AUSTRALIA-WORLD BANK GROUP STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP IN VIETNAM Gender Theme PERCEPTIONS OF GENDER DISPARITIES IN VIETNAM’S LABOR MARKET PERCEPTIONS OF GENDER DISPARITIES IN VIETNAM’S LABOR MARKET Copyright © 2020 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433 USA All rights reserved. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, or its affiliated organizations, or to members of its board of executive directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. Cover photo: © World Bank Reference: Buchhave, Helle; Wendy Cunningham, Giang Tam Nguyen, Nina Weimann-Sandig (2020): Perceptions of Gender Disparities in Vietnam’s Labor Market. Washington, DC: World Bank. CONTENTS Acknowledgments  iv Executive summary  1 Research questions  1 Findings  2 Policy recommendations  3 Perceptions of gender disparities in Vietnam’s labor market  5 1. Introduction  5 2. The Vietnam context  7 2.1. Challenges related to gender disparity  7 2.2. Economic, institutional, and legal environment  8 2.3. Local gender disparities in the labor market  8 3. Methodological approach  13 4. Empirical findings  16 4.1. Perceptions of the labor market among students  16 4.2. Attitudes of parents regarding gender  19 4.3. Gender stereotypes in vocational education and training institutions  22 4.4. Perceptions of access to education and the labor market among ethnic minorities  24 4.5. Perceptions among employers  26 4.6. Perceptions among vulnerable groups  29 4.7. Perceptions of employment service centers  34 5. Summary of research results for the provinces of Dien Bien and Quang Nam  36 5.1. Results for Dien Bien  36 5.2. Results for Quang Nam  37 6. Conclusions and policy recommendations  39 6.1. Strengthen career guidance activities for students and parents  39 6.2. Break—or at least challenge—gender stereotypes  40 6.3. Change the workplace to alleviate home-related constraints  40 6.4. Support small business start-ups and growth  41 6.5. Target support to disabled women and single mothers  42 6.6. Enforce the law  42 References and bibliography  43 Annex 1. Details of the participants in the focus group discussions and key informant interviews  46 List of figures 2.1. Labor force participation in Vietnam  7 2.2. Gender wage gap  8 List of tables 1. Policy recommendations derived from qualitative research  4 2.1. Labor indicators for Hanoi city in 2017  9 2.2. Key labor indicators in Ho Chi Minh City, 2016–2017  9 2.3. Labor indicators of Quang Nam 2016–2017  11 2.4. Labor indicators of Dien Bien in 2017  12 3.1. Characteristics of the focus groups  15 III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study is a product of the Vietnam Women’s Economic Empowerment Project under the Australia–World Bank Partnership Program II (ABP2) in Vietnam. The report was written by Nina Weimann-Sandig (consultant from Evangelische Hochschule, Dresden), Wendy Cunningham, Lead Economist; Helle Buchhave, Senior Social Development Specialist; and Giang Tam Nguyen, Social Development Specialist, from the World Bank. The authors thank the entire research team from the Institute of Labor Science and Social Affairs for their field research work, background information provided, and their help with implementation of the focus group discussions. The authors also thank the key contact people who helped to recruit focus group participants. Special thanks are due to all of the participants in focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and biographical interviews who graciously shared their knowledge and experiences. Financial support by Australia is gratefully acknowledged. The Vietnam Women’s Economic Empowerment Project of the ABP2 carries out comprehensive data- and evidence- based analyses on emerging challenges to gender equality and provides technical support to policy makers and investment programs to address these challenges with the objective of increasing women’s economic empowerment. Other outputs under the project that directly relate to this report include the following publications: “Vietnam Future Jobs—The Gender Dimension” (a policy paper); “How to Design the Vietnam Labor Code to Improve Gender Equality” (a policy paper); “Gender Equality and Legislation in Vietnam” (a comprehensive e-learning course in Vietnamese); and the “Vietnam Data Book on Gender 2016 by the National Statistical Office.” For more information on this report and the Gender Theme of the Vietnam Australia–Bank Partnership Program II (ABP2), please contact Task Team Leader Helle Buchhave (hbuchhave@worldbank.org) or Dung Thuy Vu, Team Assistant, World Bank Hanoi (dvu1@worldbank.org). IV PERCEPTIONS OF GENDER DISPARITIES IN VIETNAM’S LABOR MARKET EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Vietnam will only reach its goal of becoming a middle- departments, and the private sector providing services income, inclusive, and democratic country if it closes but not collecting or sharing data on their beneficiaries the economic and social gaps between men and and services. Again, it is difficult to understand the women. Gender equality across jobs is recognized a key extent to which the VET system is serving, or could input to achieving this development goal. But what is better serve, women. hindering gender equality in the Vietnam labor market? This report takes a look at that with the objective of A policy focus on reducing the gender-specific informing policy makers. constraints to labor market integration is warranted if Vietnam is to continue to grow its economy and In the context of Vietnam’s impressive economic enhance the well-being of its population while meeting growth over the last two decades, several studies have its national gender equity goals. Gender disparities in a documented gender disparities, but few have studied country’s labor market are problematic for at least three the underlying constraints that drive the disparities. reasons. First, if women’s full potential in the labor Specifically, recent work has mapped gender gaps market can be realized, then this is likely to increase in