CLIMATE MIGRATION AND ITS IMPACTS ON WOMEN IN BANGLADESH KNOWLEDGE BRIEF Bangladesh-Bhutan Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Platform Social Development South Asia Region June 2024 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh Contents Acknowledgments iii I. Snapshot of Findings and Recommendations 1 Findings 1 Recommendations to Address Gendered Impacts of Climate Migration 3 II. Gender and Climate Migration in Bangladesh 4 Objectives of the Knowledge Brief 6 Methodology 8 III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh 10 Gender-Based Violence 11 Human Capital 11 Economic Outcomes 13 Decision-Making 16 IV. Government Efforts to Address Climate Migration 17 Key Plans to Address Climate Migration and Gender   18 Opportunities and Challenges in the Current Policy Environment 20 V. The World Bank’s Response to the Climate Crisis and Gender Equality 23 The World Bank Portfolio in Bangladesh 25 VI. Conclusion and Recommendations 29 Policy Recommendations 31 Operational Recommendations 33 Future Research Recommendations 35 References 37 Cover photo: © 2011 Tim_Booth/Shutterstock | © 2016 CRS PHOTO/Shutterstoc ii Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh Acknowledgments This knowledge brief was prepared by a team led by Sabah Moyeen (Senior Social Development Specialist) and Erisha Suwal (Social Development Specialist), under the guidance of Patricia Fernandes (Lead Social Development Specialist) and Margaret Arnold (Senior Social Development Specialist and focal point for Social Dimensions of Climate Change). Farida Aboulmagd, Amar BK, Samera Chowdhury, Jigyasa Sidana, Mohsiu Rashedin Tazrin and Sanan I. Zaman provided inputs at various stages of the writing process. The team is grateful to the participants of a consultation meeting held for comments and feedback on the knowledge brief. Gayle Martin (Operations Manager), Gyongshim An (Lead Urban Specialist, Program Lead), Bernard Haven (Senior Economist), Anne T. Kuriakose (Senior Social Development Specialist), Ayago Esmubancha Wambile (Senior Economist), Md. Akhtaruzzaman (Senior Social Development Specialist), and Barbara Weber (Senior Operations Officer) provided valuable comments and suggestions. Additionally, Shabbir Ahsan, Marufa Akter, Niaz Asadullah, and Sabina Parvin contrib- uted at various stages to the knowledge brief. Zahin T. Hussain provided outstanding coordination support. The team is thankful to peer reviewers Viviane Clement (Senior Climate Change Specialist), Abidah Setyowati (Senior Social Development Specialist), and Anne T. Kuriakose (Senior Social Development Specialist) for their insights. The team thanks Robin Mearns (Practice Manager, Social Sustainability and Inclusion), Abdoulaye Seck (Country Director for Bangladesh-Bhutan) and Dina Umali-Deininger (Regional Director, Sustainable Development Practice Group) for their overall leadership on this agenda and their encouragement. The team is thankful to Azreen Karim from the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) for conducting the survey on migrant households in southwestern Bangladesh. Finally, the team thanks those women and men of southwestern Bangladesh who participated in the surveys and focus group discussions. iii Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh I. Snapshot of Findings and Recommendations © 2020 Mamunur Rashid/Shutterstock Findings 1. Modeled estimates show that Bangladesh could reach 13.3 million internal climate migrants by 2050, potentially making up 37 percent of all South Asian climate migrants. 2. There is a strong commitment from the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) and the World Bank to manage climate migration, which needs to be translated into actions. The GoB has identified managing climate migration and building climate-migrant-friendly cities or secondary cities as priorities. 3. The World Bank has increased investments to tackle the climate crisis. Accelerated effort is needed, however, to support the GoB in addressing the growing impacts of climate migration. 4. There are knowledge and data gaps on the gender-climate-migration nexus in Bangladesh. 1 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh I. Snapshot of Findings and Recommendations 5. This knowledge brief is based on the view that climate change is an import- ant compounding factor influencing people’s decisions to migrate and it requires a broad definition to point out real risks. It is already estimated that in Bangladesh, the number of climate migrants will soon outpace other internal migrants. The GoB and development partners have the opportunity and respon- sibility to proactively address the emerging challenges. 6. The findings on climate migration impacts can be relevant to other forms of migration, given similarities in social norms and household structure. This brief, however, focuses on gender dynamics among climate migrants to draw resources dedicated for climate change within the World Bank and the GoB. 7. This knowledge brief considers impacts on both women climate migrants in destination areas and women left behind in origin areas. Internal climate migra- tion affects all six outcomes identified in the World Bank’s Gender Strategy (2024–30). 8. A review of literature shows women left behind are impacted differently from their migrating counterparts. They frequently face challenges, including additional economic hardships due to their husbands not sending back sufficient money, additional care responsibilities, and increased risk of health problems resulting from climate change impacts. Women also face disruptions in access to education and health services, including maternal and reproductive health. 9. Based on data collected for this knowledge brief by the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS), there are clear gender gaps in economic opportunities and earnings among male and female climate migrants. Overall, male climate migrants are three times more likely to be paid employees than female climate migrants. In both rural and urban areas, most male climate migrants work as paid nonagriculture day laborers, while female climate migrants work as contributing family workers who are not usually paid. 10. BIDS data corroborates academic literature that states both women left behind and those who migrate face higher gender-based violence (GBV) risks. These include domestic violence, sexual harassment in public spaces and the workplace, and child marriage. 2 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh I. Snapshot of Findings and Recommendations Recommendations to Address Gendered Impacts of Climate Migration 1. Expand the knowledge base on how climate migration affects women in origin and destination areas. Reform data policies to ensure collection of gender statistics. 2. Ensure that policies and plans aimed at managing climate migration and related vulnerabilities in social protection, job creation, housing and urban development, and other relevant sectors address gender considerations. 3. Allocate sufficient resources to achieve necessary scale for investments in initiatives targeted at female climate migrants, including planning and Policy development of secondary cities and towns. recommendations 4. Enhance women’s leadership in policy dialogue on climate migration and promote women’s decision-making roles. 5. Prioritize and promote locally led climate action to manage risks and impacts of climate migration on women in Bangladesh. 6. Ensure that policies promote integration and mainstreaming. 1. Strengthen GBV prevention and response interventions to address challenges faced by women climate migrants and women left behind in origin areas. 2. Design initiatives to enhance safe mobility for female climate migrants in urban areas. 3. Expand healthcare services specifically around both maternal and sexual and reproductive health (SRH). 4. Design adaptive social safety nets utilizing digital technology for women climate migrants and women left behind. Operational 5. Expand opportunities for education, training for skills and income generating recommendations activities, and jobs for female climate migrants and women left behind and prioritize the development of climate-resilient livelihoods in regions of origin. 6. Devise strategies and funding mechanisms to ensure accessible and affordable housing. 7. Design community initiatives that provide information and referral services to support new migrants. 8. Integrate gender-climate-migration perspectives in project design, implementation, and monitoring. 3 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh II. Gender and Climate Migration in Bangladesh © 2022 SM AKBAR ALI PJ/Shutterstock T here is ample evidence that migration rates are increasing due to rising global tempera- ture and the climate crisis. Bangladesh, highly Bangladesh stands out as a frontier challenge for the country’s development progress.4 Existing studies have noted that migration could be transformational vulnerable to climate impacts, could reach a stag- for affected populations in both origin and destina- gering 13.3 million internal climate migrants by 2050, tion areas.5 An in-depth understanding of the gender potentially making up 37 percent of all South Asian dynamics of internal climate migration is therefore climate migrants in the pessimistic reference scenar- critical to simultaneously address climate change, io.1 Moreover, climate change impacts will become an manage rapid urbanization, and enhance productivity. increasing driver of internal migration. In fact, climate migration in Bangladesh could outpace other forms The International Organization for Migration (IOM) of internal migration by 2050 (see fig. 1).2 The plight defines climate migration as “the movement of a and future of internal climate migrants are critically person or groups of persons who, predominantly for linked to Bangladesh’s development visions with ambi- reasons of sudden or progressive change in the envi- tious plans to achieve upper-middle-income status by ronment due to climate change, are obliged to leave 2031 and high-income status by 2041.3 With urban- their habitual place of residence, or choose to do so, ization rates of 40 percent, spatial transformation in either temporarily or permanently within a State or 1 Kanta Kumari Rigaud et al., 2018, Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration (Washington, DC: World Bank), 144. 2 Rigaud et al., Groundswell, 144. 3 World Bank, 2023, “A Journey Together: Bangladesh and World Bank Celebrate Historic Partnership,” January 22, 2023, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ feature/2023/01/22/a-journey-together-bangladesh-and-world-bank-celebrate-historic-partnership. 4 World Bank, 2021a, Bangladesh Systematic Country Diagnostic 2021 Update. Source for urbanization rate: World Bank ,2024b, World Development Indicators. 5 Anna O’Donnell and Quentin Wodon, 2015, Climate Change Adaptation and Social Resilience in the Sundarbans (London: Routledge), 6. 4 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh II. Gender and Climate Migration in Bangladesh “There is increased evidence that climate hazards associated with extreme events and variability act as direct drivers of involuntary migration and displacement and as indirect drivers through deteriorating climate-sensitive livelihoods . . . . Most climate- related displacement and migration occur within national boundaries, with international movements occurring primarily between countries with contiguous borders.” —IPCC, Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2023) across an international border.”6 Determining which Climate migrants face distinct challenges, the migration is climate induced is a complex task, as isolat- impacts of which are not uniform. They also face ing environmental drivers of migration from economic vulnerabilities that are intersectional: the degree of and social ones is challenging. Individuals and families impact varies according to many factors, including may decide to migrate for multiple and overlapping gender, class, ethnicity, location, and whether migration reasons.7 Yet, when climate change impacts serve as a is temporary or permanent. Women climate migrants compounding factor in the decision to migrate, it can in particular face challenges accentuated by existing be understood as climate migration. The focus is on gender inequalities and norms that shape their adaptive internal climate migrants mainly because the avenues capacity. These challenges begin as soon as women for international migration available to Bangladeshis consider migration. A study shows that unlike men, are limited.8, 9 women must weigh migration opportunities against higher social costs, potentially resulting in delayed and Climate migration in Bangladesh is primarily induced unplanned migration.12 Past studies indicate that while in two ways. First, in rural areas, climate change can men are able to find economic opportunities in both increase migration trends by diminishing returns of rural and urban areas, women have fewer opportunities climate-sensitive livelihood. This can spur either rural in rural areas.13 Climate migration both reflects and to rural migration (from areas with lesser agricultural reinforces existing structures of gender inequality.14 productivity to ones with better productivity) or rural to Women have fewer resources for climate adaptation, urban migration (from areas with lesser job prospects to face higher constraints when accessing opportunities to ones with higher prospects). Such mobility is a climate build climate resilience, and tend to be disproportion- change adaptation strategy.10 Second, in urban areas, ately affected due to existing gender inequities.15 There migration can be increased by slow-onset events such is a phenomenon of “climate-related immobility” that as a rise in sea levels.11 refers to those who are unable to move due to factors 6 Kerilyn Schewel, 2023, “Who Counts as a Climate Migrant?,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC. 7 Detailed discussion on the complex push and pull factors of environmental migration can be found in O’Donnell and Wodon, Climate Change Adaptation. 