POPULATION MOBILITY IN THE SAHEL: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL PROTECTION PROGRAMS AND SYSTEMS Written by Yashodhan Ghorpade and Aline Coudouel SASPP Policy Note Series POLICY NOTE 11 | SEPTEMBER 2024 SASPP Policy Note Series 2 September 2024 1 KEY RECOMMENDATIONS The Sahel is a dynamic region where population mobility is • At the policy level, this may require a reflection of mobility- central to people’s livelihoods and economic security. While related considerations in policy frameworks for social internal migration is commonly driven by economic motives, protection, coordination across multiple administrative its manifestation and profile of migrants vary across countries. departments and levels as well as with humanitarian agencies, Wage differences explain a large part of the motivation to move the adaptation of social registries, and campaigns to improve from rural to urban areas. Non-economic motivations include access to basic services, national IDs, as well as information marriage, family-related reasons (particularly among women), on safe migration practices. education, and cultural values. In recent years, insecurity and • At the operational level, meaningful modifications to ASP climate change have led to an increasing number of distressed programs and systems can be made at each step of the delivery migrants and internally displaced persons (IDPs). chain to ensure that migrants do not miss out on account of programmatic or administrative blind spots. Although mobility is a central aspect of economic and cultural • These modifications may include measures such as allowing life in the Sahel, it can result in vulnerabilities for migrants dynamic and on-demand program registration, allowing multiple and their family members at origin, during transit, and at household members to receive program benefits, directing destination. Many migrants experience poverty and lack better coordination across administrative and geographical access to basic services. They may not have the skills required boundaries to ensure portability of benefits, and reviewing and for gainful employment at destination. Migration often entails adjusting the content, timing, and modality of program benefits dangerous journeys. Relocation can disrupt people’s access to to better suit the needs of people on the move. social networks, making them vulnerable to discrimination or exclusion. Moreover, migrants or their families may lose access to programs and services. Applying a mobility lens to ASP can contribute to realizing the full potential of Given the salience of mobility dynamics in Sahelian livelihoods and some of the associated vulnerabilities, Adaptive Social population mobility in the Sahel. Protection (ASP) programs and systems may need to be adjusted to ensure that migrants and their families are supported, not penalized. Photo: © Curt Carnemark / World Bank SASPP Policy Note Series 3 September 2024 2 INTRODUCTION Population mobility in the Sahel is a multifaceted phenomenon. Social protection programs must be designed and implemented Economic factors play an important role, with many seeking better to support mobility dynamics. Policies, programs, and systems livelihoods, higher wages, and improved living standards in response with a “sedentary bias” (assumptions about population groups to widespread poverty, unemployment, and limited job opportunities. being immobile) may overlook the requirements of individuals While traditional migration flows have been influenced by economic who migrate, potentially resulting in lower impact. The design and and socio-cultural motivations, recent challenges such as conflict and implementation of safety net systems and programs might need climate change have resulted in forced migration.1 to be adjusted to ensure that people on the move can participate in and benefit from them to the greatest extent possible. The large scale of internal mobility reflects opportunities and challenges for migrants and their families. Internal mobility can This note provides an overview of mobility patterns in the reduce household risks by diversifying income to mitigate against Sahel, discusses their implications on migrants’ vulnerabilities, climate- and conflict-related shocks.2 The spatial reallocation of and presents considerations for social protection systems and labor can optimize households’ labor, skills, and human capital, programs. It draws, among others, on a background paper on resulting in higher incomes, and greater resilience and stability. understanding trends and patterns of internal mobility in the However, migration can pose risks and vulnerabilities. Social Sahel3 and a review of global best practices in including internal protection can play a critical role in supporting individuals and migrants in ASP programs4 supported by the Sahel Adaptive households in realizing the potential benefits of migration whilst Social Protection Program (SASPP). reducing the risks. 