access to universities, vocational training, job macroeconomic efficiency. Second, jobs can directly opportunities, and earnings in Vietnam (MOET foster women’s economic development and increase 2015; ILSSA and KWDL 2014; World Bank 2011; their earnings and the benefits derived there-in. And Cunningham, Buchhave, and Alidadi 2018; ILO 2015). third, increasing women’s labor market opportunities These studies have not only shown that women have less has potential positive spillover effects on a woman’s access to education and work opportunities than men agency, control, and power, which are crucial to her but have also identified specific groups of women who well-being and success (e.g. Cunningham, Buchhave, are more disadvantaged than others, such as women and Alidadi 2018). from ethnic minorities and women with disabilities. However, the constraints underlying gender disparities Research Questions in the labor market have not been well documented, and thus little evidence exists to guide policy makers in To help fill these knowledge gaps, this study uses three devising ways to reduce them. qualitative methods to understand stakeholders’ views on the mechanisms underlying gender disparities in The Vietnamese government is working to increase the Vietnamese labor market and related policy: (1) its support to job seekers. The primary source of individual biographical interviews; (2) focus group public support for the job-search process is provided discussions; and (3) expert interviews. The study by employment support centers (ESC), which are addresses three general questions: responsible for providing job vacancy information and job-search guidance, and for administering 1. What are the main constraints underlying gender unemployment insurance benefits. The ESC system disparities in Vietnam’s labor market? is highly decentralized, meaning that each province determines the roles, responsibilities, and functions 2. What kind of information do female and male of its own ESC. The centers do not collect or share students and job seekers use to guide their decisions nationally consistent information about beneficiaries, about acquiring education and skills and for their services, and results, so there is no empirical evidence job searches? about who is using the centers and how many of them are women. A second source of support is the vocational 3. How effective are Vietnam’s existing VET education and training (VET) sector. The sector is institutions and ESC system in addressing gender- decentralized, with different ministries, provincial-level specific constraints? 1 This study supplements existing—largely quantitative— discussions identify three groups of women who are literature on gender disparities in Vietnam’s labor market more vulnerable than others and who find it more (including by the World Bank) by using established difficult to be an active part of the labor market: single methods of qualitative social science research to explore mothers, women with disabilities, and women from the reasons why men and women fare differently. The ethnic minority groups. study collects data using three methodologies: (1) a small number of biographical interviews with a variety S econd, substantiated f rom the focus group of Vietnamese women; (2) focus group discussions discussions and individual and expert interviews, with women and men in different regions of Vietnam; the study’s findings confirm the perception that and (3) key informant interviews with decision makers society and the government believe that a woman’s in the fields of education and job placement. While foremost role is as wife and mother, and her role as a quantitative research aims to test hypotheses using worker is secondary; while a man’s primary role is as statistical parameters and a representative and random a worker, with his secondary role barely mentioned. sample, qualitative research aims to identify contrasts Respondents report that career is secondary to and common issues in individuals’ experiences and women’s role as primary caregiver in a family, so perceptions. young women select education trajectories and occupations that will allow them to prioritize family This study gives particular emphasis to the context in duties. Young women and their parents share this which the gender dynamic is played out in the sphere of view, and few of the young women interviewed for the labor market. It approaches gender not as naturally the study questioned it. The focus groups felt that it determined but as socially constructed,1 with cultural, was necessary for young women to target occupations political, religious, and ethnical concepts all influencing with maternity leave, limited overtime work, and few its meaning. With this approach, labor market policy demands—primarily public sector jobs—since labor cannot be analyzed without also accounting for social law and family policies do not sufficiently introduce and family policy. flexibility in the labor market at large. Men, on the other hand, are under intense pressure from families, The study’s findings should be interpreted as the wide- young women, and themselves to pursue a high- ranging views of Vietnamese men and women. They are paying career; the issue of men’s balance between not intended to be statistically representative but instead career and family is not mentioned in the research. to compare the range of perceptions on gender in the labor market. The comparisons (and commonality of Third, the focus group discussions converge on perceptions) are drawn between men and women and the observation that parents play a significant role between women from different groups—age, education in determining a daughter’s life path, despite their level, ethnicity, geographic location, work status, and limited knowledge about the job market or educational motherhood status. opportunities. Parents and their children highlight the parental role in identifying career opportunities. Findings Both report that parents engage in Internet searches to explore career and educational options for their The study’s qualitative