8 Household survey data shows that having an internal migrant (5.2 percent) is more prevalent than having an international migrant (0.8 percent) in coastal subdis- tricts; see J. Chen and V. Mueller, 2018, “Coastal Climate Change, Soil Salinity and Human Migration in Bangladesh,” Nature Climate Change 8:981–85. 9 Source: IOM, 2022, “People on the Move in a Changing Climate: Linking Policy, Evidence and Action.” 10 World Bank, 2022a, Bangladesh Country Climate and Development Report (Washington, DC: World Bank), 16. 11 IPCC, 2022, Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability,” Working Group II contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 12 Kathinka Fossum Evertsen and Kees van der Geest. 2020, “Gender, Environment and Migration in Bangladesh,” Climate and Development 12 (1): 12–22. 13 Nilufar Ahmad, 2012, “Gender and Climate Change in Bangladesh: The Role of Institutions in Reducing Gender Gaps in Adaptation Program,” Social Development Working Paper No. 126, Washington, DC: World Bank. 14 Katherine Vincent et al., 2021, “Gender, Migration, and Environmental Change in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta in Bangladesh,” in Engendering Climate Change: Learnings from South Asia, ed. Asha Hans, Nitya Rao, Anjal Prakash, and Amrita Patel (London: Routledge), 152–71. 15 Franziska Deininger et al., 2022, “Placing Gender Equality at the Center of Climate Action,” Gender Thematic Policy Notes Series: Issues and Practice Note, World Bank, Washington, DC; UN Women, Brief for Policymakers – State of Gender Equality and Climate Change in Bangladesh (New York: UN Women). 5 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh II. Gender and Climate Migration in Bangladesh Figure 1. Modeled Climate Migration in 2050 Result Bangladesh Population in 2050 compared to 2020 Increases to 196 million from 166 million (in SSP2) or 177 million from 164 million (in SSP4)* Number of climate migrants by 2050 Highest in pessimistic reference scenario, with average projection of 13.3 million Climate in-migration hotspots 1. Main stem of the Ganges River basin in the west 4 2. Dhaka and river delta south of the city Climate out-migration hotspots 3. Eastern coast near Chittagong 2 4. Northeast 1 Climate migration in/out • In-migration: Rainfed croplands 3 of rural livelihood zones • Out-migration: Rice-growing areas Source: Rigaud, Kanta Kumari; de Sherbinin, Alex; Jones, Bryan; Bergmann, Jonas; Clement, Viviane; Ober, Kayly; Schewe, Jacob; Adamo, Susana; McCusker, Brent; Heuser, Silke; Midgley, Amelia. 2018. Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration. Note: SSP2 = moderate development; SSP4 = unequal development. *The moderate development SSP2 scenario for Bangladesh and Mexico yields larger populations than the unequal development SSP4 scenario because both are middle- income countries. Only low-income countries show marked increases in population under SPP4. such as limited resources and physical limitations; Objectives of women—elderly women in particular—are dispropor- the Knowledge Brief tionately affected. Furthermore, contextual factors such as specific demographic trends affect and are affected by climate migration and impact whether receiving The interplay of climate change, migration, and areas, including secondary cities and towns, can absorb gender inequalities warrants deeper exploration as climate migrants into productive and climate-resilient managing climate migration is an integral part of the labor markets with access to health care, social services, adaptation plans of the Government of Bangladesh and education. (GoB).16 Gendered impacts of climate migration have not received adequate attention in development discourse in Bangladesh or at the global level.17 This knowledge brief, therefore, aims to inform policies, 16 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2022a, National Adaptation Plan of Bangladesh (2023-2050), Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 17 Susana Borràs-Pentinat, 2023, “Climate Migration: A Gendered Perspective,” Environmental Policy and Law 53:385–99, https://content.iospress.com/articles/envi- ronmental-policy-and-law/epl239008, p. 385. 6 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh II. Gender and Climate Migration in Bangladesh strategies, and operational entry points by answering climate-related displacement is used to describe the the following two questions: involuntary movement of people as a reaction to sudden or developing changes in climate or the occurrence of • What are the impacts of climate migration on a climate disaster. Although a distinction is drawn, it women and girls in vulnerable areas such as south- is recognized that these terms can be considered as western coastal Bangladesh, a climate change ends of a continuum of overlapping causes.19 On the hotspot? other hand, climate migration has often also included involuntary movement. As such, it could be considered • How do existing GoB and World Bank plans and a general term describing the movement of people as policies focus on the gender-climate-migration a result of climate change.20 It is also important to note nexus? that climate migration does not always happen in one direction; it can happen within the country from areas This knowledge brief can enhance World Bank more vulnerable to climate change to those less vulner- operations in multiple ways. Climate change is not able or across borders, and mobility does not always gender neutral and effectively addressing climate stop once a migrant settles in a destination area.21 Some change must consider its gender differentiated impacts. people permanently migrate while others might do so Bangladesh is one of the countries most vulnerable to temporarily. These factors have implications for the climate change and faces severe and increasing risks, types of challenges women might experience. resulting in widespread climate migration; however, the gendered impacts are underresearched and lack- Against this backdrop of ongoing discussions, for ing comprehensive data. This knowledge brief aims the purposes of the issues raised in this knowl- to address this gap by generating data specifically edge brief, climate migration is discussed in the broad focused on women’s experiences with climate migra- sense, as defined by the IOM, to primarily include tion. It provides the World Bank with deeper insights into internal climate migrants responding to sudden or the conditions women face and discusses the findings slow onset events. This brief takes this broad approach within the country’s context. The findings in this brief to ensure proactive engagement ahead of the problem also point to the need for further research and a greater at the center. Specifically, this brief does not delve into understanding of the issues. A more comprehensive and the exercise of differentiating migration and its various nuanced understanding of these issues will strengthen forms because (a) climate change is a compound- the World Bank’s ability to intentionally address them ing factor, (b) climate migrants are projected to through its operations and support to the GoB. outpace internal migrants, and (c) the government has recognized climate migration as a critical issue This knowledge brief recognizes ongoing discus- that requires urgent action from development part- sions around the definitions of and distinc- ners to support this priority area. This brief spotlights tions between migration and displacement.18 The female climate migrants and women left behind by term “climate migration” is most commonly used to male climate migrants to leverage the resources allo- describe voluntary movement in response to antici- cated to climate change to support this particularly pated or slow-onset impacts of climate change, while vulnerable group. 18 Schewel, “Who Counts as a Climate Migrant?” 19 Black et al., “The Effect of Environmental Change on Human Migration,” Global Environmental Change 21 (Supplement 1): S3–S11. 20 Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre, n.d., “Training Fact Sjeet 02: Displacement and Climate — Terminology.” 21 Tanaya Dutta Gupta and Danielle Falzon have coined the term “floating people” to denote the condition of such circular movements of migrants. They argue that, because of this circular nature of movements of migrants, policies and programs require focus on people, not on places; Tanaya Dutta Gupta and Danielle Falzon, 2024, “Floating People, Changing Climate: A Migrant-Sensitive Approach to Climate Adaptation and Mobilities in the Bengal Delta,” Third World Quarterly 45 (9): 1476–1496. 7 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh II. Gender and Climate Migration in Bangladesh Methodology for this knowledge brief. The brief adds value to existing literature on the topic by collecting primary The analysis and findings presented here are based data (qualitative and quantitative) from southwest- on a literature review, a portfolio review of World Bank ern coastal areas. The World Bank portfolio review projects in Bangladesh approved between fiscal years also provides important insights on how projects are 2010/11 and 2024/25, a forthcoming report titled addressing climate change and gender and more Socio-Economic and Livelihood Assessment Plan for specifically examines whether activities address Sundarbans Region (Sundarbans Assessment),22 and issues at the intersection of gender and climate a mixed method research commissioned exclusively migration. Figure 2. Study Area Sylhet Rajshahi Kushtla Upazila Study Sites Meherpur (Upazila) Sundarban Chuadanga Dhaka Rivers Jhenaidah District Magura Division Chittagong Narail Jessore 0 15 30 60 km Distric Index Khulna Barishal India Khulna Pirojpur Assisijm Bagerhat Jhalckati Satkhira Barisal Dacope Koyra Patuakhali Bhola Shyamnagar Mongia Sarankhola Barguna Patharghata Amtali Slurce: BBS Admin Layer and OpenStreetMap Bay of Bengal The boundaries, colors, denomnations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the World Bank Group, any judgement on the legal status of any terntory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundanes. created by the GEMS team. Tor questions, reach out to Has bullstam (histam@@wordbank.org) Source: Geo-Enabling initiative for Monitoring and Supervision (GEMS), World Bank 22 The Sundarbans Assessment was conducted for the pipeline Sundarbans Regional Natural Capital and Resilience Project; World Bank, forthcoming, Socio-Economic and Livelihood Assessment Plan for Sundarbans Region (Washington, DC: World Bank). 8 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh II. Gender and Climate Migration in Bangladesh The World Bank commissioned the Bangladesh areas. The survey focused on thematic areas such as Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) to conduct women’s economic opportunities, their decision-mak- the research, which included a survey and focus group ing power, and their experience of gender-based discussions (FGDs). This research was conducted in violence. September and October 2023. BIDS surveyed 403 households and conducted seven FGDs among Given the limited literature on the topic, this knowledge men and women in the coastal districts of Barguna, brief also draws inferences from a review of available Bagerhat, Khulna, and Satkhira, areas particularly studies related to women displaced due to climate vulnerable to climate crises (see fig. 2 for study area change–induced disasters and differential impacts of map). The survey adopted a multistage sample selec- economic migration on women. The brief also considers tion approach to identify districts with higher climate women and girls left behind in climate hotspots along vulnerability, poverty rates, and female labor force with those who are climate migrants. When examining participation. In destination areas, the survey covered the impacts of climate migration along gender lines, households that had internally migrated after being this knowledge brief concentrates on the southwestern affected by climate-induced disasters since 2020,23 coastal area given the region’s additional vulnerabilities along with nonmigrated households in climate-affected based on poverty and geographical location. 