. (2022) document the cost effectiveness of a program to increase economic activity of poor women in Niger that complemented a multi-faceted social protection program under the Adaptive Social Safety Nets Project. The program added to skills development and cash transfer activities and community sensitization activities that included public discussion on social norms, aspirations, and community values around women’s economic participation. They sought to address social norms change at the community level. Other projects, such as the Uganda Generating Growth Opportunities and Productivity for Women Enterprises, also include interventions that incorporate support for community empowerment, tackle negative social norms that impede women’s business participation, and engage men and boys to advocate for women and girls in the community. The Sahel Women’s Empowerment and Demographic Dividend (SWEDD) project aims to increase women and adolescent girls’ empowerment and their access to quality reproductive, child, and maternal health services across nine countries in the Sahel. The project has introduced a variety of activities, including husband schools, which bring together weekly groups of men to discuss women’s rights, reproductive health, maternal health, family planning, hygiene, and other issues. Participants are not directly taught what is right or wrong; instead, they are provided information, which is discussed in facilitated conversations. The ultimate goal is to create sustainable shifts in local social norms. Anecdotal evidence and testimonies from participants indicate that the groups have had success in building a better understanding of the obstacles women face, a greater acceptance of women’s rights (for example, to refuse sex), increased sharing of household tasks, as well as a reduction in GBV. 24  elf-help groups have shown a range of positive impacts, including women’s employment, financial inclusion, empowerment S (Hoffman et al., 2021; Dutta et al. 2017; Prennushi and Gupta 2014; Jejeebhoy and Santhya, 2018). 14 are important here. First, to solidify gains and prevent gender inequality, discrimination, and violence. They can setbacks, formal legal changes or increased enforcement also come in the shape of limits to women’s freedoms or of legal frameworks can curb deviation at this stage. Legal agency (Kilgallen et al., 2021; Alvarez Minte, 2016). Reversals decisions can lead people to update their perceptions can also be observed via formal signals (such as reduced about social norms, as in the case of the U.S. Supreme Court investment by governments in actions supporting the ruling in favor of same-sex marriage in 2015 (Tankard and new norm or legal reversals) and informal ones (such Paluck, 2017). as increased sanctions, trendsetters and role models publicly moving back to the old norm, and re-affirmation Second, widespread support for the new norm can also be of identities). leveraged to create pressure to conform and increase the risk perception associated with breaches. For example, Communication tools can also support norm persistence. the #MeToo movement, which started in 2017, created a The substantial increase in internet access supporting significant shift in the culture of silence and impunity by exposure to new norms and the questioning of existing encouraging women to speak out about their experiences unequal ones, also has the potential to further reinforce of sexual harassment. In addition to increasing awareness gender norms (Harper et al., 2020). The internet can and challenging patriarchal power structures, the social facilitate the sharing of progressive views on gender movement also facilitated legislative changes at the state equality and human rights across the world, particularly level in the U.S. (Hebert, 2018). among communities that may have had limited exposure to alternative belief systems (Watson Kakar et al., 2012). Preventing norms reversals However, it can also promote the rapid spread of regressive gender norms.25 Norms reversal or re-entrenchment can happen as change toward a new norm unravels. Re-entrenchment, or the reinforcement or strengthening of the unequal norm, can occur when individuals, communities, or societies cling more tightly to what they know and have traditionally done because of changes in the economic, political, or social landscape, or as backlash following efforts to challenge or change gender norms too quickly or without an alternative norm being formed (Seguino, 2007). For example, the observed increase in son preference in the Caucasus countries followed the fall of the Soviet Union and the economic and social uncertainty that followed (Das Gupta 2015). The preference shifted into a norm that persisted long after the uncertainty diminished. During an economic crisis, gender norms around work and care can also reverse to more traditional gender roles. For instance, if a crisis results in a reduction of employment opportunities, it is likely norms dictating that women are the primary caregivers and men are the primary breadwinners will become more prevalent and will persist even during the post-crisis period (Alon et al., 2020, Harper et al., 2020). Re-entrenchment of gender norms is an observable phenomenon and follows a similar pattern shown in the S curve. The main difference is that instead of signals pointing to the adoption of a new norm, signals point to the strengthening of the old norm. Initial