In Practice Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming By Saugato Datta, Mukta Joshi, Catherine MacLeod, and Michele Zini 3 © 2022 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. 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Cover photo: Sarah Farhat / World Bank Volume 3 April 19, 2022 In Practice The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming Contents Acknowledgments i About the In Practice series ii Introduction 1 Behavioral Science and its Relevance to Economic Inclusion Programming 3 Designing Behaviorally Informed Economic Inclusion Programs 7 Diagnosis and design methodology 7 Behavioral audit tool 8 The context of scarcity 10 Behavioral designs incorporated into program stages 11 Emerging Evidence and Cost-effectiveness 14 Emerging evidence around the effectiveness of behavioral interventions 14 A framework for calculating cost-effectiveness 15 Conclusion 18 Appendixes 20 A. Communication audit checklist 21 B. Process audit checklist 23 Notes 25 References 27 The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming Acknowledgements This note was written by ideas42 and World Bank partners with support and guidance from additional partners at the World Bank, including Laura Rawlings. The authors benefited from discussions at the event “Behavioral Interventions in Economic Inclusion Programming,” sponsored by the Partnership for Economic Inclusion (PEI) and held on February 9, 2022, as well as ongoing support and feedback from members of the PEI team: Colin Andrews, Janet Heisey, Sarang Chaudhary, and Claudia Santamaria Ruiz. The PEI team is grateful for the comments from peer reviewers Tara Bedi (Trinity College, Dublin) and Samantha de Martino, Jonathan Karver, and Ana Maria Munoz Boudet (World Bank). Much of this note was drawn from and made possible by collaboration with and feedback from the World Bank country teams and country governments. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming i About the In Practice Series The Partnership for Economic Inclusion introduces the In Practice series featuring accessible, practitioner-focused publications that highlight learning, good practice, and emerging innovations for scaling up economic inclusion programs. Guide to navigation The In Practice series is interactive and provides built-in technical features to assist readers as they progress, including a navigation bar, progress bar, and the ability to jump to endnotes and back to the text throughout. Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes In Practice and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Chapter navigation Progress bar Jump notes The navigation bar at the This bar orients readers to their Endnotes throughout the text are top of each page allows easy progress in each chapter and interlinked to allow easy navigation navigation with a simple click. through the document. from notes and the main text. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming ii Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Introduction Behavioral science—the study of how humans make decisions and take actions—can provide insight into a host of issues that impact the effectiveness of programs that rely on people acting in certain ways. By incorporating an understanding of behavioral science into economic inclusion programming, governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) seeking to bring millions out of poverty with limited resources can ensure that their programs are designed to account for human behavior. More specifically, behavioral science offers a The success of economic inclusion deep understanding of how living in poverty, programming hinges on participants making with chronically scarce resources, affects decisions and taking actions to participate people’s decisions and actions, and it can thus in the components of a program such as increase the impact of economic inclusion coaching, savings groups, training, and cash programs, which target individuals and transfers. Because behavioral science provides households living in poverty. a nuanced understanding of how the context in which people live affects their behavior, Behavioral science has proven to be helpful in it can help address contextual bottlenecks, many domains, including education, health, and through small tweaks in programming or sustainability. Behavioral interventions have light-touch interventions in program design shown promise in increasing school attendance that make it easier for program participants to (Duflo et al. 2013), reducing household make optimal use of the benefits and services electricity consumption (Klege et al. 2022) provided. For example, cash transfer recipients and water use (Miranda, Datta, and Zoratto may be “present-biased” when they receive 2020), increasing the use of family planning their cash, but simple goal-setting and plan- services (Ashton et al. 2015; Flanagan et al. making tools can help them save for the future. 2021), and ensuring the provision of respectful Similarly, participants in a training program maternity care (Smith et al. 2021). Behavioral may be unable to pay enough attention to apply interventions have also had positive impacts what they are learning to their own lives, but on social protection and jobs programs—for that difficulty might be remedied by simple example, increasing job applications among checklists or take-home tools. job-seekers (Abel et al. 2019) and improving the outcomes of cash transfers (Barrera-Osorio Because behavioral interventions are usually et al. 2011). Adding behavioral science to the highly cost-effective relative to alternative economic inclusion toolkit can thus enhance ways of achieving the same goals, incorporating the outcomes of such programs. behavioral science into economic inclusion programming has the potential to support The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 1 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs governments and NGOs in making optimal social protection programs. Here, the authors use of their limited resources to alleviate make the case for applying behavioral science poverty for as many people as possible. Indeed, to improve the outcomes of economic economic inclusion holds much potential, but inclusion efforts, and provide guidance on the opportunities are not always recognizable how practitioners can do so. Section 2 briefly or understood when they are recognized. One describes behavioral science and its relevance possible solution is generating more evidence to economic inclusion programming. Section of its potential. This note, then, is one of a 3 then presents a