23 This timeframe begins with the major natural event Cyclone Amphan that devasted Bangladesh in May 2020. 9 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh © Mahmud Hossain Opu/AP Photo W hile the gender dynamics of overall migration remains relevant, migrating to adapt to climate change adds complexities given loss of livelihood and including greater income and human capital losses.24 Contrary to the Sundarbans Assessment, a 2015 report on climate change and migration in the Sundarbans assets, and increased stress beyond financial conditions, indicated that younger individuals are more likely to among other things. Southwestern Bangladesh, given its migrate and that women tend to migrate more than men, high climate vulnerability as well as higher poverty levels, which may be partly due to marriage migration.25 Wider is a suitable area to study the phenomenon. According to data collection is needed to capture any changes in the the Sundarbans Assessment, climate migrants in south- demographic characteristics associated with climate western coastal areas are mostly internal, have migrated migration. from rural to urban areas, and migrated primarily to destinations such as Khulna, Jashore, Chittagong, and This discussion on impacts of climate migration on Dhaka. Some climate migrants choose to migrate across women is organized broadly in alignment with outcomes the border to West Bengal, India. The assessment also of the proposed World Bank Gender Strategy (2024– shows that most of the climate migrants in these coastal 2030).26 The outcome areas covered in this knowledge areas are men, below the age of 50, poor, and without brief are GBV; human capital (health and education); land or alternative sources of income besides agriculture economic empowerment (employment, entrepreneur- and fishing. It is known that the poor suffer more than ship, assets ownership); and leadership and agency the nonpoor from greater exposure to climate shocks, (decision-making and disaster preparedness). 24 World Bank, 2024a, South Asia Development Update: Jobs for Resilience (Washington, DC: World Bank). 25 O’Donnell and Wodon, Climate Change Adaptation, 132. 26 World Bank, 2023, Gender Strategy 2024–2030, “Accelerate Gender Equality for a Sustainable, Resilient, and Inclusive Future.” 10 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh Gender-Based Violence also be a coping mechanism for households vulnera- ble to climate change impacts.30 Marriages of girls31 of Environmental crises exacerbate existing gender southwestern districts increased consistently in abso- inequalities and, hence, vulnerabilities to GBV glob- lute numbers after each major climate disaster that ally and in Bangladesh. A forthcoming Sundarbans occurred from 1991 until 2013. The combined impact Assessment carried out by the World Bank shows of risk-coping behavior and high prevalence rates of that women in the region face GBV risks that are child marriage—highest in South Asia—may lead to compounded by climate change stressors.27 For marriage migration. Key underlying factors include instance, water scarcity in the area is forcing women to poverty, rising dowry costs, and the practice of marry- travel longer distances to fetch water, which puts them ing before puberty. While not many studies have delved at increased risks for GBV; the Sundarbans Assessment into the interplay of child marriage and migration, there indicates that 68 percent of women reported verbal are concerns that internal climate migrants moving to harassment. cities may be more inclined to marry off their daughters due to pressures around honor.32 FGDs conducted by Climate migration puts women at particular risk BIDS also note an increase in child marriage, under- of GBV.28 The Sundarbans Assessment reveals that scoring the need for a more detailed assessment. in households where male members have migrated, women left behind face various forms of GBV and economic vulnerability. While about a quarter of respon- dents in the assessment feared being exploited econom- Human Capital ically, 10 percent of them feared sexual violence. This corroborates prior evidence from a 2015 UN Women Both the women who are left behind and the women study that found that women who were left behind put who migrate due to climate change in the coastal fear of harassment as their top concern. In that study, 60 areas of Bangladesh bear great health risks. A UN percent of the surveyed women reported that they were Women study finds that because of absence of their subjected to verbal abuse and harassment.29 Similar to husbands at home, the “left behind” women usually the women left behind, BIDS findings from FGDs with are burdened by extra work; feel insecure; lack proper women from migrated households indicate increased nutrition, drinking water, and sanitation; and experience levels of GBV risks and incidence. Women reported stress leading to various diseases and illnesses among increased intimate partner violence, threats of violence, them and their children.33 For the “left behind” women, and sexual harassment in public spaces. there is increased risk of disease and illness because of the impacts of increased water salinity, the scarcity Evidence suggests that incidence of child marriage of safe drinking water, lack of time to take care of their increases with shocks related to climate events, children due to excessive work, lack of access to health whether the girls migrate or remain in place, and it can care, and malnutrition.34 27 World Bank, forthcoming, Socio-Economic and Livelihood Assessment. 28 World Bank, 2022b, South Asia Regional Gender Action Plan (RGAP) II 2023–2028 (Washington, DC: World Bank); Viviane Clement et al., 2021, Groundswell: Acting on Internal Climate Migration Part II (Washington, DC: World Bank). 29 UN Women, 2015, Climate Change and Migration in Bangladesh: A Gender Perspective (New York: UN Women). 30 M. Niaz Asadullah, Kazi Md Mukitul Islam, and Zaki Wahhaj, 2020, “Child Marriage, Climate Vulnerability and Natural Disasters in Coastal Bangladesh,” Journal of Biosocial Science (August): 1–20. 31 The women considered here are those who reported their age as under 18 at marriage. 32 Asadullah, Islam, and Wahhaj, “Child Marriage, Climate Vulnerability.” 33 UN Women, Climate Change and Migration. 34 Shuvroneel Sagar, 2023, “Climate Change’s Devastating Toll: Salinity’s Impact on Coastal Women’s Health in Bangladesh,” Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, November 13, 2023, https://asia.fes.de/news/bangladesh-coastal-women.html. 11 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh The literature review also shows that women expe- Overall, data on education, skills, and social protec- riencing multiple climate-related displacements tion for female migrants are sparse. However, BIDS face significant barriers to accessing antenatal care shows that at least one-fourth of both migrant men and (ANC) services. A 2020 study using a survey of 599 women in rural and urban areas have no formal educa- mothers shows that climate-displaced mothers are “a tion. There are no significant variations in the educa- quarter less likely to deliver at a health care center than tional attainment based on migration status—with the mothers from non-displaced households” and less likely exception that more men possess tertiary educational to seek postnatal care.35 Moreover, displaced mothers degrees when compared with women. In terms of skills, are half as likely to receive the World Health Organization FGDs conducted show that female climate migrants (WHO)–recommended four or more ANC visits from a have access to trainings for basic income-generat- trained provider—40 percent of nondisplaced women ing activities in destination areas. The women in FGDs received at least four ANC visits compared with 20 expressed strong demand for more training to build percent of women displaced one to two times and skills that lead to income-generating activities. 16 percent of women displaced three to four times.36 According to the survey findings, poor economic condi- Exploring the role of social protection in managing tion; damage of houses, land, and properties; disrup- climate migration is a relatively new field and there tions in social networks and livelihood opportunities; is limited research into its gender dimensions. Social and lack of availability of health care facilities contributed protection programs can reduce distress from migra- to the lower level of access to ANC. While the survey tion induced by climate change and enable vulnerable compares nondisplaced women with women who have households to better plan for migration.38 According experienced multiple climate displacements, it remains a to the Sundarbans Assessment, 87 percent of women relevant indication of how climate migration can disrupt in origin areas reported absence of social safety nets access to maternal health and significantly reduce uptake as a concern. Similarly, BIDS FGDs reveal that safety of maternal health care services. This issue needs to be nets are a priority for migrated households. There is further studied among climate migrants given the impor- a perception, however, that safety net distribution is tance of ANC in reducing complications and deaths marred by favoritism and discrimination, which can be during pregnancy and delivery. Challenges also exist for particularly challenging for female climate migrants migrant women and girls to access sexual and reproduc- unfamiliar with the bureaucratic processes in destina- tive health (SRH) services, including lack of availability, tion areas—a challenge equally applicable to those in financial constraints, and infrastructural challenges.37 the origin areas. Social protection schemes tailored for BIDS data reaffirms female climate migrants’ concerns women in both the origin and destination areas can help around access to SRH services. Climate migration, like ease the immediate financial stresses that often lead to any other forms of migration, disrupts individuals’ knowl- erosive coping strategies such as reducing food intake edge of new communities’ health systems and support and selling assets. networks, compounding their vulnerability and increas- ing risks for mental health problems. 35 Md. Rabiul Haque, Nick Parr, and Salut Muhidin, 2020, “Climate-Related Displacement and Antenatal Care Service Utilization in Rural Bangladesh,” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 46:175–85. 36 Haque, Parr, and Muhidin, “Climate-Related Displacement.” 37 Kim Robin van Daalen et al., 2021, “A Scoping Review to Assess Sexual and Reproductive Health Outcomes, Challenges and Recommendations in the Context of Climate Migration,” Frontiers in Global Women’s Health 2:1–10. 38  Susanne Schwan and Xiaohua Yu, 2018, “Social Protection as a Strategy to Address Climate-Induced Migration,” International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 10 (1): 43–64. 12 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh Economic Outcomes Climate change has had the highest impact on two key occupations of southwestern Bangladesh— Table 1. Gender-Based Discrimination fisheries and agriculture—leading to reductions and Gender-Based Violence (GBV) in household incomes, which intensifies the need Respondents Face at the Workplace for migration.39 These impacts exacerbate economic vulnerabilities in the region, where the average monthly Workplace issues Total household income of BDT (Bangladeshi taka) 17,167 N % of (US$ 146) is lower than the national average of BDT women 26,163 (US$ 212) estimated by Household Income and Low wages compared with 164 67.2 Expenditure Survey, 2022.40 The impacts on livelihood men are worse for forest-dependent households. Women, who already face wide gaps in terms of labor force Longer working hours 58 23.8 compared with men participation, face additional pressures with such adverse impacts on existing livelihood opportunities. Physical or verbal harassment 10 4.2 No safety net or insurance 213 87.4 The women who are left behind in households where male members have migrated face various Heavy workload 161 65.9 economic challenges. According to a UN Women No facilities to keep children 233 95.3 study, these women face hardship in terms of suste- at the workplace nance: 85 percent of the women confirmed that they Poor or no sanitation system 215 88.2 do not receive enough support, or receive no support from their husbands.41 For women engaged in paid work, Food or water shortage 112 45.7 the Sundarbans Assessment shows that discrimination No privacy or place to take 219 89.6 and GBV faced in the workplace are major problems: rest 95 percent of women reported a lack of facilities for Source: Sundarbans Assessment, forthcoming; Field Survey 2024 childcare, 89 percent reported a lack of designated rest Note: N = 244. areas, and 88 percent reported inadequate sanitation systems (see table 1). Female climate migrants compelled to take on new economic activities face higher vulnerabilities and discrimination. Prior to migration, women had house- climate migration and gender in Bangladesh’s coastal hold care responsibilities and engaged in agricultural Southwest suggests that women face higher economic work such as crop processing, poultry and cattle farm- vulnerability after migration due to their higher levels ing, and vegetable gardening.42 As climate migrants, of predisaster and postdisaster poverty, gaps in labor women must take on new occupations such as domes- force participation, concentration in informal sector tic work and tailoring, and in many cases, work under work, lack of land and asset ownership, and higher care hostile conditions due to financial hardship. A study on burden.43 The same study further illustrates that women 39 World Bank, Socio-Economic and Livelihood Assessment. 