Steering the Human Development Strategy for a Sustainable Green Economy in the Slovak Republic Husein Abdul-Hamid Diego Ambasz Steering the Human Development Strategy for a Sustainable Green Economy in the Slovak Republic Husein Abdul-Hamid Diego Ambasz HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC © 2023 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA. Telephone: 202–473–1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org. Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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Cover image: stock.adobe.com. iv Contents Contents Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Executive Summary...............................................................................................................1 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................6 1.1. Overview of the Education System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2. Quality of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.3. The Slovak Republic within the EU Green Growth Agenda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2. Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future..........................20 2.1. Current Context and Approach toward Skills Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2. Skills of Adult Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.3. Skills Systems Performance in the EU context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.4. Toward a Vision for the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3. Policy Recommendations and Good Practice Examples..................................................37 3.1. Strategic Approach to Human Capital in the Context of Green Transition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Key Recommendations:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2. Development of Foundational Skills and Attitudes as a Basis for Skilling for the Green Future. . . . . . . 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Key recommendations: 3.3. Skills Anticipation through Stakeholder Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Key recommendations: 3.4. Greening of Occupational Standards and Provision of Skills through VET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Key recommendations: 3.5. Strengthening the Role of Higher Education in the Provision of Skills and Undertaking Research and Innovation in Support of the Green Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Key recommendations: 3.6. Using Active Labor Market Programs (ALMPs) to Facilitate Green Transition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Key recommendations: References...........................................................................................................................48 Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 v  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Boxes 1 Good practice example—mainstreaming a green skills approach: Estonia’s Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 and beyond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2 Good practice example–developing inter-sectoral strategy for green skills development: Croatian Makers League . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3 Good practice example—strengthening the development of foundational skills: education system reform in Estonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4 Good practice example—shared engagement model for skills development: National Observatory for Jobs and Occupations of the Green Economy (Onemev) in France. . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 5 Good practice example—understanding skills mismatch and investing in schools to fill gaps and plan for the future: Improving Secondary/Vocational Education project, within the Slovakia Catching-Up Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 6 Good practice example—universities as a catalyst for regional development: bringing innovation and entrepreneurship to the forefront of higher education in the Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . 44 7 Good practice example—developing green skills among disadvantaged groups, sectors, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 and regions: Stromspar Check (SSC) advisers, Germany 8 Summary of recommendations: moving the skills agenda toward a green transition. . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figures 1 Structure of the national education system in the Slovak Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2 Enrollment rates in early childhood education and care, 2019 (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3 Adult learning participation rates in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, 2012–20 (%) . . . 10 4 Learning outcomes over time in the Slovak Republic compared to the EU countries. . . . . . . . . . . . 11 5 Achievement difference between the Slovak Republic and other EU countries in international assessments after 2010 (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6 Performance of Slovak students in mathematics, reading, and science, 2012–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 7 Performance trends of Slovak pupils in reading, 2003–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 8 Performance trends of Slovak pupils in mathematics, 2003–18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 9 Performance trends of Slovak pupils in science, 2006–15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 10 Decline in performance of secondary school students (age 15) in the Slovak Republic at different achievement levels, 2009–18 (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 11 Distribution of socioeconomic status among general and VET students (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 12 Student socioeconomic background and achievement in general and VET schools (2018). . . . . . . . 15 13 . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Average socioeconomic background and student achievement in EU countries (2018) 14 Relationship between 10th percentiles of socioeconomic background and student achievement in EU countries (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 15 School average socioeconomic background and performance in the Slovak Republic and other EU countries (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 16 The Slovak Republic’s human development challenges and World Bank Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 17 The European Green Deal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 18 Performance in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries (PIAAC 2011–12). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 19 Achievement by age among adults in the Slovak Republic (PIAAC 2011–18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 20 Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 21 Mismatches in qualifications in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 22 Mismatches in numeracy in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%). . . . 28 vi Contents 23 Mismatches in fields of study in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 24 Average numeracy, literacy, and problem-solving skills—comparison between green and brown jobs in EU and the Slovak Republic (PIAAC 2011–12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 25 Years of schooling distribution in green and brown jobs in the EU, PIAAC 2011–12. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 26 Usage of skills at home and at work—comparison between green and brown jobs in EU and the Slovak Republic, PIAAC 2011–12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 27 Skills development in the Slovak Republic (ESI 2022). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 28 Skills activation in the Slovak Republic (ESI 2022). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 29 Skills matching in the Slovak Republic (ESI 2022). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 RRP component skills for the 21st century Tables 1 DESI Human Capital Dimension 2021—Slovak Republic and EU. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2 OECD skills strategy for the Slovak Republic—priority areas and recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3 Overview of the Slovak Republic RRP components and reforms relevant for education . . . . . . . . . . 36 4 Green activities in traditional sectors: an example from Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 5 Examples of upskilling to new occupations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Abbreviations ALMP Active Labor Market Programs NGO Nongovernmental organization CuRI Catching-up Regional Initiative NIE National Institute for Education DESI Digital Economy and Society Index NPRV National Program for Development of EC European Commission Education EESC European Economic and Social OECD Organisation for Economic Co- Committee operation and Development EGD European Green Deal PIAAC Programme for the International EPAH Energy Poverty Advisory Hub Assessment of Adult Competencies ERA European Research Area PIRLS Progress in International Reading EU European Union Literacy Study GDP Gross domestic product PISA Programme for International Student HEA Higher Education Academy Assessment HEI Higher education institutions RRF Recovery and Resilience Facility HLO Harmonized Learning Outcomes RRP Recovery and Resilience Plans HPWP High-performance work practices SES Socioeconomic status ICT Information and communication SSC Stromspar Check technology STEM Science, technology, engineering, and ILO International Labour Office mathematics ISCO International Standard Classification of TALIS Teaching and Learning International Occupations Survey MIRRI Ministry of Investments, Regional UNEP United Nations Environment Program Development and Informatization VET Vocational education and training MoE Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport vii  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Acknowledgments T his report is part of the ASA “Advancing groups about the topic of the report: Martin Guzi, the Human Development Agenda within Research Fellow at Masaryk University, and Brian the EU’s Green Deal.” It is also a comple- Fabo, Senior Research Economist at the National ment to the larger Regional Report entitled Bank of Slovakia and Lecturer at Comenius Univer- “Making the European Green Deal Work for People. sity (co-authors of EMPLOY Slovakia report 2022); The Role of Human Development in the Green Bart Staats and Laura Reznikova, Policy Analysts at Transition.” OECD Centre for Skills (co-authors of OECD Skills This report was prepared by Husein Abdul- Strategy - Slovak Republic); Vladimir Kvetan, Senior Hamid and Diego Ambasz under the supervision of expert on skill analysis and forecasts at Cedefop Rita Almeida, Tanya Dmytraczenko, Cem Mete, and (formerly researcher at the Institute of Economic Re- Harry Patrinos. The team is grateful for guidance search, Slovak Academy) and reviewer of the OECD throughout the process from Fadia Saadah, Gallina Skills Strategy—Slovak Republic; and Marek Rad- Andronova Vincelette, Lasse Melgaard, Fabrizio vansky, Institute of Economic Research, Slovak Zarcone, Rafael de Hoyos, Jamele Rigolini, and Academy, and contributor to the Cedefop 2020 Skills Javier Sanchez-Reaza. We are thankful for the contri- forecast—Slovakia. We are also thankful for fruitful butions from Domagoj Račić and Maciej Jakubowski. discussions with Andrea Hagovska, Stefan Chudoba, The team is also grateful for suggestions made by Vladimír Benč, Anna Polačková, and Helena the peer reviewers: Alina Sava, James Gresham, and Virčíková. Michael Alwan provided design and Romina Miorelli. Special thanks to the following ex- typesetting services. perts for their insights and for participating in focus viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC The rippling effects of multiple overlapping crises on the economy, declining education outcomes, and inabil- ity of the education system to meet the upcoming needs of the labor market puts the Slovak Republic in a human capital crisis. The following policy responses can help address the development challenges: • Operationalize a comprehensive skills strategy into the education system from preschool to higher edu- cation—with a focus on building foundational and STEM skills. • Strengthen education-to-work pathways to enable the country to move smoothly toward a green and digital transition, by reskilling and upskilling of individuals through formal and innovative channels such as certification programs supplementing existing vocational education and training (VET) and higher education programs to promote lifelong learning. • Involve employers and relevant stakeholders in education and training program design to help strengthen sustainable partnerships for better responsiveness to market needs. • Introduce policy changes and resources to enable the above changes and enrichments to current offerings. • Strengthening the information and planning systems to be able to track and predict workforce needs and monitor competency levels with feedback channels to ensure responsiveness of the education and lifelong learning programs. This policy note provides a deep dive into the education situation in the Slovak Republic and proposes specific policy recommendations aiming at the skilling and reskilling toward the green and digital agenda, utilizing European and international experiences in this area. T he Slovak Republic faces significant eco‑ overall system could benefit from shifting toward a nomic and social risks with adverse hu‑ competency-based, problem-solving approach with man development consequences. These a focus on green skills. risks are due to the rippling effects of the Education-to-work pathways through voca‑ overlapping crises on the economy, its over reliance tional and tertiary education are insufficient to on traditional heavy industries (for example, auto- prepare students for the green economy transition. mobiles), and a low level of readiness in the labor Secondary vocational education and training (VET), market for making a “green transition.” Education and tertiary education systems have not been pro- can play a critical role in mitigating the impacts of gressive to influence the labor market. Adult educa- slow economic growth and the weakening of social tion and training opportunities are not sufficient to cohesion due to unemployment, migration, and re- match the demand for skills. The occupational com- gional imbalances. As the Slovak Republic enters a position of employment in the Slovak Republic is new phase in the implementation of its education more strongly characterized by changes in the level strategy, especially with the current efforts to mod- of specialization within occupations than by changes ernize the national curriculum, a strategic approach in industry size—which means that upskilling to human capital in the context of a green transition throughout the economy will be needed. As a result, needs to be emphasized and well-coordinated. the Slovak Republic experiences skills shortages both There is a misalignment between the supply among higher- and lower-skilled occupations. Hence, and outcomes of the education system and require‑ it is necessary to address current and expected skills ments of the labor market. The Slovak Republic has imbalances, with a specific focus on green skills. low educational outcomes: stagnated performance The Slovak Republic has both an opportunity and in primary schools, a decline in achievement of sec- need to implement a comprehensive skills strategy ondary schools (especially in science and reading), related to green jobs. Green and digital transitions and poor foundational and STEM skills. Lifelong require a coherent and strategic response, which is skills acquisition, considering the demands of green often challenging. Green skills need to be developed and digital transitions, poses a significant challenge within the national education/training and skills to the education system. The approach to skill devel- framework, in cooperation with relevant stakehold- opment is traditional, not competency based. The ers through a social dialogue. It is recommended to 2 Executive Summary The Slovak Republic has both an opportunity and need to implement a comprehensive skills strategy related to green jobs develop a unified intersectoral approach for identifi- Education-to-work pathways need to be flexi‑ cation, development, anticipation, and monitoring ble to align worker choices with needs of the labor of green skills. Of high importance is the need to up- market. To make the system more permeable and to date the National Program for Development of Edu- improve the quality of VET education in line with cation 2018–2027 for the green and digital transitions the EU standards, it is critical that the VET system is and link it with the Strategy for Lifelong Learning flexible to allow for vertical and horizontal permea- and Counselling for 2021–2030. Engaging key stake- bility to enable students to either transfer to jobs or holders in the development of action plans and purpose higher levels of education. Apprenticeship monitoring of policy outcomes will facilitate such and work experience are the most recognized mod- emphasis. Furthermore, identification of policy els for bridging the transition from school to work. measures and sources of funding across national Apprenticeships provide students practical work strategies and plans will foster acquisition of green experience and build employers’ confidence in po- skills and attract Slovak students and workers, as tential workers. This dual system not only allows well as foreign talent with relevant skills. students to academically train themselves, but also Development of foundational skills and atti‑ provide an opportunity to receive practical training tudes are the basis for skilling for a green future. from enterprises in key skills, which can make them Given the stagnation in learning outcomes as indi- more relevant for the job market and provide them cated in national and international assessments, future placements. For this model to work, the gov- there is a critical need to expedite the current educa- ernment needs set guidelines that create an enabling tion reform efforts. Reforming the education system environment for employers to work with the schools. for acquisition of foundational skills requires a Moreover, it is critical to consolidate existing pro- nearly universal access to early childhood educa- grams and enrich them to include elements of green tion, curriculum reform, improvements in teacher skilling. Beyond the VET, certification programs can education and training, and access to new technolo- be leveraged to orient individuals to learning skills gies, which are all in line with the Recovery and Re- relevant to the needs of the green economy. silience Plans (RRP) of the European Union (EU). Stakeholder collaboration is an important vehi‑ Also of high importance is filling in the pandem- cle for behavior