signs include an increase in sanctions or lack of action against the norm re- appearing. Visible sanctions can take the form of increased 25  n area less explored, but recent studies on online misogyny and other forms of gender discrimination have been documented. A See Mantilla, 2013 and Jane, 2017 15 CHANGING SOCIAL NORMS: EXAMPLES FROM SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTIONS Like all policies aiming to increase gender equality, obstruct women’s access to services and opportunities. social norms interventions are not standalone solutions. These policies can also encourage positive deviance from Irrespective of their approach to social norms, policy the established norm through reduction of sanctions. interventions will not achieve their goals as standalone In India, a program that provided bicycles to girls who interventions. They are not neutral and require structural continued to secondary school led to a significant increase changes, monetary incentives, and other policies to in girls’ enrollment. Not only did the program offer a safer support them. Normative change can and should be mode of transportation for girls, but it also circumvented supported by interventions that create the conditions for norms around investment into girls’ education, such as change. Addressing the underlying drivers of the observed buying a bicycle or having to spend in girls’ transport, and outcomes, including economic and social inequality, is as eased patriarchal norms around girls traveling to attend important as providing information or using other tools. school outside their village (Muralidharan and Prakash, Approaches to changing social norms can be incremental 2017). Other projects seek to reduce these sanctions via and accommodating (i.e., working within existing gender legal reforms, though as noted, laws and legal reforms need power dynamics), and they can start small—from awareness to be addressed with a norms lens rather than standalone of the limitations imposed by norms in order to effectively efforts. For example, in Vietnam, a legal review considering circumvent them—as much as they can be ambitious for gender inequalities resulted in a series of legal reforms that large transformations. enabled greater gender equality by passing parental leave for fathers and expanding their access to daycare services Policy action can take different forms, ranging from as well as lifting restrictions that were meant to protect being aware of the social norms that might affect women from working in certain sectors to supporting both implementation or outcomes, to aiming to target and men and women engage in jobs and safety at work (World transform social norms. Successful interventions are, at Bank, 2019; Buchhave, et al. 2020). minimum, norms-aware. They aim to change the conditions under which a norm is enforced or create opportunities Norm-transformative policies and interventions seek that allow for more individuals to deviate from the to change fundamentally the underlying beliefs and norm at no or low cost to support the achievement of a values that support an unequal social norm. An effective policy outcome. approach is to reframe the sanctioned action from a positive gain to a negative one. For example, childcare Norm-sensitive policies consider norm conformity traps can be reframed around the value of early childhood or structural and environmental factors that can reinforce development investments for a child’s future, such as in unequal norms, as well as create the conditions for norms India, where investments in a girl’s education can become change to happen. They can use indirect channels, such as a signal that increases her marriage prospects.27 Norm- providing economic incentives or introducing legal changes, transformative interventions can also leverage other widely or tackle direct channels of norm persistence. For example, accepted norms that conflict with undesired norms. For in many countries, the requirement of a male guardian’s example, norms rooted in human rights or social justice can signature can limit women’s access to finance, employment, be leveraged to increase women’s participation in decision- or assets (Hallward-Driemeier, 2013). Similarly, inheritance making bodies or to invest in GBV regulation.28 New norms norms and laws limit women’s property ownership and, can also be promoted as “normal” by mobilizing support, as a consequence, also limit their ability to access loans debunking inaccurate expectations, and providing more that require collateral.26 In such instances, norm-sensitive and new information. policies are needed to address systemic biases that 26 The Women, Business and the Law database documents some of these restrictions. 27 However, reframing to improve outcomes in one area can have implications in others. See Andrew and Adams-Prassal (2022) on  parental investment in education for better marriage prospects in India, and Deng et al. (2023) for Egypt. 28 For example, the introduction of reservation quotas in India for women in local elected bodies is rooted in social justice arguments  (see Chattopardhay and Duflo 2004). 