INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT FOR CLIMATE SENSITIVE CITIES CONSTRAINTS, OPPORTUNITIES & LESSONS FROM ETHIOPIA ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities © 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of the World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org Cover Photo: View of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia © Lukas Loeschner/World Bank (2024) ii ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ____________________________________________________________ IV SUMMARY AND KEY MESSAGES _____________________________________________________ V I – INTRODUCTION ________________________________________________________________ 1 THE URBANIZATION CHALLENGE__________________________________________________________________ 1 UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT _____________________________________ 4 REPORT STRUCTURE __________________________________________________________________________ 6 II – CLIMATE AND URBANIZATION IN ETHIOPIA _________________________________________ 8 III – BARRIERS TO INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA __________________ 11 LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK ________________________________________________________________ 11 INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP AND MANDATES ___________________________________________________________ 17 IMPLEMENTATION __________________________________________________________________________ 19 IV – TOWARD INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA _____________________ 22 INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________________________ 22 CURRENT REFORM ACTIVITY ___________________________________________________________________ 22 TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS FOR INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT ____________________________________ 25 V - FUTURE DIRECTIONS ___________________________________________________________ 31 INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________________________ 31 KEY ACTIONS FOR INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT _____________________________________________ 32 CONCLUSIONS _____________________________________________________________________________ 35 REFERENCES ____________________________________________________________________ 36 ANNEX I: INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT TO ACHIEVE CLIMATE GOALS ___________ 38 ANNEX II: TYPOLOGIES OF URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT AND CLIMATE CO-BENEFITS _________ 39 iii ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was prepared as part of the Advisory and Analytical Service (ASA) Ethiopia: Resilient Integrated Land Management (P177667). It was led by an interdisciplinary team comprising Lukas Loeschner (Senior Urban/DRM Specialist, IAEU3), Mercedes Stickler (Senior Land Administration Specialist, IDUGD), Shewakena Abab (Senior Environmental Specialist, SAEE2) and Su Jong Sung (Urban Specialist, IDUOA) with support from Wubanchi Wakoya (Urban Specialist, IAEU3), Dinkneh Tefera (Urban Specialist, IAEU3), as well as Tony Burns and Renée Chartres from Land Equity International (LEI). The report was reviewed by Ivonne Moreno (Senior Land Administration Specialist, ILCUR), Ross Eisenberg (Disaster Risk Management Specialist, IDURM) and Gebeyehu Shibeshi (Land Management Consultant, SSAE1). The team thanks the reviewers for their valuable feedback. The report benefitted from consultations with the Government of Ethiopia, notably the Ministry of Urban and Infrastructure. The team thanks the following partners for their valuable feedback and comments: Ato Bizualem Admasu (Head of Land and Cadaster Lead Executive Office) and W/zo Genet Gebreyesus (Head of the Urban Plan and Urbanization Lead Executive Office). The team wants to thank Peter D. Ellis (Practice Manager, IAEU3), Maryam Salim (Division Director, AECE3) and Juliana Victor (Operations Manager, AECE3) for supporting this engagement. The report was made possible thanks to the generous support from the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) Enhancing Disaster and Climate Resilient Slum Upgrading in Ethiopia (TF0B8145) and the Climate Support Facility (CSF) Climate-Smart Urban Development and Urban Resilience in Ethiopia (TF0B7198). iv ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities SUMMARY AND KEY MESSAGES Ethiopia is undergoing rapid urbanization, with its urban population expected to nearly double over the next fifteen to twenty years. This growth presents significant challenges, including the proliferation of informal settlements, increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and heightened vulnerability to climate hazards. The World Bank's report, Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities: Constraints, Opportunities and Lessons from Ethiopia, explores how Ethiopia can harness integrated urban land management to address these challenges and foster sustainable, resilient, and low-carbon urban development. Urbanization and Climate Challenges in Ethiopia: Ethiopia’s urban population is growing at an annual rate of 4.3%, driven by rural-urban migration, natural population growth, and forced displacement. Addis Ababa, the capital, dominates the urban landscape, accounting for 20% of national GDP despite housing only 4% of the population. Secondary cities, though smaller, play critical roles as regional hubs. However, rapid urbanization has strained infrastructure and services, leading to overcrowding, inadequate housing, and high unemployment rates. Informal settlements, which constitute approximately 60% of urban areas,1 are particularly vulnerable to climate risks such as flooding and landslides due to their location in hazard-prone zones and use of substandard construction materials. Cities in Ethiopia contribute 15% of the country’s GHG emissions, a figure projected to rise to 35% by 2030. Emissions stem from transportation, energy consumption, and poor urban planning, which also results in habitat loss and declining biodiversity. Climate change exacerbates these issues, with increased flooding, heat stress, and water scarcity threatening urban resilience. The lack of integrated land management systems further compounds these challenges, as unplanned urban expansion encroaches on environmentally sensitive areas and disrupts ecosystems. Barriers to Integrated Urban Land Management: Ethiopia’s legal and policy framework for urban land management is complex and fragmented. While the federal government sets overarching laws, regional states administer land resources, leading to inconsistencies in implementation. Key Proclamations, such as the Urban Land Lease Holding Proclamation (2011) and the Urban Landholding Registration Proclamation (2014), aim to formalize land rights and promote planned development. However, these laws have significant gaps. For instance, they impose rigid planning standards that are often unattainable for informal settlements, leaving residents without legal recognition or protection. Additionally, the legal framework lacks robust mechanisms for stakeholder participation, dispute resolution, and climate risk integration. Institutional barriers further hinder progress. Urban land management is bifurcated between rights creation and registration institutions, creating inefficiencies and delays. Rural and urban land systems operate separately, complicating peri-urban land conversion and exacerbating tenure insecurity for farmers displaced by urban expansion. Financial constraints also limit the capacity of local governments to implement land regularization and provide services, while corruption and bureaucratic redundancies discourage formal land transactions. Implementation challenges include outdated manual processes, lack of spatial data, and inadequate coordination between land and climate sectors. For example, land records are often paper based, making it difficult to integrate climate risk assessments into urban planning. The absence of flexible planning standards prevents the regularization of informal settlements, perpetuating cycles of informality and climate vulnerability. Toward Integrated Solutions: The report proposes mechanisms to support integrated urban land management. Key interventions include: 1. Legal and Policy Reforms: The formal approval by Parliament of the 2024 Urban Lease Holding Proclamation and the 2024 Urban Landholding Registration Proclamation will be instrumental 1 Information provided to the World Bank from the MUI in April 2025. v ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities in streamlining land regularization and registration. These reforms introduce tolerance limits for discrepancies in land records, simplify procedures, and clarify the conversion of rural land rights to urban ones. However, additional reforms are needed to adopt flexible planning standards and incorporate climate considerations into urban plans. 2. Institutional Strengthening: Merging rights creation and registration institutions could reduce inefficiencies when conducted in a comprehensive manner.2 Capacity-building programs for land administration officials, coupled with investments in digital tools and spatial data infrastructure, would enhance service delivery. Strengthening coordination between land, climate, and disaster risk management sectors is also critical to mainstream climate action into urban planning. 3. Tools and Instruments: Analytical tools like the City Scan and Nature-Based Solutions Opportunity Scan help identify flood and heat hotspots, map informal settlements, and assess GHG emissions. These tools enable evidence-based decision-making, such as designating no- build zones in hazard-prone areas or prioritizing green infrastructure. Planning instruments, such as Climate Action Plans and Climate-Smart Capital Investment Plans, integrate climate risks and mitigation strategies into urban development projects. 4. Regularization of Informal Settlements: Flexible approaches to land regularization, inspired by successful models in Kenya and Peru, can provide tenure security to informal settlers without requiring costly compliance with rigid standards, including strict evidence of compliance with cut off dates. Participatory planning and community engagement are essential to minimize displacement and ensure inclusive development. 5. National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI): Developing a more robust and comprehensive NSDI infrastructure that is used by stakeholders, would improve access to geospatial data, supporting land use planning, disaster risk management, and climate adaptation3 Investments in technology, such as Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS), would enhance the accuracy and efficiency of land registration. Future Directions: Ethiopia’s path to equitable, livable, and climate-resilient cities requires sustained investment and political commitment. Key priorities include approving and implementing the 2024 Proclamations, scaling up successful pilot projects like the Land Information Management System (LIMS), and fostering multi-sectoral collaboration. Addressing informality through inclusive regularization processes and flexible planning standards will be crucial to reducing climate vulnerability and unlocking the economic potential of urban areas. The report underscores the urgency of integrating land management with climate action. By leveraging land tenure security, risk-informed land use planning, and nature-based solutions, Ethiopia can mitigate GHG emissions, enhance urban resilience, and achieve its sustainable development objectives. The lessons from Ethiopia’s experience offer valuable insights for other rapidly urbanizing countries facing similar climate and developmental challenges. 2 The importance of a comprehensive merger cannot be overstated. For instance, the region of Oromia and Amhara have tried this without success. This is because the merging of functions was not supported with reengineered business processes, changes to record management systems, capacity building, etc. For a successful merger of two institutions there needs to be integration of staff, processes, data and information. 3 The establishment of the NSDI was initiated at Space Science and Geospatial Institute (SSGI) with the support of GIZ; however, it is not yet being used by various stakeholders, and the data acquisition mechanisms and standards have not yet been fully covered. Relevantly, the Ethiopian Mapping Agency is now a core part of SSGI. vi ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities I – INTRODUCTION THE URBANIZATION CHALLENGE Across the world, rapid and unplanned urbanization continues unabated. This is particularly evident in Sub-Saharan Africa where 34.7 percent of the world’s urban population growth from 2020 to 2050 is expected to occur. Secondary cities4 are responsible for more than 50 percent of this growth, which is taking place through both natural increase (57 percent) and rural-urban migration (43 percent).5 By 2050, it is projected that almost 70 percent of the world’s population will be living in cities, up from 55 percent today. The growth of cities across the globe has come with some major developmental and climate challenges. As in Ethiopia, key amongst these is the proliferation of informal and unplanned settlements, particularly in peripheral areas of cities, frequently the only affordable option for migratory and forcibly displaced groups. These zones often lack adequate infrastructure, access to labor markets, and in some cases, proximity to urban services. While slums are often associated with peripheral areas due to lower land costs and less stringent building regulations, they also exist within the heart of cities, especially in older urban areas where housing conditions may have deteriorated over time or where there is a lack of affordable housing options. These city center slums face similar challenges as peripheral settlements, including issues related to housing quality and access to services. In both cases unplanned settlements tend to experience heightened exposure to climate risk and vulnerability due to the use of poor-quality construction materials, as well as encroachment into wetlands, flood runoff and other hazard-prone areas. Urban growth has also precipitated a rise in GHG emissions from urban settlements. Between 1970 and 2021, the number of people living in cities increased from 1.19 billion to 4.46 billion, while the Earth’s surface temperature climbed by 1.19°C above its preindustrial level. Because of the prosperity they have helped generate, cities have been a major cause of this climate change.6 The World Bank estimates that cities account for over 70 percent of global carbon emissions, most of which come from fossil fuel-based motorized transport systems and reliance on distant infrastructure constructed with carbon-intensive materials.7 A recent study by the World Bank on the global state of cities, Thriving, summarized that whilst cities in low-income countries are modest contributors to climate change vis-à-vis cities in middle and high income countries, cities in low- income countries face the highest exposure to projected climate change-related hazards and are less resilient to climate-related shocks and stresses.8 Concerningly, the study reported that whilst they currently do not directly contribute significantly to GHG emissions, continuation of current policy trends in low-middle income countries will still lead to 4.2 times the level required to keep warming within 1.5 degrees, even if higher-income countries achieve net zero emission targets.9 4 The term ‘secondary city’ is commonly used to describe the second tier, or level, in the hierarchy of cities below the primary level. Some countries have several orders, or levels, of cities. A primary city is defined as “the leading city in its country or region, disproportionately larger than any others in the urban hierarchy .” (…) See Roberts et al, 2014. The Systems of Secondary Cities: The Neglected Drivers of Urbanizing Economies. 5 Patrick Lamson-Hall, Shlomo Angel, and Tsigereda Tafesse, Managing Migration and Urban Expansion in Secondary Cities – Planning for Equity and Growth Cities Alliance, 2022 6 World Bank Making Cities Green, Resilient and Inclusive in a Changing Climate: Thriving, 2023, xvii. 7 World Bank ‘Cutting global carbon emissions: where do cities stand ?’, 5 January 2022. 8 According to the study, projected exposure for the years 2030 –40 for these cities—based on a composite index that combines projections for six key hazards (floods, heat stress, tropical cyclones, sea-level rise, water stress, and wildfires)— is considerably higher than for cities in higher-income countries, World Bank Making Cities Green, Resilient and Inclusive in a Changing Climate: Thriving, 2023, xvii. 9 World Bank Making Cities Green, Resilient and Inclusive in a Changing Climate: Thriving, 2023, p. 6. 1 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Indeed, in many cases, the growth of cities, particularly in peripheral areas, has come at the expense of biodiversity, the protection of environmentally sensitive areas and air quality. According to IUCN, by 2030, as city borders continue to expand, it is estimated that cities will expand to cover an additional 290,000 km2 of natural habitat, especially in the tropical forests of Africa and Asia, which are amongst the most biodiverse places on Earth.10 The overwhelming impact of these changes has been a negative impact on biodiversity, which in turn threatens functioning ecosystems and the benefits that ecosystems provide to the population.11 For instance, household level energy use, including the use of charcoal and firewood is a significant problem for forest degradation and deforestation. Alongside worsening air quality, increased pollution and the stresses associated with urban traffic, unplanned urban sprawl has also resulted in a higher risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Other challenges concern the use of charcoal and firewood which impacts forests and forest degradation, as witnessed in Ethiopia. Indeed, the fastest urban growth globally is in Asia and Africa, which also happens to be where there is also a rapid rise in people suffering from, and dying of, heart disease.12 There is evidence that the developmental and climate challenges associated with urbanization are exacerbated by ineffective land management and administration. For instance, urban residents may face many barriers to land rights formalization, including costly, lengthy, and redundant procedures, with only a small percentage of urban parcels registered. For example, only 4 percent of African countries have registered the private land in their capital cities. 13 Informality in turn disincentivizes investments in climate resilient housing and reduces the willingness of citizens to leave climate-prone areas in the face of climate risk, in fear that their property will be expropriated or claimed by others in their absence. Similarly, more compact urban development (known as vertical development – building taller and more dense buildings) to support lower long-run emissions trajectories14 and other benefits,15 has been unsuccessful in many lower-middle income countries largely due to unregulated and dysfunctional land and property markets that fail to transfer land 10 IUCN, Cities and Nature, Issues Brief, October 2023. 11 Urban biodiversity supports, amongst others, air and water purification, pollination, and climate regulation. For further details see: IUCN, Cities and Nature, Issues Brief, October 2023. 12 Tolullah Oni and Rizka Maulida ‘Heart health: design cities differently and it can help us live longer’ The Conversation July 10, 2010. 