change in the country toward ex‑ ic-related learning gaps faced by primary and sec- pediting the skilling and reskilling efforts. Social ondary school students. As such, it is essential to partners need to be directly involved in the skills design and implement formal and informal educa- anticipation regulation and processes, which need to tional activities and campaigns promoting responsi- be reformed. The 2020 Pact for Skills launched by the ble production, consumption, and nature conserva- European Commission emphasized  a shared en- tion, in line with Greener Slovakia strategy. Investing gagement model for skills development in Europe, in school infrastructure including digital infrastruc- which recommended strengthening the work of sec- ture is timely. Steps to reduce the number of early toral skills councils with representatives of employ- leavers and enable their return to education are cru- ers, trades unions, educational institutions, and na- cial to ensure equity and suitability to work in a fu- tional/regional government. At the same time, it is ture green economy. Finally, continuous and system- important to improve skills governance by improv- atic assessment of skills and monitoring of quality in ing coordination (for example, through establish- relation to foundational skills will facilitate the pro- ment of an independent body responsible for man- cess of introducing timely corrective measures as the aging and coordinating different institutions). efforts of reform are being implemented. Moreover, continuing of the Catching-up Regional 3  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Initiative (CuRI) is important at this stage to support demanded by the labor market and applying them regional ambitions and development opportunities to different VET qualifications and lifelong learn- and enable better employer representation in sec- ing/reskilling programs, related to both existing toral councils. Tracking and analysis of data are crit- and new or emerging occupations, can have strong ical to develop skills anticipation methods by benefits. This needs to be followed by efforts to sup- strengthening data coordination, investing in ana- port training of trainers that will help disseminate lytical capacity of relevant national and regional au- relevant knowledge and skills, and provision of thorities, systematically undertaking tracer studies, training that will add green components to existing and mapping employers’ skills needs. All that said, qualifications or programs. it is essential to ensure sustainability of skills gover- Active labor market programs (ALMPs) should nance by establishing stable funding; a clear division be utilized to facilitate green transition. ALMPs aim of responsibilities, transparency, and accountability; to assist job seekers to find employment, keep work- and supporting information needs of key stakehold- ers employed, increase their productivity and earn- ers such as employers and educational institutions. ings, and improve the functioning of labor markets. Higher education has a strong role in these ALMPs are usually not specifically focused on de- transformational efforts in the skills and behavior veloping skills for green employment (Cedefop, change agenda. Strengthening the role of higher ed- 2019). According to ILO (2019), although many coun- ucation in the provision of skills and undertaking tries aim to include disadvantaged groups in their research and innovation to support green transition skills development programs for green jobs, these is of strategic importance, but its involvement needs groups remain largely under-represented. Given the to be strengthened through policies and partner- profound and long-term processes and effects of ships. Universities should be viewed as catalysts of technological and economic transformations related regional development, which contribute to green to green and digital transitions, the provision of skills through teaching, research, and innovation ac- ALMPs is likely to gain importance. In addition to tivities. In this regard, reforming university gover- counseling and job search assistance, the focus of fu- nance (RRP Component 8, Reform 4) and introduc- ture ALMPs should be on the provision of training ing performance agreements (RRP Component 8, (which usually produces strongest long-term ef- Reform 1) could include targets related to green fects), which can be occasionally coupled with some skills development. It is recommended to consoli- subsidies to employers (in the case of the most dis- date and concentrate teaching, research, and innova- advantaged groups) or direct job-creation schemes. tion capacities at higher education institutions and There is an urgent need for reskilling and upskill‑ public research organizations based on excellence ing programs that will help individuals and compa‑ (RRP Component 8, Reform 5). nies steer through technological and economic The above efforts to enhance skills need to be transformations, and promote lifelong learning, accompanied with strong greening of occupational with a specific focus on disadvantaged groups and standards and provision of skills. VET is an import- regions. The spending of the Slovak Republic on ant part of the Slovak economy. Identification and ALMPs is among the lowest in the OECD and is not development of green skills through VET should be sufficiently directed toward training measures. comprehensive, rather than restricted to few green Changing the focus from subsidizing wages in de- occupations. Training design and provision should clining industries to upskilling and reskilling is also reflect sectoral, local, and regional needs. Coor- needed. Stepping up training, including for workers dinating systematic ways to identify green skills on short-term working schemes and others who are Higher education has a strong role in these transformational efforts in the skills and behavior change agenda 4 Executive Summary Active labor market programs (ALMPs) should be utilized to facilitate green transition at risk of unemployment or underemployment, is should be put in place to provide additional impetus paramount to help job transitions and reduce long- to both individuals and enterprises to engage in term unemployment, which is particularly preva- green skills development through incentives. For ex- lent among low-skilled workers and the Roma ample, ALMPs target groups may receive training (OECD, 2022). Programs focused specifically on free of charge or at subsidized rates, whereas em- green jobs generally need to be developed within ployers could be motivated by making educational existing general ALMP frameworks and aligned expenses related to reskilling and upskilling of their with overall provision of training opportunities re- employees tax-deductible. Subsidies and incentives lated to green jobs. It is necessary to develop system- targeting the private sector to stimulate the develop- atic training and retraining initiatives in skills for ment of green skills are still not widespread in Eu- green jobs aimed at specific groups such as unem- rope. To support training incentives, a data system ployed or underemployed persons, youth, women, could enable tracking the level of competencies middle-aged and older workers, people with dis- among individuals, and act as a planning tool to abilities, migrant workers, informal workers, and study workforce needs and scope for development. those living in rural areas. For example, Volvo plans an investment of around ALMPs should involve employers in program €1.2 billion to open a Kosice plant in the country; the design and provide incentives for their participa‑ plant will need to hire around 3,300 employees.1 tion in implementation. (Re)training needs of em- VET is crucial for the success of this investment. The ployers related to the green transition vary across current World Bank, European Commission, and the sectors, regions, and organizations. On the other Regional Government partnership in the CuRI pro- hand, there are different needs of ALMPs target gram is strengthening the VET system in Kosice re- groups. Matching these two sides in a synergistic gion by improving programming and digitization at way may not be straightforward; it may involve relevant schools. More needs to be done. The Volvo communication and facilitation by policy makers initiative also highlights the importance of a data and education providers, for example, through sec- system to track the current and future labor needs toral or regional partnerships that will participate in and provide feedback to education, training entities, training programs design. Moreover, incentives and firms for employment. 5  1 INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction of 5 and 16. An overview of the Slovak education 1.1. Overview of the Education system is provided below (Figure 1). T System Upper secondary education starts at age of 15 he Slovak Republic’s education system is years and is organized into general, vocational, organized into three sequential levels— and art education. A gymnasium is a general, inter- pre-primary education (ISCED 02), basic nally differentiated secondary school that offers ed- education (ISCED 1 and 2), and upper ucational programs lasting 4, 5, or 8 years, as an up- secondary education (ISCED 3). Compulsory edu- per secondary general education (ISCED 344), cation in the country lasts 11 years, between the age primarily focused on preparation for study at higher Figure 1:  Structure of the national education system in the Slovak Republic Source: Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sports of the Slovak Republic. 7  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC education institutions. Secondary vocational schools Attainment rates of upper secondary education are secondary schools that offer VET, focused pri- are relatively high and above the OECD average. A marily on the pursuit of professions, groups of pro- high share of students (42 percent) attends vocational fessions, and professional activities. Educational secondary education, which indicates a relatively low programs are organized as theoretical and practical focus on academic excellence (ESPON, 2021). How- lessons. Study at secondary schools lasts from 2 to 5 ever, collaboration of VET institutions with employ- years and students can achieve the following educa- ers is weak, which limits the accessibility of practical tional levels—ISCED 252, 253, 352, 353, and 354. training in work-based environments. While inclu- Conservatories are a specific type of school that pro- sion of employers in design and provision of VET vide lower and upper secondary education in the increased over the last years, implementation of areas of music, drama, and dance. good practices and reaching small and medium en- Public expenditure on education (pre-primary terprises (SMEs) remains difficult (Fazekas and to tertiary education) as a percentage of GDP has Kurekova, 2016; OECD, 2020). This situation reflects been declining in the Slovak Republic, from 4.59 the fact that most work-based learning is still pro- percent in 2015 to 3.98 percent in 2018, which is the vided in school workshops. Estimates suggest that lowest public expenditure among the neighboring only about 20 percent of students in secondary VET countries and significantly below the EU-28 average programs had access to practical training in work- of 4.76 percent. OECD (2021a) reports that the Slovak type environments before the introduction of the Republic was among 10 OECD countries that spent recent reforms (Fazekas and Kurekova, 2016; OECD, the lowest proportion of GDP on primary to tertiary 2020). The Slovak Republic introduced three main educational institutions, with expenditure of 3.7 per- reforms to improve the quality of secondary VET ed- cent of GDP in 2018, which is 1.2 percentage points ucation, namely: (i) changes to the funding formula below the OECD average. When investments across to better reflect the labor market demand for differ- the education levels are observed, the Slovak Repub- ent occupations; (ii) introduction of a new process to lic invested a lower share of GDP than the OECD regulate the enrollment quotas in line with labor average at both non-tertiary and tertiary levels. market needs; and (iii) introduction of the dual VET Pre-primary education is provided by kinder‑ model to increase work-based learning opportunities. gartens for children ages 3 to 6 and it became com‑ Low capacities to attract and retain high-quality pulsory for children age 5 in the school year 2021– teachers constrains educational outcomes in pri‑ 22 (Figure 2). While participation in pre-primary mary and lower secondary education. Primary education has increased in the Slovak Republic, it is schools encompass primary education lasting four still significantly lower than the OECD average (5 years and lower secondary lasting five years. PISA percent compared to 25 percent). Moreover, enroll- results indicate weak educational outcomes of pri- ment rates of children in households that receive mary education, combined with declining trends as assistance in material need and households from the mentioned previously. The impact of socioeconomic Roma community are even lower (OECD, 2022). background on student performance is the largest OECD (2020) also reports that districts with higher among OECD countries, with particularly low out- unemployment rates have significantly lower comes for the Roma population. While there are dif- pre-primary enrollment rates, which could be due to ferent reasons for this situation, a part of the prob- lack of pre-school facilities, especially in municipal- lem can be attributed to low capacities to attract and ities with a high share of Roma population. retain high-quality teachers. Teachers in the Slovak Low capacities to attract and retain high-quality teachers constrains educational outcomes in primary and lower secondary education 8 1. Introduction Figure 2:  Enrollment rates in early childhood education and care, 2019 (%) 100 90 80 70 60 Percent 50 40 30 25 20 20 5 6 5 10 3 0 Slovak Republic Czech Republic OECD average Poland Austria Hungary 3-5-year-olds 0-2-year-olds Source: OECD (2022). Republic earn only around 70 percent of the average enrolled in Slovak HEIs—from 118,000 students in salary of persons with tertiary education, and only 2013 to 87,000 in 2019 (ESPON, 2021). At the same about 4 percent of teachers believe that teaching is a time, the tertiary attainment rates have been increas- profession valued by society, which is the lowest ing because of the negative demographic trends and share among Teaching and Learning International the increasing number of Slovaks who attend for- Survey (TALIS) participating countries (OECD, eign universities. Around 17 percent of Slovak uni- 2020). The OECD Skills Strategy (OECD, 2020) em- versity students were enrolled abroad in 2016, which phasizes that curriculum for future teachers at Slo- is the second highest proportion across OECD coun- vak higher education institutions should be rein- tries (OECD, 2019d). As reported by ESPON (2021), forced with practical aspects, teaching standards the decline in the number of students (graduates) is need to be unified and mentoring programs for especially high in STEM fields, with a decline of 44 young teachers should be improved, as well as pro- percent (37 percent) in science and 30 percent (35 fessional development opportunities. percent) for technology study fields since 2013. Performance of Slovak higher education institu‑ Currently, the tertiary education curriculum is tions (HEIs) in the international context is inade‑ more oriented toward theoretical knowledge with quate, and a high proportion of student population limited access to practice and does not support de‑ is enrolled abroad. Higher education institutions velopment of a mix of technical and transversal provide accredited study programs at three main competencies required by the employers (Cedefop, levels—BA, MA, and PhD. The Slovak Accreditation 2016). As reported by the OECD (2020), there are Agency for Higher Education is responsible for ac- some examples of problem-based approaches (for creditation of higher education programs in the example, in ICT courses), as well as practical train- country. Higher education institutions in the Slovak ing in agriculture, forestry, and veterinary medicine, Republic include 20 public HEIs, 3 state HEIs, 12 pri- but these represent individual initiatives rather than vate HEIs, and 5 foreign HEIs. HEI programs are generally accepted and implemented approaches. also characterized by low responsiveness to labor There are relatively few professional BA programs in market needs, especially when green and digital technical fields with high labor market demand, transformation trends are considered. Funding such as ICT and engineering, which further limits schemes for HEIs are limited and insufficiently ori- the supply of graduates. Hence, the Slovak tertiary ented toward supporting the quality of institutions. education system needs to increase the supply of ed- The performance of Slovak HEIs in an international ucation programs that are more aligned with current context is unsatisfactory, with no Slovak universities and future labor market needs. listed in the top 500 ranking of the world’s best uni- Participation in adult education and lifelong versities. Low international competitiveness is re- learning activities is low and declining (Figure 3). flected in the decreasing number of students Adult education and vocational training in the 9  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Figure 3:  Adult learning participation rates in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, 2012–20 (%) 16 14 % of population aged 25–64 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 EU-27 Czechia Hungary Austria Poland Slovakia Trend - Slovakia Source: Eurostat (2022), Adult participation in learning, online data code: SDG_04_60. Participation in adult education and lifelong learning activities is low and declining Slovak education system are defined as further edu- program participation since 2018, when it reached 4 cation (considered a part of lifelong learning). Fur- percent of the adult population, after a slight in- ther education institutions provide both accredited crease in the period 2013–17. and non-accredited educational programs. There are Programme for the International Assessment of four main types of further education: (i) further vo- Adult Competencies (PIAAC) survey data for the cational education, (ii) re-qualification accredited Slovak Republic indicates some of the barriers to education, (iii) continuing education, and (iv) spe- increased participation in adult learning, with lack cial-interest education. Since adult learning is con- of employer support being reported twice as many sidered essential for boosting the skills of adults, times than in the OECD on average. OECD (2019e) especially in the context of automation and green also reports on large differences in participation and digital transformations, its development has rates between persons with and without children, been set as a strategic objective in all relevant na- while PIAAC data also reveals that adults in the Slo- tional development strategies and plans. However, vak Republic generally lack the motivation neces- only 32 percent of Slovak adults participated in for- sary to participate in adult education and learning. mal and/or non-formal education in 2012, which is Data shows that 64 percent of Slovak adults did not well below the OECD average of 50 percent (OECD, participate and did not want to participate in formal 2020). despite the general lack of digital and other and/or informal education, while 26 percent partic- problem-solving skills in technology-rich environ- ipated, but did not want to. Moreover, the inclusive- ments. The share of population ages 24 to 65 partici- ness index (OECD, 2019e), which measures partici- pating in learning is significantly below the EU-27 pation gaps between disadvantaged and more average, as well as below all the observed neighbor- advantaged adult learners in terms of their socio-de- ing countries, with only 2.8 percent of the adult pop- mographic and employment situation, indicates that ulation participating in learning in 2020. Moreover, the Slovak Republic ranks second to last among all there has been a constant decline in adult learning OECD countries. 