16 Evidence on what works to change social norms is slowly increasing but remains limited.29 Table 2 summarizes interventions that have focused on the different channels of influence that support the persistence or change of social norms. They show documented impacts across direct and indirect channels of norms change.30 This non-exhaustive set of examples illustrates possible policy entry points to address social norms and improve women’s outcomes. The success of these interventions varies, with impact felt in some domains but not others. TABLE 2: EXAMPLES OF INTERVENTIONS AIMED AT ADDRESSING SOCIAL NORMS Indirect influence on social norms (necessary but not sufficient) LAWS & POLICIES • Mandatory paternity leave laws in Europe not only increased the number of men taking leave, but also attitudes of other family members. In Germany, men eligible for the mandatory leave show more gender equal views, (Unterhofer and Wrohlich 2017). In Spain, children of eligible fathers exhibit more egalitarian attitudes (Farre et al. 2021). • Land titling reforms to include women’s names in title documents increased the likelihood of women’s name being included in Ethiopia. In Rwanda, expanding this to women irrespective of marriage certificates increased their co-ownership (Milazzo and Goldstein 2019). Adding a financial incentive further increased co-titling in Uganda (Cherchi et al. 2018) and Tanzania (Ali et al. 2016), as did requiring the presence of both spouses during discussion of a title offer in Uganda (Cherchi et al. 2018). SERVICES • In Uganda vocational training, together with information on sex, reproduction, and marriage increased (access, quality) self-employment four years later among adolescent girls in treated communities, and also reduced teen pregnancy, early marriage, and unwanted sexual relations (Bandiera et al. 2020). • In India, young rural women participating in a job recruitment program were less likely to get married or have children and more likely to enter the labor market or obtain further education. They also changed their fertility and future employment aspirations (Jensen 2012). • In India, women were given control over their earnings through access to bank accounts. Those receiving direct deposit of wages into their own accounts and financial training changed their work-related norms and shifted perceptions of community norms toward more liberal ones (Field et al. 2021). RESOURCES • In Tunisia, unconditional cash grants and financial training were provided to women, which increased participation in income generating activities, but did not alter traditional gender roles. It also found that involving male partners can hinder the intervention potential impact (Gazeaud et al., 2022). • In Malawi, cash transfers and payment of school fees conditional on girls’ school attendance reduced early marriage and teen pregnancy (Baird et al., 2010). • In India, a program provided bicycles to girls who continued to secondary school to encourage their secondary school enrollment and attendance (Muralidharan and Prakash, 2017). MARKETS • In Bangladesh, expansion of the readymade garments sector resulted in structural changes that significantly increased the demand for female labor and created opportunities for women to work outside the home (Heath and Mobarak 2015). • In Mexico, labor demand shocks across Mexican industries caused by China’s admission to the WTO resulted in increases in labor market opportunities and improved women’s decision-making power in the household (Majlesi, 2016). 29  hile this note is limited to evidence on social norms related to gender, there is further work on the topic in multiple sectors. Lessons W from activities in these sectors can be of value, such as the ones summarized in Chaterjee et al. (2023) regarding social cohesion in settings of fragility, conflict, and violence. 30 The classification of channels is based on the one used in UNFPA (2020) report on social norms interventions. 17 TABLE 2: EXAMPLES OF INTERVENTIONS AIMED AT ADDRESSING SOCIAL NORMS (CONT) Direct influence/reinforce norm INFORMATION • In Nigeria, a television series featuring a domestic violence story increased rejection of GBV among young men and women (Banerjee, La Ferrara and Orozco, 2019). • In Saudi Arabia, private information was disclosed to married men about views held by other married men who are supportive of women’s employment, increasing their support for their spouses’ labor market participation (Bursztyn, Gonzalez and Yananizawa-Drott, 2020). • In Ethiopia, men’s expectations were updated about their peers’ acceptance of men engaging in home production tasks, increasing men’s participation in these tasks, especially among those who underestimated their peers’ acceptance prior to the intervention (Assefa et al., 2022). • In Egypt, an edutainment program portraying women participants in an entrepreneurship competition changed general perceptions of women entrepreneurs to more positive ones. However, it also led viewers to think that discrimination against women was not as important as they had previously believed (Barsoum et al. 2022). KNOWLEDGE & • Equimundo’s Program H, implemented in 14 countries, worked with young men to challenge masculinity ATTITUDES stereotypes that support gender inequality using a combination of school curricula and community campaigns led by men. Positive changes included more gender-equitable attitudes among participating young men and some reduction in GBV perpetration or acceptance (Doyle and Kato-Wallace, 2021). • In India, a school-based curriculum engaged boys and girls in classroom discussions about gender equality and resulted in more progressive gender attitudes (Dhar, Jain and Jayachandran, 2022). • In Pakistan, an