13 The Economist 2020: The quest for secure property rights in Africa. 14 As noted by the World Bank a trade-off may need to be achieved because there are significant short-term emissions that result from vertical growth due to the use of materials such as concrete, steel, and glass, whose production entails high CO2 emissions, Thus, a tall building constructed using current technologies embeds high up-front CO2 emissions, must be weighed against the future flow of lower CO2 emissions associated with more compact urban development. The report notes that policy makers may, however, be able to soften this dynamic trade-off by combining policies that help facilitate more vertical development with complementary transportation investments and policies that both encourage a move toward less-polluting modes of transportation, including walking and cycling, and further promote compact and livable development. Technological innovations that reduce the carbon embedded in the production of concrete, steel, and glass will likewise soften the trade-off. World Bank Making Cities Green, Resilient and Inclusive in a Changing Climate: Thriving, 2023, p. 22. 15 Other benefits of vertical development include more affordable housing, increased biodiversity and improved food security. As set out in the Thriving report “A city’s vertical development leads it to consume less land overall than it would otherwise, which, in turn, could preserve fertile agricultural land on a city’s periphery—land that for many cities is a leading source of nutritionally important fresh fruit and vegetables…Moreover, the type of density arising from vertical development generates powerful agglomeration economies while avoiding overcrowding, so it is associated with greater economic prosperity”. World Bank Making Cities Green, Resilient and Inclusive in a Changing Climate: Thriving, 2023, p. 22. Of course, the benefits of vertical development as a solution to affordability has been mixed in many countries. Experiences suggest that the design, construction quality, and maintenance of buildings—rather than their height—determine their suitability as affordable housing. World Bank Making Cities Green, Resilient and Inclusive in a Changing Climate: Thriving, 2023, p. 236 2 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities transparently at an affordable price, as well as failures in planning and regulations that constrain developers from building upwards. Climate resilience in urban areas is also challenged by limited spatial planning capacities and use of spatial data in many low-middle income countries. Lack of spatial data makes it difficult to identify areas at low risk of climate hazards that are suitable for land development and undermines incentives to build higher density housing developments in climate-safe zones. Conversely, the absence of spatial and land rights data prevents the designation of ‘no build zones’ in higher disaster risk areas and undermines governments’ ability to identify disaster victims, effectively stifling pre- disaster resilience and post-disaster recovery strategies. Urban planning legislation is also usually outdated and characterized by overly restrictive planning standards, and the capacities to conduct and enforce development planning rules and building planning codes are often lacking. In many cases, informal settlements cannot meet existing planning standards without resulting in large-scale displacement, preventing regularization of land and property rights. Local governments need to be given more authority, flexible planning standards, and financial independence to initiate an inclusive planning process to regularize informal settlements and halt informal urban growth and the encroachment of protected and restricted areas – while also enforcing building codes to shore up urban resilience. Box 1: Key Definitions In this report, land tenure refers to rights to land and related resources,16 whether defined by law or custom, as held by individuals, groups, or institutions. 17 Tenure security is the certainty that a person's legitimate rights to land will be recognized by others and protected in cases of specific challenges. 18 People with insecure tenure face the risk that their rights to land will be threatened by competing claims, and even lost because of eviction.19 Land administration typically involves procedures to record land rights and changes in these rights over time (a "registry") and procedures to prepare spatial data (surveys plans, maps, etc.) to define the extent over which the recorded rights apply (a "cadastre"); this can also support other functions, such as property valuation. Land administration, at least theoretically, should include land use planning and development control. Integrated land management refers to the coordination of land use planning and land administration (including regularization of planning and meeting minimum building standards (“physical regularization,” regularization of land rights, “legal right regularization” and recording those rights in a government institution (“land rights registration”). Integrated land management should ideally operate across urban and rural areas and should incorporate climate change data into these processes to achieve greater climate resilience and low carbon development. The exodus of populations from rural areas to urban cities as a result of conflict and disaster-driven displacement is a particular challenge for cities in developing economies. Large scale displacement puts pressure on urban land systems and service provision, impacting transport, education and waste infrastructure, while also propelling land use changes and rapid increases in the value of land. Urban dynamics cannot therefore be viewed in isolation from rural tenure systems. The national land system requires mechanisms to support, where appropriate, restitution, resettlement or return mechanisms for displaced populations, with decision-making undertaken within a framework of integrated rural-urban territorial planning. Restitution, resettlement or return mechanisms are particularly important as they will mitigate the risk of displaced populations compounding the 16 Thisrefers to resources on the surface of land, including subsoil, genetic resources. 17 Thisrefers to legal personalities such as corporations/companies, cooperatives, landowner associations. 18 The rights can also be of a group of people, a tribe, an organization/company, not just individual. Tenure security, according to The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests (VGGTs), includes promoting secure tenure rights and equitable access to land, fisheries and forests with respect to all forms of tenure: public, private, communal, indigenous, customary and informal, highlighting the importance of recognizing all legitimate land rights. 19 FAO ‘What is Land Tenure’. 3 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities problem of unplanned urban settlement and urban growth. Further, robust resettlement policies that are implemented de facto are essential for promoting more equitable urban expansion. Related, there is also a need for more integrated systems across the urban-rural divide, to address rapid urban expansion into rural areas. Many countries in Africa have planning and registration systems for rural areas that are disconnected from and incompatible with the land information systems managed by urban local governments. This is particularly a problem in Ethiopia where two different Ministries are responsible for the policy and procedures to manage rural and urban land. For registration, this often means that there is no way for rural land records to be converted to urban land records – requiring the acquisition of land from farmers for the land to be classified as urban. Similarly, in several contexts urban planning does not extend beyond the administrative boundaries of cities, even though in reality, cities’ frontiers are constantly expanding, with farmers on the urban fringe selling their land to developers/urban migrants for housing developments. In short, there is a need for more interoperability between urban and rural systems to reflect the reality that city borders across the world are in a process of constant expansion. Across low- and middle-income economies, including in Ethiopia, there is an urgent need to integrate urban land use planning, land rights regularization and registration in the cadaster to support climate resilience and low-carbon urban development. Planning data, when combined with textual and geographic information from the registry and cadaster (i.e. up to date data on who has land rights and land parcel boundaries) can provide precise information on where climate action is needed and what land use conversions may be required, who is at risk in a given area due to climate hazards, and potential actions to support them pre- and post-disaster – informing disaster risk reduction approaches. Frequently, however, urban planning systems are not interoperable with cadastral systems (often due to information being housed in separate ministries or at different governance levels), weakening effective and coordinated action around climate resilience and low carbon urban development. Finally, the governance dimension cannot be ignored. Urban challenges, and especially action on urban GHG emissions and adaptation, touches the land, environment, forestry, transport, urban development, housing, agriculture, water, and energy sectors. In many countries, the institutions responsible for action do not work together collectively, and national climate adaptation and mitigation plans are not always mainstreamed into sectoral plans (horizontal coordination) or reflected at the local level (vertical coordination). Weak government capacity and fragmented mandates between cities, regions and the central government further undermine a collective and efficient response to urban challenges, with policies around climate change adaptation, mitigation, and disaster risk management poorly integrated into sectoral policies and institutional mandates. UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT While the above paints a forlorn picture, there are solutions to unlock the seemingly intractable developmental challenges that arise from rapid and unplanned urbanization. As will be shown in more detail in this report, positive urban transformation is possible when an integrated land management approach is applied alongside investments in the strengthening of systems and governance of land management (that is, strengthening both land use planning and land administration institutions), including ensuring the land system is fit-for-purpose and appropriate to the needs of the population. Fit-for-purpose land administration models present a promising pathway to achieving effective land governance in urban environments, by enabling landholders to voluntarily declare their rights and parcel boundaries using cost-effective, scalable tools supported by legally sound and community validated verification processes, as has often been already adopted in rural areas. Overall, investing in integrated land management is key to unlocking the potential of urban zones and creating smart, resilient cities that meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and climate challenges. 4 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Before launching into the Ethiopia experience, a non-exhaustive exploration of the contours of the ‘theory of change’ linking investments in integrated land management to urban resilience and climate action is required. Below is a list of the primary interconnections between these areas, demonstrating that climate-conscious investments in the land system can support a virtuous cycle between investments in the land sector and the development of disaster resilient and low-carbon cities. Specific examples of such approaches and their results are in provided in subsequent sections of this report.20 • First, as highlighted earlier, the regularization of informal rights and the issuance of formal land records to individuals, groups, and/or institutions plays a key adaptation and resilience function, by helping to identify at-risk people and plots and promoting risk- informed and participatory land use planning using granular hazard, exposure, and vulnerability data. Formal land records are critical to identify landholders whose property may be at risk and engage landholders in participatory planning processes.21 Through risk- informed land use planning and zoning, settlements in hazard areas, such as floodplains, water scarce zones, landslide-prone slopes, or coastal areas can be avoided.22 Up to date cadastral records and land use data can also help to identify where land is being underutilized and where it can be made available for low-cost resilient housing, while also supporting an evidence-based insurance infrastructure.23 • Second, issuing formal land records to individuals, groups, and institutions establishes legal and secure land tenure that strengthens city-level resilience and climate action. Tenure security is crucial for climate adaptation, as it enables individuals and communities to invest in sustainable land management practices and build long-term resilience. Secure tenure also provides the assurance landholders need to make climate mitigation investments with longer-term benefits.24 • Related to the above, the adoption of fit-for-purpose land administration models is essential to support the sustainability of land registration and cadaster systems in urban areas with high numbers of informal settlements. These models promote inclusivity and citizen participation in urban land management and prioritize flexibility, affordability, and local engagement, often relying on self-declaratory processes where residents voluntarily report their land rights, boundaries, and conflicts. These approaches, which can be implemented through simple forms or digital platforms, are particularly effective in contexts with limited formal documentation, while community validation helps to ensure both legitimacy and trust in the system. Promoting citizen involvement not only improves the accuracy of land records but also enhances the sustainability of registration and cadaster systems over time, making them more responsive to climate risks and the realities of informal settlements. • Fourth, risk-informed land use planning can also facilitate emissions reductions. By implementing risk-informed land use planning and zoning, communities can avoid uncontrolled urban expansion, deforestation, and land degradation. This approach reduces the conversion of natural ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, into built-up areas, 20 Also see Annex II: Typologies of Urban land management . 21 David Mitchell and Darryn McEvoy, RMIT University, "Land Tenure and Climate Vulnerability: A world in which everyone enjoys secure land rights.," UN-Habitat, 2019. 22 World Bank, Linking Land Policy with Climate Change: A Multi-dimensional Landscape Approach to Territorial Development with a Focus on the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region , 2014 pp. 19-20. 23 World Bank, Linking Land Policy with Climate Change: A Multi-dimensional Landscape Approach to Territorial Development with a Focus on the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region , 2014. 24 Samaha, Mona Khechen and Petra, "Land Governance, Natural Resources and Climate Change in the Arab Region," UN Habitat and Global Land Tool Network, 2022, pp. 87-89, 110 5 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities helping to preserve valuable carbon sinks and maintain biodiversity, particularly in peripheral areas, while also supporting greener cities.25 Other pressing challenges, such as improving the urban land supply for housing, can also be addressed more efficiently. • Fifth, complete and accurate land information system (LIS) infrastructure can support enhanced disaster management and response (adaptation/resilience). The LIS needs to be complete and up to date. This requires investment in both the initial establishment of a land records system that broadly covers the jurisdiction and in a system that provides efficient, affordable and accessible services to the government and the public to ensure that the records are updated as rights change over time (for instance, via sale, inheritance etc). Digitized, up to date land records integrated with disaster planning not only increase the effectiveness of disaster risk reduction (DRM) - in terms of both cost and results,26 but also can also help to avoid protracted and costly disputes over who is eligible for compensation post-disaster. • Finally, complete and accurate LISs also support increased municipal revenue to ensure cities provide adequate services to the population and fund climate actions. Integrated LISs linking rights and land use data for all parcels permit accurate land pricing and valuation and enable efficient collection of land-related revenues from the current landholders. These data thus support local land-related revenue collection, which can support climate actions and the provision of resilient infrastructure and inclusive and accessible services to landholders.27 These investments all need to be underpinned by harmonized policies for DRM, climate action (mitigation and adaptation), and urban development. The linkages between these elements are presented graphically in the Theory of Change in Annex I. The Theory of Change set out in Annex I – with efforts to improve land use management in urban areas to address increasingly important needs such as DRM, CCM, CCA and environmental management – provides the framework for the discussion in the following sections of this report on climate and urbanization challenges in Ethiopia, the key challenges and gaps in the policy and institutional framework and the potential solutions to these challenges. REPORT STRUCTURE This report synthesizes lessons learned from the studies and interventions commissioned by the World Bank in Ethiopia from 2022-2024 to support integrated urban land management – highlighting the potential contribution integrated urban land approaches can play in achieving the long-term climate outcomes for fast urbanizing countries facing similar challenges around the globe. The report is structured as follows: • Section II sets the scene by describing the climate and urbanization challenges in Ethiopia, detailing the current urbanization trend and its climate and development implications. • Section III then turns to the key challenges, gaps and deficiencies in the institutional and policy framework, as well as in implementation, in addressing the climate-urban land nexus, 25 IPCC,Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems, 2019, pp. 99-100, 385-388, 571-572. 26 Fensholt, R. et al., "Assessment of vegetation trends in drylands from time series of earth observation data ” Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing, Remote Sensing Time Series: Revealing Land Surface Dynamics, Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, 2015; Roh, M. et al., Status of Spatial Data Construction for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Central Asia, Journal of Climate Change Research, 2020. 27 See Paul Collier et al, ‘Land and property taxes: exploiting untapped municipal’, International Growth Centre. 6 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities effectively the ‘barriers to action’ that perpetuate and exacerbate climate risks and disincentivize sustainable urban development. • Section IV then proceeds to highlight potential solutions to support integrated urban land management in Ethiopia. The first subsection discusses the major policy and institutional reforms underway in Ethiopia to contribute to integrated urban land management, and the co-benefits of such action to achieve climate objectives; the second subsection discusses some tools tested during the World Bank study, and their contributions to climate objectives; while the final subsection provides an outline of potential interventions. • Finally, Section V concludes with future directions, highlighting the investments required to continue Ethiopia’s transition towards equitable, livable and climate-resilient urban environments. 