June 22, 2023 Global Indicators Briefs No. 18 Protecting Women and Girls from Cyber Harassment: A Global Assessment of Existing Laws Nelsy Reyhanne Marikel Affoum, Isabel Micaela Santagostino Recavarren, Nayantara Vohra, and Quentin Wodon C yber violence against women has been rising at alarming rates in recent decades. Such acts not only harm women as individuals but have severe detrimental e ects on society and the economy at large. is Brief analyzes laws from 190 economies to assess the extent and coverage of current legislative safeguards for women from cyber harassment, one of the many forms of cyber violence. Data collected by the World Bank Group’s Women, Business and the Law project reveals that laws that protect women against cyber harassment exist in only about one-third of economies, covering less than half of the population of children, adolescent girls, and women. Enhancing legal protections is crucial to e ectively tackle cyber violence against women. Laws addressing cyber harassment are necessary presence or absence of legislation on cyber harassment, cyber-sexual harassment, and redress mechanisms and related procedures, as well as As internet, social media, and mobile connectivity have rapidly whether vulnerable segments of the population—such as children and expanded their reach, online violence has also emerged and has become people with disabilities—are considered within the context of those alarmingly widespread. Violence against women has seeped into the laws. e goal is to shed light on the need for the adoption of online space, targeting women and girls in multiple forms, including comprehensive legislation to prevent online violence and ensure a safer cyber harassment or bullying. A phenomenon that was unimaginable online environment for all. thirty years ago is now showing its harmful health, social, and economic consequences. What is cyber harassment and bullying? Gendered cyberviolence further widens the pre-existing, It is estimated that one in three women worldwide experiences gender-related digital divide by creating barriers to equity and full physical or sexual violence in their lifetime (WHO 2021). Likewise, participation online (Jane 2020). Studies have found that women are cyber violence against women and girls, and in particular cyber more likely than men to experience severe forms of online violence, harassment and bullying (see de nition in table 1), have risen to such as cyber harassment and stalking (Brody and Vangelisti 2017). disturbing levels. Studies suggest that in the European Union, for Such abuse often has far-reaching consequences. For instance, online example, 73 percent of women have been targeted by online abuse (EU violence has been found to be a pervasive problem faced by women not Agency for Fundamental Rights 2014). A German survey of more than only in the private sphere, but also while engaging in politics, 9,000 national internet users, ages 10 to 50, also found that women are journalism, and activism, thereby posing a signi cant barrier to their signi cantly more likely than men to experience cyber harassment and political participation and freedom of expression. Further, women who stalking (Staude-Müller, Hansen, and Voss 2012). e United come from traditionally marginalized sections of society are the most Nations (UN) estimates that 95 percent of aggressive behavior, vulnerable and are often the target of some of the most violent and harassment, abusive language, and denigrating images in online spaces vicious online hate campaigns (Di Meco 2023). As legislation are aimed at women. e COVID-19 pandemic has only intensi ed addressing online violence is still lacking or absent in most economies, violence against women and girls (VAWG). While the sharp increase many women and girls are left unprotected without redress measures. in intimate partner violence during the pandemic made their physical While recognizing that all forms of cyber violence are widespread and environment less safe (UN Women 2020b), simultaneously the online have a negative impact on women and girls, this Brief focuses world also became more dangerous for women and girls due to the speci cally on cyber harassment and bullying given their pervasiveness increased reliance on technology and virtual communication during and considerable increase recently and, in particular, during the the pandemic (UN Women 2020c). Since the outbreak of pandemic (Shoib et al. 2022). COVID-19, reports of online abuse and bullying in Australia, for instance, have increased by 50 percent (UN Women 2020a). A study Women, Business and the Law (WBL) analyzes how laws and by Plan International covering 22 economies additionally reported that regulations a ect women’s economic opportunities in 190 economies. a staggering 58 percent of girls and women personally experienced e analysis presented in this Brief is a result of research undertaken by some form of online violence in 2020 (Plan International 2020). the WBL team in 2021 and 2022 to understand how current legislation safeguards individuals online. e research resulted in a new Due to the fast-paced advancement of information and dataset of 7 questions (box 1), across 190 economies, measuring the communications technology (ICT), terminology around online Affiliations: Nelsy