intervention to solicit men’s support for women’s voting used home visits and a video showing of a woman voter with male support. It helped increase women voter turnout as well as men’s practical support to help women vote (Cheema et al. 2023). SOCIAL • In countries across Africa, Tostan’s Community Empowerment Program took a human-rights approach, NETWORKS by creating a safe and supportive space for community members to discuss their own cultural values and beliefs and engage in participatory and inclusive dialogues around FGC. This led to many communities abandoning the practice (Diop et al., 2004; Easton et al., 2003). • In India, women who were enabled to jointly visit a clinic with other women increased clinic visits and contraceptive use and improved reproductive autonomy of women who faced greater intrahousehold opposition than an intervention that only improved women’s own access to the clinic (Anukriti, Herrera- Almanza and Karra, 2022). • Self-help groups in South Asia facilitated norm deviation by gathering a critical mass of women to participate in a new activity, resulting in improved women’s employment and financial inclusion (Hoffman et al., 2021; Dutta, Sarkar and Shekhar, 2017). EXPECTATIONS & • In India, exposure to women in leadership roles in local Panchayats, raised both girls’ aspirations and ASPIRATIONS women’s labor force participation. It also improved perceptions of women’s effectiveness as leaders and weakened stereotypes about gender roles in the public and domestic spheres (Beaman et al. 2009). • In Ethiopia, exposure to documentaries featuring local men and women role models increased parents’ aspirations for their children’s education and increased enrollment, time spent in school, and schooling expenditures. (Bernard et al. 2019). 18 World Bank projects widely acknowledge the importance SASA! activities are broad and include tools, such as power of social norms, but the extent to which the programs posters, drama sketches and discussions, community are norms-aware or norms-transformative varies. leadership, and institutional strengthening, with the goal of Across the projects reviewed, there is a clear recognition creating role models for desired behavior. that addressing and changing norms will lead to stronger program results and positive impacts. Many of the projects A rare example of an operational project that incorporates recognize the underlying drivers of social and gender systematic measurement of social norms is the Nigeria for norms, including the excessive burden of care on women, Women Project. Aiming to support improved livelihoods limited voice and agency, and the harms caused by GBV. for women in targeted areas of Nigeria, the project includes Most projects recognize that prevalent social and cultural a deep-dive diagnostic of social norms, and the design and norms are a barrier to successful implementation and implementation of activities to address the social norms desired project results indicators, but very few go into identified as restricting women’s economic participation. further depth on the mechanisms by which norms have Among the planned actions, project activities aim to build an impact, or how, through project actions, these will be social capital by galvanizing women to become members addressed. In fact, among the projects reviewed, very few of Women Affinity Groups (WAGs) and strengthening indicate having undertaken, or planning to undertake, a both new and existing WAGs. The project is unusual in norms diagnostic. its comprehensive approach to both measuring and seeking to directly impact social norms regionally and at One good example is the Additional Financing of the the community level. The team implemented the Social Program for Results (PforR) on Economic Opportunities Norms Exploration Tool (SNET)32 to understand local beliefs for Jordanians and Syrian Refugees. The project supports and norms around areas such as decision making, drivers the Jordanian National Commission for Women (JNCW) of GBV, inheritance and ownership of assets, and more. in addressing social norms and gender roles related to Notably, insights from both the qualitative analysis around women’s labor participation.31 The program conducted norms and iterative approaches to norms challenges on a detailed diagnostic of social norms related to women’s the ground (for instance, norms around female cell phone labor participation. As a result, it is planning to conduct use and meeting attendance, which are key to program a nationwide, multimedia campaign addressing the implementation) have provided useful insights not only for identified barriers, together with direct community and project but also for other activities in Nigeria. private sector outreach and development of educational content. Another example is the Supporting Andhra’s The Liberia Women Empowerment Project aiming to Learning Transformation project in India, which aims to improve social and livelihood services for women and girls, improve learning outcomes, quality of teaching practices, seeks to leverage fostering positive social norms to increase and school management in basic education. It aims to women’s voice, agency and economic opportunities. It is address early drivers of gender norms and stereotypes in one of the few projects in the World Bank portfolio review an education setting by introducing training elements on that aims to not only monitor outcomes but also changes how to tackle gender biases among teachers and other in individual attitudes to proxy changes in norms, using frontline workers. In Bangladesh, the Health and Gender indicators such as share of men and women supported Support Project for Cox’s Bazar district is employing the by the project that believe intimate partner violence is Start, Awareness, Support, Action (SASA!) methodology to not justified; or that think that adolescent girls should not effect norms change in Rohingya camps to address GBV. marry before 18. 