findings confirm that a range of children. Parents were particularly critical of the lack of gender disparities exist in Vietnam’s labor market. The consolidated information and felt that the government report can be summarized in six findings. could do more to facilitate this process. The girls report that they are rather passive about pursuing their own First, many Vietnamese women are in precarious interests, instead being quick to follow advice from employment situations. Specifically, the focus group family members. Strong gender stereotyping among 1 Correspondingly, this research is based on theories and models that are dealing with the “doing gender” paradigm, which takes a social- constructivist point of view that determines gender not as something natural but as something socially constructed. Cultural, political, religious, and ethnic concepts influence the meaning of gender (Hagemann-White 1988: 230). Accordingly, social constructs influence and even determine the meaning of gender and gender disparities in Vietnam. Their effects can be seen in the recent structure of the labor market. “Doing gender” is a process that produces and reproduces the concept of gender depending on social developments (Gildemeister 2010: 137). Therefore, this concept expects mid-term and long-term sociopolitical measures, labor market policy, and family policy to influence the concept of gender within a society. Furthermore, it indicates, that a country’s labor market policy cannot be analyzed without knowledge of the social and family policy. 2 parents affect their daughter’s opportunities, such highly critical of professional women, who they believe as the belief that a girl is weaker and that she needs are selfish in prioritizing career over family. Women to study and work close to home so her parents can with disabilities feel at a particular disadvantage protect her until she moves into her husband’s house. because employers tend to only see their physical or These impressions are strongly reported in the focus psychological limitations rather than their skills and group discussions, comprising women from ethnic knowledge. minority groups and women with disabilities. Women who self-identify as ethnic minorities report that they Sixth, existing labor market programs could better exist within cultural norms and traditions that regard serve both female and male job seekers. Vietnam’s ESC a daughter as the possession of her parents. Some system is intended to help potential workers access job respondents explained that their marriages enabled placement and training. The study’s qualitative research their parents to gain more farmland and thus increase shows that parents and female job seekers consider the their incomes. These girls tend to marry at a young local ESC offices to be largely ineffective in helping age, and few are given the opportunity to acquire a them acquire information to conduct successful job secondary or higher education. In these communities, searches. In fact, both male and female focus group the role of women to bear and raise children is seen participants expressed a general mistrust in the as even more important than in nonethnic minority integrity and reliability of the ESCs and feel they were households. Again, few in the young women’s focus only useful to unskilled job seekers. groups disputed these stereotypes. Moreover, disabled women experience a double burden Fourth, the focus groups reported that the government’s in accessing the job market. There is an opportunity current labor policies do not adequately account for for labor market programs to give more attention to the needs of modern families. For example, they do the inclusion of skilled disabled women and to help not encourage flexible working times, part-time work, influence popular perceptions of how disabled women or home-based work opportunities. This has led to can meaningfully engage in the labor market. a critical situation of multifaceted gender inequality. Well-educated young women with children report Policy Recommendations leaving the labor market due to lack of childcare, especially in urban areas, where they often cannot rely The findings of this study have broadened the on a family network. The perception is that a single understanding of the constraints that underlie gender mother who has to work to help feed her family will disparities in Vietnam’s labor market and how policies often end up accepting a low-paying, low-skilled, and and interventions such as labor market intermediation unstable job even if she is well educated. services can be improved to reduce these constraints. The findings from focus group discussions were generally Fifth, women perceive that teachers and employers robust and largely consistent with the findings of the hold gender biases that affect how they treat students existing quantitative research. This made it possible to differently in VET programs and at the workplace. draw out several direct policy recommendations (table 1) Young women feel that VET instructors are of high targeting all responsible policy makers, especially those quality, but they discourage young women studying tasked with improving women’s labor market experiences. in typically male occupations while encouraging The report is also relevant for the private sector, which young men studying in typically female occupations. also has a role to play in addressing constrains that hinder Several participants reported that at the workplace, equal participation in the labor market, for example, their employers do not comply with labor laws that through support to the provision of child care services, as balance home and work life. However, women are also stipulated in the Labor Code of 2019. 