3 DESCRIBING INTERNAL MOBILITY IN THE SAHEL Over 47 million individuals, representing over 27 percent of the country. Their share in the country’s population ranges from population aged 15 and above in the five largest countries of 20 percent in Burkina Faso to as high as 38 percent in Chad. the Sahel (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger, and Senegal) are Although voluntary migration is predominant, forced migration nationals who have previously resided elsewhere within their has increased in recent years. FIGURE 1. Internal migrants in the Sahel: Total number and as a percentage of the population, by country Total Number % of population 3,500,000 45% 3,000,000 40% 38% 35% 2,500,000 32% 30% 29% 2,000,000 25% 22% 1,500,000 20% 20% 15% 1,000,000 10% 500,000 5% 0 0% Burkina Faso Mali Chad Senegal Niger Source: Adapted from Gautrain et al. (2024) using EHCVM 2018–19. Calculations for internal migrants and total population of persons 15 years and above. SASPP Policy Note Series 4 September 2024 MOTIVATION FOR VOLUNTARY INTERNAL MIGRATION Economic motives are the primary driver of voluntary internal Other forms of voluntary migration are motivated by marriage mobility. In Burkina Faso, Cameroon, the Central African and family reunification, education, child-fostering, and socio- Republic, Chad, Guinea, Mali, and Niger, 77 percent of migrants cultural values. Men primarily migrate for labor and education, surveyed reported traveling primarily for economic reasons.5 and women for marriage.9 In addition, “personal or family Migrants in West and Central Africa who move for employment reasons” were a notable motivation for migration in Mali, Niger, and economic opportunities often head to labor-intensive areas. and Burkina Faso, with women reporting almost double the prevalence compared to men.10 Individuals, particularly children, Economic motives drive migration from rural to urban areas, may also migrate for educational reasons. Another driver is the as urban areas tend to offer higher wages. Even among presence of a culture of migration, which views it as a customary individuals of similar age, gender, marital status, education, sector step into adulthood.11 of employment and region of residence, wages in urban areas were higher than in rural areas in four out of five countries.6 by 22 Drivers of voluntary internal migration vary by gender and percent in Senegal to as much as 38 percent in Chad. Only in Mali the type of migration destination. Familial reasons (such were rural wages significantly higher than urban by 13 percent. as joining or following a family member, marriage, divorce, widowhood, or family issues) are the most prevalent in both Seasonal variations in economic opportunities explain urban and rural destinations, particularly for women. They are long-standing migration and livelihood patterns involving also more commonly cited as drivers to rural than to urban pastoralism and transhumance. Seasonal migration is mainly areas, a tendency particularly noticeable in Niger. Job-related characterized by circular patterns involving rural and urban motives are more commonly reported among migrants in urban communities, encompassing nomadism and transhumance.7 destinations, especially in Burkina Faso and Mali and especially Herders and pastoralists rely on seasonal migration during the for men. Regarding other reasons for migration, education- dry season. Such movements play a significant role, contributing related motivations are more common for men and in urban to the survival and sustenance of these communities.8 areas. FIGURE 2. Main reason to move internally by country and (a) gender and (b) location. 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Faso Faso Men Women Work Education Family Reconstitution Family Problems Follow / join family members Conflict Others SASPP Policy Note Series 5 September 2024 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Faso Faso Urban Rural Work Education Family Reconstitution Family Problems Follow / join family members Conflict Others Source: Adapted from Gautrain et al. (2024) based on EHCVM 2018–2019. PATTERNS OF VOLUNTARY INTERNAL MOBILITY Population mobility is overwhelmingly internal. Economic In Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, and Niger, rural-to-rural migration migration predominantly occurs along an east-west axis towards is predominant. Urban-to-urban migration takes precedence in labor-intensive work centers, with secondary routes running Senegal. In Niger, rural-to-rural migration constitutes over 60 percent North to South (IOM 2018).12 The share of people willing to of all internal migration, indicating the significant importance of migrate ranges from 20 percent in Mali to 41 percent in Senegal. It rural areas as both origins and destinations. In Mali, approximately is typically higher for urban, younger, and more educated people, 35 percent of migration involve rural-to-rural and urban-to-rural men, and those with a poor perception of their living conditions. movements, with the latter exhibiting the