7 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities II – CLIMATE AND URBANIZATION IN ETHIOPIA Ethiopia has a population of over 126 million and is urbanizing at rapid pace. Ethiopia is Africa’s second most populous country, but its urbanization level is relatively low compared to the regional average (41 percent), with approximately 23 percent of its population currently living in urban areas.28 However, Ethiopia’s urban population is among the fastest growing in the world – around 4.3 percent annually – driven by rural-urban migration, natural population growth, and forced displacement. According to latest estimates, the number of people living in urban areas is expected to double from currently 28 million to about 59 million in 2040 or about 33 percent of Ethiopia’s projected total population (182 million).29 Ethiopia has multiple urban centers with a concentration of population and GDP in the capital city, Addis Ababa. Unlike many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia is characterized by a polycentric urban structure. Secondary cities and regional urban centers are spread across the country with a dense network of urban areas, especially in the temperate Ethiopian highlands. Addis Ababa, the country’s capital and economic, political and administrative center, is by far the largest agglomeration with an estimated population of over 5 million. Representing just 4 percent of the population, Addis Ababa accounts for nearly 20 percent of national GDP; in contrast, the next nine largest cities collectively hold 3 percent of the population and contribute only 13 percent to the GDP. 30 Notwithstanding these disparities, Ethiopia’s rapidly growing secondary cities (such as Adama, Dire Dawa, Hawassa or Jigjiga) assume important functions as regional hubs for economic and social development including for the rural hinterlands.31 Ethiopia faces formidable challenges to reap the urbanization dividend. The increasing number of people living in urban areas exerts immense pressures on the existing infrastructure and services. Urban Local Governments (ULGs) are confronted with a large infrastructure backlog and are unable to meet the growing demand for electricity, health, education and other basic services including urban transport, especially at the expanding urban fringe where service coverage is particularly low.32 Rapid urban population growth and dysfunctional land markets have also led to a housing deficit, with many residents living in informal settlements characterized by overcrowding and poor- quality housing. Similarly, urban areas struggle to create enough jobs for the growing population, leading to high unemployment rates, which remain more than twice as high in urban areas (17.9 percent) compared to the national average (8.0 percent).33 Weak urban governance and institutional capacities, coupled with poorly established regulatory frameworks, hinder ULGs in mobilizing sufficient own source revenues. This also undermines integrated urban investment planning to address the urban development challenges and ensure sustainable and inclusive urban growth as defined in Ethiopia’s Ten Years Perspective Development Plan (2021 – 2030).34 28 World Bank, World Development Indicators (WDI), 2023; World Bank. 2023. Sub-Saharan Africa Macro Poverty Outlook - Spring Meetings 2023. 29 World Bank, 2024. Population estimates and projections. 30 Africapolis, 2022. 31 A study on Africa’s Urbanization Dynamics (OECD et al., 2025) shows that intermediary cities in Ethiopia are among the fastest growing in Africa (4.5% pa) and are growing at a faster rate than large and small urban areas. The number of intermediary urban agglomerations in Ethiopia is expected to increase from 30 to 50 by 2050. 32 Prud’homme and Yehualashet, 2021. Financing Urban Development in Ethiopia . 33 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Labor and Skill (MoLS), 2023. 34 Government of Ethiopia, 2020. Ethiopia 2030: The Pathway to Prosperity. Ten Years Perspective Development Plan (2021 – 2030). The Plan defines Sustainable Urban Development as one of six overarching priority areas and acknowledges the role of cities in achieving economic growth, low-carbon and disaster-resilient development. The plan emphasizes the importance of urban areas as engines of economic growth, highlighting their potential to drive job creation, stimulate economic activities, and attract investments. In this regard, secondary cities are prescribed a particular important role as anchors of economic growth at the subnational level. 8 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Forced displacement is a significant driver of urbanization and there is a need to address the related challenges and opportunities in an integrated manner. More than 3.4 million people are internally displaced due to conflict, drought and other factors, with Ethiopia the third-largest refugee-hosting country in Africa, with nearly 1 million refugees. 35 Data on the location of IDPs, refugees and other forcibly displaced (FD) populations is scarce; however, preliminary analysis shows a large presence of FD populations within or in the immediate vicinity of urban centers. Urban centers with widespread displacement impacts are strained in their capacities to provide adequate urban infrastructure and services. At the same time, cities and towns also benefit from the labor, skills and trade provided by refugees, with some ULGs even experiencing a transformative impact in terms of urban growth and development. Generally, however, FD populations are placing an additional strain on the formal urban land market, which is unable to meet the growing demand, leading to the proliferation of informal settlements and complicating the orderly expansion of urban areas. FD populations moreover face numerous challenges, including limited access to capital, assets, skills suited to urban livelihoods.36 This requires concerted efforts to better integrate FD people into urban development efforts, coupled with inclusive and pro-poor urban policies.37 With 27 percent of parcels registered in the urban legal cadaster in 2025,38 Ethiopia has made significant improvements in urban land registration. Nonetheless significant work remains to complete the cadaster. The absence of a comprehensive urban cadaster undermines the sustainable and inclusive urban development that the country needs to harness in response to rapid urban population growth and to facilitate structural transformation. Only one half of demand for land in Ethiopia’s cities is met by the formal land market,39 with many developers and most low-income residents relying instead on informal land markets. This leads to the proliferation of slums, which account for an estimated 60 percent of urban areas,40 both in the center but also on the periphery, far from jobs and access to services. Ethiopia’s rapid urbanization has not been without environmental consequences. Although floods are a recurrent seasonal phenomenon, floods have significantly increased in magnitude, frequency, and intensity,41 driven by the combination of climate change, rapid population and urban growth, as well as environmental degradation. Modelled impacts show that floods annually affect about 250,000 people, and annual damage is estimated at about US$200 million to buildings and US$3.5 million to cropland.42 Global analyses moreover show that, in absolute terms, Ethiopia is among the top ten most flood-prone countries worldwide with an estimated 2.8 million poor people (at US$1.90/day) exposed to 1-in-100-year flooding events. In line with general warming trends, climate projections indicate a higher likelihood of floods, landslides, and extreme heat.43,44,45 Notably, the urban land area exposed to floods at least once a year is projected to increase.46 The decline in green spaces alone, due to rapid population increases, is estimated to contribute to 40 percent of flooding and landslides in Addis.47 35 UNHCR, 2023. Ethiopia. Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons by Region (as of December 31, 2023). 36 Vemuru et al., 2021. Impact of Refugees on Hosting Communities in Ethiopia. A Social Analysis. 37 World Bank Group, 2021. Forced Displacement: An Agenda for Cities and Towns. 38 Data provided by the MUI (April 2025). 39 World Bank, (2019). Ethiopia Urban Land Supply and Affordable Housing; Synthesis Report. Washington, DC. 40 Data provided by the MUI (April 2025). 41 EM-DAT (2021). The International Database. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. 42 World Bank/GFDRR (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery) (2019). Ethiopia Disaster Risk Profile. 43 World Bank/GFDRR, (2019). Ethiopia Disaster Risk Profile. 44 World Bank/GFDRR, (2017). Safe and Resilient Cities in Ethiopia. Review of Building Regulatory Framework. 45 World Bank (2023), Ethiopia Country Climate Development Report. 46 GiZ, KfW and PIC (2021). ‘Climate Risk Profile: Ethiopia’ p. 9. 47 Dusseau et al (2023). Climate Risk Assessment: Ethiopia. 9 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Ethiopia’s cities are particularly vulnerable to climate-related hazards due to high levels of informal settlements. Ethiopia’s high-density, mountainous cities include a significant number of makeshift homes often built in unstable geographical locations such as steep slopes or riverbanks. In these locations flooding can lead to loss of housing, contamination of water, injury or death.48 Unlicensed construction is also typically linked to poor drainage systems, improper waste disposal, and a loss of green spaces – all of which further exacerbate vulnerability to climate shocks and stressors.49 Added to these existing risk-magnifiers, those living in informal settlements often have low adaptive capacity to respond to such events due to high levels of poverty and the lack of risk-reducing infrastructures, 50 ensuring that extreme weather events have magnified consequences in these locations. Climate change-exacerbated flooding will lead to more frequent shutdowns of the current road network in Ethiopian cities. This disruption will hinder access to markets and essential services. Intense rainfall and flooding resulting from climate change can harm water sources and sanitation infrastructure, carry pollutants and debris into water bodies, and compromise the safety of the water supply. Ethiopia’s cities currently contribute about 15 percent to the country’s total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, driven by rapid urban population and settlement growth, this share is expected to more than double to 35 percent in 2030. 51 Cities in Ethiopia, especially Addis Ababa, are increasingly contributing to emissions due to growing transportation needs, energy consumption, and poor urban planning with resulting habitat and biodiversity losses. This all calls for investments in low carbon and non-motorized transport, and green/compact urban development, among others.52 48 GiZ, KfW and PIC (2021). ‘Climate Risk Profile: Ethiopia’ p. 9. 49 Dusseau, D., Gassert, K., Hollander, J., Jacobsen, K., Naegele, A., Schwalm, C., Williams, A., Yimere, A. (2023), Climate Risk Assessment: Ethiopia. Available at; https://woodwellclimate.org/ assessments/addis_ababa 50 GiZ, KfW and PIC (2021). “Climate Risk Profile: Ethiopia” p. 9. 51 Cities Alliance. Strategic City Planning (Online). 2017. Available online: http://www.citiesalliance.org/about-cds. 52 World Bank, (2023). Ethiopia Country Climate Development Report. 10 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities III – BARRIERS TO INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA Against this backdrop, the Government of Ethiopia is committed to facilitating a transition towards low carbon and disaster resilient urban development. Although the overall contribution of urban areas to Ethiopia’s GHG emissions remains low, Ethiopia’s Ten Years Perspective Development Plan (2021 – 2030)53 considers Sustainable Urban Development as one of six overarching priority areas and acknowledges the role of cities in achieving low-carbon and disaster-resilient development. As it concerns climate mitigation, Ethiopia’s commitments are contained in its Long-term Low Emissions Development Strategy (LT-LEDS) and its 2021 Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC),54 currently under revision to include new adaptation and mitigation targets. In terms of mitigating emissions in urban areas, the LT-LEDS makes commitments to green spaces, low-emission transportation, increased use of clean fuels, car-free zones, electric charging stations, and the use of green zones to address the heat island effect in urban areas. With regards to adaptation, the 2021 NDC also includes 40 climate adaptation priority actions, of which five focus on urban areas. Notably by 2030, Ethiopia is committed (i) to increase the land area with green infrastructure, (ii) enhance climate resilience, and (iii) undertake climate-adaptive urban planning, among other actions. The MoPD is mandated to coordinate the sectoral bodies and implement LT-LEDS within the national developing planning framework. A key overall issue for Ethiopian cities in achieving these goals and fostering climate resilience and mitigation in urban areas is the absence of an integrated urban land management framework and its coordinated application. As set out in the introduction, how land is planned, developed, and used can influence levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions – with biodiversity zones, traffic restrictions, and ‘green housing’ in cities holding significant potential to mitigate emissions. Land use planning, including integrating land rights and boundary data with climate vulnerability data, can also reduce vulnerability and support resilience by designating ‘no build’ areas and highlighting areas of extreme weather risks. Planning systems can be further enhanced with management and control or enforcement systems for climate action – such as mechanisms “pollutant pay” and incentive mechanisms to recognize communities and individual companies’ efforts on green area management. This section sets out the key barriers and gaps in Ethiopia towards achieving integrated urban land management to address the climate challenges raised above. The section is divided into the following areas that pose a challenge to integrated urban land management in Ethiopia: (i) legal and policy framework; (ii) institutional set-up and mandates; and (iii) implementation difficulties. The section demonstrates that without addressing these interrelated barriers, Ethiopia will not achieve its climate and disaster risk reduction (DRR) objectives in urban areas. LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK Ethiopia has a complex legal framework for the management of land. While the federal government sets out the overarching legal and regulatory framework, the Constitution empowers regional states to administer land and other natural resources in accordance with federal laws. All regional states thus have their own regional land policies and laws that conform with federal laws but address regional priorities and requirements. This flexibility is a positive feature, but it does add complexity 53 Government of Ethiopia, (2020). Ethiopia 2030: The Pathway to Prosperity. Ten Years Perspective Development Plan (2021-2030). 54 FDRE (2021). Updated Nationally Determined Contribution - July 2021. 11 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities in design and support for the technology and systems that implement the laws nationally and in the overall oversight of the land administration system in Ethiopia. Within the regional legal and regulatory framework, in general local governments (woredas in rural areas or cities/sub-cities in urban areas) are responsible for administering land within their jurisdictions, including legal rights regularization and registration. Box 2: Constitutional Rights to Land and Property The Ethiopian constitution provides several fundamental rights related to land. This includes the right to property (Art. 40); the right to development, including citizens’ right to be consulted on policies and projects affecting their communities (Art. 43); and the right to adequate compensation in case of eviction (Art 44.2). The constitution also specifies the role of the federal government in enacting laws for the utilization and conservation of land and other natural resources (Art 51.16); the role of the regional governments in administering land under such federal legislation (Art 52.2(c)); and the states’ rights and responsibilities, including the use of land for economic objectives (Art. 89.4), the protection of the environment (Art.92), and taxation (Art.99.2 and 99.8). In line with Ethiopia’s federated state structure (Arts. 51 and 52 of the constitution), laws and Proclamations issued by the federal government are reflected in follow-up Proclamations of the regional governments, which are empowered to enact such legislation and to implement these laws. Ethiopia lacks an overarching integrated land policy to coordinate across sectors. There is no single Ministry that is responsible for developing such a policy. Instead sectoral plans are prepared by the relevant sectoral ministries in line with the Ten Years Perspective Development Plan (2021 – 2030). The Ministry of Urban and Infrastructure (MUI) is responsible for the Urban Plan Preparation and Implementation Strategy 2014 (See Box 3) 55 while the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) leads implementation of the Revised Agriculture and Rural Development Policy (2020). At the federal level, the Ministry of Planning and Development (MoPD) monitors these sectoral ministries. The MoPD is also responsible for developing long-term development plans, including the development of spatial plans. The Centre for Policy Study and Research (under MoPD) works on overall government policies, as a government think tank; the mandates of both institutions include land issues as a key part of their policies and strategies. Given the growing overlap between urban and rural land in Ethiopia it would be preferable to develop a comprehensive national integrated land policy that can be used to develop regional and local plans rather than the current siloed approach to urban and rural land.56 On paper, Ethiopia has a relatively robust legal framework for urban land planning. Key instruments that have been introduced over the last 15 years include Urban Planning Proclamation No. 574/2008 which introduced efficient land use, categorizing plans into structure and local development plans (see Box 3 for a description of these plans). The Urban Land Lease Holding Proclamation No. 721/2011 provides for the allocation of rights to use land through the unique avenue of urban leases. This Proclamation prohibits land possession and permission other than lease holding, with this rule applying to all urban lands irrespective of how the lands were held previously. It mandates that possessions held without authorization (for instance, informal settlements) can be regularized and administered by lease holding as long as a physical regularization process is carried out by regions and city administrations four years after the coming into force of the Proclamation.57 The Urban Landholding Registration Proclamation No. 818/2014 complements the 2011 Proclamation, emphasizing the need for Local Development Plans (or ‘LDPs’) to be completed before land rights are registered, thereby formalizing urban landscapes. Later, in 2019, Proclamation No. 55 It is unclear if this document was officially adopted. 