3 TABLE 1. Policy Recommendations Derived from Qualitative Research General policy Specific policy recommendations Key responsible direction stakeholders Strengthen career Provide consolidated, online information on careers, educational MoLISA guidance for opportunities, and job vacancies, presented in a user-friendly format that students and parents includes pertinent information for determining educational and career paths. Strengthen career guidance activities by providing consultation sessions in MoET, universities, VET secondary schools targeted at both students and their parents. Expand and fine-tune ESC services to better account for each jobseeker’s MoLISA specific gender-related constraints. Train ESC placement officers and other staff to provide gender-specific MoLISA guidance and advice, and set targets for also reaching people with disabilities. Provide information sessions for parents to broaden their understanding MoET, universities, VET, about occupational and education opportunities for their daughters. secondary schools Challenge gender Produce videos of personal testimonials of girls (and boys) in a range of MoET, secondary stereotypes jobs. schools Complement gender-awareness training in schools (for educators and MoET, MoLISA, VCCI, trainers) and in workplaces (for employers and staff ) with exposure to VCL individuals who have challenged gender norms. Support programs that are designed to help girls develop their own MoET, schools, VWU, agency. NGOs Change the Facilitate flexible forms of work, such as part-time or home-based work Employers, VCCI, VCL workplace and jobs with flexible working hours. to alleviate home Establish a general parental leave (rather than only maternity leave) to MoLISA, National constraints encourage a social shift toward gender equality within families. Assembly (Labor Code) Implement awareness campaigns, discussions, and training for employers VCCI and human resource managers on modern strategies of human resource development and on gender-sensitive work planning. Continue to expand the supply of (especially in rural areas) and enhance MoET, provincial the quality of childcare services for children ages 0–3 and early childhood people’s committees education for children ages 4–6. Target support to Establish building and transportation standards for people with disabilities Ministry of disabled women and to access vocational training centers. Construction, Ministry single mothers of Transport, MoLISA Conduct awareness campaign targeting rural areas that advocate for MoLISA, Association of disabled peoples access to jobs and consider public reward to role model People with Disabilities employers that target a diverse labor force. Increase provision of quality childcare services for children under the age MoLISA, municipalities, of 3 years old and offer services that accommodate childcare needs outside VCCI, MoET regular working hours. Strengthen support Expand the provision of finance and training for micro-businesses owned MPI, MoF, VCCI for microenterprises and operated by women. to enable women Consider grant financing for micro-business start-up and operations. MPI, MoF, VCCI to realize their full potential as microentrepreneurs Enforce labor laws Provide information and services to women about their labor rights and Vietnam’s Women’s how to file grievances. Unions, NGOs Intensify the dialogue on gender issues among government, labor unions, MoLISA, VCL, VCCI employers’ associations, and other stakeholders. ESC = employment support center; MoET = Ministry of Education and Training; MoF = Ministry of Finance; MoLISA = Ministry of Labor, War Invalids and Social Affairs; MPI = Ministry of Planning and Investment; NGO = nongovernmental organization; VCCI = Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry; VCL = Vietnam Confederation of Labor; VET = vocational education and training; VWU = Vietnam Women’s Union. 4 PERCEPTIONS OF GENDER DISPARITIES IN VIETNAM’S LABOR MARKET 1. INTRODUCTION Over the last few decades, Vietnam has made stewardship of the vocational education and training tremendous strides toward becoming a lower-middle- (VET) system and is committed to improving the income country and reducing the poverty of its quality of the services that it provides. It is in the population. Most Vietnamese people are employed, so process of upgrading its employment support centers the country’s unemployment rates are low compared (ESCs) to provide better services to job seekers. It is with other middle-income countries. However, the also beginning to explore how to use its rich database quality of jobs in Vietnam is very diverse. While 2.1 to provide students, job seekers, and parents with million people work in foreign-owned firms and information about labor market characteristics and another 9.8 million have a labor contract with the trends to help them plan their career paths and to public sector or with domestically owned firms, inform VET and education institutions and policy most people have insecure jobs, substandard work makers about how to best design their programs. conditions, and no employment contracts. More than 30 million people work in family farming or household Since the constraints underlying these gender enterprises. Another 8 million work without a contract. disparities remain largely unclear, policy makers have In other words, a high percentage of jobs in Vietnam little guidance for designing policies and programs to are characterized by instability, low wages, and low- reduce these gaps. There is little empirical information productivity (Cunningham and Pimhidzai 2018). on the type of support that men and women typically need from active labor market policies, particularly Women generally fare worse in the labor market than from the ESC and VET systems in Vietnam. While men, although the causes for these disparities are not there is anecdotal evidence about how preemployment well determined. Women are overrepresented among decisions are made—which eventually affect family farmers and household enterprises, which, in employment decisions—there is no rigorous data on terms of social benefits, are among the lowest paid and how parents influence their children’s career choices least protected jobs in the country. By contrast, female from a gender perspective. Also, the perceptions of employees (those working for others) are more likely more vulnerable groups of women (such