framework for incorporating growing number produced by the Partnership behavioral science into economic inclusion for Economic Inclusion (PEI) with an programs. Section 4 discusses the emerging operational focus and aimed at taking stock of evidence on the impact of behavioral those opportunities and their cost-effectiveness interventions on economic inclusion programs in order to offer some practical pathways to as well as an initial framework for calculating taking advantage of this real-time learning. their cost-effectiveness. Section 5 concludes the note. The note draws heavily on the experiences 1 of ideas42 and World Bank partners’ work on incorporating behavioral science into The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 2 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Behavioral Science and its Relevance to Economic Inclusion Programming As The State of Economic Inclusion Report 2021 (hereafter SEI Report 2021) notes, most economic inclusion programs are built around a core program—typically, social safety nets, financial inclusion, or livelihoods and jobs—that serves as an entry point to helping extremely poor households build income and assets (Andrews et al. 2021). At the basic level, such programming relies certain identity and other documents; make on the people involved (both participants and specific financial decisions about how to program staff) making a variety of decisions allocate cash income between immediate and taking various actions (collectively, and future needs; or make (re)payments on “behaviors”) to meet program objectives. a specified schedule. Finally, a livelihoods This section examines the potential relevance or jobs program may require participants to of behavioral science to these kinds of undertake various training courses, develop a programming. business plan or apply for a certain number and kinds of jobs, or attend job interviews or A social safety net program typically requires fairs. In each of these examples, individuals applicants to undertake several actions to or sets of individuals must make certain demonstrate and confirm eligibility such decisions and often follow through on them as providing or acquiring proof of identity to successfully participate in a program and and domicile. The program also may require for the program to have the desired impact on participants to attend training sessions and their lives. to be present at group meetings where cash benefits are distributed. If the program is Behavioral science, which provides a nuanced conditional, participants or members of their understanding of how people make decisions household may have to comply with certain and take (or often do not take) actions (Datta behavioral requirements such as attending and Mullainathan 2012), sheds light on why school or visiting a health clinic. Similarly, participants in economic inclusion programs a financial inclusion program may require do not always make the decisions and take participants to open a particular kind of the actions needed for program success. For account in a designated financial institution, example, a person who understands that which may, in turn, require them to produce applying for a certain number of jobs is The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 3 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs critical to succeeding in a jobs program can learning, and each of the related decisions and fail to do so because of the context in which actions could be cognitively demanding. they live. They may not see other people undertaking these kinds of actions, so the Behavioral science finds that people have perceived social norm is one of inaction limited cognitive bandwidth, which is an rather than action. Similarly, people who may especially binding constraint on people living want to save as part of a financial inclusion with extreme scarcity—a key characteristic program may fail to do so because they suffer of those targeted by economic inclusion from prospective memory failure (that is, programs. As a significant body of research they forget to remember), or because saving suggests, economic inclusion programs need is largely a private act, and so they do not see to be cognizant of the cognitive burden saving as the social norm in their community, they impose on participants and try to even if other members of their community minimize additional demands where possible are actually saving. The perceived social norm (Mani et al. 2013; Shah, Mullainathan, and may differ, then, from the actual social norm Shafir 2012; Shah et al. 2018). For example, (Datta and Desai 2018; ideas42 2019). programs can reduce the cognitive burden of program enrollment, participation, and A similar argument can be made about the engagement requirements by simplifying decisions and actions of program staff. For these requirements or providing additional example, staff may steer women toward scaffolding to aid participants’ decision- less productive areas of business because of making. In addition, the literature on scarcity implicit mental models about sectors that suggests that economic inclusion programs are ”suited” to women. Or staff in a safety net create a window of time where the provision program may inadvertently show up late at of direct benefits, whether in cash or in kind, the payment site, reducing cash recipients’ creates a temporary window of “cognitive trust in the program. In a financial inclusion plenty” in which the cognitive constraints of program, staff may frame financial products poverty are temporarily eased. This window in a way that emphasizes some of their is an opportunity to engage participants in features to the exclusion of other potentially long-term planning and other higher-level useful features, giving program participants cognitive tasks. a limited view of the possibilities offered by the program (Datta and Desai 2018). In all Fortunately, behavioral science offers insights of these examples, program staff or service and solutions that can help economic provider behavior influences how program inclusion programs do a better job of participants engage with the program, with facilitating key decisions and actions that impacts on its success. contribute to program success. For example, there is evidence that timely reminders Finally, economic inclusion programs are by delivered via text message can help people design multifaceted and involve participation save (Karlan et al. 2016). And simple tools in a variety of ancillary programming beyond that help participants plan how to allocate the core components. For example, program funds between pressing present needs and participants may be expected to attend future investments can lead to increases in training sessions on nutrition or education future-oriented goals and savings—see box and use this training in their daily lives. 