highest rate among the countries considered. In the remaining countries, the proportion of urban-to-rural migration does not exceed 20 percent. Diverse internal migration patterns focus on migration to rural areas in most cases. FIGURE 3. Prevalence of Internal Migrants in the Sahel, by country, (sub-national) region Share of internal migrants (0.3271 - 0.6079) (0.2722 - 0.3271) (0.1706 - 0.2722) (0.0773 - 0.1706) Source: Adapted from Gautrain et al. (2024) based on EHCVM 2018-2019. SASPP Policy Note Series 6 September 2024 FIGURE 4. Patterns of internal migration Type of internal migration 6 Rural-Rural Share among intenaral migrants Rural-Urban 5 Urban-Rural Urban-Urban 4 3 2 1 Burkina Faso Chad Mali Niger Senegal Country of residence Source : Adapted from Gautrain et al. (2024) FORCED MIGRATION Violent conflict and climate change are driving increases in During a 2004 drought in Burkina Faso, around half of the forced migration. The number of IDPs in Burkina Faso, Chad, households reported sending at least one member to migrate Mali, and Niger is projected to increase by 24 percent over three for work.15 The impact of seasonal rainfall and periodic droughts years — from 3.4 million people in 2022 to 4.2 million by 2025. has prompted diverse migration patterns.16 However, climate As of 2022, the share of refugees in the total population ranged events can have contrasting effects. Excessive precipitation in between 0.7 percent in Senegal and 3.3 percent in Chad, while Senegal contributed to international migration, while heatwaves IDPs ranged from 0.05 percent in Senegal to 1.7 percent in Chad in Burkina Faso deterred migration.17 In Mali and Senegal, and Mali.14 seasonal and temporary migration is an adaptive strategy to varying climatic conditions.18 Climate change has the potential to The Sahel region experiences substantial impacts from intensify migration from rural to urban areas, amplifying existing environmental damage and climate change, which can trends of rapid urbanization in Africa.19 exacerbate economic migration. While conflict may lead to migration due to concerns of physical security, climate change Climate change can intersect with or cause conflict, resulting can intensify underlying factors that drive economic migration in greater economic distress and forced migration. Climate – including wage differences between source and destination change and the ensuing exacerbation of drought, desertification, areas, livelihoods, and habitability. This suggests an intersection and soil degradation can increase communal violence and armed between voluntary and forced migration, whereby although conflicts, potentially involving organized armed groups, which in climate change may be a factor that results in migration under turn could lead to the forced displacement of large numbers of distress, it operates primarily through economic channels. people across the region. SASPP Policy Note Series 7 September 2024 LABOR MARKET PROFILES OF VOLUNTARY INTERNAL MIGRANTS Unemployment is quite common among internal migrants are engaged in the primary sector (agriculture and extractive in urban destinations (except in the case of Senegal). For activities). The situation in Senegal’s rural areas is different, those employed in urban settings, the tertiary sector is the most where the tertiary sector (including small retail businesses) is common area of work. This tendency is further accentuated more prominent among internal migrants. Women are more likely by the higher prevalence of skilled workers in urban areas. A not to work or to be engaged in family work (Figure 5b). Men significant portion of internal migrants who work in rural regions commonly work independently or as business owners. FIGURE 5. Employment status of working-age internal migrants (a) by location and (b) gender (a) By location 10 10 8 8 6 6 Share Share 4 4 2 2 0 0 Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Faso Faso Rural Urban (b) By gender 10 10 8 8 6 6 Share Share 4 4 2 2 0 0 Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Burkina Chad Mali Niger Senegal Faso Faso Males Females Work status No work Employed executive /manager Qualified employee Unqualified employee Intern/apprentice Family worker Independent worker/business owner Source : Adapted from Gautrain et al. (2024) SASPP Policy Note Series 8 September 2024 Higher education correlates positively with higher wages in in rural Mali (Figure 6). The attraction of urban employment is urban areas. Although urban areas typically offer higher wages, particularly pronounced in Chad and Niger due to urban-rural some notable exceptions exist, such as tertiary-educated wage differences. This analysis excludes income from self- internal migrants in Burkina Faso and Mali whose earnings are employment, thereby omitting earnings from activities like family similar to their rural counterparts or uneducated individuals farming, which could lead to an underestimation of rural incomes. FIGURE 6. Wages of internal migrants by country, area of