as single than male employees to have a labor contract. But mothers, ethnic minority women, and women with they earn 10 percent less than men, which rises to a 12 disabilities) have not yet been empirically analyzed. percent wage gap when comparing men with women who have the same level of education and the same This study explores these gaps with the aim of finding occupation. Quantitative data reveal that differences answers that will help policy makers implement in job type, field of study, and family structure gender-sensitive and inclusive labor market programs (marital and parenthood status) underlie these gaps. for all potential workers in Vietnam. This study But the mechanisms that create these factors, how uses qualitative social science methods to analyze they manifest themselves in women’s labor market the mechanisms underlying gender disparities in experiences, and other factors that may be driving the the Vietnamese labor market. It seeks to explore gaps cannot be captured by quantitative labor force perceptions of men and women and to compare them, surveys (Cunningham, Buchhave, Alidadi 2018). by gender and across characteristics within gender, to better understand personal experiences, perceptions, The Vietnamese Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social and ideas on what women and men need to acquire Affairs (MoLisa) is in the process of reforming several jobs that work for their life circumstances. of its labor market-related services to address overall shortcomings in the labor market and those affecting Section 2 provides information on the institutional specific groups. In particular, it recently inherited the and legal environment in Vietnam and summarizes 5 existing findings on gender disparities in the country’s discussions, and key informant interviews. Section 4 labor market. Section 3 describes the qualitative discusses the empirical findings, and section 5 details methodologies that were used in the study, namely policy recommendations. individual biographical interviews, focus group Labor Market Trends and Gender Equality Vietnam will only reach its goal of becoming a middle-income, inclusive, and democratic country if it closes the economic and social gaps between men and women. Gender equality across jobs is a key input to achieving this development goal. Women who access and thrive in modern jobs will generate economic growth, earn higher incomes, and develop agency and voice to play a more proactive role in their personal and public lives. New transformational megatrends could threaten or positively shift Vietnam’s employment landscape. For example, the rise of knowledge-intensive industries will require new skill sets, production processes, and export models; an aging population will demand care services from a shrinking working age population; and automation could replace some workers and transform the jobs of others. Vietnam’s job structure is not conductive to adapting to these megatrends. Most of Vietnam’s jobs are in family farming, household enterprises, and low-skilled labor, which may not translate into better jobs. Few jobs are currently positioned to embrace the megatrends: only 2.2 million jobs are offered by foreign factories paying more than minimum wage, while registered domestic firms do not provide more than 6 million jobs. However, policy actions can support the segments of the economy that could leverage the megatrends to create more, better, and inclusive jobs. Three areas of reform are needed: (1) the creation of more jobs in job-intensive segments of the modern sector, specifically through Vietnam’s small and medium enterprises, agroindustry, and value chains; (2) the enhancement of the quality of jobs in traditional sectors, such as family farming and household enterprises; and (3) the connection of qualified workers to the right jobs, which requires a mix of upgrading skills, matching jobs to people, and alleviating constraints to work. Emerging megatrends are expected to create new risks and opportunities around jobs for Vietnamese women. Demographic trends will expand “pink collar” jobs in the form of market-based eldercare. The rise of knowledge economies can benefit women, who have higher rates of education than men. However, if not managed, these same trends could threaten the advances already made by women. The aging population may require more of women’s homecare time, thereby crowding out time for work. The rise of knowledge economies may pass women by because they are less engaged than men in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and careers. Moreover, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is showing signs of having exacerbated existing gender inequalities. Early data show that the sectors most impacted by COVID-19 employ a large share of the female labor force. According to an April 2020 analysis by the International Labor Organization (ILO), 64 percent of workers in the sectors that were hardest hit by the economic impacts of the pandemic in the early months (accommodations and food; manufacturing; wholesale, retail trade, and repair; transport and communication; and arts and entertainment) in Vietnam were women (ILO 2020). According to an assessment by UN Women and UNDP (June 2020), the most significant gender impact of COVID-19 on vulnerable households is the emphasis of gender roles and gender stereotypes, which increases the roles and responsibilities of women in the home, thus further increasing the disparities experienced by women prior to the pandemic in terms of balancing household and market roles. Source: Cunningham, Buchhave, Alidadi 2018 (unless otherwise noted). 