10 1. Introduction science. Thus, the decline in student scores between 1.2. Quality of Education 2009 and 2018 puts it further below the EU-average. Survey results from the Slovak Republic indicate The bottom panel of Figure 4 shows changes in re- stable performance in primary schools but a de‑ sults for fourth grade students,3 the results for which cline of achievement in secondary schools. Figure 4 are more stable over time and closer to the EU aver- shows declining results in PISA (from 2003 to 2018), age than for secondary school students. TIMSS (from 2003 to 2019), and PIRLS (from 2001 to Secondary education performance in the Slovak 2016).2 Results for secondary school students show a Republic is much below the EU average. In pri- decline in all subjects, although the magnitude of mary school, performance in science and reading is changes and relation to the EU average varies across close to the EU average, while in secondary schools subjects. As reported by the OECD (2019a), despite a the Slovak Republic ranks in the bottom fifth of EU slight improvement in 2018 compared to 2015, over- countries. In mathematics, the results of 15-year- all educational outcomes (measured by PISA) are olds are better than in science or reading, and the weaker than in 2012, particularly in science, while results are also closer to the EU average. Figure 5 about a third of students are low performers in read- summarizes comparisons between primary and sec- ing, which is well below the OECD average. In ondary school taking average results from all recent mathematics, the performance declined signifi- assessments (after 2010) and comparing results be- cantly, with a more negative trend among the lowest tween the Slovak Republic and other EU countries. achieving students. In science, the decline is much In secondary school, all results are below the EU av- larger and achievement of 15-year-olds in the Slovak erage. In primary school, math performance lags as Republic decreased from the EU-average levels in in secondary schools; but in science and reading, 2003 to the bottom of the EU ranking in 2015 and there is no difference in performance of Slovak stu- 2018. In reading, the results for the Slovak Republic dents and fourth graders in other EU countries. are relatively lower than in mathematics and Figure 4:  Learning outcomes over time in the Slovak Republic compared to the EU countries Sources: PISA (from 2003 to 2018), TIMSS (from 2003 to 2019), and PIRLS (from 2001 to 2016). 11  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Figure 5:  Achievement difference between the Slovak Republic and other EU countries in international assessments after 2010 (%) 5 0 –5 –10 Percent –15 –20 –25 –30 –35 Math Science Reading Math Science Reading Secondary school (PISA) Primary school (TIMSS and PIRLS) Source: HLO World Bank database. In addition to below-average performance, 5.4 score points every three years, while the perfor- there is a declining trend in the performance of mance among the highest-performing students re- Slovak students from 2012 to 2018 (Figure 6). The mained relatively stable. decline has been recorded in reading and science, The proportion of students in the Slovak Re‑ while in mathematics there was a decrease in 2015 public who performed at the highest proficiency compared to 2012 and an increase in 2018 compared levels (level 5 or 6) in at least one subject is lower to 2012 and 2015. Moreover, skill levels of Slovak than the OECD average. In reading, only 5 percent students are below the OECD average in collabora- of students were top performers in reading, which is tive problem solving (2015), problem solving (2012), well below the OECD average of 9 percent. Similar and global competence (2018). results were recorded in science, in which 4 percent Overall, student performance in PISA is de‑ of Slovak students were top performers, while the creasing, with the gap with the OECD average OECD average was 7 percent in 2018. In mathemat- steadily widening over time. Mean performance in ics, 11 percent of Slovak students were top perform- science, reading, and mathematics has been declin- ers, which is at the level of the OECD average. ing since the first participation of Slovak Republic in The decline in achievement is larger among the PISA (Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9). Among students lowest achieving students in the Slovak Republic. with lowest performance, it declined on average by Figure 10 shows estimates of average three-year trend Figure 6:  Performance of Slovak students in mathematics, reading, and science, 2012–18 490 480 470 PISA score 460 450 440 430 Reading Mathematics Science 2012 2015 2018 Source: PISA 2012–18. 12 1. Introduction Figure 7:  Performance trends of Slovak pupils in reading, 2003–18 500 494 493 490 490 490 487 485 480 477 PISA score 470 469 466 463 460 458 453 450 440 430 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 Slovak Republic OECD average Trend (Slovak Republic) Source: PISA 2003–18. Figure 8:  Performance trends of Slovak pupils in mathematics, 2003–18 505 500 499 497 495 498 492 492 490 490 490 489 487 PISA score 485 486 482 480 475 475 470 465 460 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 Slovak Republic OECD average Trend (Slovak Republic) Source: PISA 2003–18. Figure 9:  Performance trends of Slovak pupils in science, 2006–15 510 500 498 498 495 490 490 491 488 PISA score 480 471 470 460 461 450 440 2006 2009 2012 2015 Slovak Republic OECD average Trend (Slovak Republic) Source: PISA 2006–15. 13  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC (2009–18) in percentiles of mathematics, science, and The performance of students in VET schools is reading performance across PISA assessments. In lower than in general schools, even when students’ general, the decline in science achievement is the socioeconomic background is taken into consider‑ largest. However, in all subjects the lowest achieving ation. Around one third of 15-year-olds attend students (10th percentile) lost more than the highest non-academic vocationally oriented schools. Figure achieving students (90th percentile), whereas the de- 11 shows that students attending general and VET cline in the second group (25th percentile) is only schools strongly differ in family background, with marginally less pronounced than in the case of low- lower socioeconomic status of VET students. This est achieving students. These results suggest that a partly explains the lower achievement of students in large population of students may eventually enter VET schools in terms of general skills in reading, the labor market with insufficient skills. mathematics, and science (Figure 12). Figure 10:  Decline in performance of secondary school students (age 15) in the Slovak Republic at different achievement levels, 2009–18 (%) 0 –2 –4 Percent –6 –8 –10 –12 10th percentile 25th percentile Median (50th percentile) 75th percentile 90th percentile Mathematics Science Reading Source: PISA (2009–18). Figure 11:  Distribution of socioeconomic status among general and VET students (2018) .5 Distribution of socioeconomic status .4 .3 .2 .1 0 –2 –1 0 1 2 Socioeconomic background (ESCS) VET General Source: PISA (2018). 14 1. Introduction Figure 12:  Student socioeconomic background and achievement in general and VET schools (2018) Source: PISA (2018). Average student socioeconomic background is relatively lower in the Slovak Republic compared to other OECD countries, which partly explains lower average achievement Average student socioeconomic background is countries with similarly low average socioeconomic relatively lower in the Slovak Republic compared background, such as Estonia and Poland, score far to other OECD countries, which partly explains above expectations. lower average achievement. Nevertheless, in sci- Achievement of the lowest performing students ence and reading the performance of the Slovak Re- in the Slovak Republic is low for all subjects based public students is below expectations. Figure 13 on socioeconomic background. Figure 14 shows a shows the relationship between country average similar relationship with socioeconomic background socioeconomic background and student achieve- and achievement as in Figure 13, but for the students ment for EU countries. In mathematics, average re- at the 10th percentile of distribution. In this case, re- sults are above the regression line meaning that stu- sults in the Slovak Republic are below the regression dents in the Slovak Republic achieve more than line in all subjects. While in all countries these stu- predicted based on their socioeconomic background. dents achieve much lower results than students with However, in science and even more in reading the average or higher socioeconomic background, in the results are below the prediction line. Some EU Slovak Republic their results are relatively lower 15  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Figure 13:  Average socioeconomic background and student achievement in EU countries (2018) Source: PISA (2018). Figure 14:  Relationship between 10th percentiles of socioeconomic background and student achievement in EU countries (2018) Source: PISA (2018). 16 1. Introduction than in other countries. In this case, high results of Es- tonian students with the least privileged background 1.3. The Slovak Republic within are an example that school systems can overcome the EU Green Growth Agenda challenges related to family status and resources. The Slovak Republic faces significant economic Underachievement in science and reading af‑ and social risks with adverse human development fects schools regardless of the socioeconomic back‑ consequences (Figure 16). These risks are due to the ground of students. Figure 15 shows how average rippling effects of the overlapping crises on the school socioeconomic background is related to economy, its over reliance on traditional heavy in- school achievement in the Slovak Republic com- dustries (for example, automobiles), and a low level pared to other EU countries. In mathematics, only of readiness toward a “green transition” of the labor Slovak schools with the lowest average socioeco- market. Education can play a critical role in mitigat- nomic status (SES) score below similar schools in ing the impacts of slow economic growth and weak- other EU countries. For most schools, performance ening of the social cohesion due to unemployment, matches the EU average or exceeds it. In science and migration, and regional imbalances. As the Slovak reading, however, schools in the Slovak Republic Republic is entering a new phase in the implementa- perform lower at all socioeconomic levels, which tion of its education strategy, especially with the cur- shows that underachieving in science and reading is rent efforts to modernize the national curriculum, a a general issue that needs to be tackled. strategic approach to human capital in the context of Underachievement in science and reading affects schools regardless of the socioeconomic background of students Figure 15:  School average socioeconomic background and performance in the Slovak Republic and other EU countries (2018) Source: PISA (2018). 17  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Figure 16:  The Slovak Republic’s human development challenges and World Bank Support Source: World Bank. green transition needs to be emphasized and resource-efficient, competitive, high-growth econ‑ well-coordinated. Figure 16 shows the World Bank omy with zero net emissions of greenhouse gases contribution to the human development challenges. by 2050 (Figure 17). Actions planned under the EGD As an EU member state, the Slovak Republic are oriented toward promoting a transition toward adheres to the European Green Deal (EGD), which low-carbon and climate-resilient economic activities. aims to be transform the EU into a modern, The EGD also entails the European Commission’s Figure 17:  The European Green Deal Source: EC (2020). 18 1. Introduction Reaping the benefits of green policies and investments takes time and is coupled with important distributional implications for jobs and workforce at the sectoral or regional level plan to define a taxonomy of skills for the green tran- submit to the European Commission (EC) their sition, and development of a set of indicators to RRPs for the investments, but also the accompany- monitor and analyze the development in greening of ing reforms to create enabling conditions to get bet- occupations. Finally, the EGD requires preparation ter value from the investments. One of the key areas of a European competence framework to help de- of the Slovak Republic’s RRP is education and spe- velop and assess knowledge, skills, and attitudes on cifically, the component on the 21st century skills. climate change and sustainable development and The component aims to help implement two of the share good practices across the EU (EC, 2020). EU’s RRF flagship areas: to modernize, as well as Reaping the benefits of green policies and in‑ reskill and upskill. The Strategy for Digital Transfor- vestments takes time and is coupled with import‑ mation of School Systems until 2030 and the related ant distributional implications for jobs and work‑ Action Plan until 2024, currently under preparation force at the sectoral or regional level. Ambitious by the Slovak Ministry of Education, Science, Re- policies to curb climate change and air pollution will search and Sport (MoE), as well as the upcoming translate into falling employment levels in car- EU’s Digital Education Action Plan (2021–2027), will bon-intensive heavy industries and fossil-fuel-ex- detail these reform programs further. tractive activities. Green industries such as sustain- Good practices from countries in a similar context able construction, renewable energy, sustainable should be used to enhance the scope of policy solu‑ transport, and advanced manufacturing are antici- tions. The analysis in the policy note will mostly iden- pated to be a source of job creation. The sectors that tify good practices from similar countries in the Eu- are expected to grow (mainly export-oriented indus- ropean Union, as the institutional context and policy tries and capital goods industries) will need addi- frameworks are like the Slovak Republic. The latter tional labor, while sectors expected to decline particularly applies to the EGD, the European Skills (mainly consumer goods production industries) will Agenda, and national RRPs (which share many sim- release labor. However, not all workers made redun- ilarities, including the emphasis on green and digital dant will find work in the new growing sectors, transitions). Examples of education system reforms which could lead to rising unemployment (Ministry and labor market policies will also be considered. of Economy, 2019: 238–240). Skill shortages related This policy note provides a contribution to iden‑ to digital and green transitions will need to be ad- tification and tackling of human development chal‑ dressed. Investments in both foundational and spe- lenges in the context of green transition. It aims to cific green and digital skills are necessary to under- assess the current education situation in the country take successful transition toward knowledge-based, and propose recommendations aiming at skilling low-carbon, more sustainable, and less resource-in- and reskilling agenda utilizing European and inter- tensive economies and societies. national experiences in these areas. The approach The EU’s support for the post COVID-19 eco‑ involves a brief analysis of key human development nomic and social recovery with a focus on the issues followed by an analysis of the current perfor- green and digital transition brings an impetus to mance in skills development and a vision for the fu- the Slovak Republic’s education reform. The EU ture. Finally, the document proposes policy options, offers to the Member States through the Recovery solutions, and good practice examples from other and Resilience Facility (RRF) grants and loans in EU countries, concluding with specific recommen- value of €672.5 billion. The Member States are to dations for the Slovak Republic. 