residence, and level of education Burkina Faso Chad Mali 800 800 800 Average monthly wages Average monthly wages Average monthly wages 600 600 600 400 400 400 200 200 200 0 0 0 cat y cat y cat ary cat y cat y cat ary cat y cat y cat ary d d d ed ed ed edu rimar eduondar ed ed ed ed ed ed edu rimar eduondar edu rimar eduondar ate ate ate ti ti ti Ter Ter Ter duc duc duc P P P edu edu edu Sec Sec Sec Une Une Une Niger Senegal 800 800 Average monthly wages Average monthly wages 600 600 400 400 Rural 200 200 Urban 0 0 cat y cat y cat ary cat y cat y cat ary d d ed ed ed ed ed ed edu rimar eduondar edu rimar eduondar ate ate ti ti Ter Ter duc duc P P edu edu Sec Sec Une Une Source: Adapted from Gautrain et al. (2024) SASPP Policy Note Series 9 September 2024 VULNERABILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH MIGRATION Although migration is frequently undertaken by people to borders and shared cultural traits may ease migration, they improve their livelihoods, migration itself may expose people to can also hinder integration.22 Migrants face social isolation and risks and vulnerabilities during transit and at destination. They separation, disconnection from social networks, conflict with include20: local populations, heightened levels of violence, as well as mistreatment and abuse.23 Arduous journeys: Migrants may spend many days on the move without sufficient food, water, or shelter. Women and children Lack of identification and documentation: In Chad, Mali, and face heightened risks of trafficking, forced labor, physical and Niger, lack of identification was a significant factor contributing sexual abuse, and disconnected access to education. In conflict- to the vulnerability of voluntary migrant women subjected to affected areas, migrants may be exploited by smugglers and forced labor, with only 47 percent of these women possessing coerced into working and fighting for armed groups. They may such documents.24 The lack of documentation can limit migrants’ also face risks of harassment by authorities, including detention, access to better jobs and basic services. In the case of forced extortion, and confiscation of assets and cash.21 migration, official recognition of refugee or IDP status can give individuals access to jobs, services, and rights that they may Poverty and unemployment: Although many migrants otherwise not be able to avail of during displacement. are motivated by the prospects of earning higher incomes at destination, they often face unemployment and Difficulties in accessing services: Migrants often experience underemployment, resulting in poverty and economic precarity. difficulties in accessing basic services such as water, sanitation, Many migrants are employed in low- or semi-skilled jobs that health, education, and social protection. In urban migration are often unregulated and temporary, leaving workers more destinations, migrants frequently settle in impoverished ghettos susceptible to exploitation at destination. with inadequate housing, sanitation, and security. Migrants may not be able to access healthcare and education services, which Social exclusion and tensions: Migrants often face difficulties are often more expensive at destination.25 integrating due to existing social hierarchies. Although porous Photo: © World Bank SASPP Policy Note Series 10 September 2024 4 IMPLICATIONS FOR ADAPTIVE SOCIAL PROTECTION PROGRAMS ASP is essential for enhancing the resilience and productivity and at the different stages of the ASP delivery chain (Figure 7). of the poorest and most vulnerable. It is critical for ASP to be It seeks to illustrate possible solutions to make ASP programs cognizant of the scale, drivers, and challenges of migration to more inclusive and supportive of internal migrants, drawing on design and implement ASP programs and systems (for example, the detailed companion report to this brief, which also proposes registries) better suited to the needs of a mobile population. a diagnostic tool (Holmes and Branders, 2024). This discussion outlines potential solutions at the policy level FIGURE 7. The Adaptive Social Protection Delivery Chain ASSESS Enroll Provide Manage Determince Assess Eligibility and benefits Notification Beneficiaries, Exit decisions, Intake and needs and enrollment and service and Benefits and / Grievances, notifications, Outreach registration condition secisions package onboarding or services Compliance case outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RECURRING 8 9 CYCLE PERIODIC REASSESSMENT Source : Adapted from Bowen et al. (2020) Photo: © Curt Carnemark / World Bank SASPP Policy Note Series 11 September 2024 POLICY-LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS of these data sources, may unwittingly exclude or penalize households with internal migrants if they are not present at the Harmonizing ASP with population mobility requires recognizing time of eligibility determination. Some solutions to overcome migration patterns and adjusting policies, programs, and these limitations