40 World Bank, Socio-Economic and Livelihood Assessment. 41 UN Women, “Climate Change and Migration.” 42 Ishita Shahid Sams, 2019, “Impacts of Climate Change Induced Migration on Gender: A Qualitative Study from the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh,” International Journal of Social Science Studies 7 (4): 57–68. 43 Sams, “Impacts of Climate Change.” 13 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh © 2024 Bishawjit Shil/Shutterstock did not have land to support them during and after such as agriculture day labor, sewing, stitching, vege- migration, faced discrimination at workplaces, and were table cultivation, and other nonagricultural work. compelled to work in hostile conditions due to finan- Significant gender gaps exist in earnings among men cial hardships. Other key concerns for women were and women of migrated households. BIDS data shows lower wages and longer working hours compared with average monthly income for men was almost triple that men, indicating existent gender-based discrimination. for women in households that have migrated to rural Beyond economic aspects, women also reported losing and urban areas (see table 2). their social dignity in their origin areas. BIDS data shows a gender gap in paid employ- Despite such challenges, BIDS FGDs highlight that ment. Overall, male climate migrants are three women actively participate in income-generating activ- times more likely to be paid employees than female ities after migration, engaging in various professions climate migrants. In both rural and urban areas, most Table 2. Average monthly income among migrated households, disaggregated by sex Migrated Rural male Rural female Urban male Urban female Average monthly income (BDT) BDT 9,758 BDT 3,771 BDT 10,467 BDT 3497 US$ 83 US$ 32 US$ 89 US$ 29 Source: BIDS 2023 14 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh Figure 3. Employment Status of Migrated Households in Rural Areas Rural Migrated 40 Male Female Employment Percentage 35 30 25 20 15 10 re r tu ed tu re em ng en / ul d pr yer ul y pl id ul o r r ) ee ) ic ye 5 m uti ic lo ric al) ) eu be re re ) ic ab em Pa re oy gr lo gr mp tre lo tu tu ily ib Ag su gr l) l -A mp En Emp ul m tr (A lf-e r ( Ca 0 - A ua fa on on f-e re y ( on as Se C (N Sel (N y (C bo Da Da Employment Status la Source: BIDS 2023 Figure 4. Employment Status of Migrated Households in Urban Areas Urban Migrated 65 Male Female 55 Employment Percentage 45 35 25 15 5 -5 re r tu ed tu re em ng en / ul d pr yer ul y pl id ul o r r ) ee ) ic ye m uti ic lo ric al) ) eu be re re ) ic ab em Pa re oy gr lo gr mp tre lo tu tu ily ib Ag su gr l) l -A mp En Emp ul m tr (A lf-e r ( Ca - A ua fa on on f-e re y ( on as Se C (N Sel (N y (C bo a la D Da Employment Status Source: BIDS 2023 male climate migrants work as paid nonagriculture in urban settings where 62 percent of urban female day laborers, while female climate migrants work migrants work as contributing family members as contributing family workers that are not usually compared with 36 percent in rural settings (see fig. 3 paid. The difference in paid work is especially stark and fig. 4). 15 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh III. Exploring Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh Decision-Making autonomy in managing their incomes, regardless of their rural or urban location. Nearly all surveyed Migration, including climate migration, has an women possess some money that they can use as immense impact on the lives of women through its they desire. Similarly, approximately 85 percent of influence on conventional gender roles.44 Literature surveyed women fully or partially control how they on how migration affects women’s decision-making spend their earnings. While more than a quarter of provides a broader picture that encompasses the women can independently decide how to spend their effects of climate migration. There is evidence that income, over half of them, particularly those residing when male members of the households migrate, the in rural areas, make such decisions jointly with their changing roles and activities of women impact their husbands. A fraction of women, ranging from one-tenth status in the family and society. For example, after to two-fifths, lack decision-making authority, with their migration of male members of the household, to adapt, husbands assuming control. Women’s autonomy in women enter formal agricultural markets and activi- economic decision-making slightly varies across rural ties.45 Several studies conducted in Bangladesh have and urban locations, with urban women being more demonstrated “left behind” women’s increased auton- likely to control their incomes (45 percent) than rural omy in making decisions related to physical mobility, women (28 percent). education, finance, food, and clothing.46 Moreover, it is observed that young, unmarried women migrate more Beyond income, the decision-making role of women than married women and, regarding their migration appears to be limited. Women’s autonomy regarding and work, they often make decisions independently mobility decisions appears more restricted compared or in consultation with their families.47 As for married to their autonomy in financial matters. Husbands are women, their household responsibilities, particularly twice as likely to dictate whether their wives can visit toward their children, act as a barrier for them to local markets (28 percent) than to control their wives’ migrate.48 However, that does not imply an absence of earnings (14 percent). Similarly, women in urban areas agency when it comes to the migration process; often are less likely to have autonomy in deciding whether it is the women of the households who take initiative for they can visit local markets compared to rural women: migration and take up work with wages along with their 27 percent of rural women reported that their husbands husbands after migration.49 Therefore, it can be said impose decisions on market visits, compared with 37 that women have considerable agency in the migration percent of urban women. process. Women’s autonomy in deciding on the use of birth Reaffirming the abovementioned trends in migra- control is constrained. Less than 20 percent of women tion and decision-making, BIDS survey results can independently decide on birth control methods. show that women from both climate-migrated and Nonmigrant women (18 percent) are more likely to non-climate-migrated households appear to have make such decisions than migrant women (12 percent). 44 Zarin Yesmin Chaity, 2022, “Climate-Induced Migrations and Changing ‘Households’ in Bangladesh: An Analysis of New ‘Householding’ Structures from Gender Perspectives,” Global Journal of Human Social Science 22(4): 31–36. 45 Chaity, “Climate-Induced Migrations.” 46 Md. Hashibul Hassan and Lubna Jebin, 2020, “Impact of Migrants’ Remittance on the ‘Left-Behind Wives’: Evidence from Rural Bangladesh,” Journal of Developing Areas 54 (2): 127–44. 47 Chaity, “Climate-Induced Migrations.” 48 Evertsen and van der Geest, “Gender, Environment and Migration.” 49 Evertsen and van der Geest, “Gender, Environment and Migration.” 16 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh IV. Government Efforts to Address Climate Migration © Shariful Islam, World Bank C entral to the GoB’s response to climate change is the acknowledgment of migra- tion as a key adaptation measure, necessitated stressors, these policy documents aim to mitigate the causes of climate-induced displacement and seek to manage its effects through comprehensive by the increasing volatility of climate patterns and planning and targeted interventions. Furthermore, the subsequent impacts on human settlements recognizing the distinct impacts and roles of women and livelihoods. The government’s commitment to in the face of climate migration, the GoB, alongside addressing climate change impacts is highlighted its development partners, has also shown a strong in a series of forward-looking documents, including commitment to embedding gender considerations its current 8th Five Year Plan (FYP) 2020–2025, 50 within its climate change, migration, and adapta- the Mujib Climate Prosperity Plan (MCPP) for 2021– tion policies. This endeavor is markedly evident in 2030,51 the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100,52 and the strategic frameworks such as the Gender Strategy Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action for the 8th FYP and the MCPP, which prioritize the Plan (BCCSAP) 2008.53 Recognizing the inevitable empowerment and resilience of women in the face shift in population dynamics due to environmental of climatic adversities. 50 Bangladesh Planning Commission, 2020, 8th Five Year Plan July 2020–June 2025: Promoting Prosperity and Fostering Inclusiveness (Dhaka: Bangladesh Planning Commission). 51 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2022b, Mujib Climate Prosperity Plan 2022–2041, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 52 Bangladesh Planning Commission, 2018, Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 (Dhaka: Bangladesh Planning Commision). 53 Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2008, Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 17 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh IV. Government Efforts to Address Climate Migration Key Plans to Address Climate strategy is the implementation of Adaptive Social Migration and Gender   Protection (ASP) programs, which aim to inte- grate social protection within climate adaptation and disaster risk management investments. ASP • The Gender Strategy for the 8th FYP provides programs represent a novel approach to dynam- an overarching framework for women’s empow- ically adjusting social safety nets in response to erment in relation to climate-resilient develop- climate and disaster risks, directly benefiting and ment. It advocates broadening women’s access empowering women in vulnerable communities. to employment guarantee programs, public work It will be critical to ensure that ASP programs are programs, skills development, and entrepreneur- inclusive of female climate migrants and cater to ship support. It aims to elevate women’s capaci- their specific social protection needs. ties in utilizing low-carbon emission technologies and engaging in biodiversity conservation, water • The Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 is a strate- management, renewable energy, and scien- gic initiative focused on promoting economic tific waste management. This holistic approach growth, environmental preservation, and climate ensures women are not only beneficiaries but also resilience, with an emphasis on mitigating climate key contributors to sustainable development and migration. Key to these efforts is the limitation of climate resilience efforts. urban migration through economic incentives like the Employment Injury Scheme in the ready-made • The MCPP for 2021–2030 is Bangladesh’s garment (RMG) industry, alongside infrastruc- strategic framework aimed at transforming the ture projects such as coastal embankments and country’s climate vulnerability into resilience saline-tolerant agriculture to decrease migration and prosperity by 2041. It has a strong focus on from vulnerable coastal areas. Moreover, the climate migration, with a particular emphasis on plan advocates for enhancing job opportunities resilience, adaptation, and gender inclusivity to in riverine regions through the development of prevent displacement and foster a nation resil- fisheries, tourism, and small and medium enter- ient to environmental challenges. Recognizing the prises (SMEs), supported by robust disaster risk impacts on the well-being of internally displaced management strategies. These comprehensive persons from climate-related events, MCPP advo- measures aim to curtail the push factors driv- cates for gender-sensitive adaptation measures, ing migration, reflecting a holistic approach to including promotion of Community-Based securing a sustainable and resilient future for Psychological First Aid. This program is aimed Bangladesh.54 at alleviating the mental health effects of disas- ters, signifying a nuanced understanding of the • The National Adaptation Programme of Action gendered dimensions of climate-induced stress- (NAPA) in Bangladesh, particularly its Goal 3, ors. Furthermore, the Comprehensive Climate emphasizes development of Climate-Smart Cities and Disaster Risk Management and Financing to enhance urban environments and well-being, Strategy, spearheaded by the Ministry of Finance, advocating for the creation of peri-urban growth within the MCPP, focuses on employing a blend of centers that are welcoming to migrants. This vision climate and disaster risk financing and insurance is supported by a collaborative effort involving instruments to enhance resilience and facilitate government, private sector, nongovernmental adaptation investments. A key component of this organizations (NGOs), and academia, focused 54 John Roome, 2021, “Implementing Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100: Key to Boost Economic Growth,” World Bank, June 9, 2021. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/endpov- ertyinsouthasia/implementing-bangladesh-delta-plan-2100-key-boost-economic-growth; A. R. Tahseen Jahan, 2023, “Why Bangladesh’s Delta Plan 2100 Matters,” The Confluence, October 23, 2023. 18 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh IV. Government Efforts to Address Climate Migration on ensuring migrants have access to essential and people-centric rehabilitation initiative aimed services and thus facilitating orderly migration.55 at vulnerable populations affected by disasters The International Centre for Climate Change and climate change impacts.58 While the ambition and Development (ICCCAD) has pioneered the is commendable, significant challenges remain in concept of climate-resilient and migrant-friendly approaches that combine resilient infrastructure towns (CRMFT), aimed at directing migration and human capital development. flow from overcrowded urban areas to second- ary and peri-urban regions prepared for climate • The BCCSAP emphasizes a holistic approach to impacts and the economic needs of displaced climate resilience, incorporating strategies across populations. Pilot projects, such as the one in eleven thematic areas, including natural resources Mongla Municipality, showcase locally led adap- management, gender, and urban dimensions of tation strategies promoting sustainable growth climate change.59 It prioritizes livelihood protec- and resilience.56 Furthermore, the Global Center tion in ecologically sensitive areas, emphasizing on Adaptation (GCA), in collaboration with the the provision of sustainable energy resources. Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee This initiative enables communities, particularly (BRAC), is leading the development of town-spe- women, to pursue entrepreneurship opportunities. cific climate adaptation plans to bolster resilience against climate threats, with plans to expand this • The National Adaptation Plan (NAP) further initiative significantly by 2030. These strategic reinforces the importance of gender inclusiv- efforts are complemented by the government’s ity in climate adaptation strategies, ensuring integration of “resettlement-cum-livelihood” women’s needs and perspectives are integrated approaches into climate adaptation and disaster risk across all sectors. By fostering the development reduction policies, marking a shift toward sustain- of climate-resilient agricultural practices and able resettlement initiatives like the “Ashrayan” proj- infrastructure improvements, the NAP aims to ect, which aims to provide housing while integrating secure food, nutrition, and livelihood security for disaster resilience and promoting gender equality.57 women, thereby bolstering their roles in building The Ashrayan project is a comprehensive housing a climate-resilient nation.60 55 Swarna Kazi et al., 2022, Bangladesh: Enhancing Coastal Resilience in a Changing Climate (Washington, DC: World Bank). 56 Savio Rousseau Rozario and Madiha Chowdhury, 2023, “Climate Induced Displacement in Bangladesh Through the Lens of ‘Loss and Damage’,” Researching Internal Displacement, May 2, 2023, https:/ /researchinginternaldisplacement.org/short_pieces/ climate-induced-displacement-in-bangladesh-through-the-lens-of-loss-and-damage/?. 57 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, n.d., Climate Change Initiatives of Bangladesh: Achieving Climate Resilience. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 58 Atmaja Gohain Baruah, 2023, “Bangladesh is Undertaking the World’s Largest Resettlement Programme—and the Climate is Making it Harder,” The Conversation, July 31, 2023, https://theconversation.com/bangladesh-is-undertaking-the-worlds-largest-resettlement-programme-and-the-climate-is-making-it-harder-208664. 59 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Climate Change Initiatives; United Nations MPTF Office Partners Gateway, n.d., “Bangladesh Local Government Initiative on Climate Change: Promoting Local Action on Climate Change Adaptation in Bangladesh,” United Nations Development Programme, https:// mptf.undp.org/fund/jbd40. 60 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2022a, National Adaptation Plan of Bangladesh 2023–2050, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 19 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh IV. Government Efforts to Address Climate Migration Opportunities and Challenges in in origin and destination areas. Therefore, there the Current Policy Environment is limited information on how the intersection of climate migration and gender is addressed. While the policies articulate ambitious goals for gender Bangladesh has been a leading voice advocating responsiveness and empowerment, the practi- for faster and innovative approaches to climate cal execution and impact of these strategies on change mitigation and adaptation, but more effort the ground in the context of climate migration is needed to harness opportunities and address policy remain largely underdocumented. There is a need gaps to improve welfare of female climate migrants. to conduct a deeper assessment of such govern- Climate migration is an accepted adaptation strat- ment plans to identify the implementation chal- egy and building climate-migrant-friendly cities is a lenges and opportunities for targeted intervention national priority (see box 1). How women can improve to support female climate migrants. their human development and economic outcomes in the climate-migrant-friendly cities and how the women • Sex-disaggregated data and regular updates who are left behind can continue to build their resilience to the policies and plans are needed: The effi- are the critical questions to consider at the policy and cacy of Bangladesh’s strategies to address climate programmatic level. While the plans discussed above migration is significantly compromised by a critical lay the foundations to address developmental chal- shortfall in sex-disaggregated data and statistics lenges brought by climate migration as well as mini- (such as age, disability, ethnicity, etc.) related to mize the disproportionate impact on women and girls, climate migration. This gap obstructs the devel- there are significant challenges to tackle the problems opment of targeted, gender-responsive policies faced by female climate migrants. Key limitations of the by obscuring the distinct needs, capacities, and current policy framework on tackling gendered impacts resilience of migrant women and girls, making of climate migration are as follows: it challenging to devise effective support and adaptation strategies tailored to these vulnera- • Policy discourse is siloed: A review of the key ble groups.61 The foundational frameworks laid policy documents and action plans shows that out by the Climate Change Gender Action Plan responses to climate migration and gender-dif- (CCGAP), NAP, and BCCSAP mark significant ferentiated impacts of climate change are in strides toward integrating gender considerations silos. While some plans provide the overarching into climate adaptation and migration policies. framework and others commit to mainstream- These plans, however, some of which were formu- ing gender-inclusive activities, few such as the lated over a decade ago, now require updates to MCPP integrate actions specifically aimed at the reflect the evolving nature of climate science, impacts of climate migration on women and girls migration patterns, and gender dynamics. 61 UN Women, 2023, “Ensuring Safe and Regular Migration for Women and Girls in the Context of Climate Change,” policy brief (New York: UN Women), https://www. unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/Policy-brief-Ensuring-safe-and-regular-migration-for-women-and-girls-in-the-context-of-climate-change-en.pdf?; Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, n.d., Disaster Displacement in Asia and the Pacific: A Business Case for Investment in Prevention and Solutions, Geneva, Switzerland. 20 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh IV. Government Efforts to Address Climate Migration © Mahmud Hossain Opu/AP Photo Box 1. A Case of Transformative Adaptation: Secondary City for Climate Migrants in Mongla, Bangladesh “When it comes to adaptation, Mongla is a success story. Changes are coming there as an example of how climate refugees could transform their life through new opportunities, through a new approach of adaptation.” Saleemul Huq (1952–2023) Mongla, a port town situated along Bangladesh’s southwestern coastal region, emerges as a pioneering destination for climate-displaced people, offering a unique blend of economic opportunities and relatively favorable living conditions. Mongla faces significant climate vulnerabilities, however, particularly due to its proximity to the Bay of Bengal. It also faces the ongoing challenge of healthcare infrastructure deficits and maintaining its infrastructure amid frequent disasters, including cyclones and storm surges. Furthermore, women in Mongla suffer from reproductive health issues due to the lack of fresh water, highlighting the detrimental effects of water scarcity on reproductive health. Additionally, young women are at risk of experiencing sexual harassment while collecting water, further exacerbating gender-based vulnerabilities in the face of climate change. 21 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh IV. Government Efforts to Address Climate Migration In response to these challenges, Mongla has implemented a range of adaptation strategies to build resilience and mitigate the impacts of climate change, implementing plans laid out by the International Centre for Climate Change and Development (ICCCAD), making it the first town to adopt ICCCAD’s recommendations for climate-migrant- friendly cities. Notably, the town has constructed a 1-kilometer embankment along a marine drive, fortified with flood-control gates, to protect against inundation during high tides and storm surges. Additionally, investments in a robust drainage system, a water reservoir, and a water treatment plant aim to enhance water management. Mongla’s adaptation efforts extend beyond infrastructure development to include proactive disaster preparedness measures. The deployment of loudspeaker systems to disseminate early warnings of impending storms exemplifies the town’s commitment to community safety and resilience building. Furthermore, the town’s early warning system covers the entire municipality, employing door-to-door outreach to reach vulnerable populations and facilitate timely evacuations during emergencies. This especially prioritizes the safety and well-being of women and girls, who are often disproportionately affected by disasters. By providing timely alerts and facilitating evacuations, these measures mitigate the risks of gender-based violence (GBV) and ensure that women are actively engaged in disaster response efforts. Gender implications permeate Mongla’s adaptation strategies, particularly through gender-responsive infrastructure development and disaster preparedness. By safeguarding freshwater sources and enhancing disaster preparedness, these measures ensure equal access to basic services and protect vulnerable populations from climate-related hazards. By prioritizing proactive resilience-building measures and inclusiveness, Mongla exemplifies a holistic approach to climate adaptation that holds valuable lessons for vulnerable regions grappling with the impacts of climate change. Sources: Global Center on Adaptation 2022; Global Alliance Partnership 2022; ReliefWeb (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) (UNOHCA); Al Jazeera, 2022; Kaamil Ahmed and Isabel Choat, 2022; Rafiqul Montu, 2024. © Mahmud Hossain Opu/AP Photo 22 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh V. The World Bank’s Response to the Climate Crisis and Gender Equality © Shariful Islam, World Bank T he World Bank’s CCAP 2021–2025 recognizes the increased risks of migration across all regions of the world. Guided by the Green, Resilient, Inclusive is exacerbating risks of unplanned urban expansion and slum growth, exposing the most poor and vulnerable to future social and economic disruptions. The roadmap Development (GRID) Framework that promotes creat- urges urban transitions, with climate-migrant-friendly ing opportunities for the poor and vulnerable as well as cities playing a key role.63 tackling poverty and inequality, the CCAP provides the overarching policy environment to address the growing The World Bank’s Bangladesh Country Partnership issue of climate migrants. The CCAP also integrates Framework 2023–2027 (CPF) underscores the risk alignment with the Paris Agreement that includes climate vulnerabilities pose to poverty reduction and “making finance flows with a pathway toward low sustainable inclusive development and prioritizes greenhouse gas emission and climate-resilient devel- enhanced gender welfare. Tackling the challenges opment.”62 Both the World Bank and the GoB acknowl- faced by internal climate migrants is relevant to two edge that addressing the challenges of internal climate high-level outcomes (HLO) in the CPF: Outcome B on migrants is essential to climate-resilient development improved socioeconomic inclusion and Outcome C on for Bangladesh. This is evident in the CCAP’s South enhanced climate and environmental resilience. The Asia Climate Roadmap, which recognizes how influx of CPF, under Outcome B, notes the existence of knowl- internal climate migrants to populated cities like Dhaka edge gaps in understanding urban welfare dynamics 62 The World Bank Group’s Paris Alignment undertaking will entail an integrated vetting approach—screening, managing, and reducing climate risks for both mitigation and adaptation—for every project. All World Bank Group financed operations will have to support the deployment of lower-carbon options as applicable, whenever tech- nically and economically feasible, prevent carbon lock-in, and ensure that material climate risks have been assessed and reduced through the design of the operation to an acceptable level. 