19  2 SKILLS DEVELOPMENT: CURRENT PERFORMANCE AND A VISION FOR THE FUTURE 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future Initiative (CuRI) on VET provides important in- 2.1. Current Context and sights into how to address these skills gaps and mis- Approach toward Skills matches at the national level. One practical option is A Development through certification programs and innovation funds with focus on practical aspects toward work- cquisition of skills to meet the de‑ ing in green jobs. For example, flexibility in the VET mands of green and digital transitions system should be provided by vertical and horizon- has been a challenge in the Slovak Re‑ tal “permeability,” which allows high levels of study public, with no improvements in cur‑ or transfer between types of schools (World Bank, riculum design to address the gaps. Foundational 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022). and STEM skills, including skills in reading and sci- Education-to-work pathways do not offer the ence for students age 15, as measured by PISA, have stability or sufficient flexibility to easily align stu‑ been declining over time and lag their peers in other dent choices with needs of the labor market. To OECD countries. Lack of skill endowments among make the system more permeable and to improve Slovak youth are difficult to compensate for later in the quality of VET education in line with the EU life, and therefore should be promptly addressed by standards, after completion of compulsory educa- increasing enrollment in early childhood education tion, students can enroll themselves in a certification and care (especially among vulnerable groups), re- program, regardless of the track. In these programs, forms of the curricula, teacher training, and other students not only get trained academically but also measures. The national curriculum is centralized, work with employers receiving practical training in and schools have little autonomy and capacity to ad- key skills, which can eventually lead to placements/ just to student needs. Prior efforts to decentralize employment. For this model to work, it is critical curriculum changes have failed due to insufficient that the VET schools establish contracts with em- methodological support from the center, as well as ployers and set targets to ensure placements for for- lack of regional structure for curriculum manage- mal dual education students. ment. The framework for evaluating the impact of In addition to reforming secondary and tertiary the curriculum changes is absent. Teacher training is education, the changing nature of skills required in insufficient, and one third of teachers don’t feel well green and digital transitions will require additional prepared for work at school. According to the TALIS efforts in broadening adult education participation survey (2018), 40 percent of Slovak teachers stated (during employment and/or in-between jobs), there is no suitable offer for in-service training for which entails both policy support and a change in them. Slovak teachers expressed the need for train- behavior of labor market participants. Furthermore, ing in the fields of teaching children with special strengthening foundational skills in the vocational educational needs (22.2 percent), digital skills (17.7 curricula might be necessary to promote life-long percent), and teaching in a multicultural or multilin- learning among low-skilled adults. gual environment (15 percent). Adult education and training opportunities are Secondary vocational education and training not sufficient to maintain or upgrade the level of (VET) and tertiary education systems are not well skills needed. To do so, it will be necessary to im- aligned with the labor market. The educational cur- prove the governance of adult learning, as well as ricula and quotas for specific occupations are not the participation of both employed and unem- responsive to the current and future labor market ployed/inactive adults in it (OECD, 2020). Overall demand. The work within the Catching-Up Regions participation in adult training and education is Acquisition of skills to meet the demands of green and digital transitions has been a challenge in the Slovak Republic 21  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC above the EU average levels in the Slovak Republic youth in math, reading, information and communi- (Eurostat, TRNG_AES_100 indicator). However, ac- cation technology (ICT), and digital literacy are de- cording to EC (2016), participation in lifelong learn- creasing or stagnating at best. There are also strong ing by low-qualified adults remains four times lower skills mismatches among younger workers and ter- than that by those with tertiary qualifications. More- tiary-educated workers. The low responsiveness of over, the gap in the likelihood of participation in the secondary VET and tertiary education system adult education between the Slovak employed and has contributed to skills shortages and skills mis- unemployed adults is the largest within the OECD; matches, whereas emigration and brain drain have unemployed adults in the Slovak Republic are the been major drivers behind shortages (OECD, 2020; least likely to engage in learning among all OECD World Bank, 2019, 2020, 2021). Tertiary educational countries (OECD, 2020). Access to lifelong learning attainment has increased in the Slovak Republic sig- opportunities remains uneven across socioeconomic nificantly, reaching the average EU level of around groups within the working-age population, with vul- 39 percent in 2019 (Eurostat, SDG_04_20 indicator). nerable groups being particularly affected. As shown PIAAC data shows that the average numeracy skills by PIAAC data discussed later, the lower level of in the adult population are above the average OECD foundational skills among younger low-skilled adults level, and literacy skills are at the OECD average. might pose a barrier to participating in training. Facil- However, the share of adults able to solve advanced itating wide and inclusive participation is needed for problems and tasks on computers is below the the success of upskilling measures. OECD average. The share of adults without any The occupational composition of employment computer skills is larger than the OECD average. in the Slovak Republic is more strongly character‑ PIAAC data also shows that younger generations ized by changes in the level of specialization with the lowest education levels or vocational de- within occupations than by changes in industry grees score lower than older generations, suggesting size—which means that upskilling throughout the declining skills levels among lower educated adults. economy will be needed. While stronger occupa- It is also necessary to address current and ex‑ tion-specific and industry effects will lead to an in- pected skills imbalances, with a specific focus on creasing share of professionals, legislators, senior green skills. To meet the challenges of future devel- officials and managers, technicians, associates, and opment, a well-trained workforce and sufficient la- customer services clerks; on the other hand, the ex- bor supply are needed. The Slovak Republic’s score pected decrease in manufacturing jobs, consistent on the skills development indicators is average as with the low value added by the manufacturing sec- reflected in the European skills index, suggesting a tor, makes the Slovak Republic workers particularly significant mismatch between supply and demand susceptible to be replaced by automation (Cedefop, in terms of acquired skills and competences (Cede- 2020a,b). Due to the significant role of manufactur- fop, 2020b). Skills imbalances entail both skills short- ing, the country faces the highest risk of job automa- ages and skills mismatches, which may also encom- tion among OECD countries (Nedelkoska and pass qualifications or field-of-study mismatches. Quintini, 2018), which can only be mitigated by up- This issue can be addressed through generating and skilling and retraining of workers. disseminating information about labor market and There are significant skills shortages both skills needs, strengthening the responsiveness of the among higher and lower-skilled occupations. The education system to the labor market, and by attract- Slovak population, while still relatively young, is ing and retaining Slovak and foreign workers from ageing quickly and the skill levels of the Slovak other regions or from abroad (OECD, 2020). All Adult education and training opportunities are not sufficient to maintain or upgrade the level of skills needed 22 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future Internal migration within the Slovak Republic remains low, whereas emigration to other EU countries has been substantial these measures require policy support, especially to in the cost of living and a limited rental market pre- those who need to be incentivized to acquire new vent low-skilled internal migration. Emigration of skills and change jobs, occupations, or places where young and highly educated Slovaks intensified after they work and live. In addition to foundational the Slovak Republic entered the EU. It is estimated skills, an important role is played by the “green that approximately 300,000 individuals (5.5 percent skills,” which can be defined as the knowledge, abil- of the population) left the Slovak Republic between ities, values, and attitudes needed to live in, develop, 2002 and 2012, but some of them returned, especially and support a society that reduces the impact of hu- after 2016 (Guzi and Fabo, 2021). Emigration from man activity on the environment (Cedefop, 2012). the Slovak Republic primarily occurs for economic Given the scope of the green transition of economy reasons (Haluš et al., 2017), whereas returnees are and society, green skills are not restricted to specific usually motivated by family reasons (Rizman and occupations but need to be embedded in a variety of Sacherová, 2018). Future policies should also include occupations and jobs. measures that can facilitate brain circulation and im- While the regional development indicators migration of skilled workers into the Slovak Repub- from 2013 to 2019 point to slight convergence be‑ lic, including simplification of administrative proce- tween Bratislava and the other regions in the coun‑ dures (including recognition of qualifications) and try, there remain significant regional differences in targeted attraction of students, start-ups, and for- education levels. Regional GDP and gross value eign direct investment in knowledge-intensive added grew faster in less developed regions. The activities. number of SMEs increased by 5.7 percent, with the Attracting and maintaining talents has been a highest growth rate (7.2 percent) in Bratislava, and challenge. Among EU countries, the Slovak Repub- the lowest (3.6 percent) in the western regions. The lic has the second highest share of students in ter- labor force is becoming more educated over time, tiary education enrolled abroad. The share of stu- but education levels vary across regions. In dents who choose to leave the Slovak Republic for Bratislava, almost half of the labor force has obtained university study reached 17 percent in 2019; 70 per- tertiary education, whereas it is only a quarter of the cent of these students enrolled in Czech universities labor force in less developed regions. Moreover, be- due to proximity, the lack of language barrier, and tween 2013 and 2019, the regional mismatch differ- better reputation of the institutions (Guzi and Fabo, ences narrowed and the share of overeducated or 2021). Best-performing graduates at secondary undereducated workers became more even between schools have a higher probability of leaving the regions. The risk of underqualification is highest in country for study; most Slovak students enrolled in the Bratislava region, due to high qualification re- Czech universities study ICT (20 percent), engineer- quirements. In all regions, the highest risk of under- ing (17 percent), or medicine (15 percent) (Martinák qualification has been observed in the age group of and Varsik, 2020). In contrast, the enrollments of for- experienced workers (50–64 years). Labor costs per eign students in Slovak universities are low and employee grew most in the western region, which therefore cannot compensate the outflow of students has likely been driven by the high concentration of (Guzi and Fabo, 2021). the automotive industry and the shortage of work- The deep differences in the country’s regional ers in this region (Guzi and Fabo, 2021). economic development as well as between urban Internal migration within the Slovak Republic and rural areas threaten to undermine the social remains low, whereas emigration to other EU coun‑ fabric of the Slovak society. Little progress has been tries has been substantial. The growing differences made in the inclusion of marginalized communities 23  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC (EC, 2018; Guzi and Fabo, 2021). Reform of the edu- point out that Slovak education system ensures av- cation system should increase its contribution to so- erage level of literacy and numeracy in the popula- cial integration of children and youth coming from tion that completed the secondary level of educa- disadvantaged groups and communities and endow tion, when compared to neighboring countries and them with sufficient skills to successfully enter the OECD average (Figure 18). labor market and participate in lifelong learning. While adult skills measured in 2011–12 show Where necessary, ALMP measures should facilitate nearly equal results for age groups from 16 to 44 activation, reskilling, and upskilling of such individ- years, declining PISA results indicate a future de‑ uals. The current spending on ALMPs in the Slovak cline in adult skills (Figure 19). In most countries, Republic is among the lowest in the OECD and is not skills increase with age until 30 years and then de- sufficiently directed toward training measures cline after 40 years, reflecting declining cognitive (OECD, 2022). ability due to aging. The age-skills profile observed in 2011–12 in the Slovak Republic (blue line) shows relatively higher skills of the youngest cohorts and 2.2. Skills of Adult Population less rapid decline than average for older cohorts, probably due to differential quality of education and The Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) results indi‑ attainment levels for different cohorts. Although cate that the Slovak population scores at the aver‑ there is no recent data, the gap in PISA scores be- age level in literacy, above average in numeracy, tween the Slovak Republic and 18 countries that par- and below average in problem solving in a tech‑ ticipated in both PISA and PIAAC indicated nega- nology-rich environment in comparison with the tive trends in the future. The average gap in OECD countries (OECD, 2019c).4 These results mathematics from 2012 to 2018 is equal to 26 points Slovak adults score average in literacy, above average in numeracy, and below average in problem solving in a technology-rich environment in comparison with the OECD countries Figure 18:  Performance in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries (PIAAC 2011–12) 280 32 35 33 29 30 275 30 26 25 PIAAC mean score 270 20 Percent 19 265 15 260 10 255 5 250 0 Austria Czech Republic Hungary OECD average Poland Slovak Republic Literacy (mean score) Numeracy (mean score) Problem solving in technology-richenvironments (% at Level 2 or 3) Source: Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). 24 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future Figure 19:  Achievement by age among adults in the Slovak Republic (PIAAC 2011–18) 285 280 275 270 PIAAC score 265 260 255 250 245 240 235 16–24 25–34 35–44 45–44 56–65 Age PIAAC in the Slovakia Republic 2011–12 Typical PIAAC age profile adjusted for Slovak Republic PIAAC age profile PISA 2012–18 results in the Slovak Republic adjusted for decline in PISA Source: Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). ICT and problem-solving skills in the Slovak Republic are similar to neighboring countries, with somewhat lower shares of adults with lowest and highest skill levels on the PISA scale, which is equivalent to roughly 13 literacy skills in the youngest cohorts than in mathe- points on the PIAAC scale. Thus, we can expect the matics and numeracy. numeracy skills in the Slovak Republic declined by ICT and problem-solving skills in the Slovak this amount for the youngest cohorts and simulate Republic are similar to neighboring countries, numeracy skills for the working population in the with somewhat lower shares of adults with lowest future. We can either assume that skills in the Slovak and highest skill levels (Figure 20). The share of Republic will change with age following average adults with no computer experience in the Slovak skills by age for the 18 reference countries (orange Republic amounted to 22 percent in 2018, which is line) or, less realistically, that skills will continue to significantly above the OECD average of 11.7 per- change with age similarly to what was observed in cent, as well as above the shares in the observed the Slovak Republic in 2011–12 (grey line). Figure 19 neighboring countries. At the same time, the share of shows these simulated age-skills profile assuming adults who failed the ICT core is below the OECD that the results will decline as in PISA for the young- average (2.2 percent compared to 4,7 percent), while est cohorts. The orange line shows that the quality of comparison with the neighboring countries indi- human capital will decline more rapidly in the Slo- cates that only Hungary has a larger share of adults vak Republic in the future. Cohorts of the youngest who failed the ICT core (1.8 percent). The Slovak Re- adults entering the labor market will likely have public has relatively low share of adults who scored lower numeracy skills, and older workers’ skills will below Level 1 in problem solving in technology-rich likely decline. The estimates for literacy are more environments (8.9 percent), which is well below the pessimistic as both PISA and PIAAC results in the OECD average of 14.6 percent, and below all ob- Slovak Republic show lower levels of reading/ served neighboring countries. On the other hand, 25  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Figure 20:  Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%) Slovak Republic 12.2 24.2 37.7 25.7 Poland 23.8 26.0 31.0 19.2 OECD average 10.0 16.4 42.9 29.8 Hungary 13.7 14.4 42.7 28.5 Czech Republic 12.1 12.5 41.7 33.1 Austria 11.3 13.6 40.8 32.4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage of population ages 16–65 scoring at each proficiency level Opted out of the assessment Failed the ICT core or had no computer experience Below Level 1 and Level 1 Level 2 and 3 Source: Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). There is increasing demand from the labor market to better equip the students for the 21st century skills, but almost half of adult Slovaks do not have basic digital skills the Slovak Republic also accounts for the lowest who state that they have at least basic digital skills share of adults who scored Level 3 in problem-solv- decreased from 59 percent in 2017 to 54 percent in ing in technology-rich environments (2.9 percent), 2020 (compared to the EC’s target of 70 percent), ac- compared to the OECD average (5.1percent) and cording to the Eurostat (2020). Most young people neighboring countries, among which results vary have above basic digital skills, but gaps are emerg- from 3.8 percent in Poland to 6.6 percent in Czech ing, as 20 percent of secondary school students from Republic. When it comes to share of adults scoring disadvantaged backgrounds lacks access to a com- Level 1, the Slovak Republic is close to the OECD puter for schoolwork.6 average (28.8 percent in the Slovak Republic, 28.3 The Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), percent OECD average). which measures performance of EU countries in There is increasing demand from the labor mar‑ digitization, ranks the Slovak Republic as 22 nd ket to better equip the students for the 21st century among 27 EU member states in 2021 (EC, 2021). On skills, but almost half of adult (16–74 years) Slo‑ the human capital dimension, the Slovak Republic vaks do not have basic digital skills.5 According to ranks 19th in the EU-27 and is below the EU average, the EU’s New Skills agenda (EC, 2016), digital skills, with 54 percent of population with at least basic dig- critical thinking, problem-solving, and entrepre- ital skills (EU average of 56 percent) and 27 percent neurship are among the key 21st century skills. Yet, a with above-average digital skills (EU average of quarter of the Slovak Republic’s adult population 31percent) (Table 1). has no experience with computers. The Slovak Re- The share of enterprises providing ICT training public ranked 22nd among EU countries on the Digi- was 16 percent, which is also below the EU average tal Skills Index and the share of Slovaks ages 16–74 of 20 percent in 2021, with a decreasing trend since 26 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future Table 1:  DESI Human Capital Dimension 2021—Slovak Republic and EU Slovak Republic EU DESI: Human Capital Dimension DESI 2019 DESI 2020 DESI 2021 DESI 2021 1a1 At least basic digital skills (% individuals) 59 54 54 56 1a2 Above basic digital skills (% individuals) 33 27 27 31 1a3 At least basic software skills (% individuals) 63 56 56 58 1b1 ICT specialists (% individuals in employment age 15–74) 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.3 1b2 Female ICT specialists (% individuals) 13 14 16 19 1b3 Enterprises providing ICT training (% individuals) 18 18 16 20 1b4 ICT graduates (% graduates) 3.3 3.9 3.9 3.9 Source: EC, (2021). 