56 Notwithstanding that under Proclamation 1263/2021 the MUI is responsible for the development of strategies to convert rural land into urban land. See Proclamation 1263/2021 which sets out the responsibilities of different institutions. 57 See Articles 6/4 and 6/5. 12 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities 1161/2019 was introduced, which mandates land expropriation based on structured urban plans, underscoring the importance of planned development in land expropriation decision making. Box 3: Key Urban Planning Instruments The MUI is mandated under Proclamation 1263/2021, Article 31(g), to conduct studies related to urbanization, establish integrated urbanization systems in coordination with relevant organizations, oversee their implementation, and manage the integration of urban centers in alignment with national and regional development plans as well as integrated urban spatial plans. Urban Plan Preparation and Implementation Strategy, 2014, which modified some of the provisions of the terminology used in Proclamation 574/2008, is implemented via the Urban Planning and Implementation Manual, 2018. The Strategy sets out a hierarchical structure of plan types including Structure plans, Strategic Plans and Basic plans that cater to varying urban centers. The Structure plans are for cities with populations exceeding 100,000, Strategic plans apply to centers with populations of 20,000 to 100,000, Nasic plans are for population centers of 2,000 to 20,000 and Sketch plans are for population centers with populations of less than 2,000. Under the Urban Planning Proclamation 574/2008 and the Urban Plan Preparation and Implementation Strategy (2014) the hierarchy of plans in Ethiopia are: a) National Urban Development Spatial Plan (NUDSP) which guides the growth and development of urban centers across the country. b) Regional Urban Development Spatial Plans (RUDSPs) c) City-Wide Urban Plan - Structure Plan for a population exceeding 100,000 d) Urban Design - Strategic Plan for a population of 20,000 to 100,000 e) Neighborhood Development Plans (NDPs) or Local Development Plans (LDPs) f) Urban Design - Basic Plan for a population of 2,000 to 20,000; Sketch Plan for a population of less than 2,000 The NDPs or LDPs focus on the specific planning of a neighborhood within a larger city with multiple NDPs or LDPs that can be derived from a single Structure or Strategic Plan. These plans cover various aspects such as land use patterns, building heights, road networks, key infrastructure and transport systems, housing development, neighborhood typologies, green space, urban revitalization, space allocation and environmental considerations. Once approved by the City Council, land is allocated based on the land use plan. The area covered by a NDP or LDP ranges from 25 ha for inner cities up to 200 ha for special projects. Neighborhood Development Plans (NDP) or LDPs are an essential requirement for integrated land management. The NDP Manual, currently utilized by regional planning institutes and private consultancy firms in Ethiopia, consists of four procedural stages: preparation, planning, approval, and implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. Each stage is accompanied by specific tasks and activities. The preparation stage focuses on initiating the project, identifying the problem, justifying the task, and mobilizing resources. The planning stage is the core part, involving meticulous planning through various thematic studies and encompassing six phases with detailed tasks – including an environmental study. The NDP Manual, however, needs to better incorporate climate/disaster risk considerations and natural hazards. Amongst other areas,58 the NDP Manual’s current guidance on the environmental study indicates that crucial issues such as water quality, seismic activity, erosion, flooding, and landslides should be analyzed, mapping areas prone to environmental degradation, as 58 The current environmental study guidance scrutinizes urban green spaces, examining their distribution, accessibility, and ownership. It investigates water bodies, considering their state, pollution levels, and catchment areas, crucial for understanding the city's hydrological vulnerabilities. In addition to these areas, the study also considers the impact of climate change, with a specific focus on how environmental pollution, including air quality and noise pollution, impacts various demographic groups within the city. Incorporating the study's geological and hydrological elements, the study includes detailed maps, geological structures, soil data, and potential water resources. It assesses the city's water supply, identifying challenges, opportunities, and demand patterns. 13 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities well as the causes behind these issues and their effects on affected communities. These findings need to be complimented with additional assessments of other climate and disaster risks. Collectively this information should serve as essential inputs for the spatial plan, whereas the environmental and geological data should inform the proposed land use for specific areas. The successful development of an environmental assessment that is used to inform an NDP requires a diverse and skilled planning team as well as financing, both of which are often lacking in Ethiopian local planning institutions. This means that the quality of the environmental study and the integration of the findings into the finalized NDP is not always to the level proposed under the NDP Manual. As noted below, separate to their draft challenges, NDPs also face significant implementation challenges. While the above provides an encouraging image of the legal framework for urban planning, there remain serious issues implementation challenges. Current planning requirements are frequently beyond the capacity and resources of local urban planning institutions as well as those of the residents of urban environments. The result is that many cities in Ethiopia lack comprehensive up to date urban plans, let alone LDPs, and even where such plans exist, they are not used as a guide for decision making. At the same time, the framework requires compliance with expensive, time- consuming building standards and planning standards before landholders can undertake legal rights regularization (see Box 4 for some examples) and this must be done within the four-year period after the 2011 Proclamation. Further the right to legal rights regularization does not arise to settlements that come into existence after the 2011 Proclamation. Box 4: Impediments to Physical Regularization in Ethiopian Cities • National urban population density standards might not fit with established low-density areas, leading to financial and logistical challenges. • Land-use proportion standards prescribe ratios for various uses can also prove challenging to enforce in areas with pre-existing structures or natural elements. • Applying standards for Right of Way and street spacing in already developed areas usually requires significant restructuring and the displacement of residents. For example, in cities such as Mekelle, where smaller properties may be deemed "below standard," these rules restrict redevelopment opportunities and frequently causing displacement of the original owners who cannot afford the costs associated with new housing. Setting aside implementation difficulties, there also remain some important gaps in the urban planning framework itself. First, the current strategy for integrated urban land management, as contained in the 2014 Urban Plan Preparation and Implementation Strategy, lacks adequate enforcement mechanisms, particularly in terms of consequences for non-compliance undermining sustainable development and orderly development of cities, and resulting in residents building in areas with high exposure to flooding or mudslides without consequence. Further, within the 2014 Strategy there is no comprehensive strategy to address informal settlements and slums, which, as noted above, do not and cannot meet the arduous physical regularization and which are a prerequisite for legal rights regularization. The absence of an explicit strategy to address informal settlements and slums is a major bottleneck in terms of moving towards more sustainable and planned growth of Ethiopian cities, including through the establishment of no-go zones and biodiversity zones, amongst other climate actions. Second and related to the above, there is also limited reference within the policy framework and the 2014 Strategy on how institutions should consider climate change adaptation and resilience when undertaking their urban planning responsibilities. This means that climate risks and climate data is disregarded in the planning process, with the result that urban plans, where they exist, may perpetuate climate risks and vulnerability, rather than proactively mitigating or adapting to climate 14 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities risks. Third, the legal framework described above makes limited reference to stakeholder participation and engagement in the planning process, and the instruments do not put forward a strategy to deal with land disputes. Finally, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms in the various policy documents are not well elaborated. Separate to urban planning, a shortage of urban land, alongside systematic failures in the lease auction process, perpetuates non-compliance with planning requirements and cycles of informality. Complex lease pricing and conditions have led to a shortage of urban land, increasing land costs, and effectively excluding all but the wealthiest from accessing formal urban leasehold land. Indeed, most urban land is distributed to developers through administrative allocation for priority projects, with only 5-7 percent of urban land parcels are auctioned in most cities through the lease system.59 As a result, most urban parcels are acquired informally, sometimes through illegal transactions with peri-urban farmers.60 In regard to the latter, formalization is hindered by the lack of finances for the city/municipality to pay compensation to landholders whose rights are expropriated when the contours of designated urban land expand into rural areas. Because rural landholders, whose land is now deemed urban land are not confident they will receive compensation prior to eviction, they often begin dividing their land and selling it informally ahead of the formal planning and development processes. The purchasers of these plots then become informal settlers who have not realistic path to formality because of non-compliance with the planning and development process. The illegality of these structures, purchased by low-income residents, means that they are rarely constructed with disaster proof building materials, exacerbating the climate vulnerability of the most poor and vulnerable residents of Ethiopia’s cities. Further, most informally acquired parcels are effectively excluded from accessing formally recognized land rights due to significant legal and procedural barriers to legal rights regularization. As noted above, the 2011 proclamation on Urban Land Lease Holding governs the formal urban land lease market and aimed to regularize all informal urban land within four years (by 2015), an objective that was not realized. Proclamation 818/2014 sets out the procedures for Systematic Adjudication (validate rights) and Registration (SAR) of urban land. The 2014 Proclamation also requires several pre-requisites for SAR that have been difficult for cities to achieve – including the requirements that parcels have completed physical regularization and that they comply with LDPs. The inflexible standards set out in the legal framework results in most of the urban population, particularly those in informal settlements and slums, being unable to regularize their status, due to non-compliance with planning laws and building standards. Specifically, there are well-documented gaps in the policy and procedural process for SAR under the Urban Landholding Registration Proclamation 818/2014 which undermine the efficacy of the registration process and impose time-consuming and complex requirements for registration. These include: • Short periods for landholders to make an application to register their properties. • Delays due to the requirement to refer discrepancies between field data and title or parcel files to the right creating authority with little guidance and no appeal process (this is addressed by the new ‘tolerance limit’ introduced in the draft 2024 Urban Landholding Proclamation – see discussion below). • The short response requirement for the right creating authority (30 days). 59 Tom, L. (2023). Ethiopia’s ‘Developmental State’ Political Order and Distributive Crise. University of Manchester. DOI: 10.1017/9781009428316 60 Birhanu Girma Abebe, Birhanu Uma Dadi and Adane Obsie Bifa (2024) note that Sululta town and many of the major urban centers in the newly formed Shegar City are struggling with informal land transactions between farmers and land buyers in their paper ”The effects of informal land markets on urban land in rapidly growing areas: the case of Sululta town, Ethiopia”, published in Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, volume 6, 1457336, DOI:10.2289/frsc 2024 1457336. 15 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities • The system also does not provide a solution for claims placed in the disputed register due to non-response to the rights creating institution. • The lack of clear processes for registering farmers' rights and government land. • The specification of multiple separate physical registers (despite the planning for a comprehensive ICT system). • The requirement for landholders to submit documentation twice, once for landholding adjudication and once for registration. • Unclear processes for registering condominiums in cities/municipalities that are not covered by Proclamation 370/2003 and for units in smaller condominiums. • The lack of clear procedures for updating the legal cadaster. Box 5: 2024 Proclamations Several of the concerns with Proclamations 721/2011 and 818/2014 highlighted in this sub-section are addressed in two new Proclamations, currently awaiting parliamentary approval. The Urban Lease Holding Proclamation (2024) and Urban Landholding and Land Related Property Registration Proclamation (2024) collectively seek to address the gaps and inconsistencies in the law by harmonizing the demand and supply of land in urban areas, making the lease system more effective and clarifying the responsibilities of the rights creation and rights registration institutions. For example the current lack of clear procedures for updating the legal cadaster is addressed in Part III of the draft 2024 Proclamation on “Urban landholding and Land-related Property Registration”, while the requirement for landholders to submit documentation twice, once for landholding adjudication and once for registration will change if the draft 2024 Proclamation on Urban landholding and Land-related Property Registration is approved by Parliament. This is because that Proclamation provides for landholder documentation to be transferred from the adjudicating authority for registration (See draft Article 24(1)). Further delays resulting from the requirement to refer discrepancies between field data and title or parcel files to the ri ght creating are addressed by the new ‘tolerance limit’ introduced in the draft 2024 Urban Landholding Proclamation. Finally, from a supply perspective there remain additional institutional barriers to completing the legal cadaster and formalizing land status. Many cities lack a land registration agency with trained staff. The institutional arrangement that separates rights regularization from rights registration further impedes the effective regularization of informal settlements. In addition to this is the over- reliance on paper records, which are difficult to search and cross-reference. These challenges are discussed in further detail in the following sections that consider barriers to integrated urban land management arising from the ‘Institutional Set-Up’ and ‘Implementation.’ Barred from accessing the formal market, peri-urban residents, alongside residents of other informal settlements, are highly susceptible to eviction. Indeed Proclamation 721/2011 empowers cities to take over land possessed informally (“illegally”) with just seven days prior notice and without compensating evicted residents who lack legal rights (Article 26(4)). Cities across the country are actively using these provisions to evict informal residents and lease the vacated land to private developers, including as part of the Government’s “urban renewal” policy, which aims to replace informal settlements with high-rise developments. The uncontrolled conversion of rural land to urban land often has GHG emissions consequences because it undermines biodiversity zones that sit at the edge of Ethiopia’s cities, while transport emissions increase as residents travel further distances to reach services and employment. Further, land tenure insecurity has consequences for climate resilience, with these residents unlikely to invest in climate-proof housing to protect themselves from disaster, especially with ongoing prospects of eviction. 16 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP AND MANDATES While the legal and policy framework in Ethiopia lays the foundations for land management, the institutional arrangements pose significant challenges for the development of an integrated approach to urban management. First among these is that the policy, legal, and regulatory framework differs across its regions. At the federal level, for rural land the MoA and for urban land the MUI are mandated to formulate policy and promulgate federal Proclamations and associated regulations, directions, standards, etc. and provide guidance and assistance to the regional governments in implementation of land management for both rural and urban land. The regional governments have the responsibility to prepare and promulgate regional Proclamations that align with the federal Proclamations and address regional needs, priorities, and requirements. They must also establish the regional and woreda/city institutions necessary to support implementation. Since regional governments are empowered to organize their own institutions, the land administration institutions differ by region. In general, there are separate bureaus/offices for urban and rural land administration (except in Amhara and Oromia, which have a single agency responsible for both – however it is unclear if they are fully integrated in practice). Box 6: Urban Land Registration Institutions City Land Institutions The registration institution in the City is responsible for establishing a legal cadaster by implementing the process of systematic adjudication and registration (SAR) and associated instruments and for then maintaining the cadaster and providing land administration services to citizens and government, as set out in Proclamation 818/2014. The SAR process cannot by law create any right and can only confirm that the data, measurements, and documents collected in the field accord with the data recorded by the right creation institution in the city. The main roles of the two organizations follow: A. Right Creation Office (or Legal Land Rights Regularization Office) • Maintenance of old land certificates, transfer history (sales agreements), rights granting documents (deed transfer, inheritance), proof of tax payments, mortgage documents, marriage certificates, proof of identification, etc.) • Maintenance and tracking of rights-creation files, establishing, and maintaining a parcel inventory, and preparing neighborhood sectors for SAR • Resolution for non-regularized parcels, including identifying and monitoring illegal occupation • Preparation of parcel sectors for SAR • Performing sporadic adjudication B. Registration Office • Organize parcel files for targeted systematic adjudication of the sector • Access the latest base map and relevant orthophoto maps of the sector • Geospatial preparation, the establishment of ground control points (GPS) for SAR neighborhoods, assigning unique parcel identifiers (UPID) • Public announcement for SAR and processing of applications • Perform field adjudication surveys, and implement participatory boundary demarcation • Post the adjudication records for public display and resolve any objections, complaints, or requests for correction • Complete the SAR process, issue temporary land certificates, and digitally register the data from SAR. Regional Land Institutions The land institution in the regional government oversees and manages SAR activities, which are implemented by the city administrations in their region. Regional land offices are mandated to technically support city land offices, as well as follow up within the region for the implementation of standards set by the federal government. In addition, they are mandated to support regional land projects. 