31  his work is supported by the World Bank’s Mashreq Gender Facility (MGF), which provides technical assistance to the Mashreq T countries to enhance women’s economic empowerment and opportunities. 32 Developed by the Institute for Reproductive Health at Georgetown University (Institute for Reproductive Health, 2020). 19 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Overall, attention to social norms is a key element social norms, expanding from individual beliefs or for policy interventions aiming to address gender observed outcomes, the value of triangulating information inequalities and improve people’s overall access and -when what is said is not what is observed- are providing use of opportunities. All policy interventions, not only new insights for policy design. Impact evaluation work those targeting gender inequality, should consider norms from interventions that have aimed to addressed social in their design and implementation and whether they norms are growing and increasing the portfolio of options will play a role in potential gender differences in access available for policy action. and benefits from the specific policy actions. Norms- aware interventions include an assessment of social The following recommendations apply across sectors norms enforcement mechanisms and how these can be when designing effective policies and programs that aim overcome. Norms-blind policies can be inefficient, may not to move the needle on gender norms. They highlight key achieve their intended outcomes, and can inadvertently approaches to unpacking gender norms and their relative reinforce gender inequality. effect on gender outcomes, and they consider what gender norms are—and what they are not—and their linkages to There is a growing, albeit still insufficient, set of examples other drivers of behavior. In addition, multiple entities at and good practices on how to measure and analyze social the World Bank Group, under their broader mandate, work norms and of interventions that indirectly or directly to support Bank teams via operational and evaluation address their enabling environment or beliefs and support in developing projects that address and measure practices. Greater attention on how to better measure social norms (see Box 4). 20 BOX 4. WORLD BANK GROUP ENTITIES THAT ARE SUPPORTING NORMS CHANGE AND MEASUREMENT Several entities at the World Bank work to provide support to Bank operations and teams through rigorous evaluation. They also support implementation of projects with a social norms component. Among these are: The Gender Innovation Labs work with teams at the World Bank, aid agencies and donors, governments, non- governmental organizations, private sector firms, and researchers. Funded in part by the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE), the federation of GILs test various approaches to achieving women’s economic empowerment and gain agency. GILs cover Africa (AFRGIL), East Asia and the Pacific (EAPGIL), South Asia (SARGIL), Latin America and the Caribbean (LACGIL) and the Middle East and North Africa (MNAGIL). The Mind, Behavior, and Development Unit (eMBeD), the World Bank’s behavioral science team in the Poverty and Equity Global Practice works with World Bank projects to provide support (from diagnosis to design, implementation, and evaluation). eMBeD has supported teams across the World Bank on understanding and addressing social and gender norms, and produces public goods that focus on, among other things, the analytical underpinning of norms and policy recommendations for change. The Mashreq Gender Facility (MGF) provides technical assistance to the Mashreq countries to enhance women’s economic empowerment and opportunities as a catalyst towards more inclusive, sustainable, and peaceful societies, where economic growth benefits all. The MGF’s early and ongoing efforts focus on understanding and addressing gender norms in the region as a key pillar within country-specific workplans. The World Bank’s Development Impact Evaluation (DIME) department focuses on the generation of high-quality and operationally relevant data and research from impact evaluations to produce actionable information and recommend specific policy pathways to maximize impact. DIME has implemented and tested several interventions to change social norms. Use available data to document the presence of social Recognize that gender norms are tied to power and norms but do so with an understanding that attitudes or agency imbalances that support their persistence. The outcomes may not reflect prevalent social norms. Social most persistent and resistant to change norms are those norms, attitudes, beliefs, and outcomes might not always tied to the power and control one group has over another align, and are different from each other. A family might group, whether husbands relative to wives, mothers in believe that education is beneficial for girls