Reyhanne Marikel Affoum, Isabel Micaela Santagostino Recavarren, and Nayantara Vohra are with World Bank, Development Economics. Quentin Wodon is with UNESCO IIBA. For correspondence: isantagostino@worldbank.org, nvohra3@worldbank.org,or naffoum@worldbank.org. Acknowledgements: This Brief would not be possible without the contribution of the World Bank Group’s Women, Business and the Law team. The authors would like to thank Tea Trumbic and Norman Loayza for comments and guiding the publication process. David C. Francis and Nancy Morrison provided excellent editorial assistance. Objective and disclaimer: This series of Global Indicators Briefs synthesizes existing research and data to shed light on a useful and interesting question for policy debate. Data for this Brief are extracted from the WBL database. These Briefs carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. DECIG – Global Indicators Briefs No. 18 Box 1 Research questions on cyber harassment and bullying e analysis in this Brief is based on the following seven questions: 1. Are there any legal provisions on cyber harassment and bullying? 2. If Yes, does the law on cyber harassment/bullying explicitly mention sexual harassment? 3. Are there any penalties for cyber harassment/bullying? 4. Are there any civil remedies/redress measures for the survivor? 5. Are there any special procedures for cases of cyber harassment/bullying? 6. Does the law address cyber harassment/bullying against women with disabilities? 7. Does the law address cyber harassment/bullying against children? Importantly, this assessment of legal protection against online violence for women and children is based solely on the letter of the law and not on its application or enforcement, which is outside the scope of this analysis. Women, Business and the Law recognizes that while having laws on the books is important, it is not su cient. In many places, adequate laws may coexist with a high prevalence of online violence. is may result from poor implementation of laws, whether due to poor enforcement; low capacity; or the lack of additional mechanisms, policies, or speci c programs or interventions that address the underlying issues. us, legal protection does not necessarily re ect e ective protection from violence but is an important rst step. Table 1 Terminology: Forms of cyber violence or online violence Behavior De nition/examples Cyber (sexual) Unwanted verbal or nonverbal conduct of a sexual nature online with the purpose or e ect of violating the dignity harassment of a person by creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating, or o ensive environment (Šimonović 2018). and bullying Speci c acts that constitute cyber (sexual) harassment and bullying include: • O ending a person online by sending unwanted, o ensive, sexually explicit emails, messages, or advances online, threats of violence, or hate speech (EU Agency for Fundamental Rights 2014). • A persistent and repeated course of conduct targeted at a speci c person, designed to cause severe emotional distress and often a fear of physical harm. Cyber stalking e repeated pursuit of an individual using electronic or internet-capable devices (Reyns, Henson, and Fisher 2012). Such repeated pursuits may be threatening, coercive, or intimidating (Hazelwood and Koon-Magnin 2013). Speci c acts that constitute cyber stalking include: • Repeated unwanted communications; repeated unwanted sexual advances or requests; repeated threats of violence; and surveillance and monitoring of a victim's location, daily activities, and/or communications through computer software and mobile phone applications or global positioning system (GPS) location information (Henry and Powell 2016). • One user repeatedly sending unwanted e-mails or text messages to their victims. • Sexual advances or requests, threats of violence, and surveillance of a victim’s location through a variety of technologies. Online Any supposition, belief, assertion, gesture, or act that is aimed at expressing contempt toward a person, based on their sex gender-based or gender, or to consider that person as inferior or essentially reduced to their sexual dimension. It includes expressions hate speech that spread, incite, promote, or justify hatred based on sex (Council of Europe Gender Equality Strategy 2016). Hate speech campaigns are often e ciently organized, in which multiple perpetrators simultaneously target the same victim or group of victims by. Speci c acts that constitute online gender-based hate speech include: • Victim blaming and revictimization; “slut-shaming”; body-shaming; “revenge porn” (the sharing of explicit or sexual images without consent); brutal and sexualized threats of death, rape, and violence; o ensive comments on appearance, sexuality, sexual orientation, or gender roles; false compliments or supposed jokes; using humor to humiliate and ridicule the target (Council of Europe Gender Equality Strategy 2016). • All forms of expression that share, encourage, promote, or justify race hatred, xenophobia, anti-Semitism, or every other form of hatred based on intolerance, including aggressive nationalism; ethnocentrism; discrimination; and hostility toward minorities, emigrants, or persons of foreign origin (Council of Europe 1997). Flaming e deliberate use of