63 World Bank, 2021b, Climate Change Action Plan 2021–2025: South Asia Roadmap (Washington, DC: World Bank). 23 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh V. The World Bank’s Response to the Climate Crisis and Gender Equality and inequality as well as data disaggregated by gender Gender Action Plan (RGAP) II for South Asia also iden- and migrant status. Given the alarm sounded by the tifies climate resilience as a cross-cutting theme that Groundswell II report’s climate-migrant projections, it is pivotal to women’s human capital growth, economic is safe to say that the fate of climate migrants will be a empowerment, and leadership. critical factor in determining the state of urban welfare and inequality. Similarly, CPF under Outcome C notes While all key policy documents note the growing the need to build resilience through expanding human challenge of internal climate migrants as well as capital with new skills and ensuring climate responsive the need to close gender gaps, the discussions on infrastructure design while mainstreaming gender to these two areas are usually siloed. Moreover, pointed create opportunities for women in the emerging green discussions on specific approaches and solutions to economy. While Outcome C does not explicitly mention tackle climate migration are limited. One explanation is climate migrants, the focus on new skills to meet future that despite the widening acceptance of the impacts of demands of the green economy and climate resilient climate change, including the influx of climate migrants, infrastructure is relevant for climate migrants. and their growing importance in policies and plans, there is a scarcity of data on internal climate migra- Similarly, the Country Climate and Development tion, which is even more pronounced on its intersec- Report 2022 (CCDR) Bangladesh emphasizes the tion with gender. The Systematic Country Diagnostic need to embed preparedness for internal climate migra- (SCD) and the CPF acknowledge the knowledge gaps tion into urban development to support adaptation. on climate migrants in Bangladesh. The SCD states, Regarding gender and climate, the CCDR recognizes “Limited information on internal migration also limits the opportunities to promote women’s economic the understanding of the size of flows, use and benefits empowerment in agriculture, livestock, and fisheries of transfers, and underlying motivations and constraints by adopting climate-smart agriculture practices. Most of this process.”65 Furthermore, existing knowledge on agriculture workers in Bangladesh today are female—76 gender and climate migration becomes even more percent of women in rural areas are engaged in agri- sparse, and the CPF notes a lack of “locally generated cultural work compared with only 44 percent of men.64 evidence on intersection of gender, climate change and The CCDR also highlights the importance of locally led the green economy.” RGAP II has specifically identified climate action to advance women’s engagement and climate migration as one area where data and analyt- leadership in decision-making. Likewise, the World Bank ics need to be strengthened to track gender-disag- Gender Strategy 2024–2030 integrated climate resil- gregated impacts. Ample literature exists on climate ience across the three gender outcomes of foundational change and gender, climate change and migration, or well-being (ending GBV and elevating human capital), on female migration, but there is little on the intersec- economic participation, and leadership. The Regional tion of climate migrants and gender. “Climate change impacts on water availability, crop productivity, and sea level rise will exacerbate migration toward urban centers, especially Dhaka and Chattogram, but smaller cities also can serve as migrant-friendly and climate-resilient centers. Planning investment in infrastructure and services and livelihoods, with opportunities for skills and job training with linkages to the local industry, can potentially offer development dividends.” —World Bank, Country Climate Development Report 2022. 64 Thomas Farole et al., 2017, Jobs Diagnostic Bangladesh, Jobs Series Issue No. 9 (Washington, DC: World Bank). 65 World Bank, 2021a, Bangladesh Systematic Country Diagnostic 2021 Update (Washington, DC: World Bank), 55. 24 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh V. The World Bank’s Response to the Climate Crisis and Gender Equality The World Bank Portfolio Despite growing efforts to address climate and in Bangladesh gender, the review reveals that the current portfolio does not explicitly target women and girls affected by climate migration. It is highly possible that given the At the strategic level, World Bank and the GoB plans nature of some operations aimed at service delivery to converge on strengthening adaptive capacity of the extreme poor, slum upgrading, and urban devel- urban areas to address internal climate migration opment, internal climate migrants are unintention- as well as promoting gender equality while tackling ally covered within the larger category of vulnerable climate change. The World Bank has accelerated fund- groups. While female beneficiaries are acknowledged ing and assistance to tackle the climate crisis. To take within project monitoring frameworks, there is a lack of stock of how World Bank–financed operations address disaggregated data to capture the distinct experiences issues at the intersection of climate change, gender, and and vulnerabilities of migrant women in the context migration, a rapid portfolio review was conducted. The of climate migration. Depending on the location and review covered 67 operations from FY2010/11 through type of project, activities aimed at mitigating social FY2024/25.66 By scrutinizing interventions through risks induced by project activities in adherence to the the three lenses of climate, gender, and migration, the Environment and Social Framework (ESF) may capture review aimed to identify gaps, opportunities, and best the needs of climate migrants. However, further assess- practices to inform future interventions and enhance ment is needed to determine how ESF instruments the resilience and inclusivity of development efforts in have engaged with climate migrants as stakeholders Bangladesh. Thus, the review sheds light on the current or addressed their concerns. This limits our ability to landscape of World Bank interventions to juxtapose with develop a nuanced understanding of the gendered emerging challenges faced by female climate migrants dimensions of climate migration, which may impede and to recommend areas for deeper engagement. the formulation of targeted interventions to support this marginalized demographic. Therefore, intentional The portfolio, aligned with the strategic priorities intervention designs aimed at migrants remain missing. of the GoB on green growth and climate resilience and commitment to gender inclusivity, has a grow- Moreover, through risk mitigation activities ing number of actions to address gendered impacts aligned with the ESF, specifically those related of climate change. Out of 67 operations, 15 percent to resettlement, projects interface with internal include interventions on climate and gender. Most of climate migrants have to address multiple layers of the climate and gender actions are in the Environment, displacement. An in-depth assessment is needed to Natural Resource and Blue Economy Global Practice understand how ESF activities reach internal climate followed by the Water Global Practice. Most interven- migrants. Nonetheless, the gap in actions at the tions primarily focus on enhancing women’s access gender-climate-migration intersection underscores to resources, improving their livelihood opportuni- the need for a more explicit integration of climate ties, strengthening their resilience to climate change migration discussion in the portfolio to respond to impacts, and addressing the specific needs of women the unique experiences and needs of climate migrant and girls in disaster-prone areas. See box 2 for an exam- women in the context of climate resilience and adap- ple of World Bank–supported operations to support tation efforts. female migrants and box 3 for intervention examples of climate change and gender in World Bank operations. 66 The operations included ones listed in the CPF as contributing to the HLO on the climate agenda, operations with at least 20 percent climate co-benefits (CCB) provided by the CCB team, and other operations meeting corporate requirements on gender. 25 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh V. The World Bank’s Response to the Climate Crisis and Gender Equality Box 2. Northern Areas Reduction of Poverty Initiative (NARI) Project: Lessons from the World Bank’s Support to Internal Female Migrants The Northern Areas Reduction of Poverty Initiative (NARI) project (2011–2018) constituted a pilot initiative with a budget of US$ 29 million aimed at facilitating internal migration among women for employment. Its primary objective centered on fostering employment opportunities within the garment sector for econom- ically disadvantaged and vulnerable women from five Northern Districts, namely Rangpur, Kurigram, Lalmonirhat, Nilphamari, and Gaibandha. This was accomplished through the provision of comprehensive technical and life skills training. During every batch, selected women from the afore- mentioned districts underwent rigorous three-month training regimen at specialized centers strategically © Dominic Chavez/World Bank established near the Dhaka, Iswardi, and Karnaphuli export processing zones (EPZs). Technical Training modules encompassed fundamental machine operations along with specialized training on diverse production processes. Complementing this, the Life Skill Training curriculum encompassed various subjects such as personal finance management, health and hygiene practices, workers’ rights advocacy, negotiation techniques, arithmetic proficiency, and language. These facets were strategically incorporated to equip trainees with the requisite skills for effective adaptation to urban and factory environments. The training facilities were complemented by dormitories where trainees were accommodated through the duration of their training. Ensuring the safety and comfort of trainees, these dormitories were staffed with female security personnel and provided regular meals. Upon completion of the training program, graduates were given employment opportunities within garment facto- ries. Over 9,000 women successfully graduated from the training program. Of these graduates, more than 5,000 opted to remain in Dhaka to pursue employment opportunities within the EPZs. Additionally, a significant number of returning women initiated entrepreneurial endeavors, establishing their own sewing businesses within their respective communities. Key lessons from NARI relevant to supporting female climate migrants are to bundle technical and life skills, provide housing facilities, and link trainees to employment opportunities. NARI’s results demonstrates that multi- pronged investment in women migrants—in this case, provision of training and housing—can yield positive outcomes. 