include using dynamic social registries, more systems to maximize impact for internal migrants. Most frequent updates to program-level eligibility assessment data, ASP programs or systems do not explicitly acknowledge or and allowing open, flexible, and on-demand registration for accommodate the needs of mobile populations. This can result programs. in systematic under coverage of programs among internal migrants. Even when migrants and their families participate ELIGIBILITY AND ENROLLMENT in ASP programs, design and implementation may be at odds with the reality of mobility dynamics. At the policy level, specific Reviewing program eligibility criteria to ensure internal actions can increase the suitability of ASP programs to mobility migrants can benefit: ASP program eligibility criteria may militate dynamics: against including internal migrants and their families. This is • Developing an institutional framework that allows the the case, for instance, when eligibility criteria explicitly include portability of benefits residence requirements. If criteria do not clearly distinguish • Establishing a mechanism to coordinate actions to address between individual or household eligibility, then entire the needs of people on the move households may get excluded from programs if the registered • Ensuring national social protection strategies explicitly individual migrates or may not be included for lack of proof of recognize groups likely to be mobile residence. • Ensuring social registries are supportive of mobility by adopting dynamic, on-demand approaches DESIGN OF A SUPPORT PACKAGE • Deploying public outreach and communication campaigns to enhance information on migration Ensuring program contents and benefits are relevant to • Simplifying processes to obtain, renew, or replace identification recipients even if they migrate: The types of benefits and documents. services provided by ASP programs, as well as the conditions or co-responsibilities they may entail, may not always be suited to OUTREACH the needs of a dynamic population. For instance, skills imparted in productive inclusion programs that are specific to rural Enhancing program outreach to communicate critical livelihoods, may be of little use to participants if they migrate to information on migration-related concerns, especially in high urban areas. Similarly, if in-person attendance of group meetings mobility areas: ASP programs may not have clear rules on the is a condition for households to receive assistance and more continuity of benefits to a household if the main or registered mobile members migrate, those left behind (especially older recipient migrates. Where such rules have been defined, and less mobile persons) may not be able to meet attendance participants may be unaware of them. ASP programs can inform requirements and may thus be struck off beneficiary lists. In other participants of rules concerning benefits following individual/ instances, the timing of ASP interventions may not be in sync household migration, as well as ways to access support and with known or anticipated population movements. In the case of services in prominent migration destinations. Such outreach can poverty-targeted social assistance, delivering in-kind transfers be more effective when communication is tailored to participants may not be useful for people on the move who may prefer based on factors such as gender and age. digital payments where possible, which are accessible even if people migrate. The suggestion is to examine the relevance ASSESSING NEEDS AND CONDITIONS and usefulness of the package and adjust offerings as needed. Deploying dynamic social registries, frequent opportunities PROVISION OF BENEFITS AND SERVICES for assessment, and “on-demand” registration for programs: ASP eligibility assessments are routinely undertaken to Ensuring program benefits do not exclude or penalize determine household and individual conditions and needs. Such migrants and their families: ASP program benefits may exclude assessments, typically based on community meetings, data from participants if they must be collected by an individual likely to social registries, geographic considerations, or a combination migrate. Allowing multiple (or at least an alternate) household SASPP Policy Note Series 12 September 2024 members to access benefits can prevent households from PROGRAM MONITORING missing out. Effective provisioning should ensure that the scheduling of program activities is synchronized with migration Enhancing program monitoring to generate granular data patterns and cycles. For instance, scheduling public works on mobility dynamics to inform modifications to programs to interventions keeping in mind seasonal migration patterns can improve better support internal migrants: Traditional program enable seasonal migrants to participate in these programs in the monitoring systems do not account for population movements lean season. Beyond the support provided by the ASP programs, and may only collect household-level