heated, emotionally charged, or contrarian statements to elicit a response from another online user. Speci c acts that constitute aming include: • Vitriolic content, denoted by explicit language and misogyny. Image-based e sexually explicit portrayal of one or more persons that is distributed without the subject’s consent. ese are often sexual abuse/ committed by a victim’s former partner and posted on a specialized website or social media pro le. Contrary to its name, nonconsensual this need not be motivated by personal revenge. Perpetrators may be seeking sexual grati cation, or want the victim to pornography do something for them, using the images as a form of social or economic blackmail. When the victim is a minor, it is revenge porn considered child pornography. Speci c acts that constitute image-based sexual abuse/nonconsensual pornography include: • Posting or distributing sexually graphic images or videos without consent. Doxing e publishing of a victim’s personal details and sensitive data online, such as home address, photographs, name, and names of family members (MacAllister 2017). Often employed by cyberbullies and online gamers. Speci c acts that constitute doxing include: • Searching, collecting, and publicly sharing personally identi able information against a target’s will. Source: Council of Europe 1997; Council of Europe Gender Equality Strategy 2016; EU Agency for Fundamental Rights 2014; Hazelwood and Koon-Magnin 2013; Henry and Powell 2016; MacAllister 2017; Meensakshi, Liombo, and Navarra 2021; Reyns, Henson, and Fisher 2012; Šimonović 2018. 2 DECIG – Global Indicators Briefs No. 18 violence against women is still emerging. Traditional de nitions of digital citizens. Online violence particularly targets women holding violence may not be adequate to address all the forms that online public positions, such as politicians, artists, journalists, or activists, and violence may take (Šimonović 2018). e rapid development of digital thus may deter others from seeking such exposure (West 2014). technology and spaces, including through arti cial intelligence, will Finally, cyber violence often represents a continuation or prelude to inevitably give rise to di erent and new manifestations of online o ine violence. Research shows that 70 percent of cyber harassment violence against women (Šimonović 2018). Older laws may not and stalking victims have also experienced intimate partner violence account for such acts of harassment committed using mobile phones, (EU Agency for Fundamental Rights 2014). the internet, social media platforms, and/or email, among others, and therefore can fail to protect women against this new type of abuse. An increasing number of international conventions Further, terms such as cyber harassment, online violence, digital address cyber harassment violence, and cyber violence are often used interchangeably and can be confusing. Cyber or online violence, however, is an umbrella term Although there is no international, standard legal framework that indicating a behavior that may take many di erent forms, which speci cally governs online violence, various instruments have include, among others, cyber harassment and bullying, cyber stalking, recognized the intensity of the issue and addressed the necessity to online gender-based hate speech, aming, image-based sexual abuse, develop clear legislation as well as guidelines for prosecution. nonconsensual pornography, revenge porn, and doxing (table 1). Such Recommendation 35 of the Committee on the Elimination of All digitally abusive behaviors may be perpetrated by intimate partners, Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) extends the sexual or dating partners, acquaintances, or strangers (Henry and de nition of violence against women beyond the physical space to Powell 2016). In a general sense, the de nition of online violence include “technology-mediated environments,” thereby addressing against women extends to any act of gender-based violence that is online and ICT-facilitated violence against women (CEDAW 2017). committed, assisted, or aggravated in part or fully by the use of ICT, such as mobile phones and smartphones, the internet, social media Similarly, the Istanbul Convention on Preventing and Combatting Violence against Women and Domestic Violence by the platforms, or email, against a woman because she is a woman, or in a Council of Europe, provides a comprehensive de nition of the types of way that a ects women disproportionately (Šimonović 2018). violence against women, including online and ICT-facilitated violence Online or cyber harassment, one of the many forms of cyber (Council of Europe 2011; Council of Europe 2021). Moreover, the violence, has been described as an act or behavior that torments, Council of Europe Expert Group on Action against Violence against annoys, terrorizes, o ends, or threatens an individual via email, instant Women and Domestic Violence (GREVIO), a body entrusted to messages, or other digital means with the intention of harming that monitor the implementation of the Istanbul Convention, notes in its person (Hazelwood and Koon-Magnin 2013). Cyber sexual General Recommendation No. 1 on the digital dimension of violence harassment refers to any form of unwanted online verbal or nonverbal against