2.1 for an example (ideas42 2019). Studies also Each such component may impose its own show that behaviorally informed heuristics- set of requirements in terms of enrollment, based training can help microentrepreneurs attendance, attention, and implementation of adopt beneficial business practices (Cole, The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 4 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Joshi, and Schoar 2021; Drexler, Fischer, and around planning and goal-setting can increase Schoar 2014), and self-efficacy training that beneficial future-oriented behavior such supports them in adopting a growth mindset as saving (ideas42 2019). These examples leads to more innovative practices and higher suggest that behavioral interventions could profits (Campos et al. 2017). Recent research significantly increase the impact of economic also points out that exploiting the window inclusion programming, often at little or no of relative “cognitive plenty” created by additional cost. the provision of cash or in-kind benefits to engage program participants in activities Box 2.1 Behavioral designs for Kenya’s National Safety Net Programme (NSNP) Since 2018, the government of Kenya, ideas42, and the World Bank have been working together to develop behavioral interventions that help cash transfer recipients make productive investments. The package of interventions developed to address the key barriers facing cash transfer recipients were then refined through feedback from program participants. The package consisted of the following: • Visual aids (posters) addressed social norms by expanding recipients’ perceptions of how they can spend their payments. The Government of Kenya UPLIFTING LIVES posters reinforced social norms that recipients use their money to Everyone has future goals save and make productive investments. Farming • Goal-setting and planning activities helped transfer recipients Small business School fees set a realistic goal, identify how much they would save from each transfer, and finally calculate how many cash payments it would take to reach their goal. These activities helped participants consider what they could achieve with cash from multiple transfers and provided a chance to mentally allocate money into saving and spending What will you save for to uplift yourself and uplift the community? “accounts,” which made it easier to stick to their plan. Social Assistance Unit (SAU) NSSF, Block A, Eastern Wing, 1st Floor, Bishops Road, Milimani, Nairobi, Kenya. P.O. Box 40326 – 00100 Telephone: +254 (o) 2729800 | Mobile: +254 (703) 830957 | Fax: +254 020 2726497 1533 Email: inuajamii@socialprotection.go.ke, ps@socialprotection.go.ke For information and queries, call: Inua Jamii Toll-free Helpline • A partitioning pouch was designed to allow participants upon receiving cash to separate the cash they planned to save from the cash they planned to spend immediately on consumption needs. This helped to reduce the temptation to spend on purchases just after the transfer because a plethora of market vendors often pop up. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 5 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Box 2.1 continued • Text message reminders were sent at opportune times—such as when recipients were able to collect their cash—to ensure that their goals and plans were on their mind before cash disbursement. These messages also reinforced the norms and ideas they learned about from other interventions, which were delivered in person. The package of behavioral interventions was tested with a sample of 900 cash transfer recipients during a study in 2019. The interventions led to a 9 percent increase in participants having a productive goal and a 41 percent increase in the amount saved from the transfer when compared with receiving the cash only component (no behavioral interventions for goal setting and plan- making). A qualitative phone survey was also conducted in June 2020 to gauge the extent to which recipients found the behavioral interventions useful during the COVID-19 lockdowns. The survey produced positive evidence that recipients who received the behavioral interventions were still able to use them, and although many recipients’ goals and plans were disrupted due to the lockdowns and associated challenges, they were often able to adjust their investment goals and savings plans accordingly (ideas42 2019, Kezengwa and MacLeod 2021). The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 6 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Designing Behaviorally Informed Economic Inclusion Programming Given the growing evidence that applying behavioral science to antipoverty programs can increase their impact, this section offers policy makers and practitioners guidance on how to incorporate such insights into their programs. It describes ideas42’s approach to behavioral design, which has been used with World Bank partners to incorporate behavioral science into social protection programs, and it highlights two commonly used behavioral design methodologies developed by ideas42: (1) diagnosis and design and (2) behavioral audit. It then discusses design principles to reduce key stages of understanding how context the burden of scarcity that economic triggers suboptimal behaviors and designing 2 program participants typically experience. solutions (BehaviourWorks Australia 2021; And, finally, it provides a summary of both OECD 2019). A thorough review of these the impact-limiting behavioral biases and other methodologies is beyond the scope of contextual features common to the economic the current discussion, however. inclusion program life cycle and the specific behavioral design principles that could be DIAGNOSIS AND DESIGN used to address them. METHODOLOGY ideas42 uses insights from behavioral science The following is a primer for practitioners to uncover behavioral biases and critical and program designers on how the behavioral contextual details that create behavioral dimension is incorporated into program bottlenecks that could limit the impact of design by ideas42 but is not a toolkit for programs, and it tailors behaviorally informed completing a behavioral design process for solutions to address these bottlenecks. To do specific programs, which is beyond the scope this, it employs a systematic methodology of the paper. Note that idea42’s behavioral that has five major steps: define, diagnose, design methodologies are described in the design, test, and scale (figure 3.1). sections that follow. Other organizations use different methodologies to apply a behavioral Define. The first step is to accurately define lens to program design, which often include the problem that impedes the outcome The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 7 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Figure 3.1 Diagnosis and design methodology sought, narrowing it down to a specific the designs. The team seeks designs that behavior without resorting to potentially could be scaled later if the test phase proves unwarranted assumptions about what might promising. be driving this behavior. The focus of this stage is behavior—what behavior needs to Test. To determine the validity of the change, for whom, and in what way. hypotheses and the efficacy of the designs, ideas42 rigorously tests behavioral Diagnose. The diagnosis process produces interventions through a randomized insights into the psychologies and contextual controlled trial (RCT) when possible, or features contributing to the problem. The through other rigorous approaches such ideas42 team creates a behavioral map as A/B testing when an RCT is not a and generates a set of starting hypotheses possibility. around what might be causing the identified problem. Next, the team uses data from site Scale. ideas42 seeks to scale behavioral visits, interviews, literature reviews, and interventions that have proven to be an analysis of qualitative and quantitative effective. Scale-up could proceed through a information to reiterate and refine these variety of channels, including policy change, hypotheses. Relying on this iterative process, dissemination and replication, or creation of the team prioritizes a set of hypotheses or separate organizations or services. behavioral bottlenecks that may be most prevalent and identifies features of the BEHAVIORAL AUDIT context that may be triggering them. METHODOLOGY The diagnosis and design methodology can Design. Drawing on the diagnosis, the be an involved process that may require ideas42 team generates ideas for solutions technical assistance, building the capacity that directly address the prioritized of program designers, or hiring behavioral behavioral bottlenecks. Design solutions design experts to lead it. Fortunately, the range from small-scale changes to existing low-hanging fruit offered by the behavioral programs and products to more complex audit methodology can be easily applied interventions. The solutions are rigorously by program designers without requiring and iteratively user-tested with the subset additional support. The audit tool packages of people for whom they are designed. The insights from academic literature and team then works closely with its partners, practitioners’ experiences in checklists providing the operational and technical that guide users to scan for contexts that assistance needed to finalize and implement may affect program participants’ decisions The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 8 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs and actions along multiple dimensions— and process audit checklists that can help communication, process steps, or physical program designers create better outcomes environment. It also provides actionable for participants. Box 3.2 describes a tips to redesign those contexts. Appendixes communications audit completed in Liberia. A and B present the communications Box 3.1 A communications audit from Liberia’s cash transfer COVID-19 response In 2020, the team of the social cash transfer program in Liberia sought to develop the program’s communications with the goal of encouraging cash transfer recipients to adopt behaviors that would build resilience during the pandemic as well as protect their households from COVID-19. The team intended to deliver its communication in the form of a flyer or poster. After the team developed initial ideas for the communication, ideas42 conducted a communications audit exercise to provide the team with recommendations for creating a behaviorally informed communication. The final communication appears below. Some key recommendations arising from the audit follow: • Develop an actionable, concise, and clean communication piece. • Use simple language that is free of jargon and accompanied by context-specific images to make it easier for participants with low literacy to understand the key points. • Ensure the communication is relevant for cash recipients by telling them what they can do with their transfer to build their resilience. • Deliver the communication at the appropriate time, adopting a distribution plan that calls for disbursing communications at the sites where participants receive their cash transfer, as well as at key community meeting places as a reminder. PLAN TO SPEND THE TRANSFER TO KEEP YOUR FAMILY HEALTHY HOME GARDEN CLEANING MATERIALS HEALTH NEEDS Buy seeds and tools to Buy materials to clean the Buy nutritious food for your plant and grow food dishes and sweep the family and take children to house the clinic if they are sick. Social Safety Nets Project Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Protection The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 9 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs THE CONTEXT OF SCARCITY other important needs (Mullainathan and As discussed in section 2, participants in Shafir 2013). If participants are fixated on economic inclusion programs are often their urgent obligations, they may not have dealing with scarcity. it is therefore crucial the mental bandwidth for longer-term that anyone designing economic inclusion priorities. For example, anyone may exhibit programs understand how scarcity affects present bias when they receive an influx of participants’ decisions and actions. They can cash, overweighting short-term benefits at then design a set of tools that can support the expense of the longer-term. However, those living with scarcity to do more of what those living in scarcity may additionally they want to do and less of what they do not. tunnel on basic needs they have not been able to fulfill, exacerbating the behavioral Scarcity is likely to affect all aspects of bottleneck (namely, present bias). Similarly, participants’ interactions with a program, participants in a program who receive further magnifying behavioral bottlenecks referrals to additional services from coaches that make optimal use difficult. Lack of may be deterred from following through resources (such as time or money) can by hassle factors, such as the need to take deplete people’s mental resources (such as multiple steps to follow through or register attention or working memory), leading and provide documentation. Scarcity may them to focus, or ”tunnel,” on one thing— further diminish the cognitive space needed often what is most urgent—while neglecting to remember all the steps and materials Table 3.1 Designing for scarcity 1. Cut the costs. When designing programs for people experiencing chronic scarcity, it is important to identify the types of costs (time, attention, cognition) that are relevant, as well as their drivers. Many times, well-intentioned programs accidentally increase those costs by adding hassles and creating complexity. Cutting such costs by simplifying processes or streamlining procedures could help to mitigate chronic resource scarcity. 