17 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities In urban areas, woredas or city/sub-city administrations (in Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa) are responsible for spatial/land use planning, land rights regularization (recognition) and registration, and land acquisition and allocation. In some cases, many functions are managed by a single directorate (as in Gambela City), whereas in others, there are multiple institutions involved. As is discussed in the next paragraph, there are also separate institutions charged with legally regularizing urban land rights and registering them. The lack of coordination between these two institutions partly explains the low rates of urban land registration. This situation contrasts with rural areas, where the woreda (district) level, with information provided by institutions in the kebele (village), is typically responsible for land administration, including land acquisition, legal rights regularization and registration, land use planning, land valuation, taxation, and land development in a system that is functioning well. The separation of the two institutions responsible for rights regularization and rights registration creates inefficiencies and complexities in managing urban land. Urban land regularization is managed by a separate “rights creation institution” under Proclamation 721/2011, while the land registration agency is responsible for registering these rights and mapping parcel boundaries in the legal cadaster under Proclamation 818/2014 (see Box 6 for an overview of the responsibilities of the different institutions). Collaboration between these two institutions is hampered by the lack of an integrated legal framework and procedures, the use of paper-based land records by date instead of by parcel in the rights creation (or legal regularization) institution, and the use of different data sources. While the 2014 Proclamation establishes a registration institution that has a purely technical role in confirming and mapping rights properly allocated by the rights creator, the creation of a separate institution for registration has led to backlogs and delays in urban land rights registration. The bifurcation of the administration of rural and urban land undermines orderly urban expansion and the legal right regularization and registration of new urban land. The boundaries of urban centers are established with the preparation of a structure plan under the Urban Planning Proclamation 574/2008. Under the 2008 Proclamation, the structure plan has a validity of 10 years. A new structure plan typically significantly expands the boundaries of the urban center rather than setting out a plan for increased land use density within the existing boundary of the urban center. However, as noted earlier, there is no formal (legal) mechanism for converting rural land rights held by farmers into urban rights – with the most common consequence the expropriation of such land by the government. The division between urban and rural areas in the institutional frameworks therefore facilitates the creation of gaps, overlaps and inconsistencies in land records and undermines tenure security for those living on the periphery of urban areas. More broadly, residence requirements also discourage controlled rural–urban migration. In the long term, the institutional divide between rural and urban land areas will hamper the effective redistribution of labor from farms to cities that Ethiopia needs to overcome the low-level equilibrium trap and develop a more diversified and climate-resilient economy. The division between urban and rural land institutions also poses a significant financial burden on urban councils and leads to the expropriation of peri-urban farmers, often with inadequate compensation. A new structure plan that expands the boundary of the urban center creates financial liability for the city/municipality to provide services, such as roads, water, sewerage, and electricity. Further as noted above, as soon as rural territory is planned for urbanization by being included into a structure plan, rural landholders are usually subject to expropriation, which involves the provision of compensation. In many cases, however, compensation is not paid or is inadequate. Admasu et al (2019) investigated 1500 ha of rural land that was absorbed by the expansion of Bahir Dar between 2007/8 and 2016/7 and found that affected farmers received compensation that was equivalent to 37 percent of crop values. 61 Dires et al (2021) investigated the impacts of expropriation and 61Admasu, W. F. et al. Take out the farmer: An economic assessment of land expropriation for urban expansion in Bahir Dar, Northwest Ethiopia. Land Use Policy, [s. l.], v. 87, p. N.PAG, 2019. 18 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities compensation activities on the livelihoods of peri-urban smallholders using Debre Markos Town as a case study area. The analysis showed a high trend of expropriation without fair and appropriate compensation.62 The result of this trend, as highlighted earlier, is that converted urban land is usually sold in anticipation on the illegal market, fueling cycles of informality, tenure insecurity and displacement. IMPLEMENTATION As alluded to in the preceding sections, the legal framework for urban land management and administration does not align with the reality of land occupancy, undermining tenure stability in Ethiopian cities. The Ethiopian legal framework for SAR under the Urban Landholding Registration Proclamation No. 818/2014, is limited in scope in that it only validates and records rights that are already formally regularized (recognized and documented) by the rights creation institution under Proclamation 721/2011. Further, landholding adjudication in urban residential housing is challenging and often unaffordable due to difficulties in providing evidence of rights and pervasive corruption. Illegal land transactions are on the rise due to the inaccessibility of formal registration of individual land in cities and municipalities. This situation reveals a disconnect between the actual land use rights (de facto) and officially recorded rights (de jure), weakening the establishment of a legal cadaster that can support the orderly and climate-conscious growth of Ethiopia’s cities As described in Box 5, two new 2024 Proclamations were prepared by the MUI and are currently before parliament to help address this situation. If passed, the new Proclamation on Lease Holding of Urban Lands (draft, 2024) provides that urban centers which have not yet completed “regularization of possession held without permission of appropriate authority” before 27th of November 2011 are required to complete land rights regularization within three consecutive years from the date of the Proclamation (draft Article 11(3)). Yet there remain limitations in these draft Proclamations in terms of supporting legal rights regularization. Article 11(4) states, for example, that “property held without the permission of the relevant body and not aligned with plan and parcel standard shall be taken over by the relevant body and transferred to the land bank”. As noted earlier, many Ethiopian cities de facto do not have a structure plan and many areas do not have an up-to- date LDP. This is even though LDPs in Ethiopia are essential to guide the sustainable and organized growth of urban and rural areas. These plans are essential tools for implementing national and regional development goals at the local level. Their functions include: guiding spatial development, promoting sustainable development, supporting economic growth, and improving infrastructure and services. While LDPs are crucial, their effectiveness in Ethiopia is hindered by limited financial and technical resources, weak enforcement of planning regulations, rapid urbanization outpacing planning efforts, and gaps in community awareness and participation. The poor implementation of the planning system therefore undermines Integrated Urban Land Management and Climate Action: LDPs link the Structure Plan – which offers a broad spatial framework for urban areas but lacks specific information on land uses and road networks – to urban land management. The absence of LDPs and their enforcement results in unclear land use and zoning, inadequate infrastructure, environmental neglect, and a lack of spatial. Without an LDP, it becomes challenging to determine land use designations, plan appropriate infrastructure, address environmental impacts, and ensure spatial integration. At the same time, LDPs need to be realistic and address the reality of widespread slums and informal settlements. Integrating the LDP into the SAR process, especially in irregular and slum settlements, is therefore crucial to the facilitation of effective urban development that addresses climate risk. While the legal framework proposes this. The reality is that this requirement is not always adhered to as part of SAR. 62Dires, T. et al. Assessing the Impacts of Expropriation and Compensation on Livelihood of Farmers: The Case of Peri- Urban Debre Markos, Ethiopia. Land, [s. l.], v. 10, n. 6, 2021. 19 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities A further challenge, also discussed briefly in the legal and policy section, relates to the fact that planning standards themselves are too inflexible, prohibiting the physical (parcel) and legal rights regularization and registration of informal settlements. Integrating informal areas into the urban framework through physical regularization is an intricate and expensive process, involving significant upgrades to infrastructure and services to meet strict urban planning standards. Furthermore, at present, Urban Planning Proclamation No. 574/2008 necessitates restructuring the existing occupation patterns to align with strict land use and building regulations, which is a requirement for gaining planning authority approval. Given their unregulated development history, informal settlements are typically characterized by irregularly shaped parcels that are often below the minimum legally allowed plot size and lack the required minimum road frontage and/or minimum road right-of-way required for physical regularization, which is a prerequisite for legal rights regularization. Conflicts with residents often emerge when these planning regulations do not align with the on-the-ground realities of informal settlements, since enforcing strict planning standards in these areas often results in significant displacement to make room for the legally required minimum road right-of-way, road frontage, and/or parcel size. Thus, informal settlements cannot be physically regularized without significant displacement of existing landholders, and without physical regularization, they are ineligible for legal rights regularization. In addition, there are key implementation constraints in the current SAR process for adjudicating and registering land rights. These include: • Lack of up-to-date aerial photography imagery and failure to renew the available ones in time to capture the rapid change in urban areas. This is in part due to the costliness of high- resolution maps required in the Proclamation in contrast to a more fit-for-purpose approach. • Poor parcel filing systems and the absence of digitized records at the Rights Creation Offices slow parcel file reconciliation. • Limitation on technical validation and absence of a city-centralized data recording system increases the potential to introduce data entry and on-screen digitization errors. • Communication between right creation and registration offices is undertaken manually, which slows down the process. • Upon completion of adjudication, records are physically moved to the city registration office, which is time consuming, risky, and costly. • The need for recertification by the registration office introduces a repetition of the mainly manual process of validation. A task for the registration office is obtaining the parcel files from the right creation office for land parcels in the neighborhood targeted for SAR. The following are the main constraints in the current implementation file management system: • The right-creation office maintains and manages all their parcel files in paper form and manually. It is extremely difficult to track and manage the parcel file records, as many of them are deficient, completely missing, or duplicated. • Many of the parcel files are maintained at various locations. The bulk of the parcel files are managed by the Urban Land Administration Office, yet others are managed and kept at the kebele (ward in urban areas) office level. • Right creation and registration offices work separately and in some cases at different locations. The day-to-day work is detached, and there is no shared system to transmit and share critical cadastral information. Most data are shared in physical paper form and printing of manual documents. Progress with urban land registration has also been hampered by outdated, costly, and manual tools and redundant procedures that are not fit-for-purpose. Registration often requires costly field surveys to verify parcel boundaries rather than using the large-scale photomaps to chart parcel boundaries – which takes longer, involves more training, and requires the purchase of expensive and 20 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities sophisticated equipment. It should be highlighted that the two new Proclamations, if passed, will address many of the implementation challenges listed here. For example, the new Proclamations, if passed by parliament, allow for the use of ortho photography to map boundaries. Financing of urban land institutions and SAR remains a major blockage for integrated urban land management. The MUI has not been able to finance a scaled activity to support the implementation of Proclamation 818/2014 and particularly SAR activities in Ethiopia’s cities, despite MUI preparing the Proclamation and supporting material and financing pilot activity. Some cities such as Adama and Hawassa have been able to make considerable progress in implementing Proclamation 818/2014 using their own resources with guidance and some support from the MUI and the Regional governments. The experience in these cities provides useful lessons for scaling up activity in other cities. The MUI has prepared plans for a major project to implement Proclamation 818/2014 in 15 cities, one city in each Region. The cities have limited capacity and rely heavily on own-source revenue which cannot cover the significant investment required to scale-up Proclamation 818/2014. The importance of scalable and sustainable financing models for land regularization and registration to achieve climate and development outcomes in Ethiopian urban areas cannot be underestimated. Consistent financial inputs to local land institutions are vital for empowering local governments to effectively implement sustainable land governance reforms. Finally, while urban land management is a foundation for climate change mitigation and adaptation there is no explicit coordination between the implementation of climate action and land management activities in urban areas – despite the direct relationship between land management and effective climate action and Ethiopia’s climate commitments recognizing this connection. Most pathways to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement require mitigation and adaptation actions related to land and nature-based solutions. These include land use zoning, land access for renewable energy, spatial planning, integrated landscape planning, regulations, incentives (such as payments for ecosystem services, PES), and voluntary or persuasive instruments. Robust land administration systems and secure land tenure are essential to planning and implementing land and nature-based solutions and, thus, to achieving climate change and development goals. Land- related climate actions are dependent on a functional land administration system in which different types of land rights are recognized and benefit from tenure security to invest in climate resilient infrastructure, often through land registration. Conversely, where land administration systems or tenure security are countries such as Ethiopia are likely to face obstacles to achieving their climate change and development goals. While Ethiopia’s NDC activities assigned to MUI include increasing the climate resilience of urban systems, improving provision and condition of housing for enhanced human safety against climate stressors and recognize the link between land management and climate change action – in practice and on the ground, there is little engagement and coordination between the two sectors, leading to a loss of opportunity to maximize the climate benefits of land interventions. Key land management data and systems managing this data are not integrated and data is not readily accessible for other purposes such as climate risk assessments, vulnerability identification and disaster risk planning. This is largely because most of the data managed by the ‘right-creator’ is only available in paper format. But also the data itself is in many cases not free of issues – with some data damaged, missing or incorrect. Moreover and perhaps more concerningly, the data does not have a clear link to a map or spatial framework which can be utilized for climate risks assessment and planning. As highlighted above there are also difficulties in accessing this data for the SAR activity – with any problems identified in the field during SAR must be referred to the ‘right-creator’ for resolution, 21 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities IV – TOWARD INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA INTRODUCTION This section provides an overview of the reform activities currently being undertaken by the Government of Ethiopia to strengthen integrated urban land management and address climate challenges, highlighting the significant progress that has been made in Ethiopia to support climate sensitive Ethiopian cities. It demonstrates that Ethiopia is on the pathway towards integrated urban land management, whilst some challenges remain to be addressed. Potential tools that can be used by the Government of Ethiopia and project implementers to support integrated urban management and climate risk analysis are also discussed. CURRENT REFORM ACTIVITY The MUI has been developing plans to implement Proclamation 818/2014 for many years. Initial pilots were implemented in 2015-16 based on the initial set of regulations, standards and directions. These pilots identified several key problems and deficiencies. Although the MUI has not yet been able to secure amendments to the two key Proclamations (Proclamation 721/2011 and Proclamation 818/2014), two new Proclamations were drafted in 2024 that, if passed, will help to overcome some of the challenges associated with the management of urban land (see Box 5 and discussion below). In the meantime, the MUI has been working with cities to implement SAR and the necessary support activity for SAR such as regularization with improved procedures and significant progress has been made in some cities such as Adama and Hawassa. In January 2024 MUI and a Korean company signed a US$30 million contract to implement the Land Information Management System (LIMS) Project financed by the Korean Economic Development and Cooperation Fund (EDCF). The LIMS project is financing LIS development and will build new Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) for Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) in four cities (Adama, Hawassa, Bahir Dar, and Wolayita Sodo).63 As alluded to earlier, the rural sector in Ethiopia is significantly more advanced in terms of its land administration system and levels of land registration. This is largely due to sustained investment, alongside the establishment of integrated planning, the introduction of procedures for registration under the same institution, and the rural system’s use of fit-for-purpose digital procedures. Overall the rural system has achieved impressive levels of registration, demonstrating the elements that the urban sector needs to replicate. Key takeaways from the rural experience include the investment in basic technology for land registration that is fit for purpose leading to cost effective registration procedures (under $10USD per parcel), institutional reforms to establish of a single institution with responsibility for land registration, as well as committed and sufficient finance for the implementation of roll out of systematic registration.64 Ethiopia needs to better integrate the rural and urban land administration systems. Ethiopia is one of the few countries that has separate land administration systems for the rural and urban sectors. As noted earlier, the current arrangement is creating serious problems in peri-urban areas as cities extend the boundaries of urban centers over land previously registered as rural land with little 63 EBC, 2024. Ethiopia Signs $30 Million Deal with Republic of Korea to Launch LIMS Project 64 See Clive English et al. June 2019. Legend: Securing Land Rights at Scale: Lessons and Guiding Principles from DFID Land Tenure Regularisation and Land Sector Support Programmes. 