26 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh V. The World Bank’s Response to the Climate Crisis and Gender Equality Box 3. Types of Interventions Aimed at Climate Change and Gender in World Bank Operations Focus on Women’s Empowerment and Livelihoods: Many of the interventions are geared toward enhanc- ing women’s economic empowerment through improved productivity or enterprise development. Activities such as providing access to credit, training in climate-resilient practices, and supporting women entrepreneurs reflect a concerted effort to promote women’s economic participation and resilience in the face of climate change impacts. One exam- ple is the Sustainable Microenterprise and Resilient Transformation (SMART) project, which supports women entrepreneurs to access credit and expand knowledge on climate-resilient Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP) practices. The Sustainable Coastal and Marine Fisheries project provides financing and capacity building to women especially in the lower end of the fisheries value chain to develop alternative livelihoods. Resilience, Entrepreneurship, and Livelihood Improvement (RELI) project—with 90 percent female beneficiaries—is working with women farmers to adopt climate-smart agricultural practices to build resilience while enhancing their earning potential. Taking a more © Shariful Islam, World Bank sectoral approach, the Bangladesh Environmental and Sustainability Transformation (BEST) project includes initiatives such as targeted outreach and structured internship programs for female candidates as well as improvements in the work environment with stronger sexual harassment response policies and onsite childcare facilities. Gender-Responsive Infrastructure Development: Several projects prioritize the development of climate-resilient infrastructure with a gender-sensitive approach, such as the Resilient Infrastructure for Adaptation and Vulnerability Reduction (RIVER) project. These interventions aim to improve the mobility and safety of women by addressing barriers such as weather conditions and ensuring that infrastructure designs consider the specific needs of women, including access to sanitation facilities and safe transportation options. Additionally, efforts to improve climate-re- silient infrastructure and enhance disaster preparedness underscore a recognition of the disproportionate impacts of climate change on women and the importance of mainstreaming gender considerations in resilience-building efforts. Dhaka City Neighborhood Upgrading Project, another project with actions to improve the enhancement of public spaces, will improve women’s mobility and access. Gender-Based Violence (GBV) Prevention and Response: A significant focus of the interventions is GBV preven- tion and response, particularly in disaster-prone areas. Activities such as establishing gender-friendly spaces, providing GBV prevention training, and developing referral pathways for survivors of GBV highlight a commitment 27 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh V. The World Bank’s Response to the Climate Crisis and Gender Equality to ensuring the safety and well-being of women and girls in the context of climate-induced disasters. RIVER’s efforts on building capacity for GBV preparedness and response and Emergency Multi-Sector Rohingya Crisis Response Project (EMRCRP) response in GBV service delivery and prevention are notable. Enhancing Women’s Participation in Decision-Making: Some projects incorporate initiatives aimed at enhancing women’s participation and leadership in decision-making processes related to climate resil- ience and disaster risk management. The RELI project aims to empower women by enhancing their voice and agency in decision-making processes related to rural entrepreneurship. It includes initiatives such as targeted outreach and tailored support packages for female-headed households, along with indicators to measure women’s representation in key positions within village-level community institutions. Similarly, the Jamuna River Sustainable Management Project 1 (JRSMP-1) aims to bolster women’s decision-making roles in climate resilience by ensuring women engage in Water Management Committee leadership positions. These measures contribute to strengthening women’s leadership and participation in climate resilience and disaster risk management efforts. Gender-Sensitive Disaster Preparedness: Many of the interventions are centered around addressing the specific needs of women and girls in disaster-prone areas. For example, initiatives such as the establishment of gender- friendly spaces and the provision of targeted trainings aim to create safe and supportive environments for women and adolescent girls, particularly in the context of GBV prevention and response. Through the Host and Rohingya Enhancement of Lives Project (HELP), initiatives such as capacity building for women’s groups, training for women facilitators, and targeting women in community-level early warning systems contribute to strengthening women’s voice and agency in climate adaptation efforts. © Shariful Islam, World Bank 28 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations © 2024 HM Shahidul Islam/Shutterstock B angladesh is grappling with profound challenges posed by climate migration. With astonishing projections of internal climate migrants by 2050, the activities outside their homes in the absence of their husbands, and increased rate of child marriage. Additionally, women face health problems resulting country will need to allocate significant resources to from climate change impacts, such skin diseases and tackle the challenges. Both the GoB and the World Bank malnutrition. have recognized the urgency of addressing the chal- lenges of climate migration. Yet, while climate migra- Female climate migrants face other challenges tion has gained some degree of attention in policy during their migration cycle. The survey conducted discourses in Bangladesh, consideration of gender for this brief found that migrant women’s potential within such migration is notably missing. Without paying for involvement in economic activities is constrained attention to gender dimensions of such migration, when they migrate. For example, migrated women (62 efforts to address the challenges remain incomplete. percent) in urban areas are found to work as contribut- ing family members compared with most nonmigrant This knowledge brief found that climate migration women (80 percent) who are primarily self-employed poses distinct risks for women that can under- in nonagricultural sectors. Similarly, migration disrupts mine their human capital, increase risks for GBV, access to education and health services. While there is and constrain their economic empowerment. Women limited data on impacts in education, a study found clear left behind face additional economic hardships, for evidence that women who had faced multiple displace- instance, when husbands do not send money home. ments were a quarter less likely to receive at least four Similarly, they experience increased domestic violence ANC visits than those not displaced. Female climate from family members, increased sexual harassment in migrants also face much higher risks of GBV. When they public spaces since many of them need to conduct are in a new place deprived of their social capital facing 29 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations economic hardships, they are more likely to face domes- revealed that actions at the intersection of gender and tic violence within the households and sexual harass- climate change are growing. Such actions require more ment in places of employment. Concerns of family intentional targeting for climate migrants, especially honor in urban areas is higher and can increase child women. World Bank operations focusing on service marriage. Regarding decision-making, the evidence is delivery for the ultra-poor, slum upgrades, urban devel- mixed. While migrated women have more autonomy opment, and community-driven climate resilience as over how they use their income, there is relatively less well as activities aimed at meeting the World Bank’s autonomy in making decisions related to their mobility environmental and social standards may unintention- and reproductive health. Urban female migrants face ally reach internal climate migrants. There needs to be higher restrictions than their rural counterparts. explicit targeting of climate migrants where feasible, however. Addressing challenges of climate migration, there- fore, requires paying attention to the gender dimen- Limited evidence available indicates that women left sions of such migration. All development actors could behind and female climate migrants will face additional prepare and implement plans to address this issue. A challenges that can impede their human capital growth review of policies and plans reveals that while the GoB and economic empowerment. Bangladesh, which has has made significant strides in outlining its vision and already made significant advancements in terms of its strategy to tackle climate migration, there is a pressing visions and plans to manage climate migration, can need to translate these commitments into action on emerge as a leader in integrating the gender perspec- the ground and for development partners—including tives in its approach to climate migration, similar to the World Bank—to support this action. Nonetheless, its leadership in mainstreaming gender into disaster a review of the World Bank portfolio in Bangladesh preparedness. © Shariful Islam, World Bank 30 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations Policy Recommendations Recommendation 1: Expand the knowledge base on how climate migration affects women in origin and destination areas. Quantitative and qualitative data-driven analysis is needed to further understand the specific ways in which climate migration affects women. There is much to be unraveled, for example, on who migrates; the most destitute tend to not have resources necessary for migration. There is a need to scrutinize household structures and their implications, the types of climate migration and their effects on women and girls, among other outstanding questions. Climate change impacts are rapidly increasing in intensity, requiring an examination on changes in climate migration trends. Models that combine the latest science on climate change with demographics, such as that in the 2018 Groundswell report, needs to be updated so that it can provide periodic and meaningful data to aid development planning. It will be important to identify and monitor the hotspots and pattern of mobility. In terms of response efforts, there are multiple areas for deeper analysis. First, an in-depth assess- ment of existing government plans and policies on climate change and gender is needed to understand what actions have been implemented and what lessons can be drawn. Plans around secondary cities are critical. Labor policies also need to be reviewed with a focus on internal climate migrants. Second, building on the portfolio review, a deeper assessment is needed of the World Bank’s interventions on climate change and gender in the areas of size of investment, results, and lessons learned. Systems need to be built to collect disaggregated data to capture gender trends. The World Bank Gender Data portal, for example, would benefit from climate-related indicators. Recommendation 2: Ensure that policies and plans aimed at managing climate migration and related vulnerabilities in social protection, job creation, housing and urban development, and other relevant sectors address gender considerations. To break down the silos in which policies and plans deal with climate change and migration, there is an immediate need to mainstream gender into policies and plans aimed at addressing the challenges of climate migration. This can be achieved by aligning with the Gender Strategy for the 8th FYP, which supports women’s empowerment in climate-resilient development, and the MCPP, which emphasizes gender-sensitive adaptation measures. Implementation should focus on integrating ASP programs from the MCPP, which dynamically adjust safety nets in response to climate risks, ensuring they meet the specific needs of female climate migrants. Additionally, efforts should be coordinated with the NAP to promote gender-responsive agricultural practices and infrastructure improvements. By linking these efforts with initiatives such as the Ashrayan project and the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100, which focus on resilient housing and economic incentives in vulnerable areas, the recommendation can be operationalized to foster comprehensive support for women affected by climate migration. Building on data and knowledge, these efforts can address gender priorities, namely, access to livelihood and economic opportunities; access to education and health services, especially maternal and SRH care; mitigating GBV risks, including child marriage; ensuring adaptive safety nets; and disaster risk reduction strategies. Efforts to mainstream gender must be collective within different sectors—urban development, education, health, and social protection—responding the sector-specific needs of women left behind and female climate migrants. Such efforts also need to occur at different levels. There are opportunities for locally-led climate action and decentralization, accountability around local investments, and participation of the vulnerable migration population, especially women. 