and might even law relative to daughters in law, or others. Power and send their daughters to school, but they may still prefer to privilege differences, such as those surrounding control marry their daughter at an early age even if it means her over resources and assets or decision-making power, leaving school before completion because the community will interact with norms. Power imbalances within the expects them to do so. In this case, attitudes have little household could mean that, for example, interventions that bearing on actual choice, especially as these preferences will increase women’s empowerment may not be perceived are conditional on the expectation of potential sanctions. with equal enthusiasm by those with a vested interest in For example, the daughter might not be able to marry later, maintaining the status quo (see for example McKelway, or the cost of marriage will be higher, in terms of money 2021). Another example is resistance to redistribution of or the possible groom. Understanding and documenting assets (inheritance or land) among spouses or between social norms and privately held beliefs can reveal sons and daughters. There are opportunities for social important opportunities to address mismatches, but norm change that reframe or counterbalance such power social norms cannot be observed or assumed to operate differences These include conditioning asset sharing as a in isolation of structural and financial barriers; they need to default for additional benefits; enacting legal changes that be considered together. promote redistribution of power, like the Hindu Succession Act that granted women inheritance rights; and reframing collaboration or losses of such power -i.e. enrolling men as champions. 21 Consider that everyone faces normative barriers, even Identify linkages between legal norms and regulatory if the norm only constrains one groups’ behavior or frameworks and social norms. Social norms and legal opportunities. A common fallacy of policies and programs frameworks can influence one another. Legal frameworks around gender norms is focusing only on women or the serve an important signaling function. The presence of a group that is negatively impacted by the norm. They do not law communicates to people unequivocally that a certain adequately consider that everyone is involved in upholding behavior is no longer deemed acceptable, thus shifting the norm. People can be both enforcers and subjects of expectations for conforming. Legal thresholds have been gender norms. This is important for policy design in two shown to have a causal influence on what people consider ways. First, interventions that do not change the broader to be socially appropriate behavior (Lane, Nosenzo, and normative environment place the burden of change on Sonderegger, 2023). Similarly, legal changes that move those negatively impacted by the norm, making change toward greater equality signal that old sanctions are losing more difficult. Second, interventions aimed at positively value and support (Bicchieri, 2017). This does not mean impacting one gender might negatively impact the other. that legal changes will always bring about the expected For example, women-only metro cars in Mexico City abandonment of a norm, but they are an important signal. increased male-to-male violence in the subway (Aguilar, If norms are deeply ingrained in personal and cultural Gutierrez, and Villagran, 2021). Masculine norms prescribe, beliefs, enforcing severe legal consequences might have for instance, that men be the providers and protectors the adverse effect. Prosecutors, police, and other enforcers of their families, take risks, and be sexually active and might not have the incentive to enforce the law (Kahan, aggressive. Failure to live up to these expectations, 2000). A more effective approach could be to introduce especially the provider role, could lead men to experience mild and gradual enforcement of legal penalties to emotional distress, social isolation, or increase violence motivate progressive distancing from the norm. toward women, children, and other minority groups. The process legitimacy of new formal norms and their Recognize that norms do not stand alone; they are enforcement matters for social norms adoption or connected to economic and structural contexts as well abandonment. The credibility of decision makers; the with other norms that can influence multiple outcomes. consistency of their goals and priorities with societal values; Not all norms that influence gender outcomes are related perceived benefits, and the participation and transparency to one specific behavior and not all behaviors depend on of their processes should not be overlooked (Barron et al., a single social norm. Larger norms or meta norms that 2023). Trust in formal institutions is tightly linked to the operate over multiple behaviors (Heise & Manji, 2016, abandonment of harmful practices in response to legal Axelrod, 1986) such as those related to authority, control reforms. When legal frameworks and law enforcement are and violence, male honor, and similar, should be considered used to discourage a norm, the credibility of the enforcers as part of an intervention. Even if they are not the direct and decision makers, the consistency with agreed-upon norm or behavior to be addressed, they could prevent rules and societal values, and the perceptions about the change from taking place (The Social