22 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities recognition of the rights of rural land holders and no transfer of existing rural cadaster and registration data. In the short to medium term the development and implementation of a common data model for both urban and rural land would enable both sectors to readily share and access the land administration data for both sectors. These technical innovations would provide a platform for the development and agreement to a better and more equitable process of managing rural to urban land transitions that provides certainty to rural land functions that are vital for food security, climate resilience, biodiversity and environmental sustainability. In the medium to longer term the technology could also support a future policy to move to a common system that maps and records all land rights in Ethiopia. As noted below, the harmonization of the rural and urban approach has been identified as a key principle by the MUI. The Government recognizes that formal land administration is critical for urbanization. The Second Growth and Transformation Plan (GDP II 2015/16 to 2019/20) 65 and subsequent Ten Years Perspective Development Plan66 underscores the significance of effective urban land management in driving urban development and fostering economic growth. The Ethiopian Cities Sustainable Prosperity Goals and the National Urban Development Spatial Plan provide the necessary frameworks for strategic engagement. While these plans and interventions outline the key principles for sustainable and integrated formal urban land administration in Ethiopia, achieving their objectives will require strengthening the legal, regulatory, and institutional frameworks and enhancing land administration technical capacity at all levels of Government, including to streamline land regularization and registration procedures and facilitate formal land rights recognition and land access for the poor and other vulnerable groups. To this end, the MUI has also identified a set of key principles needed to realize the Government’s vision for urban land administration: • Harmonized urban and peri-urban approach – focus on urban and peri-urban areas for land tenure strengthening while using an integrated approach with rural lands for legal and institutional strengthening and capacity building activities. • Fit-for-purpose approach – interventions should manage current land issues in an affordable, flexible and reliable way using a participatory and inclusive approach (e.g., use of the general boundary concept, high-resolution imageries, para-surveyors). • Innovations to strengthen evidence for integration – reforms should strengthen tenure security along a continuum of rights by piloting improvements to the existing rights creation and registration procedures. • Build on existing systems and governance structure – technical approaches should build on existing pilots/experiences and be compatible with the existing technology infrastructure to maximize synergies and scaling up. • Fiscal and technical sustainability – all systems/processes to be implemented should be designed with long-term sustainability in mind, including the financial and human resources needed to maintain the intervention/infrastructure. • Resilient, sustainable, and inclusive land use planning – it is critical to address both public and private land use rights using a systematic approach to reduce time and costs. In addition, as discussed earlier and set out in Box 5, the MUI has prepared two new Proclamations in 2024 that address some of the deficiencies in Proclamations 721/2011 and 818/2014. The 65 FederalDemocratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2016. Growth and Transformation Plan II (GTP II) (2015/16-2019/20) 66Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2020. Ethiopia 2030: The Pathway to Prosperity. Ten Years Perspective Development Plan (2021 – 2030). 23 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Proclamations are now finalized and are currently awaiting parliamentary approval. The reforms are based on administrative instructions issued within the current legal framework, with the changes implemented about two years ago in Addis Ababa under a MUI Circular. These Proclamations introduce several important intermediate reforms, including the following: • Requirement that urban landholding files be organized as a prerequisite for registration (as provided for by the amendment to Proclamation 818/2014 Article 12(4)(d)). The lack of organization of paper files into digitized, parcel-based databases is a major bottleneck. • Introduction of the concept of “tolerance limits” to allow for discrepancies between existing land records and field realities to be resolved efficiently (the amendments to both Proclamations refer to this concept). • Clarification of the procedures for the regularization, adjudication, and registration of government offices, kebele houses, open spaces, roads, rivers, fences, water bodies, green spaces, and sporting facilities, (amendment to Proclamation 818/2014 Article 12(6)) as well as of existing rights, including old possession, rural land holdings, lease holdings, and sub- lease holdings (amendment to Proclamation 818/2014 Article 32(1)). The amendment to Proclamation 721 also provides for conversion of farmers’ “green cards” to urban land rights, which will be critical to manage peri-urban lands.67 • Remove requirement for a field survey to verify parcel boundaries. The amendment to Proclamation 818/2014 Article 10 would no longer require a field survey, which would significantly increase efficiency and decrease the cost of land registration and bring urban land registration procedures more in line with rural procedures and global practice. • Simplify the number of land registers required by recording land rights, restrictions, and responsibilities against a land parcel in a single legal cadaster. The amendment to Proclamation 818/2014 Article 33(1) simplifies the requirements to “books of registers.” The Proclamations provide for the heads of the urban rights creator institution and registration institution to coordinate planning for systematic adjudication and registration. Ideally, these institutions would be merged into a single institution (as in the rural areas, and some regions have done the same in urban areas). However these two Proclamations are not a panacea – more flexible planning standards still need to be introduced, as undertaken in Kenya (Box 6), and looser requirements for proof of land rights for legal rights regularization need to be adopted, as was applied in Peru (Box 6). Box 6: The Kenya and Peru Experience In Kenya county authorities identify settlements based on criteria set by the Kenya Informal Settlements Improvement Project (KISIP). This is followed by extensive community consultation with local community members, leaders and authorities. A Stakeholder Engagement Committee is formed with a least one third of members female to facilitate community engagement, communication, and active participation. A base map is prepared for the settlement to provide a foundational framework in planning and implementation. This is followed by a participatory planning activity to prepare a comprehensive plan for the settlement. This is undertaken with an ‘adoptive planning’ approach that minim izes the socio-economic impact on the community. The National Director of Physical Planning declares special planning areas where more flexible planning standards can be used. The draft plan and beneficiary list require approval at both local and national levels. Property boundaries are agreed, beacons are placed and surveyed, and the survey is approved by the relevant authorities. Regularization aims to minimize resettlement, but where resettlement is required a resettlement action plan is prepared. 67 Atpresent, these areas are not clearly addressed in the urban land registration procedures. Detailed plans are prepared to support regularization and the conversion of use from rural to urban use results in significant increases in the value of land. Innovative arrangements with community participation could be developed to use the plans and the increased property values to compensate rural land holders and to assist the cities in financing infrastructure and services. The MUI could draw on the experience under the new Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation. 24 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities In Peru, the focus was not on creating new rights but on integration and simplification of the existing legal framework. Typologies of informality were identified and legal processes for the formalization of these informal rights were developed. The proof of ownership used in the informal sector was incorporated in the formalization process and preconditions such as the requirement to check tax records were minimized or eliminated. Standard forms were adopted and authorized by attorneys and engineers rather than public notaries as traditionally required by the registry. Efficient processes were developed and scaled up. TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS FOR INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT Complementing the institutional, policy and regulatory frameworks, a series of tools and instruments have been developed to equip decision makers in Ethiopia and leverage integrated urban land management for climate sensitive cities. These can be broadly categorized into two types: (i) Analytical Tools: These tools draw on geodata, earth observation, remote sensing, assisted Machine Learning and other data to develop a better understanding of the land- related needs and potentials for developing climate sensitive cities. (ii) Planning instruments: These instruments incorporate climate considerations for adaptation and mitigation into city-level plans as a basis for medium- to longer-term planning of climate actions. ANALYTICAL TOOLS This section showcases four analytical tools and their application to inform integrated approaches in urban land management for climate sensitive cities in Ethiopia and beyond. City Scan Overview: The City Scan is a rapid geospatial assessment of the critical resilience challenges that cities face using the best publicly available global datasets and open-source tools. Developed by the World Bank Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) under the City Resilience Program (CRP),68 the output is a package of maps, data visualizations and insights that integrate features of both the built and natural environments. This City Scan is intended to support operational teams in building dialogue around a city’s most pressing resilience challenges. It is designed as a conversation starter rather than a specific decision-making tool. Thinking spatially about how urbanization affects the resilience of various urban forces, networks, and people helps equip officials to develop risk informed investment proposals, identify opportunities Figure 1: City Scans integrate a wide array of geodata for the city-level and barriers to unlocking private capital, and prioritize and assessments. Source: GFDRR coordinate future investments. Relevance for Integrated Urban Land Management: City Scans are a powerful tool to understand urban development challenges related to disaster resilience and low-carbon growth. Among others, City Scans can help assess (i) urban flood and heat hotspots, (ii) population and built-up density, (iii) change in built form and associated loss of open and green space over time; and (iv) gaps in service provision including for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). 68 https://www.gfdrr.org/en/crp 25 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Findings and Options for Wider Application: A City Scan was developed for Addis Ababa, which among others shows that the city’s built-up area grew at an average annual rate of 3.2% between 1985 and 2015, with steady growth throughout. The built-up area of Addis Ababa exposed to river and rainwater flooding grew at a higher rate (4.1%) and more than doubled from 29.7 km2 in 1985 to 65 km2 in 2015. The analysis provides a stark illustration of the changing disaster risk landscape in urban areas, with growth dynamics in many secondary cities surpassing that of Addis Ababa. In the regard the City Scans are useful products to Figure 2: Built-up area in Addis Ababa exposed to advance the strategic dialogue on urban resilience pluvial flooding. Source: GFDRR generally, and risk-sensitive land use planning specifically to mitigate future increases in urban disaster risk. Nature Based Solutions Opportunity Scan Overview: The Nature Based Solutions Opportunity Scan (NBSOS) is an analytical product provided by the World Bank GFDRR Program for Nature Based Solutions for Climate Resilience69 with the aim to support the identification and mapping of opportunities for investments in specific Nature Based Solutions (NBS) through spatial analyses, indicating where NBS can most effectively reduce impact of hazards and build resilience. The NBSOS rely on globally available geospatial data to ensure widespread applicability across most cities and inform engagements upstream or early in project preparation. NBSOS identify opportunities to protect, enhance and create new NBS by (i) understanding Figure 3: NBSOS include a set of interventions that protect, manage, restore or create nature- the problem, (ii) mapping suitability of NBS, (iii) modelling based features. Source: GFDRR NBS benefits, and (iv) providing decision support. Relevance for Integrated Urban Land Management: The NBSOS are a useful tool to explore the use of urban land resources as part of integrated urban land management as follows: (i) visualize spatial variability in hazard exposure and highlight areas of impactful NBS intervention; (ii) map locations to protect, enhance and create green infrastructure; (iii) estimate potential benefits from NBS; and (iv) identify opportunity areas for NBS investment. Findings and Options for Wider Application: NBSOS were developed for six secondary cities in Ethiopia (Adama, Assosa, Gambella, Hawassa, Jigjiga, and Semera-Logiya), representing Figure 4: Example from Adama showing different urban types of across the country’s varying climatic the optimal combination of NBS for and topographic zones. Among others, the NBSOS identified, maximizing flood benefits. Source: GFDRR. mapped and assessed opportunities to protect and create green spaces. In the case of Adama, bioretention areas, open green spaces and urban forest show significant benefits for flood hazard mitigation, heat stress reduction, and other improvements for health and biodiversity. As such, NBSOS is a powerful tool to expand city-level dialogues and build an 69 https://www.gfdrr.org/en/nbs 26 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities evidence-based understanding for NBS including the importance of functional land systems for securing the land resources for open green spaces, flood retention and urban forest. Machine-Learning based Identification of Settlement Typologies Overview: A Machine Learning (ML) based model was developed to discern settlement types in the Addis Ababa metropolitan area and Adama regio-polis area, differentiating, among others, informal settlement types such as inner-city slums, peripheral squatter settlements or IDP settlements. The ML model utilizes a Random Forest algorithm and was trained based on ground truths collected by an expert with local knowledge of the cities. Iterative improvements were made to the model, and its predictions were validated. Additionally, an evolution analysis was Figure 5: Overview of the ML-based identification of settlement conducted using global settlement footprints types in Addis Ababa, notably showing the concentration of from 1985 to 2023 to assess the construction inner-city slums (red). Source: Own illustration. timeline of buildings within each settlement typology. Furthermore, the exposure of settlements to various flood events was evaluated by overlaying classified building footprints onto modelled and observed flood hazards. Relevance for Integrated Urban Land Management: The ML-based tool offers three key opportunities for integrated urban land management: (i) map and identify informal settlements such as inner-city slums and peripheral squatter settlements as a prerequisite for SAR and regularization; (ii) determine the location, morphology and time of development of informal settlements to identify who is qualified for rights regularization; (iii) identify which settlements are most at risk of flooding to determine where investments are needed and what land use conversions may be required. Findings and Options for Wider Application: The ML-based analysis revealed prevailing settlement patterns in Addis Abana and Adama, with inner-city areas dominated by slums and the outskirts hosting informal squatter settlements. Informal settlements, including slums and peripheral squatter settlements, constitute a sizable portion of both cities' landscapes: informal settlements make up approximately 34% of all settlements in Addis Ababa metropolitan area, and 31% of the Adama regio-polis area. Both cities are facing a growing risk of flooding, with all types of settlements being indiscriminately Figure 6: Exposure of different settlement types in Addis exposed to various flood events. The ML and geodata Ababa to 1-in-20 year flood events. Source: Own based analysis moreover confirm that informal illustration. settlements are more likely to be in hazard areas and thus face a higher flood risk than other settlement types in Ethiopia. The ML approach can be easily scaled and adapted to other urban areas by training the model with in-situ data, offering possibilities beyond flood analysis, such as: (i) monitoring the impact of urban renewal on the morphology of settlement structure, (ii) assessing the rate and type of urban expansion and land conversion at the settlement fringe, and (iii) identifying which settlement types and areas face critical gaps in access to basic infrastructure and services. 