information. As a result, programs could provide information on available services program administrators cannot tailor programs to migration matching internal migrants’ broader needs (e.g., emotional, and patterns and the specific needs of migrants. Efforts to use psychological support, gender-based violence services, social program monitoring and evaluation to collect disaggregated cohesion activities) and facilitate referral. information on mobility-related questions at the individual level could help provide the necessary data for tailoring program GRIEVANCE AND FEEDBACK MECHANISMS features. Ensuring grievance redress is accessible and known to FINANCING beneficiaries regardless of their physical location: ASP participants may have limited knowledge of grievance systems Allowing flexible financing to accommodate additional leading to limited use of complaint and redress mechanisms. beneficiaries: Social protection programs typically do not have This may be especially acute for migrants when grievance budget flexibility to respond to internal migration patterns mechanisms rely on traditional channels (assuming one belongs and accommodate new beneficiaries outside of their regular to social networks) or require in-person submission of grievances. enrollment cycles. To provide such flexibility, programs In addition to raising awareness of existing grievance redress could allocate funds to enroll internal migrants off-cycle, or mechanisms among all participants, the use of phone- and digital governments could decide on top-up budgets to respond to means of filing complaints and seeking redress may increasingly new arrivals, especially in the case of sudden and large internal be more feasible and useful in contexts of population mobility. migration. CONCLUSION Some of the modifications discussed in this note need not represent radical changes to program design or implementation but instead exemplify the application of a mobility lens that ensures that ASP remains meaningful and can enhance the benefits of population mobility in the Sahel. Integrating mobility-related considerations is vital to ensuring migrants are supported. ASP program adaptions can safeguard migrants from programmatic deficiencies. 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Vigil, Sara. 2017. “Climate Change and Migration: Insights from the Sahel.” Ledizioni: 51–71. https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/ an/4312251. 1 Mu ¨ller et al., “Hotspots of Climate Change…,” Neumann and Hermans, “What Drives Human Migration…,” Bru¨ning and Piguet, “Changements Environnementaux et Migration…” 2 Cattaneo et al. “Human Migration…,” Kaczan and Orgill-Meyer, “The Impact of Climate Change…,” Lozano-Gracia, et al., “The Journey to Safety…,” Ibáñez and Moya, “Vulnerability of Victims…,” Poole, “Migration as Conflict Risk-management,” Abel et al., “Climate, Conflict and Forced Migration,” and Brzoska and Fröhlich, “Climate Change, Migration and Violent Conflict…” 3 Gautrain et al., “Mapping Patterns…” 4 Holmes and Branders, ““Review Paper on Best Practices…” 5 IOM 6 Based on data from the EHCVM 2018–19 surveys in Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Niger, and Senegal. See Gautrain et al., “Mapping Patterns…” 7 Hahn and Klute, Cultures of Migration… 8 Vigil, “Climate Change and Migration…” 9 Chort et al., “Gendered Mobility Patterns…” and Liehr et al., “Migration as Societal…” 10 UNODC, “Smuggling of Migrants…” 11 Bruni et al., “Study on Migration Routes…,” Hummel, “Climate Change, Land Degradation…,” Romankiewicz and Doevenspeck, “Climate and Mobility…” 12 IOM 2018 13 Danish Refugee Council, “Foresight…” 14 Based on World Development Indicators for 2022; data not available for Mauritania 15 Barbier et al., “Human Vulnerability…” 16 Schürmann et al., “Migration in West Africa…” 17 Nawrotzki and Bakhtsiyarava, “International Climate Migration…” 18 Romankiewicz and Doevenspeck, “Climate and Mobility…” 19 Aragall et al., “Climate Change and Migration…” 20 Gautrain et al., “Mapping Patterns…” 21 Plan International, “Central Sahel Hunger Crisis…,” Bastide et al., “Mixed Migration…,” Nonnenmacher and Yonemura, “Migration and Education…,” Bluett and Davy, “Access to Essential Services…,” Carrion et al., “Young and on the Move…,” IOM, “DTM Mali…,” UNODC, “Smuggling of Migrants…,” MMC, “Smuggling, Risks…,” Nydal, “Moving Through Conflict…,” Brottem, “The Growing Complexity…” 22 Gagnon and Khoudour-Casteras, “South-South Migration…” 23 Bastide et al., “Mixed Migration…,” Digidiki et al., “’See Migration Like Water’…,” Samuel Hall and British Red Cross, “Onward Bound…,” Pearson and Niaufre, “Desertification and drought…” 24 Digidiki et al., “’See Migration Like Water’…” 25 OHCHR, “Human Rights…” and Bluett and Davy, “Access to Essential Services…” 26 Gray Meral and Both, “Social Protection…,” Hopkins et al., “Internal migrants…” SASPP Policy Note Series 16 September 2024 © 2024 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. 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