2. Create slack. Living in a world of poverty can be risky and unforgiving. Any unexpected shock such as an illness or loss of employment can create havoc. When possible, building an adequate cushion of critical resources such as time, money, or attention can make the difference between getting along or being completely pulled under. The most direct way to support people who need more slack is to give them exactly what they need more of. For those short on time, this could in- volve cutting back on what is expected of them versus expecting them to do more with their limited time and bandwidth. Or it could means simply giving cash to those short on money. 3. Reframe and empower. Poverty can affect people by shaping their identity and what is possible for their future. To escape poverty and its stigma, one must believe it is possible to do so. However, this important prerequisite is often overlooked, and programs themselves may reinforce such a stigma. Promoting positive interactions between program staff and participants or putting deci- sion-making back in the hands of participants could help to eliminate the stigma as well as improve participants’ engagement with the program and achieve the intended outcomes. Source: Adapted from Daminger et al. (2015). The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 10 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs that are needed. Daminger et al. (2015) put INCORPORATING BEHAVIORAL forward three principles that can be used by DESIGNS INTO PROGRAM STAGES program designers in their efforts to break The life cycle of a typical economic inclusion the cycle of poverty (table 3.1): (1) cut the program has four main stages: assess, enroll, costs (that is, make things easier); (2) create provide, and manage (Lindert et al. 2020). The slack (that is, provide more of what is scarce); success of programs in achieving their desired and (3) reframe and empower (that is, lay the outcomes often hinges on the behavior of groundwork for empowerment). program participants—that is, on their ability to make and act on a series of choices at each When designing programs for people living of these stages. Table 3.2 offers an overview in poverty, it is essential to account for the of the behavioral bottlenecks commonly fact that all the behavioral bottlenecks faced observed at each stage and of the commonly by participants are exacerbated by scarcity. applied behavioral interventions that could Although the next section outlines behavioral address these bottlenecks. bottlenecks and design principles that can mitigate the behavioral barriers specific to program stages, one should always apply them keeping in mind the principles of designing for scarcity. Table 3.2 Common behavioral bottlenecks and design principles by key program step Participant Step Potential behavioral barriers present Design ideas to possibly leverage Assess Learn about the Identity and agency. How a program is presented may —Framing program benefits or services positively and tying program. affect a potential participant’s perception of it. For them to program outcomes will prompt a participant to example, learning that a program is for people living take desired actions. For example, framing a cash transfer in poverty may trigger their identity as a poor person, program as ”for education” can increase education causing them to feel disempowered and act in ways they spending (Benhassine et al. 2015). associate with being poor, such as by not saving for the —Highlighting examples of people in the community future. who have participated in similar programs and achieved positive outcomes would help create a positive perception about the program. Determine Identity and agency. Details such as the method of —Tailoring the method and timing of registration to the whether the registration can signal who the program is for, which may target population can ensure the target population is program is prompt potential participants to believe it is not for them if reached. For example, a program intended to target youth the details do not align with an identity they hold. who have no formal education and may have informal jobs relevant. could be held at a local community center at a time those youth are less likely to be engaged in informal work. Register for the Hassle factors. Registration processes that require multiple —Simplifying the registration process by reducing program. steps or many materials, such as IDs, residence permits, the number of steps and requiring only the essential and other documents, can deter potential participants documents would help minimize hassles. from registering because of the hassles involved in —Making registration automatic when possible by collecting them. preregistering individuals who meet criteria based on previous program or government data sets can further simplify such an important but potentially time-consuming process. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 11 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Table 3.2 continued Participant Step Potential behavioral barriers present Design ideas to possibly leverage Enroll Determine status Trust. Nontransparent enrollment processes can affect how —Ensuring clear selection criteria and publicly accessible in the program: potential participants perceive the program. For example, program timelines can make the enrollment process more enrolled or wait- ambiguous processes may affect the participants’ trust transparent. in coaches or trainers during programming or convince —Conducting community-based verification that involves listed. potential participants to forgo future enrollment community groups and leaders can increase trust in the opportunities. selection process. Ascertain size Mental models. Perceptions of program components can —Providing clear information upfront about the scope and timing of affect how people use them. For example, if cash transfer and timing of every component of an economic inclusion interventions. recipients perceive that small, bi-monthly payments are program can help participants prepare to use them meant for consumption, they may not use their cash optimally. optimally by failing to also save for productive investments. Determine Hassle factors. If participation is complicated or requires —Simplifying or automating processes where possible can how to obtain many steps, people may be deterred from participating. make it easier for participants to access various program benefits or For example, if a training program requires women to components. travel far from home, they may not or only partially attend —Using existing touchpoints or practices can also reduce participate in the program if they have to take time off from work or hassles. For example, if mobile money is commonly used, training and make arrangements for childcare. consider delivering cash transfers through that modality, coaching. or if savings groups meet weekly, consider using that meeting to provide training. Provide Obtain and use Tunneling. Participants living with scarce resources —Plan-making and follow-through activities, with reminders benefits. may tunnel on what is most pressing and neglect other at key times, can guide participants through planning how important things. For example, cash transfer recipients they will use benefits and follow through with their plans. may immediately spend all their transfer on food instead —Highlighting for participants “role models” who improved of saving some of it for a productive investment. their lives using program benefits or services would Social norms. Program participants may notice that others motivate participants to follow a similar path. like them are not applying what is offered in the program, leading them not to apply it. Participate in and Limited attention. Multiple demands on attention can —Following a subtractive approach that does away with act on training. make it impossible to give every aspect of a program full redundant, unnecessary program components when attention. For example, participants may forget to attend adding new ones can reduce the mental bandwidth supplementary activities, or they may attend but forget to needed to participate and improve focus (Adams et al. apply what they learned when needed. 2021). —Simplifying training materials and making them actionable, such as by including planning tools or checklists, can help participants apply what they learned after training. Participate in and Tunneling. Scarcity can make it difficult to focus on —Providing simplified materials that share actionable utilize coaching. important but not urgent needs. If participants or coaches insights, such as checklists, can help coaches and find their time to be limited because of other activities participants make optimal use of their time together and or large caseloads, coaching quality and outcomes may encourage follow-through on key action items. suffer. Manage Report Hassle factors. Having to learn new procedures or —Where digital platforms are used, incorporating grievances. technologies to report grievances can deter participants grievance reporting into those platforms would make it a from reporting them at all. simpler process and increase engagement. —Simplifying the process by providing clear guidance, such as a simple checklist that outlines how to report grievances, could also help with engagement. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 12 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Table 3.2 continued Participant Step Potential behavioral barriers present Design ideas to possibly leverage Follow up on Agency. Lack of clarity about if and when grievances —Making the grievance process transparent will ensure grievances. should be or are resolved can cause participants to feel participants know that their voices are being heard. For as though they do not have the ability to make a change, example, providing a simple outline of who handles which could lead to a lack of reporting and unresolved grievances and how long it will take to address them may issues. help. Prepare to exit Uncertainty. Without a clear timeline, participants cannot —Providing clear communication on program length the program. use benefits or services optimally. For example, if cash in advance can help participants plan to optimally use recipients do not know when benefits will end, they cannot components in a timely manner. accurately assess how much of each transfer they should —Sending reminders in the months before the program save for investments. ends will help set expectations and help participants best utilize benefits or services in the remaining period. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 13 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Emerging Evidence and Cost- Effectiveness Although the field of behavioral science has gained recognition over the last decade, the incorporation of behavioral interventions into new programs relies heavily on the generation of evidence, in part because interventions have to be context-specific. This section highlights emerging evidence of the effectiveness of behavioral interventions in economic inclusion programming and discusses what must be considered for scale-up, such as cost-effectiveness. EMERGING EVIDENCE AROUND specific interventions consisting of goal-setting, EFFECTIVENESS OF BEHAVIORAL plan-making, and partitioning tools increased the INTERVENTIONS incidence of having a goal and making or saving Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive toward productive investments, such as inputs impacts of incorporating behavioral science for farming or a business or purchasing livestock into economic inclusion programming. The (ideas42 2019). An emerging portfolio of work addition of simple interventions to programs that expands on these studies has shown similar has proven effective: for example, a study of an positive results in other countries throughout Sub- intervention consisting of earmarking, or labeling, Saharan Africa, including South Sudan and the and partitioning the payment participants Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). in a program received for work on a public infrastructure project in India increased savings In addition, research shows that low- to no- among participants (Soman and Cheema 2011). cost programmatic tweaks, such as changes in Evidence from Uganda has shown how light- the timing of benefits or services, can affect