27 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Urban Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimator Overview: The Ethiopia Secondary Cities Greenhouse Gas Estimation Tool was developed to assess and manage greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in secondary urban centers across the country. Its primary objective is to offer a streamlined process for estimating greenhouse gas emissions with minimal data inputs. The excel-based tool addresses a significant gap in emissions data availability, particularly evident in secondary cities, where comprehensive Figure 7: Snapshot of the Excel-based Secondary City GHG Estimator. inventories are scarce. Addis Ababa stands With simple city-level data inputs (population, area, GDP), the tool as one of the few cities with a completed develops a GHG emission profile. Source: Own illustration. emissions inventory, dating back to 2016 (Addis Ababa C40 , 2020). Given this scarcity, the estimator amalgamates data from various sources, including the Addis Ababa inventory and national emissions inventories, to provide a detailed breakdown of potential emission sources. A template was developed to facilitate the collection of city-level data to provide more refined estimates of GHG emissions as a basis for more granular and specific climate mitigation measures. Relevance for Integrated Urban Land Management: Sustainable urban land management practices can significantly contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions by securing carbon sinks, facilitating carbon sequestration, and avoiding carbon lock-in through energy-efficient urban development. Having a better understanding of urban GHG emissions by sector and sub-sector allows cities to identify emission sources swiftly and prioritize climate mitigation measures. Findings and Options for Wider Application: The GHG Emissions Estimator was developed using the emissions profile for Addis Ababa as a reference, supplemented by national emissions inventories. The tool's algorithm is rooted in two fundamental principles: (i) the direct correlation between human population, activity, and emissions, and (ii) the consistent emissions profiles observed across cities. Categories such as Stationary Energy, Transportation, Waste, and Industry are estimated based on per capita metrics for fuel consumption, vehicle numbers, waste disposal, and industrial activities, respectively. Accordingly, the average secondary city (~100,000 inhabitants), shows the highest share in GHG emissions Figure 8: Sectoral GHG emission profile for a under stationary energy (55%) followed by transportation medium-sized secondary city in Ethiopia with (34%) and waste (10%). The Urban GHG Emissions Estimator 100,000 inhabitants. Source: Own illustration. is designed to be applied across Ethiopia: by collecting emissions and energy data from different secondary cities, the tool will be able to generate ever more accurate GHG emission profiles as basis for developing more targeted GHG emission interventions for the transition towards low-carbon urban development in Ethiopia. 28 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities PLANNING INSTRUMENTS This section showcases a set of city-level planning instruments and their relevance for integrated urban land management, including specific findings from the use cases in Ethiopia and their potential for scale-up and wider application. Climate Action Plan Overview: Climate Action Plans are a tool for city administrations to develop the necessary forward-looking frameworks to: (i) identify current and future climate-related risks and their impact on local communities, and environmental infrastructure; (ii) integrate climate considerations into the city administration’s urban development efforts; (iii) strengthen risk-informed land use planning; (iv) define climate-relevant capital investments and public infrastructure investments that support disaster resilience (climate adaptation) and/or the transition towards low-carbon urban development (climate mitigation); and (v) attract climate finance for the implementation of identified critical investments. Relevance for Integrated Urban Land Management: Climate Action Planning is a core element of urban land management as it provides Figure 9: Addis Ababa Climate the necessary framework and tools to implement climate goals at Action Plan. Source: C40 the local level. Effective land management ensures that cities can mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to climate impacts, and promote sustainable development. Climate Actions Plans define the set of measures and activities including (i) spatial planning for emission reduction, (ii) disaster resilience by restricting development in flood-prone areas, (iii) promoting green infrastructure and securing urban green spaces, and (iv) land use optimization to reduce the need for resource-intensive sprawl and preserve natural ecosystems. Findings and Options for Wider Application: Implementing local climate action is the key to unlocking the ambition for sustainable urban development, climate resilience, and low-carbon development. Despite a growing consideration of climate change and urban resilience in national-level plans and policies, ULGs in Ethiopia still Figure 10: Key stages in developing City-Level Climate Action Plans. lack the necessary technical, financial, Source: Own illustration. and governance capacities to adequately address the climate and disaster resilience challenges. To facilitate the scale-up and expanded coverage of Climate Action Plans beyond Addis Ababa, a Guidance Note for Climate Action Planning was developed. The Guidance Note presents the principles/steps of starting the action planning process, developing a baseline, identifying and prioritizing climate actions, and preparing climate actions for implementation. It also presents exemplary climate action plans, offers a menu of options for climate actions suitable to urban areas in Ethiopia, and includes a template for a Climate Action Plan as well as an overview of relevant (geo)data for climate action planning. The Guidance Note can be used in national urban development programming to support ULGs in developing their own Climate Action Plans and linking to the spatial plans (structure plan, NDP/LDP). 29 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities Climate Smart Capital Investment Plan Overview: Capital Investment Plans (CIP) allocate resources to capital project-specific expenditures via capital budgets, typically over a period of several years. CIP help local governments prioritize their projects and plan for the future. A “climate-smart” CIP (CS-CIP) includes criteria for prioritizing projects that involve or emphasize climate-smart actions, such as carbon capture, carbon emissions reduction, climate change adaptation, disaster prevention, disaster and climate change resilience, and climate emergency services. As part of the capital investment planning process, cities can evaluate proposed investments upstream through a climate-smart lens (as well as other factors) to better understand their carbon impacts and other climate implications. Climate goals are much easier to build into projects at inception rather than Figure 11: Manual for ULGs to support Climate retroactively. Considering climate change and its impact on Smart Capital Investment Planning. Source: cities early on also helps avoid costly redesigns, retrofits, re- Ethiopia Ministry of Urban and Infrastructure sitings, and abandonments. Often, projects that lower carbon emissions or enhance resilience have lower operations and maintenance costs, making them more financially viable as well. They are also more likely to have co-benefits, such as health or safety improvements. Relevance for Integrated Urban Land Management: CS-CIP is an effective instrument for integrated urban land management to ensure cities are resilient, sustainable, and equitable in the face of climate change. By integrating climate considerations into investment decisions, cities can better manage their land resources, protect communities, and contribute to global climate goals. Among others, CS-CIP ensures that urban land management incorporates infrastructure and systems that can withstand climate-related risks, promotes efficient and sustainable land use by prioritizing investments in compact, mixed-use developments, green spaces, and transit-oriented designs. Findings and Options for Wider Application: A CS-CIP Excel model and accompanying manual has been developed by the MUI with WB support. The CS-CIP builds on the existing rolling Figure 12: Structure of the CS-CIP Excel Three-Year Rolling CIP and is linked to the Asset Management Model and Manual. Source: Ethiopia Ministry of Urban and Infrastructure Plans and the Revenue Enhancement Plan, as thus forms a core element of city-level investment management in Ethiopia. The manual provides detailed guidance on the CS-CIP set-up in the Excel model, including project delineation and climate and disaster risk screening, and project costing and funding. The CS-CIP is being piloted in selected ULGs and is being rolled out as part of the government’s programming around urban development. 30 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities V - FUTURE DIRECTIONS INTRODUCTION The traditional approach to land administration reform seeks to promote efficient land markets by improving: • the systems and procedures for the registration of rights and the changes in these rights over time. • the mapping in the legal cadaster of the spatial extent over which rights apply. • the valuation of properties and assessment and collection of registration fees and property taxes, and • the integration of these three systems (the registry, legal cadaster and fiscal cadaster) and the provision of efficient, affordable services to government and citizens. The systems and data that support the registry, legal cadaster and fiscal cadaster provide a foundation for other land sector services including the systems and procedures for urban land use planning and development control. Land administration reform projects seek to promote efficient land use management in urban areas by improving systems for land use planning, development approval and development controls. These projects increasingly address associated needs such as DRM, CCM, CCA and environmental management. Figure 13: Core Elements of Integrated Urban Land Management To be able to address the challenges and issues identified in Section III, the following investments are needed as part of the integrated urban land management system: (i) Capacity Building (ii) National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and Spatial Information Strengthening (iii) Physical and legal (rights) regularization and land registration, and their contributions to climate objectives. 31 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities (iv) Strengthened Institutional framework for CCA, CCM and DRM. These four actions or investments are discussed in this section, followed by a conclusion that brings together the key messages of this report. The four suggested actions, particularly the third action which leverages the lessons and experience in the rural sector, would support Ethiopia in the implementation of two new core urban-sector Proclamations and could form the components of a comprehensive investment project. KEY ACTIONS FOR INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING Ethiopia needs to strengthen institutions, systems, and capacity for urban planning and land regularization and registration. This involves capacity building activities for land administration institutions at all levels of government. It is notable that the MUI has trained and certified over 5,000 experts in areas such as surveying, land administration, property valuation, and urban planning, ranging from Level 2 to Level 5. However the training and certification for land experts at all levels, from Level 2 to Level 5, have not been fully addressed. 70 Capacity building activities should be identified and documented in a comprehensive land sector training needs analysis (TNA) to increase efficiency and equity, identification of gender gaps and advocacy for change, and training for land management/administration officials at all levels. The land administration policies/standards should be reviewed and strengthened, including for: • the development of mechanisms for enhanced vertical/horizontal institutional coordination • the development of an agreement to a common data standard to support IT system integration • business process reengineering • linkages with climate objectives and DRM planning • identification of key legal/regulatory bottlenecks (such as the role of regional and local urban governments as land managers, land lease pricing and payment systems, the role of rights creation and rights registration institutions, registration of buildings and condominiums, requirements of regularization and registration, etc.) and • support for the development of urban fiscal cadaster (property tax revenue) systems at all levels following the approval by the House of the People’s Representatives in January 2025 of the Property Tax Proclamation 1365/2025. NSDI AND SPATIAL INFORMATION STRENGTHENING NSDI is the responsibility of the Space, Science and Geospatial institute (SSGI) who established a Geo-Portal to manage and publish geospatial data and deploy spatial data infrastructure (SDI). In February 2025, the Network on Excellence on Land Governance in Africa (NELGA) provided support to the Ministry of Innovation and Technology and SSGI in launching a pilot NSDI.71 Further work will be required to develop an operational NSDI in Ethiopia that will make available data readily available to uses in a manner that minimizes duplication of effort. Data standards and policies will need to be developed and agreed and then data collected under the agreed standards and policies. The development of an integrated land management system, with utility for climate objectives, will 70 Data provided by the MUI (April 2025). 71 NELGA, 2024. Ethiopia Launches Its Pilot National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) with NELGA Support. 32 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities require a strong spatial framework. This framework will be built on the national geodetic reference frame and the existing network of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) which is managed by SSGI. The Korean-funded LIMS project is also supplying CORS stations in four cities. Survey and office equipment such as Global Navigation Satellite Systems, electronic total stations, field data tablets, office and laptop computers and software, printers and plotters and furniture (desks, chairs, layout tables, document and map filing systems, etc.) will be required for the cities to support land management activities including the digitization of paper records, land use planning, regularization, SAR and provision of land administration services. procured to build technical capacity in the target Cities. Existing ground control points (GCPs) will need to be validated and new GCPs established to support field activities. The MUI will also need to procure base mapping to support the cities in implementing land management, particularly land use planning, regularization and SAR. The improved NSDI will provide the framework for other essential datasets including the spatial and socioeconomic data necessary to forecast and model climate challenges and support the development of mitigation strategies. IMPROVED SYSTEM FOR URBAN PLANNING, LAND REGULARISATION AND RIGHTS REGISTRATION Ethiopia will not achieve its climate or urban development ambitions unless it tackles the physical and legal regularization of urban land – with a focus on informal settlements and slum areas. Cities will remain more vulnerable to the hazards highlighted in Section II, including flooding and mudslides, if cities continue the current pathways of unregulated urban sprawl without effective planning and development of climate resilient infrastructure. The vulnerability of Ethiopia’s most vulnerable residents to climate shocks will increase without regularization and formalization of land status impacting on livelihoods as well as the country’s economic growth. Without loosening rigid procedural requirements to permit such residents to enjoy tenure security, residents in informal cities will refuse to invest in their climate-proofed housing. At the same time, without proper planning instruments based on climate data, residents will continue to build in areas with high climate vulnerability or areas necessary to support reduced GHG emissions (such as biodiversity zones) – reducing resilience and undermining the achievement of emission reductions objectives. The development of a cadaster and registration system that has full coverage in all cities is an essential step in providing the spatial and textual information necessary for the preparation of planning instruments and other land management functions. Stronger methods for participatory planning and citizen engagement should be developed to collect data for planning purposes and to update planning data. Participatory approaches should be developed to capture data for regularization and registration using a fit-for-purpose approach that encourages participation, is scalable and produces products that are readily understood by the community. Informal and transitional land rights should be recorded in the cadaster. Finally, the land policy framework needs to recognize the specific needs for housing of the growing urban population. Housing policy and land policies should be integrated in urban areas and underline the importance of housing provision, especially for displaced populations. In cities, the regularization of urban residents’ informal land use rights and completing the pre- requisites for SAR. Key recommendations are as follows: • Spatial plans need to be prepared for unplanned (informal) areas and city-wide base maps prepared covering all parcels regardless of their tenure status (“OneMap”). Land use rights within informal settlements need to be regularized using flexible standards for proof of land rights and physical regularization. The data collected in SAR needs to include the property (building) data needed to build a fiscal cadaster alongside the legal cadaster. 