6 2. THE VIETNAM CONTEXT Since the launch of its economic reform program in 2018). The country also achieved the Millennium 1986, Vietnam has achieved significant economic and Development Goals of empowering women and social goals (Vu 2016). Vietnam moved from being a promoting gender equality. poor country to becoming a middle-income country in 2015. Poverty has fallen rapidly. The share of the Vietnam has relatively high labor force participation population living below the US$1.90-per-day poverty rates among both men and women: an average of 76.2 rate fell from 50 percent in the early 1990s to 3 percent percent compared with South Korea’s 63 percent and in 2016 (IBRD and MPI 2016). Progress has been Indonesia’s 66.7 percent. The average of 73.2 percent made in all fields of social life, including education and for women’s participation is high in Vietnam (ILO health. Access to basic infrastructure, electricity, water, 2018), which emphasizes the importance of labor force and modern sanitation has substantially increased. participation by women (figure 2.1). There has also been rapid growth in information and communication technology, which is a key instrument for maintaining and boosting the economy’s FIGURE 2.1. Labor Force Participation in Vietnam competitiveness. Total % Females % However, the country still faces many challenges. 78.8 77.5 77.3 76.7 76.8 76.9 The poverty reduction achievements are still fragile, 76.2 76.4 76.4 especially for those in rural areas and for ethnic 73.38 73.2 73.2 73.24 minorities. Labor productivity growth has remained high across the economy and within sectors but 15 5 15 16 16 6 16 7 17 01 01 01 is lower in agriculture than in most of the region’s l 20 20 20 l 20 20 20 y2 y2 y2 er ry er er ri ri Jul Jul Jul Ap Ap ua tob tob tob middle-income countries (World Bank 2017). The Jan Oc Oc Oc overall healthy employment picture masks significant Source: Author, based on ILO 2018. problems. Many Vietnamese are working as unpaid family workers, wage workers without contracts, seasonal workers, or temporary workers in jobs characterized by long and irregular working hours, Therefore, the challenge with regard to gender no social insurance, and uncertain incomes. Informal disparities in the labor market is not a matter of self-employment is common, with nearly 60 percent employment participation per se but of the quality of of workers owning household enterprises in the farm that employment. A high-quality job can be defined by and nonfarm sectors. There are differences between good and stable working conditions, regular working the profile of male and female employment: while times, regular wages, and no unpaid work; and there is more young female workers between the ages of 15 and evidence that women are disproportionately excluded 24 work in formal jobs than their male counterparts, from such jobs (Cunningham and Pimhidzai 2018). women find it extremely difficult to find formal work There are significant gender gaps in the distribution when they try to reenter the labor market after taking of jobs by sector and industry, across geographic area, time off to care for their families. among ethnic groups, and among social classes. While enterprises are required by law to implement gender 2.1. Challenges Related to Gender Disparity equality policies for their workers in accordance with the labor code regulations, there is evidence that this is The Government of Vietnam has been recognized not happening in practice. internationally for its significant achievements in promoting gender equality and the advancement of Meanwhile, the gender pay gap in Vietnam is wide, women in recent years. Those achievements have with women earning less money than men in nearly all included the development and promulgation of laws fields of work. In 2015, women earned 10 percent less reflecting the principle of gender equality; and the than men; the wage gap rises to 12 percent if comparing country has decreased gender gaps faster than most men and women with the same level of education and developing countries over the past 20 years (UNDP working in the same industry. Chowdhury and others 7 (2018) have quantified this as women receiving an contract have access to social benefits or health average of 3 million dong (US$129) less per year than insurance. And even though 85 percent of people with men—about one month’s income. Although women contracts have both health and social insurance, they achieve high education levels and successfully graduate constitute only a small minority of working people in from universities all over Vietnam, female workers the country. Women are a slight percentage more likely tend to be clustered in lower-paid manufacturing jobs; than men to receive insurance. garment and footwear industries; the service sector, such as trade, hotels, and restaurants; the education field, and There is a connection between a worker’s education paid domestic work (Cunningham et al. 2018b). level and having a job with a contract, benefits, and/ or insurance. While fewer than 25 percent of workers with a lower secondary education have a job contract, more than 80 percent of employees with a university or FIGURE 2.2. Gender Wage Gap college degree do, according to Vietnam’s Labour Force -10 Survey of 2014. Employees from ethnic minorities tend to have lower levels of educational attainment -11 and therefore worse working conditions. Among -12 -12.6 young people between the ages of 20 to 35 who are well Percent -13 educated, more men than women have professional jobs, even though the young women have the same or -14 -14.2 -14.3 even higher career aspirations than the young men. In -15 -15.4 the short term, Vietnam needs to close gender gaps and counter gender norms in the labour market while -16 2011 2012 2013 2014 the labour market itself is transforming, and girls risk Year becoming further marginalized from the required skill Source: Demombynes and Testaverde, 2018. pathways. Note: Estimate accounts for differential male and female demographic, gender, and occupation distributions. 