2019. The number of ICT specialists, measured as a Inspectorate (EC, 2021) estimates that 45 percent of percentage of employed persons ages 15–74, has schools do not employ even one qualified ICT been gradually increasing and amounted to 4.2 per- teacher. cent in 2021, which is slightly below the EU average Based on the available data, the level of skills of 4.3 percent. The share of female ICT specialists (16 mismatches in the Slovak Republic tends to be percent) is also below the EU average (20 percent). close to the OECD average and to its neighboring Some estimates (EC, 2021) indicate that the educa- countries (Figure 21). PIAAC also provides insights tion sector has the largest digital skills mismatches regarding skills and qualification mismatches, in- and needs for ICT specialization, with about 10,000 cluding skills mismatches in qualifications, field of ICT experts currently needed. study, and skills. Qualification mismatches arise There is a general lack of digital skills and in‑ when workers’ educational attainment levels are frastructure in the Slovak Republic (EC, 2021). Due higher or lower than required for their jobs. Skills to this scarcity, access to education was significantly mismatches arise when workers have skills levels limited in some schools and for a part of students that are higher or lower than required for their jobs. during the COVID-19 pandemic, when distance Field-of-study mismatches arise when workers are learning was introduced. The Slovak School employed in a different field than they specialized in. Figure 21:  Mismatches in qualifications in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%) Austria 20.98 14.12 OECD average 21.73 12.45 Hungary 23.99 8.08 Czech Republic 20.62 7.85 Poland 16.37 9.21 Slovak Republic 18.03 4.08 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Percentage of mismatched workers Over-qualified Under-qualified Source: Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). 27  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC The share of under-qualified workers in the for their job (OECD average is 3.98 percent). In the Slovak Republic is low, whereas the share of case of over-skilled workers, the Slovak Republic re- over-qualified workers is relatively close to the corded a higher share (11.9 percent) than the OECD OECD average. The share of under-qualified work- average (11.0 percent). However, the share of over- ers in the Slovak Republic (4.08 percent) is signifi- skilled workers is lower in the Slovak Republic than cantly below the OECD average of 12.45 percent. It Austria and the Czech Republic, and higher than in is also well below the share of under-qualified work- Hungary and Poland (Figure 22). ers in the observed neighboring countries, which When it comes to skills mismatches related to range from 9.21 percent in Poland to 14.12 percent in the field of study, the Slovak Republic is slightly Austria. In the case of over-qualified workers, the below the OECD average (38 percent compared to Slovak Republic records a slightly lower share of 40 percent) and close to incidence of the observed over-qualified workers (18.03 percent), compared to neighboring countries (Figure 23). However, the re- the OECD average of 21.73 percent. sult is not negligible when it is considered that about When mismatches in numeracy are observed, 38 percent of Slovak workers are in jobs that are not the Slovak Republic is close to OECD average with related to their field of study. These results, although 3.51 percent share of workers who are under-skilled comparable with the OECD average, do indicate Figure 22:  Mismatches in numeracy in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%) Austria 17.85 1.90 OECD average 10.99 3.98 Hungary 7.86 4.86 Czech Republic 13.49 2.71 Poland 11.18 1.38 Slovak Republic 11.87 3.51 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Percentage of mismatched workers Over-skilled Under-skilled Source: Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). Figure 23:  Mismatches in fields of study in the Slovak Republic and neighboring countries, PIAAC 2011–12 (%) 45 40.85 40.01 40 38.24 38.34 Percentahe of mismatched workers 35.40 35 30 27.99 25 20 15 10 5 0 Slovak Republic Poland Czech Republic Hungary OECD average Austria Source: Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). 28 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future insufficient alignment of education program selec- higher in the Slovak Republic than on average in tion with labor market needs, as well as a general other EU countries. nature of secondary education. People in green jobs have better formal qualifi‑ Like other countries, adults in brown jobs in the cations—on average, they have 13.4 years of school‑ Slovak Republic have on average lower founda‑ ing compared to 11.8 for people in brown jobs. Fig- tional skills than adults in green jobs. PIAAC data ure 25 compares the distribution for 5–25 years of provide information about ISCO classification of oc- schooling. In both groups most workers have around cupations, which can be used to classify jobs into 13 years of schooling, but in green jobs many more green and brown.7 Figure 24 compares numeracy, workers have higher qualifications and in brown literacy, and problem-solving skills among adults in jobs more workers have relatively little schooling. brown and green jobs in the Slovak Republic and Regarding age, both groups are similar, but in green other EU countries. The overall level of skills is jobs there are more women. Figure 24:  Average numeracy, literacy, and problem-solving skills—comparison between green and brown jobs in EU and the Slovak Republic (PIAAC 2011–12) 300 290 280 PIAAC score 270 260 250 240 Literacy Numeracy Problem solving Brown Slovakia Green Slovakia Brown EU Green EU Source: World Bank calculation based on PIAAC data. Figure 25:  Years of schooling distribution in green and brown jobs in the EU, PIAAC 2011–12 Source: World Bank calculation based on PIAAC data. 29  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC In both the Slovak Republic and other EU coun‑ The country ranks 22nd in the European Skills In- tries, adults in green jobs use skills at home and at dex (ESI), a composite indicator measuring the per- work more often. Adults employed in brown jobs formance of European skills systems8 on skills devel- have lower foundational skills and use skills at home opment, activation, and matching. In addition to EU or work less often (Figure 26). They also are less pre- countries, skills systems performance is also mea- pared to learn on their own and less often report sured in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, learning new things at work. They less often do jobs and Iceland. Compared to 2020, the Slovak Repub- that provide task discretion and have on average lic’s position remains unchanged, placing it among less years of formal education. Summing up, the dif- the “middle-achieving” countries, with ample op- ferences between green and brown jobs in the Slovak portunities for improvement. Republic are similar to other EU countries. Adults in The performance in skills development in the brown jobs are less skilled and less prepared for fur- Slovak Republic is inconsistent, pointing to a lack ther learning. These results suggest that moving of strategic direction and efficiency of the system from brown to green jobs could require significant and a poor performance in foundational skills and upskilling. lifelong learning (Figure 27). In the case of the skills development pillar, the Slovak Republic ranks 16th among 31 countries. Its relative strengths are in up- 2.3. Skills Systems Performance per secondary education (and above) (ranked 4th) in the EU context and in VET students (ranked 6th). The performance Compared to other European countries, the Slovak in recent training (ranked 26th) is particularly weak. Republic is positioned in the middle in terms of As analyzed above, reading, math, and science skills development, in the top third category for scores (ranked 26th) and high digital skills are also skills matching, but performs poorly in skills activa‑ inadequate (22nd). Pre-primary pupil-to-teacher ra- tion, resulting in below-average overall performance. tio is average (ranked 14th). In both the Slovak Republic and other EU countries, adults in green jobs use skills at home and at work more often Figure 26:  Usage of skills at home and at work—comparison between green and brown jobs in EU and the Slovak Republic, PIAAC 2011–12 2.5 2.0 PIAAC score 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Usage of skills at home Usage of skills at work Usage of planning and influence skills at work Brown Slovakia Green Slovakia Brown EU Green EU Source: World Bank calculation based on PIAAC data. 30 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future Skills activation is a particular weakness of the In the case of the skills activation pillar, Slovak Re- Slovak skills system, as both transitions to work public ranks 10th out of 31 countries. The perfor- and labor market participation are insufficient mance could have been even stronger, but the indi- (Figure 28). In the case of the skills activation pillar, cator of long-term unemployment (ranked 28th) the Slovak Republic ranks 26th out of 31 countries. points toward the need for effective reskilling, up- The only mildly encouraging indicator is recent skilling, and ALMPs addressed toward individuals graduates in employment (ranked 13th). Three other and groups who are or might become affected by indicators demonstrate rather inadequate perfor- long-term inability to find a job. On the other hand, mance: early leavers from education & training the Slovak Republic is a leader on the skills match- (ranked 27th), activity rates (ages 20–24) (ranked ing sub-pillar, which comprises low-waged workers 23rd), and activity rates (ages 25–54) (ranked 28th). (ISCED 5–8) (ranked 1st) and qualification mismatch Skills matching is the strongest dimension of (ranked 2nd). Underemployed part-timers are also the skills system in the Slovak Republic, but long- well- positioned (ranked 6th). term unemployment is still a challenge (Figure 29). Figure 27:  Skills development in the Slovak Republic (ESI 2022) Basic education Pre-primary pupil-to-teacher ratio 61 Upper secondary attainment (and above) 90 Reading, maths and science scores 35 Training and other education Recent training 6 VET students 87 High digital skills 34 Source: Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). Figure 28:  Skills activation in the Slovak Republic (ESI 2022) Transition to work Early leavers from education & training 36 Recent graduates in employment 59 Labour market participation Activity rate (aged 25-54) 39 Activity rate (aged 20-24) 21 Source: Cedefop (2022). Figure 29:  Skills matching in the Slovak Republic (ESI 2022) Skills utilisation Long-term unemployment 40 Underemployed part-timers 92 Skills mismatch Low waged workers (ISCED 5-8) 92 Qualification mismatch 86 Source: Cedefop (2022). 31  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC cross-cutting priorities with the accompanying mea- 2.4. Toward a Vision for the sures to increase the performance of the Slovak edu- Future cation system. Strategic objectives include: (i) im- Addressing the triad of needed reforms—enhanced proving the quality of education, (ii) increasing the curriculum, improved learning outcomes, and en‑ availability of quality education and training, and abled education system to respond to rising chal‑ (iii) modernization of education and training. These lenges—requires an emerging policy response by strategic objectives are further strengthened by the education policy makers. The new government, cross-cutting priorities: (i) integration and inclusion in power after 2020 elections, announced that a sys- of marginalized Roma communities and students temic curricular reform is necessary. The newly ap- from socially disadvantaged backgrounds, (ii) link- pointed Minister of Education, with the team from the ing the education system with the needs of the econ- National Institute for Education (NIE), prepared a omy and the labor market, and (iii) development of proposal on “Education for the XXI Century” con- the non-formal education system. NPRVV includes 12 objectives and 106 mea‑ taining a framework for the systemic Basic-School sures and is supported by an implementation plan curricular reform. The strategy, proposing a curricu- consisting of 5 action plans, each covering a two- lar reform, focuses on changes five areas: 1) securing year period. Measures are organized in line with the better education outcomes of students mainly in a education levels and primarily include increasing field of basic literacy (above OECD’s average) and 2) the efficiency of funding allocation, introduction of setting educational goals and providing content rel- new financing schemes for education institutions, evant for the needs of the modern (and future) soci- improvement of work conditions for teaching staff ety; 3) reforming the process of teaching to switch and availability of professional training, modifica- from provision of encyclopedic knowledge to devel- tion of curricula and improvement of student testing opment of competencies; 4) focusing on student-cen- frameworks, increasing the accessibility and inclu- tered education respecting individual needs and en- siveness of quality education for all, alignment of hancing the developmental potential of each student; the education programs with labor market needs, and 5) strengthening school autonomy, all of which are and increasing the participation of Slovak HEIs in critical to address the above mentioned challenges. the European Research Area (ERA). Overall, significant efforts need to be invested The following measures to develop the education to ensure alignment of the skills of the Slovak pop‑ system are included in the Slovak Republic’s NRP: ulation and educational outcomes with the needs of the labor market and new skills necessary for • Everyone has enough opportunities and incen- green and digital transition. This has been recog- tives to develop their potential in the lifelong nized by Slovak government, which made improv- learning process. ing the performance of the education system a na- • Suitable conditions are created for equal educa- tional development priority in main development tion of all citizens of the Slovak Republic, includ- strategies and investment plans. ing members of national minorities. While there is a plethora of defined visions, ob‑ jectives, and priorities for human development in • Educational opportunities are made available to the country, the implementation is often inade‑ all individuals throughout their lives, with equal quate . The efficiency of implementation of the access to education and, where necessary, equal- planned reforms is often insufficient to achieve the ization measures for children from socially disad- expected results. Moreover, coordination and coop- vantaged backgrounds, socially excluded com- eration between different government stakeholders munities, and children with disabilities. needs to be further strengthened to minimize the • people have been able to receive an education current fragmentation of policy design and imple- that will enable them to develop in a comprehen- mentation, as well as pronounced departmentalism sive way and to fulfill individual personal goals of Slovak public administration, which hinders the with regard to the needs of society, the promotion effectiveness of policy design and delivery. of social cohesion and economic prosperity, The National Program for Development of Edu‑ cation (NPRVV; “Learning Slovakia”) 2018–2027 • Part of the learning of every individual is the for- (Ministry of Education, 2018) clearly identifies a 10- mation of a system of values and attitudes that year direction for development of Slovak education. are based on the principles of democratic social It contains three strategic objectives and three order, fundamental rights, and freedoms, to help 32 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future prepare individuals for life in a democratic and 1. Support the digital transformation of schools and pluralistic society. education to ensure their quality, improve the employment preconditions, and acquire the skills • Formal education is an important, but not the needed for the digital age (short term). only, supported form of meaningful learning, be- 2. An educated, healthy and secure society (long cause one also learns through non-formal educa- term)— tion and informal learning. • Implement a comprehensive systemic change • Educational programs should be constantly im- of education for the labor market require- proved and innovated based on functional feed- ments in the digital age and the conditions of back mechanisms and its evaluation. building an information society • Develop a system for providing training, • This system will also support the participation courses, lifelong and formal education, re- and cooperation of all actors in education, includ- training, and other forms of special training to ing children and pupils. improve advanced digital skills • Any major changes in the system will only be • Support the search, acquisition, and develop- made based on a broad professional and public ment of the domestic and foreign talents for debate, in which the widest possible social agree- the private and public sectors. ment will be reached. The National Skills Strategy project was imple‑ The Strategy of the Environmental Policy of the mented by the OECD, Slovak Project Team, and Slovak Republic until 2030 (Ministry of Environ‑ European Commission to provide input on the im‑ ment, 2019) defines the vision, sets objectives, pro‑ plementation of the NPRVV and support the Slo‑ poses a framework for measures, and lists indica‑ vak Republic in its reform agenda. As a result, the tors to achieve better environmental quality and a “OECD Skills Strategy