women that as women increasingly become susceptible to conduct of a sexual nature with the purpose or e ect of violating the online violence, it should be dealt with in domestic laws and dignity of a person by creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, regulations (GREVIO 2021). However, while both the Lanzarote humiliating, or o ensive environment (Šimonović 2018). Speci c Convention and the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime address behaviors that may constitute online sexual harassment include sexual exploitation of children occurring online and prosecute sending unwanted, o ensive, or sexually explicit emails or messages cybercrimes in general, they do not address ICT-induced violence and inappropriate, o ensive advances on social networking websites or against women (Council of Europe 2001). in internet chat rooms (EU Agency for Fundamental Rights 2014). Only 30 percent of economies worldwide provide e harms of cyber harassment and bullying may also be economic, social, and physical. A 2021 study conducted in the legal protections against cyber harassment European Union estimated the cost of cyber violence to be on the Most economies still lack legislation to protect women and girls order of €49.0 to €89.3 billion (Meensakshi, Liombo, and Navarra from cyber harassment or bullying. Given that women are often 2021). In addition to labor market impacts and health care and legal disproportionately a ected by online abuse, strengthening laws that costs, the monetized value of the loss in terms of quality-of-life protect against cyber harassment and bullying can signi cantly help accounts for more than half of these estimated costs. Social make the online space safer for them. Only 58 of the 190 economies consequences include a negative e ect on women’s reputations and analyzed have enacted some legislation on this topic, meaning that livelihoods, and an adverse impact on women’s digital inclusion, which worldwide only 47 percent of women are protected by provisions on pushes them o the internet and prevents them from being active cyber harassment (box 2). Overall, such laws are more common in Only 58 economies worldwide have enacted legislation on cyber harassment, while 22 economies Figure 1 worldwide have enacted legislation on cyber-sexual harassment a. Status of legislation by region b. Status of legislation worldwide 50 200 3 22 Number of economies Number of economies 40 9 160 36 4 30 120 8 1 9 3 3 20 7 3 3 80 1 36 132 10 21 21 40 17 17 16 4 4 0 0 East Asia Europe High-income: Latin America Middle East South Asia Sub-Saharan and and OECD and and Africa Total Pacific Central Asia Caribbean North Africa Cyber harassment law addresses sexual harassment Cyber harassment law addresses sexual harassment Cyber harassment law exist, but does not address Cyber harassment law exist, but does not address sexual harassment sexual harassment No cyber harassment law No cyber harassment law Source: Women, Business and the Law database, 2022. Note: OECD = Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. 3 DECIG – Global Indicators Briefs No. 18 high-income economies than in low- and middle-income economies. obscene, constitutes a threat, or is menacing. South Africa’s Protection Yet even in high-income economies, only about one third have such from Harassment Act of 2011, in addition to de ning online laws. In terms of regions, half of the economies in South Asia have harassment, also refers to its impact on the survivor, describing it as a legislation on cyber harassment, followed by OECD high-income behavior that “causes harm or inspires the reasonable belief that harm economies, with 38 percent. e Middle East and North Africa and may be caused to the complainant.” is aspect is fundamental because Sub-Saharan Africa show the most room for improvement, with 20 it provides a survivor-centered perspective and focuses not only on the percent and 25 percent of economies having such laws, respectively type of behavior prohibited, but also on its impact on the complainant. ( gure 1, panel a). Similarly, Nigeria’s 2015 Cybercrimes Act, which was passed with the goal of providing an e ective and uni ed legal, regulatory, and Because economies do not necessarily include online sexual institutional framework for the prohibition, prevention, detection, harassment in their de nition of cyber harassment, only 22 economies prosecution, and punishment of cybercrimes, also provides a globally have established legal protections speci cally addressing cyber comprehensive de nition of cyber harassment. e law also sexual harassment ( gure 1, panel b). ere are substantial di erences criminalizes (1) sending messages that are grossly o ensive, between regions and income groups (box 2). For instance, none of the pornographic, or of an indecent, obscene, or menacing character or (2) economies in South Asia and only one economy in the East Asia and sending false messages for the purpose of causing annoyance, Paci c region have enacted such a law. In Latin America and the inconvenience, danger, obstruction, insult, injury, criminal Caribbean, eight economies out of thirty-two (Belize, Dominican intimidation, enmity, hatred, ill will, or needless anxiety. erefore, Republic, El Salvador, Guyana, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, St. Vincent