33 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities • From the legal and regulatory perspective, reforms are needed to the Urban Land Management: Amend Proclamation 721/2011 (Urban Land Lease Holding) and Proclamation 818/2014 (Urban Landholding Registration) to expand access to land regularization (legal recognition of existing rights) and increase urban land registration efficiency. As the two Proclamations are integrated so that the land rights creation (regularization) and registration institutions and procedures are merged, as is the case in rural areas. As highlighted above (“Current Reform Activity”) the Government of Ethiopia has already drafted amendments to both Proclamations that are pending review and approval. In addition to these reforms, it is necessary to introduce procedures to coordinate across the right creating institution (responsible for legal land rights recognition/land regularization) and the land registration institution (responsible for registering existing rights). • In terms of addressing ongoing informality, it is necessary to implement participatory systematic urban land adjudication and registration (SAR): this includes the declaration of areas targeted for SAR, inclusive and gender-sensitive public awareness campaigns and support, surveying of parcel boundaries, adjudicating land use rights and transparent public display including objections and corrections and dispute resolution and grievance redress mechanism, registration in a digital LIS, and delivery of formal land certificates to urban residents. Investments in this area need to be tailored to the local context in each city and designed to complement existing and on-going investments to optimize synergies and avoid duplication. The data required to support the mass appraisal systems (property valuations) necessary for implementation of the new Property Tax Proclamation could be efficiently captured during the SAR process. Of note, the regularization of informal settlements allows the Government to increase the provision of municipal services through the increased collection of land taxes, a key objective of the present Government, as reflected in the new Federal Tax Proclamation 1365/2025. STRENGTHENED INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR CCA, CCM AND DRM Ethiopia’s system for CCA, CCM and DRM needs to be integrated with that of the land sector – improved land use planning and land administrations will be critical in this regard. Ethiopian cities need to invest in flood protection, water storage and breeze ways for improved air floor to mitigate urban disaster risks such as urban flooding, landslides and heat stress. Climate sensitive land use planning should also be adopted to avoid carbon lock-ins, costly retrofits and to protect environmentally sensitive urban areas. Further, Ethiopia needs to invest in the financing of disaster response. While Ethiopia has some mechanisms to finance disaster response, these should be optimized to improve the efficiency and efficacy of disaster response expenditures, including for climate. As proposed in the World Bank’s Climate Change and Development Report for Ethiopia, the Ministry of Finance should develop and adopt a national Disaster Risk Financing Strategy to identify and assess the suitability of potential financing instruments for climate shocks of varying intensity, and their alignment with existing financial mechanisms. To address the lack of robust data on disaster expenditures, Ethiopia should establish a comprehensive climate disaster expenditure tracking system and continue investments in early warning systems and delivery mechanisms to ensure funds reach those affected.72 72 World Bank. 2023. CCDR Ethiopia. 34 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities CONCLUSIONS Ethiopia has made significant strides in addressing its urbanization challenges by strengthening integrated urban land management. Key achievements include expanding urban cadaster coverage from 12% to 27% in 2024 and drafting two new Proclamations by the Ministry of Urban Development and Infrastructure (MUI) that address persistent barriers to regularization and effective urban planning—both awaiting parliamentary approval. Additional measures include capacity-building initiatives for MUI staff, National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) enhancements, and several pilot programs. However, this report highlights that Ethiopia’s cities will continue to face considerable pressure without sustained investment in all aspects of integrated urban land management. Effective progress requires not only policy, legal, and institutional reforms but also measures to ensure planning instruments and legal frameworks are aligned, implemented, and enforceable. Furthermore, close collaboration between the land sector and climate institutions is essential to generate the land data needed to mitigate and adapt to climate risks in urban areas. Ethiopia’s experience offers valuable lessons for cities worldwide facing similar challenges, including rapid urbanization in secondary cities, rising emissions, and climate risks. The MUI’s five key principles for urban land administration provide a replicable model: (i) Harmonized urban and peri-urban approaches, (ii) Fit-for-purpose solutions, (iii) Innovations to strengthen institutional integration, (iv) Piloting within existing systems and governance structures, and (v) Fiscally and technically sustainable, resilient, and inclusive land-use planning. A critical insight from this report is the need for a well-defined inter-institutional coordination framework at national and local levels, with land information systems playing a central role in guiding urban management. Technically, mass appraisal and land valuation mechanisms can generate resources for local governance, enabling better service delivery. Another key takeaway is that Ethiopia’s rural sector—more advanced in land registration and titling—offers lessons for urban land administration. Adopting rural practices, such as fit-for- purpose and participatory approaches, could streamline urban procedures. Establishing a single land administration institution could improve efficiency and financing for registration. Ultimately, urban land reforms should leverage the strengths of both rural and urban systems, moving from theoretical planning to implementation. This requires investment in technical capacity building at all levels to support new policies and business processes. The report underscores that integrated urban land management extends beyond land issues —it enhances humanitarian response, disaster risk reduction, emissions mitigation, and urban livability. These benefits contribute to national sustainable development goals, improving health, environmental sustainability, access to education, and employment opportunities. 35 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities REFERENCES Admasu et al., 2019. Take out the farmer: An economic assessment of land expropriation for urban expansion in Bahir Dar, Northwest Ethiopia. Land Use Policy, Vol. 87. Africapolis, 2022. Ethiopia Country Report. Available online: https://africapolis.org/en/country-report/Ethiopia Abebe et al., 2024. The effects of informal land markets on urban land in rapidly growing areas: the case of Sululta town, Ethiopia, in: Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, Vol. 6. Cities Alliance, 2017. Strategic City Planning. Available online: http://www.citiesalliance.org/about-cds. Collier et al, 2019. Land and property taxes: exploiting untapped municipal revenues, International Growth Centre. Mitchell and McEvoy, 2019. Land Tenure and Climate Vulnerability: A world in which everyone enjoys secure land rights, UN-Habitat. Dires et al., 2021. Assessing the Impacts of Expropriation and Compensation on Livelihood of Farmers: The Case of Peri-Urban Debre Markos, Ethiopia. In: Land, Vol. 10. Dusseau et al., 2023. Climate Risk Assessment: Ethiopia. Available online at: https://woodwellclimate.org/ assessments/addis_ababa. EBC, 2024. Ethiopia Signs $30 Million Deal with Republic of Korea to Launch LIMS Project. Available online: https://ebc.et/english/newsdetails.aspx?newsid=5355 English et al., 2019. Securing Land Rights at Scale: Lessons and Guiding Principles from DFID Land Tenure Regularisation and Land Sector Support Programmes. FAO, n.d. What is Land Tenure? Available online: https://www.fao.org. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2016. Growth and Transformation Plan II (GTP II) (2015/16-2019/20) Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2020. Ethiopia 2030: The Pathway to Prosperity. Ten Years Perspective Development Plan (2021 – 2030). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2021. Updated Nationally Determined Contribution - July 2021 Fensholt et al., 2020. Assessment of vegetation trends in drylands from time series of earth observation data, in: Roh, M. et al., Status of Spatial Data Construction for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Central Asia, Journal of Climate Change Research, 2020. GIZ et al, 2021. ‘Climate Risk Profile: Ethiopia.’ IPCC, 2019. Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. IUCN, 2023. Cities and Nature, Issues Brief, October 2023. Lamson-Hall et al., 2019. Managing Migration and Urban Expansion in Secondary Cities – Planning for Equity and Growth. NELGA, 2024. Ethiopia Launches Its Pilot National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) with NELGA Support. Available online: https://nelga.uneca.org/ethiopia-launches-its-pilot-national-spatial-data-infrastructure- nsdi-with-slga-support/ EM-DAT, 2021. The International Database. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. OECD et al. (2025), Africa's Urbanization Dynamics 2025: Planning for Urban Expansion. West African Studies, OECD Publishing. Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/2a47845c-enOni and Maulida, 2010. Heart health: design cities differently and it can help us live longer, in: The Conversation July 10, 2010. Prud’homme and Yehualashet, 2021. Financing Urban Development in Ethiopia. Samaha et al., 2022. Land Governance, Natural Resources and Climate Change in the Arab Region. UN Habitat and Global Land Tool Network. The Economist, 2020: The quest for secure property rights in Africa. Tom, 2023. Ethiopia’s ‘Developmental State’ Political Order and Distributive Crises. 36 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities UNHCR, 2023. Ethiopia. Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons by Region (as of December 31, 2023). Vemuru et al., 2021. Impact of Refugees on Hosting Communities in Ethiopia. A Social Analysis. World Bank Group, 2014. Linking Land Policy with Climate Change: A Multi-dimensional Landscape Approach to Territorial Development with a Focus on the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. World Bank Group, 2019. Ethiopia Urban Land Supply and Affordable Housing; Synthesis Report. World Bank Group, 2021. Forced Displacement: An Agenda for Cities and Towns. World Bank Group, 2022. Cutting global carbon emissions: where do cities stand? World Bank Group, 2023. Ethiopia Country Climate Development Report. World Bank Group, 2023. Thriving: Making Cities Green, Resilient and Inclusive in a Changing Climate. World Bank Group, 2023. World Development Indicators (WDI). Sub-Saharan Africa Macro Poverty Outlook. World Bank, 2024: Handbook on Maximizing Climate Change Co-Benefits in Urban, Resilience, and Land Projects. World Bank, 2024. Population estimates and projections. World Bank/GFDRR, 2017. Safe and Resilient Cities in Ethiopia. Review of Building Regulatory Framework. World Bank/GFDRR, 2019. Ethiopia Disaster Risk Profile. 37 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities ANNEX I: INTEGRATED URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT TO ACHIEVE CLIMATE GOALS The ‘theory of change’ presented below provides a visual representation of how integrated urban land management supports the achievement of climate goals and developmental benefits. It reflects the change logic set out in sub-Section I of the report “Unlocking the Potential of Integrated Urban Land Management.” The left-hand column describes the climate and disaster challenges facing many urban cities, while the middle column sets out the key actions that can help to address those challenges while the final column describes the co-benefits for climate resilience and disaster prevention of these actions. Figure 14: Integrated Urban Land Management to Achieve Climate Goals and Development Benefits 38 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities ANNEX II: TYPOLOGIES OF URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT AND CLIMATE CO-BENEFITS This Annex was developed as part of the URL Handbook on Maximizing Climate Change Co-Benefits in Urban, Resilience, and Land Projects.73 It provides key references and narratives to demonstrate direct linkages between land-related investments and climate adaptation and mitigation actions in urban areas. These narratives are based on findings from authoritative sources and evidence from case studies. The table below groups the narratives and investments by Land sub-sectors. Land Sub-sector Land- and climate related Narrative for Climate Adaptation Co-benefits Narrative for Climate Mitigation Co- Investments (Sources) benefits (Sources) Rights Regularization and Public Identification of at-risk plots, Enhance disaster risk reduction measures: By Carbon sequestration and preservation: and Private Land Registration regularization of informal rights, identifying climate related at-risk plots and By implementing risk-sensitive land use issuance of formal land records to implementing risk-sensitive land use planning planning and zoning, communities can individuals/groups/institutions, risk- and zoning, communities can avoid building in avoid uncontrolled urban expansion, sensitive land use planning and hazard-prone areas such as floodplains, water deforestation, and land degradation. This zoning. scarce zones, landslide-prone slopes, or coastal approach reduces the conversion of zones. [1, pp. 27-37,53-60] [2, pp. 19-20] [3, pp. natural ecosystems, such as forests and 9-10] [4] [5] wetlands, into built-up areas, helping to Formalized land rights and preserve valuable carbon sinks and enhanced tenure security provide maintain biodiversity. [6, pp. 18, 37, 55- (increased) certainty to the 57] [9, pp. 99-100, 385-388, 571-572] [10, landholders that they can a) p. 39] [4] Strengthen resilience via tenure security: evacuate their land in cases of Issuing formal land records to individuals, disasters without leaving someone groups, and institutions establishes legal and behind to protect the property from secure land tenure. This tenure security is crucial land grabbing; and b) they can for climate adaptation as it enables communities return to their land more easily and to invest in sustainable land management with less disputes/conflict even if practices and build long-term resilience. [1, pp. buildings and property boundaries 73 see World Bank (2024): Handbook on Maximizing Climate Change Co-Benefits in Urban, Resilience, and Land Projects. 39 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities would be destroyed or misplaced by 56-49, 53-59] [6, pp. 87-89, 110] [7, pp. 177-194] the disaster. [8, pp. 11-16] Public and Private Land Securing public green/open land, Increase Climate Resilience: By securing and Preserve Carbon Sinks: The protection of Management stewardship contracts for natural preserving public green and open spaces, these public green and open spaces helps resource management spaces serve as buffers against extreme weather maintain critical carbon sinks such as events, providing natural flood control and forests, grasslands, and wetlands. [9, pp. reducing heat island effects. [9, pp. 391-393, 99-100, 385-388, 571-572]. Preserving or 571-572] [11] reallocating urban land for urban green/blue connected corridors can help increase natural ventilation, shading and fresh air in the city to reduce urban heat and improve thermal comfort that in turn can reduce urban energy consumption for cooling (A/C, Fans, etc). Secure land for renewable energy: Land management for the establishment of renewable energy projects such as solar/wind farms. [9, p. 288] Land and Spatial Data Development of digital, cloud-based Enhance disaster management and response: Reduce GHG Emissions: The shift to cloud- Infrastructure land information management Digital land systems enable real-time monitoring based servers for managing land systems, spatial data infrastructure, of climate-related disasters, improving information eliminates the need for modern geodetic networks emergency responses and evacuations by swiftly dedicated physical servers. This transition (including building and/or analyzing data from various sources like satellite results in significantly lower energy maintenance of continuously imagery. This enhances preparedness and aids consumption and reduced GHG emissions. operating reference stations relief efforts during climate-induced disasters. Cloud computing offers a more energy- (CORS)), and digitization of land [2, pp. 16-17] [12] [13] [14] [15] efficient alternative, contributing to a records and geospatial data. smaller carbon footprint. [17] [18] Cloud- based servers can also function as Disaster Climate-Resilient Planning: Data provided Recovery sites to preserve critical land Land projects to build more direct through digital land information systems and information in case of a disaster. links to DRM and climate change flood risk maps guide decision makers in agencies, ensuring that they need identifying vulnerable areas, aiding in designing and use the land or geospatial resilient infrastructure, such as improved 40 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities information provided. This could be drainage systems and green spaces to withstand done, for example, through results extreme weather. This promotes safer and more framework indicators that measure sustainable urban development that adapts to if DRM and climate agencies have climate change challenges. [12] [15] [16] access to the SDIs or LISs, and how many times they download the data made available in the SDI or LIS. Cadastre and Utility Records Development of accurate cadaster Risk Identification: Accurate cadaster records Management records and a utility cadaster, and utility data enable rapid identification of establishing direct linkage with DRM areas and populations at risk of climate-related databases. disasters such as floods, storms, or wildfires. Be establishing stronger linkages with DRM agencies, this allows authorities to evacuate and allocate resources more effectively by improving capacity to respond to and recover from climate disasters. [3, pp. 9-10] [16] Resilient Infrastructure Planning: Cadastre records can contribute to supporting territorial planning aiming to reduce disaster risk through prospective and corrective interventions, and inclusion of financial protection mechanisms to compensate for the economic losses. Precise land and utility data aid in designing utility infrastructure and services that can withstand climate impacts. This includes locating critical facilities away from climate vulnerable areas and planning for necessary resilience measures to minimize damage from climate related risks. [2, pp. 20-22] [14] [15] 41 ______________________________Integrated Urban Land Management for Climate Sensitive Cities References [1] David Mitchell and Darryn McEvoy, RMIT University, "Land Tenure and Climate Vulnerability: A world in which everyone enjoys secure land rights.," UN-Habitat, 2019. [2] World Bank, "Linking Land Policy with Climate Change: A Multi-dimensional Landscape Approach to Territorial Development with a Focus on the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region," 2014. [3] McEvoy, D., Mitchell, D. and Trundle, A., "Land tenure and urban climate resilience in the South Pacific," Climate and Development, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 9-10, 6 April 2020. 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