Slovak Republic: Assessment sustainable economy. The strategy lists environ- and Recommendation” was published in 2020 mental education and education for sustainable de- (OECD, 2020). The document identifies four priority velopment as major priorities. In cooperation with areas and provides accompanying recommenda- central government authorities and their profes- tions for each of the identified priority areas, as pre- sional organizations, academia, non-governmental sented in Table 2 below. organizations, and municipalities, the system of for- The Strategy for Lifelong Learning and Coun‑ mal and informal environmental education and selling 2021–2030 was adopted by the Government training for sustainable development at all levels is of the Slovak Republic in November 2021 (Eury- to become more developed and efficient. Environ- dice, 2022). It covers four thematic areas: qualifica- mental education is expected to receive special at- tions, basic skills and civic education, governance, tention through the action plans for the implementa- and citizens’ motivation for lifelong learning. The area tion of the National Program of Education and of qualifications focuses on secondary education; in- Training. Formal education is to be complemented crease in the attractiveness and quality of vocational by informal learning through educational activities education and training (including the creation of Cen- and campaigns promoting responsible production, ters of Excellence); and further development of the consumption, and nature conservation. Slovak Qualifications Framework and the National The 2030 Strategy for Digital Transformation of Qualifications Framework through the system for the the Slovak Republic (MIRRI, 2019) aims to mod‑ recognition of non-formal education and informal ernize the Slovak economy with innovative and learning results. Increasing the flexibility of the quali- environmentally friendly industrial solutions, en‑ fication system is planned to be achieved through the abled through a knowledge-based data economy creation of smaller qualifications and so-called mi- by 2030. It is a framework cross-sectional govern- cro-qualifications (micro-certificates) and support is ment strategy that defines development policy and also being prepared for the introduction of short study priorities of the Slovak Republic in the context of programs at universities or secondary vocational digital transformation. Measures have been de- schools. The part covering basic skills and civic educa- signed to be implemented within the short-term tion focuses on the establishment of a National Initia- (2019–22) and long-term (2022–30) horizons, in line tive for the Improvement of Basic Skills and pilot in- with the priorities defined for each time horizon. Pri- tervention programs, as well as on the promotion of ority areas related to education and skills include: adult civic education. The third and fourth parts of the 33  34 Table 2:  OECD skills strategy for the Slovak Republic—priority areas and recommendations Priority area Opportunity Recommendations 1. Strengthening the Opportunity 1: Increasing enrollment in pre-primary education, • Improving the availability of pre-primary schools in disadvantaged regions skills of youth especially among vulnerable groups • Lowering the perceptional and financial barriers that prevent disadvantaged groups from enrolling in pre-primary education Opportunity 2: Supporting schools and teachers in their work with • Providing targeted support to vulnerable students vulnerable students • Identifying schools and students at risk Opportunity 3: Building a strong teaching workforce • Enhancing the practical aspects of curricula in initial teacher training • Improving the professional development of teachers • Supporting teacher career advancement 2. Reducing skills Opportunity 1: Improving the dissemination of information on labor • Strengthening the dissemination of information from Social Analysis and Action tools to all users imbalances market and skills needs Opportunity 2: Strengthening the responsiveness of students and their • Improving the direct dissemination of information to students and their families families to labor market needs • Expanding career guidance in schools and universities Opportunity 3: Strengthening the responsiveness of secondary VET • Supporting recent reforms in secondary vocational education and training (VET) institutions and tertiary education institutions to labor market needs • Strengthening incentives to align tertiary education with labor market needs Opportunity 4: Moving from “brain drain” to “brain gain” • Attracting Slovak workers from abroad • Attracting foreign workers from abroad 3. Fostering greater Opportunity 1: Improving the governance of adult learning • Further improving the Slovak Republic’s long-term adult learning strategy participation in adult • Improving co-ordination across ministries, levels of government, and stakeholders learning Opportunity 2: Increasing the participation among adults out of work • Providing high-quality and accessible training • Strengthening the outreach of labor offices Opportunity 3: Supporting the capacity of employees and firms to • Designing targeted incentives that reflect labor market needs engage in adult learning 4. Strengthening Opportunity 1: Creating the conditions to facilitate the adoption of • Creating a supportive working environment for employees the use of skills in High Performance Work Practice in Slovak firms • Strengthening the skills and motivation of management staff workplaces • Developing entrepreneurial attitudes from early on in the education system Opportunity 2: Providing incentives and support to Slovak firms for the • Raising awareness of skills use, workplace practices, and support measures adoption of High Performance Work Practice • Strengthening and expanding support measures to firms • Leveraging employer groups, clusters, and sectoral associations for the adoption of High Performance HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Work Practice and to facilitate knowledge spillovers Opportunity 3: Enhancing the governance of policies and strategies • Strengthening visions, strategies, and action plans for the growth and innovation of firms and workplaces that affect skills use • Applying a whole-of-government approach and engaging stakeholders in policies that affect skills use • Enhancing the adoption of High Performance Work Practice in the public sector to raise effectiveness and efficiency Source: OECD (2020). 2.  Skills Development: Current Performance and a Vision for the Future Strategy address the supra-ministerial nature of life- approaches; enhancing digital skills of teachers; in- long learning and counselling and the motivation of vestments into digitization of schools; and ensuring citizens for lifelong learning. These goals are planned scholarships to improve access to higher education. to be achieved by creating a comprehensive system The RRP consists of 18 components, out of which for tracking school graduates and supporting the sus- there are four components relevant for the area of tainability of the sector council management system, education, with a total allocation of €1,142.44 mil- with a focus on the transfer of innovation processes lion. The overview of components, reforms, and in- and labor market requirements to lifelong learning. vestments relevant for the area of education are pro- The harmonization of the lifelong guidance system vided in Table 3 below. will be an integral part of the activities and the The main objective of the MoE’s RRP reforms is strengthening of motivations for the participation of to improve the quality of education processes individuals in lifelong learning will also be possible through changes in curricular content and form of through the introduction of the individual education delivery as well as the teacher training. This should accounts scheme. subsequently get reflected in improvement of stu- The National Recovery and Resilience Plan of dents’ results in international testing, especially in the Slovak Republic (RRP, 2021) brings a combina‑ literacy, critical thinking, and digital skills. The spe- tion of wide-ranging and complementary reforms cific objective for the digital skills is in line with the and investments which address the specific chal‑ EU Reskill and Upskill target, that is, to reduce the lenges of the Slovak Republic. Defined reforms proportion of pupils with insufficient basic digital and investments aim to accelerate the transition to- skills to 15 percent by 2030. As outlined in Figure 30, ward a more sustainable, low-carbon, and resilient the plan includes a set of investments and reforms. economy; facilitate the digital transformation; and to reinforce social resilience by improving quality of The investments target two main areas, school digi- education and healthcare. In the area of education, tal infrastructure (ICT, internet connectivity, and on- planned measures tackle all education levels and in- line learning platforms) and school building infra- clude reforms of pre-primary education, school cur- structure (upgrade of buildings to improve their ricula, teacher training, higher education, and the quality and capacities, mainly to reduce the two- counselling system. Special emphasis has been put shift operation, and build or modernize school li- on ensuring inclusiveness, school desegregation, braries). The reforms in turn focus on the curricular and mitigating the effects of COVID pandemic on changes and teacher training, mainly adjustments in students and the labor market (Machlica, 2020). the content and form of delivery of the curriculum, Some of the activities planned include training of at adjustments in curriculum management structure, least 10,000 teachers, primarily in pre-primary and textbooks, assessment, and finally upskilling the primary education and specialist staff of inclusive teachers to be able to deliver the adjusted content. Figure 30:  RRP component skills for the 21st century Source: World Bank, based on the Slovak Republic’s RRP (2021). 35  36 Table 3:  Overview of the Slovak Republic RRP components and reforms relevant for education Component Reforms and investments Component 6: Accessibility, • Reform 1: Providing conditions for the implementation of compulsory pre-primary education for children from the age of 5 and introducing a legal development, and quality of entitlement to a place in kindergarten or other pre-primary education providers from the age of 3 inclusive education • Reform 2: The definition of the concept of special educational needs of children and pupils and the development of a model for eligible support measures in education, including their funding system • Reform 3: Reforming the system of counselling and prevention and ensuring systematic data collection in the field of mental health promotion for children, pupils, and students • Reform 4: Implementation of tools to prevent early school leaving and adapt F-type study program • Reform 5: Promoting school desegregation • Reform 6: Compensatory measures to mitigate the impact of the pandemic in education for primary and secondary school pupils • Investment 1: Removing barriers in school buildings Component 7: Education for • Reform 1: Reform of the content and form of education (curricular and textbook reform) the 21st century • Reform 2: Preparing and developing teachers for new content and forms of teaching (change in higher education training) and strengthening the professional development of teachers • Investment 1: Digital infrastructure in schools • Investment 2: Completion of the school infrastructure Component 8: Improving • Reform 1: Change in the funding of universities by introduction of performance contracts the performance of Slovak • Reform 2: Introduction of a system of periodic scientific performance evaluation universities • Reform 3: A new approach to accreditation of higher education • Reform 4: Reform of the governance of universities • Reform 5: Concentration of excellent educational and research capacities • Investment 1: Investment support for the strategic development of universities Component 10: Attracting • Reform 1: Reform of residence and labor legislation and retaining talents • Reform 2: Simplification of the regime for the recognition of qualifications and professional qualifications for the exercise of regulated professions • Investment 1: Support tools and assistance for returnees, highly qualified third-country workers and their family members and foreign higher education students studying in the Slovak Republic • Investment 2: Strengthening relations with the diaspora, supporting citizens’ initiatives • Investment 3: Scholarships for domestic and foreign talented students HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC • Investment 4: Promoting internationalization in the academic environment Source: World Bank, based on the Slovak Republic’s RRP (2021). Note: While investments support a fast recovery, in line with the objectives of the EU, structural reforms aim at long-lasting improvements. 3 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND GOOD PRACTICE EXAMPLES HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC opportunities from collaboration on green skills de- 3.1. Strategic Approach to velopment. The disconnect between strategic frame- Human Capital in the Context works related to green development in general and of Green Transition T the skills required to achieve it is also translated into institutional set-ups related to green skills. Namely, he green and digital transition poses there are weak linkages between the organizations unique challenges to countries, requiring involved in national policy making on environmen- for a coherent and strategic response. tal topics and the organizations involved in labor There is no comprehensive EU-level strat- markets and skills policy, including skills anticipa- egy on improving education and training on green tion (Cedefop, 2019). skills and competences, developing green school The Slovak Republic has both an opportunity strategies, and providing upskilling and reskilling to and need to implement a comprehensive skills adults at and beyond the workplace (EESC, 2021). strategy related to green jobs. As in several other The EU deals with education policy in the union by EU countries, the Slovak Republic faces demo- ensuring national governments retain their auton- graphic challenges alongside the green growth chal- omy and only uses the well-know “open method of lenge. That necessitates the provision of strong foun- coordination,” whereby it only produces guidelines dations in initial training for young people, to and indicators for the governments to use in their increase their foundational skills and potential occu- policy decision making. The European Skills Agenda pational mobility throughout their working lives (EC, 2020) focuses on green skills, but it does not and flexible and comprehensive training for green provide a target to countries on the share of adults jobs to address the different learning stages during having at least basic green skills and competences. one’s working life (ILO, 2013; Bajzikova et al., 2020). According to Cedefop (2019), strategies, policies, Maximizing learning opportunities and outcomes and regulations explicitly focused on green skills and their effects on the economy requires a coherent and jobs are rare—but that is often compensated by and strategic approach. Such an approach can be sectoral initiatives. The policies, laws, and regula- formulated by adjusting, focusing, and integrating tions tend to focus on sustainable or low-carbon de- priorities, objectives, and instruments that have al- velopment, climate change, environmental protec- ready been identified in different analyses, strate- tion, and similar issues, which provide a context for gies, and plans (for example, OECD, 2020, 2021b; the discussion of green jobs and skills but do not RRP, 2021). An outline of such an approach is pro- translate into concrete action plans. A more specific vided in the following sections, as well as in policy focus on green jobs and skills is sometimes visible at recommendations. the level of specific sectors or regions. Their devel- Green skills need to be developed within na‑ opment opportunities may be constrained by inade- tional education/training and skills strategies, in quate skills and/or stakeholders who envisage cooperation with relevant actors and through an Box 1:  Good practice example—mainstreaming a green skills approach: Estonia’s Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 and beyond In 2014, Estonia adopted the Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 to steer education reforms for preschool, primary and secondary education, higher education, and adult learning. The strategy was focused on the acquisition of learning skills, creativity, and entrepreneurship; developing competent and motivated teachers and school principals; creating lifelong learning opportunities matched to the needs of the labor market; and providing a digital focus and equal opportunities to participate in lifelong learning. A new education strategy for 2021– 2035 has been adopted to guide the next period and is part of the Estonia 2035 development strategy (Repub- lic of Estonia, 2021), which focuses on building a democratic and secure state that preserves and develops the Estonian nation, language, and culture, and tackles the areas of people, society, economy, living environment, and governance. Sources: Lees (2016), Estonia (2021), https://ncee.org/country/estonia/. 38 3.  Policy Recommendations and Good Practice Examples effective social dialogue (EESC, 2021). The updated long Learning and Counselling for the years National Program for Development of Education 2021–2030. 