while it is important that laws use speci c terms such as “cyber and the Grenadines) have laws that address cyber sexual harassment. harassment” and “cyber bullying,” it is fundamental that laws adequately spell out the type of behaviors prohibited and the impact of Good practice legislation should not only de ne and address such behavior on survivors. cyber harassment and bullying but also clearly describe the types of behaviors prohibited and their impact on the survivor. For instance, Only 27 percent of economies have redress Saint Vincent and the Grenadines’ Cybercrime Act of 2016 and measures for cyber harassment Uganda’s Computer Misuse Act of 2011 describe cyber harassment as the unwanted transmission of information, statements, or images that Globally, 53 out of 190 economies impose criminal penalties for disturb the peace of the complainant, as well as communication that is o enses associated with cyber harassment. Such penalties often include Populations of children, adolescent girls, and women protected from cyber harassment and cyber Box 2 violence under the law Table B2.1 presents population-weighted results for children ages 0–14 and women (and adolescent girls) ages 15–64. Of the 1,968 million children in the economies included in the sample shown in the table, only 211 million (11 percent) are protected by speci c provisions related to children in existing laws. Only 47 percent of women are protected by provisions on cyber harassment, and only 12 percent by legislation on cyber-sexual harassment. Very few children or women are protected through civil remedies or redress measures for survivors of online violence. Penalties for o enders are more common, but those do not result in compensatory bene ts for survivors. Only 3 percent of women have access to civil remedies for cyber harassment, and 11 percent to special procedures for these types of cases. Number and percentage of children, adolescent girls, and women protected from cyber Table B2.1. harassment under the law as of 2021 Global Regionsa Income Groups EAP ECA High-income LAC MENA SA SSA Low Lower- Upper- High OECD middle middle Children ages 0–14 protected Children ages 0–14 protected (millions) 1,968 429 88 178 150 136 512 476 271 988 511 199 Any laws on cyber harassment 50% 9% 28% 69% 62% 15% 87% 52% 29% 65% 26% 68% Speci c provisions in the law on: Sexual harassment (%) 14% 8% 27% 12% 32% 15% 0% 27% 0% 16% 17% 15% Penalties for cyber harassment (%) 48% 9% 28% 62% 33% 15% 87% 52% 29% 65% 17% 62% Civil remedies/redress measures for survivor (%) 4% 0% 0% 2% 23% 0% 0% 9% 8% 2% 7% 2% Children (%) 11% 0% 24% 11% 3% 7% 15% 17% 18% 9% 8% 14% Special procedures for cyber harassment (%) 15% 8% 0% 1% 23% 0% 17% 30% 4% 24% 10% 1% Women ages 15–64 protected Women ages 15–64 protected (millions) 2,473 718 141 353 212 141 594 313 174 1056 861 382 Any laws on cyber harassment 47% 6% 28% 67% 66% 18% 88% 54% 30% 63% 23% 66% Speci c provisions in the law on: Sexual harassment (%) 12% 5% 25% 12% 30% 17% 0% 29% 0% 12% 13% 14% Penalties for cyber harassment (%) 43% 6% 27% 60% 30% 17% 88% 54% 30% 63% 14% 59% Civil remedies/redress measures for survivor (%) 3% 0% 0% 1% 21% 0% 0% 9% 7% 2% 5% 1% Women with disabilities (%) 2% 0% 1% 11% 3% 7% 0% 1% 0% 1% 1% 13% Special procedures for cyber harassment (%) 11% 5% 0% 1% 21% 0% 13% 33% 5% 18% 8% 1% Source: Compilations using the Women, Business and the Law (WBL) data and World Development Indicators database. Note: This analysis is based on 2021 data for 183 of the 190 economies. Population data by age group are not available for seven sparsely populated economies in the World Bank’s World Development Indicators (Dominica, Eritrea, Kosovo, Marshall Islands, Palau, San Marino, St. Kitts and Nevis). The statistics are provided in terms of the population protected under the law. The total population of children ages 0–14 and women ages 15–64 is also provided in the table for comparison purposes. The differences between the reference populations and the individuals protected are those not protected. a. OECD = high-income member-countries of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). In other regional groupings, high-income OECD countries are not included. EAP = East Asia and Pacific; ECA = Europe and Central Asia; LAC = Latin America and Caribbean; MENA = Middle East and North Africa; SA = South Asia; SSA = Sub-Saharan Africa. 4 DECIG – Global Indicators Briefs No. 18 imprisonment, a monetary ne, or a combination of the two sanctions. investigation and the related proceedings. e judge may then order Some economies also prescribe harsher penalties for repeat o enders. the internet service provider to remove or disable the electronic data, as In India, for example, the maximum prison sentence for cyber stalking well as authorize and request warrants. Finally, the law regulates increases from three to ve years if the o ender has been previously aspects related to the liability of internet service providers. And South convicted for the same o ence. Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, the law Africa’s 2011 Protection from Harassment Act, in addition to prescribes an enhanced maximum prison sentence of ve years (as establishing a procedure for the complainant to obtain a protection opposed to two years) for recurring o enders. Bulgarian law provides order, determines what the court can request from an electronic for a longer prison sentence if the acts of cyber harassment were communications service provider, as well as the provider’s duty in such committed in the context of domestic violence. Nigeria’s Cybercrimes cases. Further, the law establishes a special procedure for online Act punishes acts of cyber harassment with three to ten years of harassment complaints by including terms and type of information the imprisonment. Israel’s Prevention of Sexual Harassment Law, adopted service provider should make available. in 1998 to primarily prohibit sexual harassment in the workplace and in education, punishes o enders of cyber harassment with a prison Recognizing the complexities involved in prosecuting cases of term of up to two years. cyber harassment, several economies have appointed national bodies or agencies with the task of receiving complaints and following up on the Regarding civil remedies, however, very few economies have implementation of the law. Nigeria’s 2015 Cybercrimes Act designated included provisions in their cyber harassment legislation. Only seven a National Security Adviser as the coordinating body for all security economies (Bhutan, Guyana, Israel, Kenya, Mexico, Trinidad and and enforcement agencies under the Act and established a Cybercrime Tobago, Uganda) provide for either damages or nancial Advisory Council and a National Cybersecurity Fund. Benin compensation (or a combination of both) for victims in addition to established a Regulatory Authority entrusted to oversee the correct criminal penalties. In Kenya, the Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes implementation of Loi No. 2017-20 and to receive complaints from Act entrusts the court with the power to warrant compensation orders users and associations of electronic communications services. in favor of the victim for any o ence under the act. Likewise, in Moreover, the Act speci cally mandates the Regulatory Authority to Trinidad and Tobago, the victim is entitled to an order for put in place the material and human resources necessary to process compensation for loss of earnings, medical expenses, moving or complaints. Similarly, in 2016 the Israeli Cabinet approved a Public accommodation expenses, and/or legal costs. Israel’s law also Security Ministry initiative designed to include the creation of a special establishes a civil procedure de ned by the country’s Torts Ordinance unit under the Israeli police to handle cybercrimes, as well as a national where the court may order compensation for online sexual harassment hotline operating 24/7 to handle complaints. without proof of damage. In some cases, procedures enumerated in ICT legislation establish a governing body designated to rule and oversee all aspects related to Nineteen economies have established special this area of the law. Usually, a governing body is created to speci cally procedures for cyber harassment regulate national ICT utilization and a budget is allocated to fund its Establishing coherent procedures to ensure the protection of actions; an authority is entrusted to deliberate on ICT-related crimes; women and children allows victims to follow clearly de ned guidelines and in some cases, provisions are made for preventive services, such as that will facilitate their quest for justice. Yet among the 58 economies psychological support for victims or education classes on cybercrimes that do have legislation against cyber harassment, only 19 have a to prevent the occurrence of o ences. For instance, the Malawi de ned procedure to deal with cyber harassment cases. ese are Communications Regulatory Authority, established by the addressed in cybercrime acts or legislation speci cally pertaining to Communications Act, regulates the implementation of the Electronic ICT, which tend to provide a procedure that is globally applicable to Transactions and Cyber Security Act, and appoints a “cyber inspector” all ICT-related crimes. In Indonesia, for example, the Law on to assess the relevance of the complaint, and, if necessary, proceed with Electronic Information and Transactions entrusts state police the investigation. It also implements public educational programs on investigators and certain civil servants with the special authority to the safe use of the internet to inform the public on cybercrimes, safe investigate criminal acts in the eld of information technology and internet usage, and remedies and procedures when a ected by electronic transactions. Similarly, in the Philippines, the Philippines cybercrimes. National Police Anti-Cybercrime Group (PNPACG) is charged with the implementation of laws on cybercrime. e PNPACG is Does the law protect vulnerable segments of the responsible for receiving complaints of gender-based online sexual population? harassment, developing an online mechanism for reporting real-time gender-based online sexual harassment acts, and apprehending Highly vulnerable segments of the population, including women perpetrators. e national Cybercrime Investigation and Coordinating with disabilities and children, should bene t from additional Center (CICC) also coordinates with the PNPACG to prepare protections under the