Norm Learning procedural fairness of the legal system, as well as the Collaborative, 2021). For example, if a daughter or wife legitimacy of the origins of the law, perceived benefits, does not meet expected behaviors (e.g., leaves the house transparency, and other issues can impact their outcomes without permission, does not observe purdah, or is seen in (Bicchieri & Mercier, 2014; Barron et al., 2023). the company of men), there are two transgressions. First, the woman has done something considered inappropriate Finally, the day-to-day operation and implementation and socially sanctioned, even if her spouse agrees, as in of programs can have important consequences. From the case of an emergency. Second, the man has lost honor forms to how options are presented and discussed, how that imposes a sanction or price on him to restore. The a policy or law gets practically implemented and how restitution might require different displays of honor, such those elements do or not implicitly affirm the social norm as physical punishment of the woman or an honor killing. can hinder change, particularly if steps have not been In these cases, the norm not only preserves male authority taken to adapt default materials, documents or trainings. within the household, but also in relation to other men in For example, documents, forms, and communications the community. can perpetuate assumptions, such as men are the head 22 of the household or the rightful owners of land or assets may affect women’s access to loans, as found by Alibhai (think of forms having only one signature line, or program et al (2019) in Turkiye. In agriculture, beliefs that women application forms listing only the income and occupation should not be engaged in certain for-profit activities or of the household head), services for children that default that they are not the ones who normally do it may result on mothers reinforce assumptions of women’s role as in limited advice being provided by agricultural extension main caregivers. Without adaptation and training to a services to women, which can hinder their productivity or different configuration, adoption of programs as well as opportunities for growth. norms changes are likely to not happen as expected -see • Do any gender norms or expectations of gender behavior for example the gains by considering female role models exist that may restrict women’s access to services and in agricultural extension services (Kondylis et al. 2016; assistance, increase dropout rates, or impede the final Lecoutere, Spielman, and Van Campenhout, 2023). intended outcome? The program delivery design and Conducting a social norms diagnostic is the first success of take-up or implementation process will be step toward designing and implementing a project impacted by gender norms and expectations of gender that is sensitive to norms or aims to change them.33 behaviors in the specific project context. For instance, Understanding the type of norm present, the impact of micro-loans may have women as borrowers, but due to these norms on the design and implementation of the gender norms discouraging them from income generation, project, as well as the behaviors the project is designed their male counterparts may be in control of the loan to target is critical to intervention design. World Bank (Sohel, Ninger, & Gunawardana, 2021). In entrepreneurship Group and country teams can use the following guiding programs, norms restricting women’s mobility outside the questions to think through whether and how norms might home can have a significant impact on their ability to set be influencing a project. By considering these questions, up home-based businesses. When women are unable to project teams can gain a deeper understanding of the role leave their homes or travel independently, they may be of social norms in shaping project outcomes and identify reliant on a man to purchase materials, sell products, or opportunities to design and implement more effective, conduct other business-related activities outside of the equitable, and sustainable development interventions. home (Carranza, Dhakal, & Love, 2018). • For behaviors encouraged by the project—be it loan • Are there any changes in social norms that are likely to application review by bank employees, the provision of occur as a result of the project, and how will these changes advice by agricultural extension agents, or the uptake-up impact the project and its goals? For instance, if there is an of employment opportunities by youth—whose beliefs expectation for women to take on increased work outside will have an influence at each step of the process? How the home, it is crucial to implement measures that provide would that influence take place? This includes the beliefs, the necessary structures of support, particularly if they values, and opinions held by individuals or communities still have primary responsibility for domestic tasks. When regarding the roles, responsibilities, and capabilities of men faced with shifting gender norms, men may also experience and women, as well as the expectations and standards of feelings of exclusion or threat. Therefore, it is essential to behavior that individuals believe are prevalent within their actively involve them in the process of change and assist social group or community. For instance, financial officers’ them in reshaping their roles in society. 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