2018–2027 and the Strategy for Lifelong Learning • Engage key stakeholders in the development of and Counselling for the years 2021–2030 adopted by action plans and monitoring of policy outcomes. the Government of the Slovak Republic in Novem- • Identify policy measures and sources of funding ber 2021 should be a basis for such an approach. The across national strategies and plans that foster ac- skills strategy needs to be rooted in the overall de- quisition of green skills and attraction/return of velopment strategies, such as smart specialization Slovak students and workers, as well as foreign strategy and industrial strategy, which reflect the talent with relevant skills (RRP Component 10). future demand for skills in the context of economic development priorities. On the other hand, these strategies must consider the impacts of selected de- 3.2. Development of velopment objectives, priorities, instruments, and Foundational Skills and measures on the workforce and provide frameworks and funding for training, reskilling, and upskilling Attitudes as a Basis for Skilling of workers. The skills strategy needs to provide an for the Green Future effective skills anticipation and matching system in- Building strong endowments of foundational volving all relevant stakeholders (Cedefop, 2019, skills at an early age is critical for future skills ac‑ 2020b) as a basis for development of curricula, quota quisition and utilization. Regardless of the future setting, financing, and delivery of adequate educa- changes in the demand for skills, it will be necessary tion and training on green skills. The skills strategy to possess the foundations of basic skills and knowl- also needs to address the attraction to and retention edge, including the foundational skills that allow of students and workers within the country (and in individuals to size up new situations, adapt their specific regions), as brain drain may become a major thinking, and know where to go for information and constraint to skills availability and future economic how to make sense of it (World Bank, 2018). Core development. skills such as decision-making, effective communi- cation, leadership, and ability to learn throughout Key Recommendations: one’s life course will remain essential and will con- tinue to underpin occupational mobility (ILO, 2013). • Develop a unified intersectoral approach to iden- Environmental awareness and digital skills are also tification, development, anticipation, and moni- being included into core skills that should be devel- toring of green skills. oped from an early age, preferably in the context of • Update the National Program for Development real-world problem solving and creative thinking. of Education 2018–2027 for the green and digital Such an approach will also prepare students for the transitions and link it with the Strategy for Life- Box 2:  Good practice example–developing inter-sectoral strategy for green skills development: Croatian Makers League The Croatian Makers League was founded in the school year 2015–16 by an NGO (Institute for Youth Develop- ment and Innovation). It is the largest STEM competition in the European Union with more than 12,000 children involved during each school year in more than 600 schools and non-profit organizations, to which more than 3,000 robots have been donated. In addition to the donation of equipment, training is provided to teachers (mentors) who will continue to use the equipment in working with children, prepare them for competition, and organize follow-up educational activities. Educational institutions regularly participate in 4 to 5 rounds of competition during the school year, which are integrated into the curriculum. The project was initially funded through private donations, but its rollout throughout the country has been supported by the Ministry of Sci- ence and Education, foundations, and private companies. Similar projects have also been implemented in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo, in cooperation with local partners. Source: https://croatianmakers.hr/en/home/. 39  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC future challenges of skills acquisition in the context and mentorship during their careers, as well as by of green and digital transitions. Lifelong learning social status. In addition to basic infrastructure, should cover all stages of education and training, schools increasingly need access to modern technol- including early childhood education, primary and ogies, instructional resources, and learning opportu- secondary education, VET, higher education and re- nities that will support digital literacy and green training, work-based learning, and, where possible, skills formation. any formal, informal, and non-formal learning envi- ronments (ILO, 2013). Key recommendations: Reforming the education system for acquisition of foundational skills requires a nearly universal • Provide universal access to pre-primary educa- access to early childhood education, curricular re‑ tion (RRP Component 6, Reform 1). form, improvements in teacher education and • Implement curricular and textbook reform (RRP training, and access to new technologies. Early Component 7, Reform 1), improve teachers’ edu- childhood education sets up foundations for future cation, training, and professional development learning and facilitates social integration, which is (RRP Component 7, Reform 2), and promote school particularly important for children from disadvan- desegregation (RRP Component 6, Reform 5). taged backgrounds. The national curriculum needs • Fill in pandemic-related learning gaps faced by to define competencies, or standards, to be achieved primary and secondary school students (RRP at the end of each school stage and provide guidance Component 6, Reform 6). about how to organize a student-centered learning • Design and implement formal and informal edu- process in school (Lees, 2016). Curriculum reform cational activities and campaigns promoting re- has indeed long been considered from a top-down sponsible production, consumption, and nature perspective, but accumulation of knowledge and ex- conservation, in line with the Greener Slovakia perience about it has shifted the reform toward a Strategy. more bottom-up approach, which emphasizes the • Invest in school infrastructure (RRP Component central role of teachers in the process (Gouëdard et 7, Investment 2), including digital infrastructure al., 2020). On the other hand, diversity of learning (RRP Component 7, Investment 1). approaches adjusted to local and individual needs • Reduce the number of early leavers and enable should be coupled with central quality assurance their return to education (for example, RRP Com- mechanisms such as centrally administered assess- ponent 6, Reform 4). ments and examinations. The central role of teachers • Improve the system of quality assurance. needs to be supported by their education, training, Box 3:  Good practice example—strengthening the development of foundational skills: education system reform in Estonia Key education reforms in Estonia have included development of a new national curriculum and ongoing adap- tation of that curriculum to the needs of a new economy; improved status of teachers and reformed teacher education and training to require an MA degree, incorporate innovative practices, and provide mentorships; a guarantee that all children have access to early childhood programs; and strengthened vocational education and training. Estonia emerged as a top performer on PISA 2012, ranking in the top tier in science and close to the top in reading and mathematics among all participating countries and regions. By 2018, Estonia had become a top performer globally in all three subjects and the highest performer in Europe. In addition, Estonian perfor- mance is relatively equitable with respect to socioeconomic background. Among OECD nations, Estonia has the highest percentage of resilient students, defined as those in the lowest quartile of socioeconomic status who perform in the highest quartile on PISA within their own country. The share of low-performing Estonian students in reading on PISA 2018 was less than half the OECD average. Sources: Lees (2016), https://ncee.org/country/estonia/. 40 3.  Policy Recommendations and Good Practice Examples Skills governance processes should also be closely 3.3. Skills Anticipation through aligned to the key challenges in VET, such as pro- Stakeholder Collaboration gram quality and availability of funding. Develop- Social partners need to be involved in skill antici‑ ment of skills anticipation methods, such as tracer pation processes and interventions into curricula studies and employer skill needs surveys, would and competence standards. Social partners should also improve skills governance. Skills governance be systematically engaged in consultations and for structures and processes should have stable funding assessing the demand for green skills and providing sources, which would facilitate policy learning and recommendations to upgrade competence standards incremental improvements in the system. in accordance with the need for green skills. Social In 2020, the European Commission launched partners are usually less involved in higher educa- the Pact for Skills, a shared engagement model for tion than in VET, but that may evolve over time, as skills development in Europe in which the Slovak the share of labor force with tertiary degrees in- Republic should take a more active role. Compa- creases. The cooperation should typically be orga- nies, workers, national, regional, and local authori- nized through sectoral skills councils that include ties, social partners, cross-industry and sectoral or- the representatives of employers, trades unions, ed- ganizations, education and training providers, ucational institutions, government, and so forth. Re- chambers of commerce, and employment services gional cooperation is also important in green skills all have a key role to play. The Pact will facilitate anticipation. In France, there are regional observato- public-private cooperation. It will set up large-scale ries for employment and training (OREFs) that reg- partnerships, including at the regional level, in stra- ularly publish studies on green jobs and skill needs tegic industrial ecosystems and priority areas identi- and thus contribute to regional skills strategies and fied in the EGD to achieve ambitious commitments. the design of training programs (Cedefop, 2019). The Pact also facilitates access to information on EU Skills anticipation regulation and processes in funding instruments for skills by offering a sin- the Slovak Republic should be improved based on gle-entry point at EU level, for example, through the recommendations provided by Cedefop (2020b). Blueprint for Sectoral Cooperation on Skills, which Effective regulation, capacity building and im- aims to define sectoral skills intelligence, map key proved communication would likely lead toward occupation needs, define occupational profiles, and improved policy processes, policy evaluations, and roll-out training programs in specific areas (EC, a more balanced and systematic involvement of rel- 2020). The European Commission supports the Pact evant stakeholders at national and regional levels, for Skills through dedicated services related to net- including regional governments, VET providers, working, knowledge dissemination, and access to business associations, larger companies, and SMEs. information and finance. Box 4:  Good practice example—shared engagement model for skills development: National Observatory for Jobs and Occupations of the Green Economy (Onemev) in France Onemev was created in 2010 by the Ministry of Environment with the aim of analyzing employment shifts in the green economy and producing relevant methodologies and statistics. It brings together a broad range of institutions including relevant national ministries and agencies, key public employment service organizations, the main VET association, the national statistical institute, research bodies, and regional employment and training observatories. Since 2015, Onemev has comprised two groups: observation, methods, and quantifica- tions, which deals with quantitative data and statistics; and analysis capitalization and sharing, which focuses on green employment, skills, and training issues. Onemev has devised the approaches now used to assess the development of “eco-activities” and green jobs and occupations. Source: Cedefop (2018a). 41  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC Key recommendations: However, maximizing the growth opportunities stemming from green growth means that identifica- • Improve the work of sectoral skills councils with tion and development of the necessary skills must representatives of employers, trades unions, edu- tackle the economy, rather than just few selected cational institutions, and national/regional gov- new “green occupations” that may be limited in ernment. number, scope, and overall effects on job creation • Improve skills governance by improving coordi- and economic growth. Moreover, transversal green nation (for example, through establishment of an skills will be more in demand than specific green independent body responsible for managing and skills related to green jobs narrowly defined (ILO, coordinating different institutions), supporting 2013). However, most of the training for green occu- regional ambitions and development opportuni- pations will be channeled through vocational train- ties, and enabling better employer representation ing (Cedefop, 2019). The best approach, which is in in sectoral councils. line with the experiences of more advanced econo- • Develop skills anticipation methods by strength- mies, relies on the common processes to identify ening data coordination, investing in analytical skills demanded by the labor market that are then capacity of relevant national and regional author- applied to different VET qualifications and pro- ities, systematically undertaking tracer studies, grams, including new skill demands that affect ex- and mapping employers’ skills needs. isting occupations, as well as the new or emerging • Ensure sustainability of skills governance by es- ones. Consequently, the focus should at least initially tablishing stable funding; a clear division of re- be on the development of additional green skills sponsibilities, transparency, and accountability; within existing occupations and the provision of and supporting information needs of key stake- training that will add green components to existing holders such as employers and educational insti- qualifications or programs (Cedefop, 2019). An ex- tutions (Cedefop, 2020b). ample of identification of green activities within tra- ditional sectors is given in Table 4 below, which is followed by examples of upskilling to new occupa- 3.4. Greening of Occupational tions within the green economy in Table 5. Standards and Provision of Training design and provision should also re‑ Skills through VET flect sectoral, local, and regional needs. On the one hand, VET curricula in general and adult education Identification and development of green skills programs should be adjusted in accordance with the through VET should be comprehensive, rather than needs of current and prospective employers. That is restricted to few “green occupations.” Qualifications especially pertinent in regions and sectors that are and training programs should reflect the require- undergoing industrial transition and are strongly ments and opportunities related to green jobs. affected by the decarbonization of the economy. Due Table 4:  Green activities in traditional sectors: an example from Spain Traditional sector Green activity Auxiliary automotive industry Components for wind turbines Electronic components and electricians Components for wind turbines Civil public works Construction of thermoelectric generators Chemical and electronic industries Photovoltaics Agriculture Biomass activities Shipyards Offshore wind farms Plumbers Solar thermal energy Auxiliary automotive industry Components for wind turbines Source: Cedefop (2018b). 42 3.  Policy Recommendations and Good Practice Examples Table 5:  Examples of upskilling to new occupations Occupation Type of training Upskilling New occupation Industry electrician/ Vocational/tertiary engineering Knowledge of energy sources to Manager in renewable energy energy technologist qualification integrate energy systems, project management Industrial operator/ Vocational upper secondary Assembly, installation of parts, use Wind turbine operator industry electrician qualifications of tools Transport Retraining for engineers, Intra-industry restructuring Retraining and skills installers, technicians, operation, upgrading into various public and maintenance specialists transportation jobs Plumber/electric and Basic vocational training Technical training, knowledge Solar energy entrepreneur, heating installer of administrative procedures, installation project designer entrepreneurship skills Engineer in energy Tertiary engineering qualifications Installation and maintenance of low Smart energy expert sector carbon technology Source: Cedefop (2010). to the scale and scope of training needs in such re- Key recommendations: gions, it is important to provide national and EU support to design and undertake relevant training • Identify green skills demanded by the labor mar- programs. Where depopulation is also an issue, it ket and apply them to different VET qualifica- may be necessary to provide additional incentives tions and programs, related to both existing and for workers to move (back) into such regions. The new or emerging occupations. availability of teachers and trainers able to dissemi- • Support training of trainers that will disseminate nate relevant knowledge and contribute to skills de- relevant knowledge and skills. velopment is crucial so their education and training • Support provision of training that will add green should be prioritized. components to existing qualifications or programs. Box 5:  Good practice example—understanding skills mismatch and investing in schools to fill gaps and plan for the future: Improving Secondary/Vocational Education project, within the Slovakia Catching-Up Initiative The catalyst for the Improving Secondary/Vocational Education project was the significant challenge to regional development in Prešov, Banska Bystrica, and Košice regions caused by the misalignment between VET schools’ outcomes and the labor market’s needs. The main objective was to assess employers and secondary VET schools and work with the regions’ education departments to more effectively pursue EU structural funds to implement needed changes in line with study findings. The Project consists of activities such as the following: • in-depth interviews and focus group sessions with a representational group of business stakeholders to assess the potential mismatch; • an assessment of secondary VET schools to identify gaps between the existing curriculum and demanded skills and producing a final report with recommendations for altering course offerings to match the labor market; and • an examination of several prioritized secondary VET schools, leading to recommendations of the needs and costs to implement major changes and improvements required of the curriculum and infrastructure to meet market needs. Such a project can become a foundation for change toward regional involvement in the green transformation in jobs and equity. Source: World Bank (2019, 2020, 2021). 