law. Intersectional characteristics such as age, appropriate and e ective measures to monitor and penalize race, and disability, among others, make these segments of the gender-based online sexual harassment. population more vulnerable to harassment and mark them out to be targeted more relentlessly. A study found that 14 percent of girls who Eswatini’s Sexual O ences and Domestic Violence Act protects self-identify as having a disability and who had experienced harassment against cyber sexual harassment but exclusively provides for protection stated that their abuse occurred because of their condition (Plan orders to respond to the harm in icted. Interestingly, the only International 2020). Yet the data show that among the 58 economies economy where the violence against women legislation enables victims that have legislation on cyber harassment, only 9 speci cally protect of ICT-related crimes to obtain protection orders is Mexico. women with disabilities from cyber harassment. While most provisions Speci cally, the Ley General de Acceso de las Mujeres a una Vida Libre are designed to enhance established penalties for o enses committed de Violencia establishes protection order procedures that involve the against a “vulnerable” portion of the population, some laws are companies operating digital platforms, media, social networks, or designed to address and punish cybercrimes against women with electronic pages within this process. Consequently, public prosecutors disabilities speci cally. El Salvador punishes the dissemination of and judges are empowered to mandate digital platforms, sexual content through ICT about women with disabilities for a period communication media, social networks, or electronic pages to disable of four to eight years. In Saudi Arabia, the criminal penalty is increased user content related to cyber harassment investigations in compliance to a prison term of a period not exceeding ve years and/or a ne not with the court’s order. exceeding SRls300,000 in cases where the cyber harassment victim has "special needs." It is worth highlighting legislation in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and South Africa, as both also establish obligations for With limited knowledge of the risks and challenges associated internet providers. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines’ 2016 with an online presence, children and young adolescents have also Cybercrime Act not only provides a detailed de nition of increasingly become exposed to cyber bullying and/or cyber stalking cyberbullying, harassment, and sexual harassment, but also establishes (Zhu et al. 2021). To e ectively showcase this reality, an analysis how investigations should be carried out and institutes a special executed by the Pew Research Center reports that younger adults procedure. is includes the possibility for the complainant to request between 18 and 29 years old tend to face more severe forms of online and obtain a protection order, which is required to carry out a criminal abuse than those aged 30 and older, de ned by the Center as behaviors 5 DECIG – Global Indicators Briefs No. 18 such as being physically threatened, stalked, sexually harassed, or Conclusion harassed for a sustained period of time (Vogels 2021). Despite these alarming gures, only 21 economies have legislation speci cally Ending violence against women is one of the aims of the protecting children from cyber harassment. Much like laws enacted to Sustainable Development Goals. Achieving this target would end the protect women with disabilities, this legislation enhances pre-existing harm and su ering caused by such violence and have a wide range of penalties involving minors. In France, the penalty for sexual bene cial e ects, including for economic growth and standards of harassment is increased by three years of imprisonment combined with living. Limited attention has been placed so far on enacting laws to a ne of €45,000 when the o ence is committed against a person prevent online violence; however, having adequate laws in place is particularly vulnerable due to their age. Two economies, Belize and El fundamental for more e ective responses to cyber harassment. Legal Salvador, address children as direct victims in their legislation. Belize’s protection under the law is crucial to reduce impunity for o enders Cybercrime Act of 2020 punishes o enders who utilize a computer and open avenues for redress. system to attempt to directly (1) communicate with a child to engage Important ndings emerge from the analysis presented in this in a sexual activity or sexual conversation and (2) plan a meeting to Brief. Legal protection remains weak in most parts of the world, engage in a sexual activity or abuse a child. Minors and persons with whether with respect to geographic regions or income groups. Laws disabilities are especially protected under Israel’s law, where both are exist in only about one-third of economies, and they cover less than listed as categories that may require “special protection” based on their half of the population of children, adolescent girls, and women. e vulnerability. Along the same line, Benin’s Loi N°2017-20 establishes assessment is even bleaker when considering speci c provisions. 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