2.3. Local Gender Disparities in the Labor Market 2.2. Economic, Institutional, and Legal This study analyzes perceptions of gender disparities Environment in Vietnam’s labor market and of the role played by labor market programs in perpetuating or reducing As of 2015, 50.4 million people were employed in these disparities. The analysis is focused on Vietnam’s Vietnam’s labor market, equally divided between men two biggest cities, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City and women. About 30 million people were employed (HCMC), as well as the provinces of Quang Nam and in farming and household duties (Cunningham and Dien Bien. Hanoi and HCMC are the motors of the Pimhidzai 2018); even among wage employees, nearly country’s development, where the highest earnings half were employed without a contract. The median and most productive jobs are concentrated. Dien hourly wage for workers in private sector enterprises Bien and Quang Nam, by contrast, are predominantly without a contract is about 30 percent lower than rural. Because the context of these four areas varies the median wage for those with a contract. Public widely, it is worth taking a deeper look at their sector workers, either in state-owned enterprises or characteristics. government departments, earn the highest median wages, but the public sector covers only 10 percent Hanoi. Hanoi is the capital of the Socialist Republic of of all workers. Vietnam. Not only is it the country’s political, cultural, and scientific center, but it also plays a vital role in the Although many new jobs have been created, most its economy and international trade. As of 2017, about Vietnamese workers (around 76 percent) are still 7.6 million people lived in Hanoi. The city is rapidly working in low-quality jobs characterized by irregular urbanizing, with an average population density in the wages, long working hours, and a lack of social benefits urban center of 11,220 people per square kilometer. (Cunningham and Pimhidzai 2018). Neither self- In 2017, 3.8 million workers were employed in the employed workers nor those without an employment region of Hanoi, with the labor force participation rate 8 reaching 67.8 percent (HBS 2017).2 The labor market industry and construction; and 0.8 percent agriculture participation rate among women is nearly equal to that (HCMC People’s Committee 2017). Between 2011 and of men. However, in the same year, 48,812 people were 2015, as many as 171,121 enterprises were established, receiving monthly unemployment insurance transfers, with 52,836 owned or managed by women. By 2017, an increase of 23.01 percent over 2016. Meanwhile, there were a total of 332,811 registered enterprises, 88.7 1,900 people were eligible for vocational training percent of which were microenterprises. support, a decrease of 11.5 percent over 2016.3 There are more than 4 million workers in HCMC. Hanoi could be described as the educational center of Between 2011 and 2015, the labor force grew at an Vietnam. As of late 2017, it had about 2,600 schools, annual rate of 3.5 percent, with 619,169 jobs created, most of them public but with an increasing number 310,703 of which were held by women. As a result, the of private ones. There has been an average of 1 to 2 unemployment rate was reduced from 4.73 percent children per household in the city in recent years. As in 2011 to 4.5 percent in 2015 (HCMC People’s households’ economic circumstances improve, more Committee 2016). children—boys and girls—enter higher education. However, young people from poor, near-poor, and middle-income households often find it difficult to TABLE 2.2. Key Labor Indicators in Ho Chi Minh City, pay the tuition for universities, colleges, or vocational 2016–2017 training schools, even at reduced rates. Indicator 2016 2017 Population (number of people) 8,441,902 8,561,608 TABLE 2.1. Labor Indicators for Hanoi City in 2017 Of which: Female (number) 4,400,261 4,524,435 Population of working age 5,965,753 6,207,115 Indicator (number) Population (total number) 7,654,800 Labor force (number) 4,335,659 4,513,193 Number of females 3,834,400 Labor force participation rate Percent female 50.09 (percent) 72.7 72.7 Number of working people, ages 15 3,800,000 Total number employed 4,223,996 4,295,163 years and older Source: HCMC Statistical Year Book 2016 and 2017. Ho Chi Minh City Percent female 50.05 Statistical Office. Ho Chi Minh City: Thanh Nien (Youth) Publishing House. Local distribution in 2017 3,800,000 Number of people in urban area 2,000,000 Number of people in rural area 1,800,000 According to 2017 data, labor demand was highest in Percent female in urban areas 53.1 the service sector, particularly for workers with no or Percent female in rural area 46.9 limited skills: 32.1 percent compared with 27.2 percent Percent trained laborers 60.7 for college or university graduates and postgraduates. Source: Yearly Statistical Book of Hanoi City in 2016 and 2017. In the same year, the unemployment rate in HCMC was below 4 percent (HCMC People’s Committee 2016). Although the number of people filing for unemployment benefits increased, the number of job Ho Chi Minh City. HCMC, the country’s biggest seekers coming to the employment services centers economic hub, is located in the southeastern region declined. 4 The competition for jobs in the city was of Vietnam. In 2017, its gross domestic product intense, with a job seeker competing with 48 others was made up of 58.3 percent services, such as trade, for every vacancy. 5 Labor demand in 2017 was finance, banking, insurance, tourism, information and concentrated in business and sales (19.48 percent); communications, and transportation; 24.8 percent 2 The total population according to the latest population census (April 2019) is 8.05 million. 3 http://vlhanoi.vieclamvietnam.gov.vn/gioithieu.aspx. 4 This information was obtained from an interview with Tran Xuan Hai, director of HCMC’s employment services center. 5 HCMC Center of Forecasting Manpower Needs and Labor Market Information (2017). Report on labor market analysis for 2017 and the labor demand forecast for 2018 in HCMC (No. 424/BC-TTDBNL). 