31 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations Recommendation 3: Allocate resources to invest in initiatives targeted at female climate migrants at scale to achieve necessary scale, including in planning and development of secondary cities and towns. Although there are clear commitments on managing climate migration and gender impacts of climate change, there are limited actions intentionally targeted at female climate migrants and women left behind in the origin areas. It is imperative to identify gender-smart climate solutions67 to enable women and girls to realize new opportunities resulting from climate change and reduce the adverse impacts. There is an opportunity to focus more specifically on job creation and skills alignment for women in growth sectors, particularly in secondary cities and towns. Deliberate efforts to integrate the creation of livelihood opportunities with climate-resilient urban services and infrastructure planning can have a transformational impact and promote social cohesion. Recommendation 4: Enhance women’s leadership in policy dialogue on climate migration and promote women’s decision-making roles. At the policy level, there is an urgent need to enhance women’s leadership on the climate-migration discourse. At the community level, more needs to be done to harness women’s agency and leadership. The findings show that women take on decision-making roles within the household, especially in economic spheres. Such opportunities for growth in agency can be harnessed to empower women. Recommendation 5: Prioritize and promote locally led climate action to manage risks and impacts of climate migration on women in Bangladesh. Given the fluidity associated with climate migration, there are significant opportunities for locally led climate action. Provisions to ensure women’s meaningful participation in local initiatives will help to ensure their voices are heard in destination and origin areas. Building community-led initiatives can enable effective outreach and engagement of female climate migrants given the dynamic nature of migration. Community initiatives will also help to fill the gaps created by weakened social networks. Recommendation 6: Ensure policies promote integration and mainstreaming. Although design- ing individual initiatives to address identified issues can have strong and effective results, it is important to also consider how these initiatives integrate into broader planning. The recommendations presented in this report should be implemented with an emphasis on effective targeting measures and intentional consideration of the nexus between gender equality and climate migration. 67 Deininger et al., “Placing Gender Equality.” 32 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations Operational Recommendations Recommendation 1: Strengthen GBV prevention and response interventions to address chal- lenges faced by women climate migrants and women left behind in origin areas. Using a GBV lens on climate migration is imperative.68 Prevention activities targeted at tackling harassment in public spaces, domestic violence, child marriage, and human trafficking are critical to assuage the fears and insecurity experienced in the place of origin. Likewise, activities to raise awareness among employers are needed. On the response side, awareness raising is needed for women in both origin and destination areas on available GBV services. Recommendation 2: Design initiative to enhance safe mobility for female climate migrants in urban areas. A literature review and the BIDS study show that female climate migrants in urban areas face additional mobility challenges. Initiatives to address constraining social norms around mobility or provide affordable transport solutions need to be explored to improve mobility in destination areas. Recommendation 3: Expand healthcare services specifically on maternal and SRH. Prioritize delivery of ANC services through local health centers to increase outreach to mothers in areas that are more likely to generate climate-induced migrants and run mobile clinics in destination areas. Given the high rates of child marriage—in turn, high rates of adolescent pregnancies—on the one hand, and high level of ownership of cell phones among men and women on the other hand, awareness of family planning and maternal health services can be carried out through cell phones. Recommendation 4: Design adaptive social safety nets utilizing digital technology for both women climate migrants and women left behind. As noted in the CCDR, expanding and improving cash-based ASP programs and leveraging government-to-citizen platforms to reach climate migrants are critical for internal climate migrants. Equally important is ensuring that social protection programs reach women in both the origin and destination places of migration. Such programs can protect women left behind with additional economic stressors from resorting to erosive coping strategies. For women intending to migrate, such programs can help them better plan their migration. Moreover, a safety net for households with girls under 18 could ease the economic stressors and help delay child marriage. Recommendation 5: Expand opportunities for education, training for skills and income-gen- erating activities, and jobs for female climate migrants and women left behind and prioritize the development of climate-resilient livelihoods in regions of origin. Skills development activities need to be tailored to support women climate migrants in destination areas to enter the labor market and women left behind in areas of origin. Avenues to use existing skills of women could also be explored along with supporting women to transfer their skills. For this, jobs platforms that are targeted at climate migrants would be helpful. Furthermore, platforms and initiatives that support the development of climate-resilient livelihoods in regions of origin can help empower individuals and communities, restore and reinvigorate areas negatively affected by climate change, and alleviate the outflow of migrants. Recommendation 6: Devise strategies and funding mechanisms to ensure accessible and affordable housing. As noted in the CCDR, keeping the needs of an influx of climate migrants in mind, 68 Deininger et al., “Placing Gender Equality.” 33 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations cities need to increase supply of resilient and affordable housing. The needs of women should be considered when designing and providing affordable housing. Safety for women and children should be prioritized. Insights from projects such as the GoB’s Ashrayan project can be drawn on to plan housing for climate migrants. It is important to ensure that proposed climate-migrant-friendly cities are gender responsive based on participatory planning processes. Recommendation 7: Design community initiatives that provide information and referral services to support new migrants. For instance, community-based organizations can offer the shar- ing of traditional knowledge, provide skills training and capacity-building programs, and advocate for gender-responsive policies at local and national levels. Such initiatives empower women to partici- pate in decision-making processes, ensuring their voices are heard and their unique needs are met. By supporting grassroots initiatives such as community-based disaster preparedness committees, women’s cooperatives, and sustainable livelihood projects, communities can effectively address the interconnected issues of climate change, migration, and gender inequality. Recommendation 8: Integrate gender-climate-migration perspectives in project design, implementation, and monitoring. Ensure that projects that naturally lend themselves to reaching women left behind and female climate migrants undertake participatory planning methods to identify the needs of this group. This can help design interventions that respond to their specific needs. When conducting social impact assessment or stakeholder mapping and engagement in alignment with ESF, consider inclusion of climate migrants depending on location and type of projects. Last, as indicated from the portfolio review, improving the monitoring framework in projects can help to track internal climate migrants reached by projects. 34 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations Future Research Recommendations In addition to the outlined recommendations, there are critical areas that require further research to fully understand the gendered impacts of climate migration in Bangladesh. Although this knowledge brief presents a broad overview, the team acknowledges the importance of deeper investigation into these areas and suggests incorporating them into a future research agenda. These topics include the following: Intersectionality in Migration Decisions: Future research should explore how intersec- tional factors, such as gender, age, and socioeconomic status, influence the decisions of women and elderly populations to migrate or stay behind. This is particularly important for understanding the dynamics of “trapped populations” who lack the resources to migrate. Impact of Remittances on Livelihoods and Adaptation: Investigating the role of remit- tances in diversifying livelihoods and supporting climate adaptation strategies is crucial. Understanding how remittances contribute to resilience and their differential impact on women can inform policies aimed at enhancing the economic stability of climate-affected communities. Women’s Roles in Climate-Affected Livelihoods: Detailed studies are needed to exam- ine women’s involvement in occupations such as fisheries and agriculture, particularly in climate-vulnerable regions like the southwestern coast. Insights from these analyses can support the development of targeted interventions that bolster women’s economic resilience. Demographic Trends and Migration: Future research should contextualize climate migration within broader demographic trends, including, in the context of Bangladesh, high urban population densities and growth rates. Leveraging the demographic dividend will be essential to integrate climate migrants into productive, climate-resilient labor markets. Gendered Impacts Across Migration Types: A deeper assessment of the gendered impacts of different migration types—circular, temporary or seasonal, and permanent—will provide a more nuanced understanding of how migration experiences vary and how policies can better address these differences. Role of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and Institutions: Exploring the role of CSOs and institutions in enhancing household and area resilience is critical. This research can identify how these actors contribute to building adaptive capacity and supporting climate-affected communities. Life Cycle Consideration and Migrant Typology: Investigating the life cycle stages of migrants and how these intersect with migration typologies can offer valuable insights into designing age-appropriate and context-specific support mechanisms for migrants. 35 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh VI. Conclusion and Recommendations While the current knowledge brief is focused on providing a high-level overview, the areas discussed represent key opportunities for future research. Such investigations can enrich the discourse on climate migration and its gendered impacts, ultimately leading to more informed and effective policy interventions in Bangladesh. This focus on future research aligns closely with the World Bank’s gender priorities, which emphasize the need to address gender disparities and empower women as central to achieving sustainable development. By integrating gender considerations into climate resilience strategies, the World Bank can enhance its efforts in Bangladesh, where climate change poses significant risks to economic stability and social cohesion. By building a robust evidence base, these efforts will ultimately help in crafting more effective, gender-sensitive policies and interventions that are critical for Bangladesh’s long-term resilience and prosperity. © Rama George-Alleyne / World Bank 36 Climate Migration and Its Impacts on Women in Bangladesh References Ahmad, Nilufar. 2012. “Gender and Climate Change in Bangladesh: The Role of Institutions in Reducing Gender Gaps in Adaptation Program.” Social Development Working Paper No. 126. Washington, DC: World Bank. Ahmed, Kaamil, and Isabel Choat. 2022. “Port in a Storm: The Trailblazing Town Welcoming Climate Refugees in Bangladesh.” The Guardian, January 24, 2022. 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