touch goal-setting and plan-making layered the uptake and use of benefits. For example, a onto an integrated ”graduation program” with study in Kenya demonstrated that small, time- cash transfers, training, and coaching increased limited discounts on farming inputs helped livestock investments and subjective well-being farmers overcome present bias and led to more (Sedlmayr, Shah, and Sulaiman, 2017). ideas42 has investments in fertilizer and ultimately higher also completed extensive development and testing welfare (Duflo, Kremer, and Robinson 2011). of behavioral designs in cash transfer programs. Evidence from RCTs in Kenya, Madagascar, and There is also emerging research on the impacts Tanzania suggested that packages of context- that behavioral interventions can have on program The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 14 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs staff. Recent evidence from a microcredit loan the duration of a program (Andrews et al. 2021). program in Bangladesh suggests that simplifying Because behavioral interventions seek to ensure payment forms can save time for social workers that programs inherently account for the way and lead to a reduction in late payments participants make decisions and take actions, (Lourenco, Vakis, and Zoratto 2022). they can often be layered onto programs to increase impact at low or no additional cost. The research carried out thus far has implications ideas42 has partnered with organizations and for the scale of behavioral interventions in governments running cash transfer programs to economic inclusion programs. The evidence develop behavioral interventions that layer on suggests that behavioral interventions can be a top of program components. It was then able to tool practitioners can incorporate to support run RCTs to measure the impact of the single programs in reaching key program outcomes added intervention. These RCTs have served as a with fewer resources or less-intensive touchpoints basis for considering how to calculate the cost- than typical program components have required. effectiveness of individual program components, Achieving impact more efficiently can possibly as shown in Box 4.1. lead to streamlining programs. Such programs may then be easier to scale, ultimately helping A systematic approach to calculating the cost- as many people as possible. To further assess this effectiveness of economic inclusion programs potential, a discussion of the cost-effectiveness of at scale is a priority for the next wave of such interventions is needed. evaluation and learning by PEI, as well as for better understanding the impact and cost of A FRAMEWORK FOR CALCULATING each intervention or component of economic COST-EFFECTIVENESS inclusion programs (Paul, Dutta, and Chaudhary Because governments and organizations have 2021). Such evaluations will provide benchmarks limited resources to fund economic inclusion when assessing the cost-effectiveness of programs, these programs must be designed behavioral interventions and other components. in a way that achieves value for money. While Program designers could then compare the cost- economic inclusion programs have proven to effectiveness of different components, thereby 3 have significant positive impacts, the overall cost making more informed decisions about which are of such programs is often quite high and varied: best to include and ultimately building the most the SEI Report 2021 estimated the total costs of impactful versions of programs given the limited programs to be between US$41 and US$2,253 over resources available. Box 4.1 Cost-effectiveness multiplier for behavioral interventions The cost-effectiveness multiplier, currently used in programs in which cash transfers are the fundamental intervention, is intended to estimate how much additional cash participants would have to receive to achieve the same impact, as measured by improvements in the key outcomes of interest, generated through the incorporation of behavioral interventions into the program (see figure B4.1.1). continues... The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 15 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Box 4.1 continued Figure B4.1.1 Cost-effectiveness multiplier: A graphic representation Outcome of interest ion ervent al int vior B hb eha Wit A n inte rventio vioral ut beha Witho Cost of transfer to funder C Note: A = expected change in the outcome of interest if the monetary cost of behavioral interventions is given in additional cash, assuming local linearity; B = change in the outcome of interest due to behavioral intervention; C= monetary cost of behavioral intervention. If the cost-effectiveness multiplier is greater than 1, incorporating behavioral interventions into the cash transfer program is likely a more cost-effective way of achieving a change in the outcome of interest than the provision of additional cash equal to the cost of the intervention on top of the transfer. Put differently, program implementers would achieve a greater impact by spending additional resources on the behavioral interventions instead of using the same resources to augment the cash given to participants.a Table B4.1.1 displays the calculation of the cost-effectiveness multiplier based on actual findings from an RCT that incorporated behavioral interventions into a cash transfer program in South Sudan. The outcome of interest was the amount of the transfer spent toward an identified priority. Table B4.1.1 Cost-effectiveness multiplier: A graphic representation Change in outcome of interest due to Expected change in outcome of Cost-effectiveness multiplier (B/A) behavioral interventions (B) interest if monetary value of behavioral interventions was given in additional benefits (A) $2.40 $1.36 1.8 continues... The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 16 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Box 4.1 continued Participants in the South Sudan Safety Net Program (SSSNP) received a $48.07 cash transfer. Data from a survey completed to assess the impact of behavioral interventions incorporated into the transfer showed that the control group—that is, those who received the cash transfer without behavioral interventions—spent $28.84 toward their priority or 61 percent of the transfer, whereas the treatment group, or those who received the behavioral interventions, spent $31.24 toward their priorities. The cost of the behavioral interventions was $1.43 per person. If the control group had received an additional $1.43 in cash and it is assumed they would spend the same percentage toward their priority, or 61 percent, it is estimated that they would spend $30.84 toward their priority, a change of $1.36 (A). Those who received the behavioral interventions spent $31.24 on their priorities, a $2.40 increase when compared with the control group (B). The cost-effectiveness multiplier is then 1.8—in other words, achieving the benefit of the nudges would cost 1.8 times the cost of the nudges themselves. a. It is critical to note that this cost-effectiveness multiplier method has limitations, particularly when it comes to expanding its use beyond behavioral interventions. The purpose of this multiplier is to assess the marginal impact of each component or intervention layered onto an economic inclusion program. It is likely not a useful way to measure the cost-effectiveness of the core component--the main cash transfer, livelihoods and jobs, or financial inclusion intervention--without which the additional layers or components have nothing to build on. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 17 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Conclusion Economic inclusion programs provide a strong, multifaceted approach to increasing the assets and income of those living in poverty. However, like all programs that rely on people making decisions and acting in certain ways, program impact may be attenuated if program designers do not account for the behavioral quirks to which all humans fall prey. Behavioral science also offers solutions making it easy for participants to utilize to ensure programs account for such benefits and services during provision, behavioral quirks. Recommendations drawn and providing clear and transparent from the literature and the experience of communication during the management practitioners can help program designers stage. Although a toolkit that provides identify where in their programs behavioral guidance for practitioners to complete the bottlenecks may hinder certain decisions full behavioral design process is beyond or actions and incorporate evidence-based the scope of this note, these guidelines tweaks or interventions to address them. can help practitioners account for the Section 3 of this note is an overview of behavioral issues that many economic the commonly seen behavioral bottlenecks inclusion programs commonly face, thereby at each stage of program delivery and increasing impact without the need for suggests some simple behaviorally informed significant resources or capacity building. tweaks that could be incorporated into programs to address them. Practitioners This note also points to the discussion and program designers are encouraged on the evidence needed to mainstream to use this guidance to identify the behavioral interventions and on how behavioral dimensions that may be relevant they may serve as a cost-effective way of in each stage of their program cycle (for further scaling up economic inclusion example, undertake a truncated diagnosis programs. This may be informed by guided by table 3.2). They could then continued discourse on calculating the cost- consider incorporating the evidence-based effectiveness of components of economic solutions in their programs (such as the inclusion programming. In addition to design principles offered in table 3.2 or participant-focused interventions, there the communications and process audits is emerging evidence about a second set guided by checklists shared in appendixes of actors—program staff, such as coaches A and B). For example, solutions likely or trainers—whose behavior also affects include reducing hassles during enrollment program outcomes. The progression toward and registration, ensuring clarity and evaluating behavioral interventions for transparency at the assessment stage, providers remains an area for further The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 18 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs research. Finally, to mainstream behavioral interventions in economic inclusion programs, more evidence is needed on their impacts at all stages of the delivery chain. Although initial research focused on the provision stage, as evidence continues to grow around new stages, practitioners should identify agile ways to assess impacts such as utilizing existing monitoring and evaluation data or leveraging A/B testing to help generate evidence in a more cost- effective way. The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 19 Introduction Behavioral Science Designing Emerging Evidence Conclusion Appendixes and its Relevance to Behaviorally and Economic Inclusion Informed Economic Cost-effectiveness Programming Inclusion Programs Appendixes The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 20 Appendix A Communications Audit Checklist The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 21 Appendix A Source: Adapted from https://www.bhub.org/ The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 22 Appendix B Process Audit Checklist The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 23 Appendix B Source: Adapted from https://www.bhub.org/ The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 24 Notes The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 25 Notes 1. ideas42 is a nonprofit that uses insights from human behavior—why people do what they do—to help improve lives, build better systems, and drive social change. For more than a de- cade, ideas42 has been at the forefront of applying behavioral science in the real world. These efforts have so far extended to 50 countries in partnership with governments, foundations, NGOs, private enterprises, and a wide array of public institutions--in short, anyone who wants to make a positive difference in peoples’ lives. 2. This section primarily centers on program participants, who have often been the focus of attention of behavioral designers in the development program context thus far. 3. See, among others, Argent, Augsburg, and Rasul (2014); Banerjee et al. (2015); and Premand and Del Ninno (2016). 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The Partnership for Economic Inclusion In Practice / Leveraging Behavioral Science to Increase the Impact of Economic Inclusion Programming 30 The Partnership for Economic Inclusion (PEI) is a global partnership with a mission to support the adoption of national economic inclusion programs that increase the earnings and assets of extremely poor and vulnerable households. PEI brings together global stakeholders to catalyze country-level innovation, advance innovation and learning, and share global knowledge. PEI is hosted by the Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice of the World Bank. In Practice