43  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC the context of the green economy), skills and compe- 3.5. Strengthening the Role of tency development of teachers and students, and Higher Education in the provision of job opportunities in partnership with Provision of Skills and potential employers. Due to university autonomy in Undertaking Research and assessing the demand for programs and their con- Innovation in Support of the tent and complex accreditation procedures, curricu- lar and other reforms in tertiary education institu- Green Transition tions usually entail a buy-in by their management Higher education plays an important role in com‑ and teaching and research staff. Performance agree- plex green skills development, but its involvement ments between public universities and public bodies needs to be strengthened through policies and in charge of institutional financing could include partnerships. Universities and other tertiary educa- targets related to green skills development. More- tion institutions are involved in the provision of over, wider policies on the green economy should be study programs that contribute to green skills. complemented by skills intelligence, as well as fi- Higher education institutions can help students nancial support for courses and research projects reach their academic and professional potential via that address sustainability issues. Given an increas- knowledge enhancement (updating the curricula in ing role of higher education institutions in adult Box 6:  Good practice example—universities as a catalyst for regional development: bringing innovation and entrepreneurship to the forefront of higher education in the Netherlands The Netherlands facilitates co-operation between higher education institutions and cities, develops the busi- ness environment for start-ups, and diversifies career options for higher education staff. The main features of university innovation and entrepreneurship, which are also applicable to addressing green economy and green skills at universities, include: 1. Leadership and governance. Entrepreneurship is a major part of the strategy of higher education insti- tutions. Entrepreneurial activities are integrated into the education provision. Higher education institutions support their faculties and units to act entrepreneurially. 2. Organizational capacity. HEIs are open to engaging and recruiting individuals with entrepreneurial experi- ence and mindsets and they invest in staff development. Institutions also have access to a range of funding and investment sources to support their entrepreneurial objectives.  3. Entrepreneurial teaching and learning. Entrepreneurship is integrated into the education and research missions of HEIs, which design and deliver entrepreneurial curricula in collaboration with enterprises and pro- vide formal and informal learning opportunities to help students develop entrepreneurial skills. 4. Entrepreneurship support. Entrepreneurship support is made available to students, graduates, and staff who aim to start a business. They have access to funding, mentoring, and training on how to start, finance, and develop a business. 5. Knowledge exchange and collaboration. HEIs are actively involved in collaboration and knowledge exchange with enterprises, incubators, and science parks. They provide staff and students with opportunities to participate in innovative activities.  6. Internationalization. Internationalization is an integral part of the entrepreneurial agenda of HEIs. They support the international mobility of students and staff, recruit international staff, and embed an international dimension in teaching and research.  7. Measuring impact. HEIs monitor and evaluate entrepreneurial teaching and learning support for start-ups and activities to promote knowledge exchange undertaken at their institutions. Source: OECD (2018). 44 3.  Policy Recommendations and Good Practice Examples learning, there is also a wide scope for shorter pro- • Consolidate and concentrate teaching, research, grams addressing specific issues or providing skills and innovation capacities at higher education in- to specific target groups related to green economy stitutions and public research organizations (for example, specific professions, companies, or based on excellence (RRP Component 8, Reform 5). industries). • Invest into universities (RRP Component 8, in- Universities should be viewed as vehicles of re‑ vestment 1) as vehicles of regional development gional development, which contribute to green (for example, in research capacities and infra- skills through teaching, research, and innovation structures) and develop applied research and in- activities. Twin green and digital transitions in the novation ecosystems around them. context of a knowledge-based economy gives uni- versities a crucial role in creation, dissemination, and utilization of knowledge. Universities should 3.6.  Using Active Labor Market cultivate partnerships with public, private, and civil Programs (ALMPs) to Facilitate society actors, influence relevant policies, and ex- pand their contribution to regional development Green Transition and sustainability. Consequently, investments into Policy makers should support competence and regional development or industrial transition of less skills development of adults of all ages in and be‑ developed regions should entail investments into yond workplaces, helping them in making career universities (for example, in research capacities and choices and transitions. Moving to a circular and infrastructures, as well as in curricula development/ low-carbon economy will inevitably alter sectoral revision, in collaboration with employers) and the and occupational structures. The transition will in- applied research and innovation ecosystems that de- clude both opportunities and challenges, including velop around them. Industrial restructuring toward declining sectors and sectors facing recruitment bot- high value-added activities and green growth re- tlenecks. From this perspective, tailored approaches quires universities with strong research agendas. to more vulnerable groups of adults would produce which are able not only to provide students with the additional socioeconomic benefits. Improved provi- relevant skills but also to conduct collaborative and sion of training on green skills and skills for green contract research with other research institutions jobs should benefit workers at any skills level and in and companies in the Slovak Republic and abroad. any size of company, regardless of the sector and the Consequently, universities should strategically de- geographical area they work in (EESC, 2021). This velop their research infrastructures and project pipe- horizontal approach should be complemented with lines by focusing on opportunities not only related prioritizing the needs and interests of disadvan- to education and research, but also linkages to the taged individuals and groups in the labor market, labor market, innovation, and smart specialization whose skills endowments may be insufficient to se- of their regions. Moreover, in addition to embedding cure current and/or future employability, and who green economy concerns within their teaching and may otherwise be unable to meet the skills chal- research, higher education institutions can also de- lenges of the green transition. In other words, public velop various ways of engagement with their com- support, provision of training programs, and finan- munities and regions in the area of sustainability. cial and other incentives need to pay additional at- Such engagement can include public outreach pro- tention to unemployed and underemployed per- grams, pilot projects and living labs, professional sons, workers in companies whose jobs are at risk development programs for local and regional em- due to green transition and industrial restructuring, ployers, and institutions setting examples of best as well as members of any disadvantaged groups sustainability practice on campus and in their relation- who may suffer from discrimination in the labor ships with all of their major stakeholders (HEA, 2012). market (for example, people with disabilities, mi- grants, and minorities). ALMPs should be utilized to facilitate the green Key recommendations: transition. ALMPs aim to assist job seekers to find • Reform university governance (RRP Component employment, keep workers employed, increase their 8, Reform 4) and introduce performance agree- productivity and earnings, and improve the func- ments (RRP Component 8, Reform 1) which may tioning of labor markets. ALMPs are usually not spe- also include targets related to green skills devel- cifically focused on developing skills for green em- opment. ployment (Cedefop, 2019). According to ILO (2019), 45  HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FOR A GREEN ECONOMY IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC although many countries aim to include disadvan- initiatives in skills for green jobs aimed at specific taged groups in their skills development programs groups such as unemployed or underemployed per- for green jobs, these groups remain largely un- sons, youth, women, middle-aged and older work- der-represented. Given the profound and long-term ers, people with disabilities, migrant workers, infor- processes and effects of technological and economic mal workers, and those living in rural areas. transformations related to green and digital transi- To complement reskilling, a data system would tions, the provision of ALMPs is likely to gain im- act enable tracking level of competencies among portance. In addition to counseling and job search individuals, and act as a planning tool to study assistance, the focus of future ALMPs should be on workforce needs and scope for development. For the provision of training (which usually produces example, as Volvo plans to open a Kosice plant in the strongest long-term effects), which can be occasion- country needing 3,300 employees, this data system ally coupled with some subsidies to employers (in could be leveraged to track the current labor needs the case of the most disadvantaged groups) or direct and provide feedback to firms for employment. job-creation schemes (when benefits clearly out- ALMPs should involve employers in program weigh the costs, please see the example below). design and provide incentives for their participa‑ There is an urgent need for reskilling and up‑ tion in implementation. (Re)training needs of em- skilling programs that will help individuals and ployers related to the green transition vary across companies steer through technological and eco‑ sectors, regions, and organizations. On the other nomic transformations, with a specific focus on hand, there are different needs of ALMPs target disadvantaged groups and regions. The spending groups. Matching these two sides in a synergistic of the Slovak Republic on ALMPs is among the low- way may not be straightforward; it may involve est in the OECD and is not sufficiently directed to- communication and facilitation by policy makers ward training measures. Changing the focus from and education providers, for example, through sec- subsidizing wages in declining industries to upskill- toral or regional partnerships that will participate in ing and reskilling is needed. Stepping up training, training programs design. Moreover, incentives including for workers on short-term working should be put in place to provide additional impetus schemes and others who are at risk of unemploy- to both individuals and enterprises to engage in ment or underemployment, is paramount to help job green skills development through incentives. For ex- transitions and reduce long-term unemployment, ample, ALMPs target groups may receive training which is particularly prevalent among the low- free of charge or at subsidized rates, whereas em- skilled and Roma (OECD, 2022). Programs focused ployers could be motivated by making educational specifically on green jobs generally need to be devel- expenses related to reskilling and upskilling of their oped within existing general ALMP frameworks employees tax-deductible. Subsidies and incentives and aligned with overall provision of training op- targeting the private sector to stimulate the develop- portunities related to green jobs. It is necessary to ment of green skills are still not widespread in Eu- develop systematic training and retraining rope (Cedefop, 2019). Box 7:  Good practice example—developing green skills among disadvantaged groups, sectors, and regions: Stromspar Check (SSC) advisers, Germany Stromspar Check (SSC) advisers consult low-income households in their homes all over Germany free of charge on how to save energy and water and on further issues like heating and how to include climate protection actions in their everyday life. Participating households not only save money but also contribute to climate pro- tection and the energy transition. Each intervention starts with diagnosis, which is followed by planning, imple- mentation, and impact assessment. SSC advisers are formerly long-term unemployed people, who completed extensive training; they fully understand the difficult financial and social situation of the clients and can credibly advise them as equals. More than 382,000 households in 150 local communities have been advised since 2008. The cost savings per household are between €100 and €250 per year. Source: Cedefop (2018c). 46 3.  Policy Recommendations and Good Practice Examples Employers in public and civil sectors can also helping households address energy poverty through play a role in developing green skills in disadvan‑ renewable energy sources and/or energy efficiency taged groups, sectors, and regions. Green skills can measures (EPAH, 2021). be acquired in different contexts, including public and civil sector employment, project work, and vol- Key recommendations: unteering. Where possible, opportunities should be created and utilized to enable persons who are cur- • Prioritize the needs and interests of disadvan- rently employed in such institutions or whose em- taged individuals and groups in the labor market ployability is currently inadequate in the context of in policy design. the job market to obtain valuable skills that will im- • Focus future ALMPs on the provision of counsel- prove their future skillset and employability in the ing, training, and job search assistance, with a context of green jobs. The first group may involve limited role of wage subsidies to employers and workers in environmental protection and in na- job-creation schemes. tional, regional, or local utilities whose position in • Develop and implement programs focused spe- the market will predictably change due to decarbon- cifically on green jobs within existing general ization and greening of their industries; they could ALMP frameworks and align them with overall receive training that will enable them to obtain jobs provision of training opportunities related to related to climate change response, renewable en- green jobs in VET and adult education. ergy, or new requirements in environmental regula- • Involve employers in program design and pro- tion. In the second case, there are multiple good-prac- vide incentives for their participation in imple- tice examples of underemployed persons being mentation. trained as energy advisors and subsequently Box 8:  Summary of recommendations: moving the skills agenda toward a green transition 1. Develop foundational skills and attitudes as a basis for skilling for the green future by providing universal access to pre-primary education; implementing curricular and textbook reform; and improving teachers’ education, training, and professional development. Fill in pandemic-related learning gaps faced by primary and secondary school students and improve the system of quality assurance. 2. Improve the work of sectoral skills councils with representatives of employers, trade unions, educational institutions, and national/regional government. 3. Develop skills anticipation methods by strengthening data coordination, investing in analytical capacity of relevant national and regional authorities, systematically undertaking tracer studies, and mapping employ- ers’ skills needs. 4. Identify green skills demanded by the labor market and apply them different VET qualifications and pro - grams, related to both existing and new or emerging occupations. 5. Strengthen the role of higher education in the provision of skills and undertaking research and innovation in support of the green transition. Invest into universities as vehicles of regional development (for example, in research capacities and infrastructures) and develop applied research and innovation ecosystems around them. 6. Prioritize the needs and interests of disadvantaged individuals and groups in the labor market in policy design and focus future ALMPs on the provision of counseling, training, and job search assistance, with a limited role of wage subsidies to employers and job-creation schemes. 7. Develop and implement programs focused specifically on green jobs within existing general ALMP frame- works and align them with overall provision of training opportunities related to green jobs in VET and adult education. Involve employers in program design and provide incentives for their participation in implementation. 47  REFERENCES References Bajzikova, L., and P. Bajzik. 2020. “Mobility and Working ———. 2020b. “Strengthening Skills Anticipation and Opportunities in the EU and the Slovak Republic.” Matching in The Slovak Republic: Skills Intelligence Journal of Contemporary Management Issues 25(1): Support to Policymakers and Learners.” Luxembourg: 103–115. 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(2021), green jobs are identified as Endnotes those in occupations with a greater-than-average green- ness index (mean=0.14). For the sake of brevity we limit 1. https://www.media.volvocars.com/global/en-gb/ the analysis to the “Green core” index. Comparisons are media/pressreleases/302778/volvo-cars-gears-up-for- based on four-digits ISCO classification of occupations, long-term-sustainable-growth-with-new-slovakia-elec- which is the lowest level available in the PIAAC data. tric-car-manufacturing-pl-5 This relatively broad classification does not provide as 2. The results for TIMSS are on the original international detailed a comparison as the original six-digits ISCO scale, while those for PISA and PIRLS are re-scaled to the classification. However, using these broad categories, it TIMSS scale. The results until 2018 are from the HLO is possible to identify key differences between occupa- World Bank database. The latest TIMSS 2019 results are tions that are “more green” or “more brown” than oth- added from the TIMSS database (retrieved from ers. The analysis focuses on adults between 25 and 60 timss2019.org). from the Slovak Republic and other EU countries that 3. These results come from the TIMSS (mathematics and participated in the PIAAC study. The EU countries data science) and PIRLS (reading) studies. are representative for the overall population of adults 4. However, it should be noted that these results have been classified as working in green or brown jobs. obtained in 2012 and necessitate an update. 8. The European Skills Index measures countries’ distance 5. International Assessment of Key Adult Competences to the ideal performance, which is defined as highest (PIAAC), 2012; International Study of Computer and performance achieved by any country over a period of Information Literacy (ICILS), 2013. seven years. The ideal performance is scaled to be 100 6. Learning remotely when schools close: How well are and the scores of all countries are then computed and students and schools prepared? Insights from PISA. compared to that. www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/learn- ing-remotely-when-schools-close-how-well-arestu- dents-and-schools-prepared-insights-from-pisa-3bf- da1f7/ 51