9 services and catering (15.54 percent); transportation, In 2017, the population of Quang Nam was estimated at warehousing, importing, and exporting (7.10 percent); 1.4 million, with a slightly higher proportion of women and textiles and footwear (6.63 percent). (51 percent) than men. At least 19 ethnic minorities live together peacefully, including the Kinh, Chinese, Co Compared with Hanoi, HCMC has been a pioneer Tu, Xe Dang, Gie Trieng, and Cor.7 in developing and realizing initiatives to promote gender equality in a variety of ways. In particular, the As of 2017, there were 912,700 people ages 15 and older city has extended its provision of childcare through in the labor force, of which 887,200 were employed its 91 public preschool facilities and has developed and 25,500 were unemployed. Women account for a projects designed to build preschools in 12 industrial higher proportion (51 percent) than men (49 percent) and export-processing zones. It also provides financial in the labor force. Only 23 percent of the jobs are in support for the establishment of private preschools urban areas, and twice the proportion of urban workers and home-based childcare establishments. It provides has formal training than rural workers. In the fourth a variety of financial incentives to preschool staff and quarter of 2017, the unemployment rate among the even no-interest loans for students who pledge to working age population in the province was about 3.3 work for the city’s public preschools after graduation.6 percent—over 3.6 percent in urban areas and around Some universities, such as HCMC Teachers Training 2.7 percent in rural areas (QNBS 2017). University, provide partial waivers of tuition for female students who choose to study STEM (science, Quang Nam is characterized by its industrial parks; technology, engineering, and math) or electronic however, its local labor supply is unable to fill the available engineering, auto mechanics, construction engineering, job openings. Over the period 2013–18, the number of or transport construction—subjects considered industrial parks in the province grew rapidly, which led unconventional for women. In 2015, 253 women were to a huge demand for workers in the industry and service among the 624 scientists who worked in research, sectors. There is a severe shortage of unskilled and highly laboratories, and relevant services in 11 scientific and skilled workers. Enterprises are seeking to hire several technological agencies. Furthermore, 2,454 women thousand unskilled workers, but the existing labor supply were among the 4,896 holders of a master’s degree and can only meet one-third of the labor demand. There is 69 out of 233 holders of a doctoral degree (HCMC also a growing demand for highly skilled workers that People’s Committee 2016). cannot be filled by the local university. Local graduates do not have the required qualifications and technical Quang Nam. Located in the center of Vietnam, Quang skills for these large employers, according to human Nam is the key economic region of the country by resource managers and employers who believe that virtue of being in a prime geographic location for young graduates lack technical and language skills and connecting other parts of Vietnam to the world. Quang have poor attitudes toward the work environment. To Nam is home to Chu Lai, the first coastal economic bridge this supply-and-demand gap, hiring firms have zone in Vietnam. Quang Nam is also known for its trained new workers; however, this is an investment of huge forests and traditional products—cinnamon and time, effort, and costs. ginseng. In 2017, agriculture, forestry, and aquaculture accounted for 10.2 percent of its gross domestic product In recent years, Quang Nam’s emigrant population has compared with 89.8 percent for the nonagri-cultural been returning home to work in the new industrial sector, including industry and construction and the parks. Some years ago, Quang Nam experienced tens service sector (QNBS 2017). The tourism sector thrives of thousands of workers leaving to work in various and is gradually becoming a key economic sector in the provinces and cities nationwide and in foreign countries. province. In 2017, 6,000 enterprises were operating. Quang Nam enterprises pay salaries on par with those paid by other enterprises outside the province, although the cost of living is lower for Quang Nam natives. 6 HCMC People’s Council Resolution 13/2016/ NQ-HĐND on support for preschool education. 7 http://www.quangnam.gov.vn/default.aspx. 10 There is only one public job placement center in TABLE 2.3. Labor Indicators of Quang Nam Quang Nam, operating under the management of the 2016–2017 Department of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs Indicator 2016 2017 (DoLISA) with two branch offices and no private (estimated) services. The key activities of the job placement center Population (number) 1,487,721 1,494,000 include collecting job vacancy information, both inside Female (percent) 51.0 51.0 and outside the province; organizing surveys on labor demand within the province; operating and sustaining Labor force (number) 903,500 912,700 the job vacancy and job seeker websites; and updating a Female (percent) 50.0 50.1 database on labor supply and demand for the province. Labor force in urban and rural areas The center also provides job counseling and vocational Urban (number) 203,427 counseling. Rural (number) 700,073 Working people, ages 15 and 879,977 887,200 Dien Bien. A mountainous province in the northwest older (number) of Vietnam, Dien Bien is bordered by Yunnan province Female (percent) n.a. n.a. (China) to the northwest and Lao PDR to the west and Urban (number) 194,622 n.a. southwest. Tay Trang has long been an important border between China and northwest Vietnam. An economic Rural (number) 685,355 n.a. zone is being built that could transform this area into Rate of trained work force (percent) a major transshipment site on the northern trans-Asia Total 18.2 n.a. route linking northwest Vietnam to northern Laos, Male 20.5 n.a. southwest China, and northeastern Myanmar. Female 16.1 n.a. Urban 32.1 n.a. The population of Dien Bien was 566,953 in 2017, half of which was female. Dien Bien’s population is relatively Rural 14.2 n.a. young, with one-third under the age of 15 and only 10 Unemployment rate (percent) percent over the retirement age of 60 for men and 55 for Total 2.6 3.3 women (DBBS 2017). The province has 19 ethnic groups, Male 2.8 n.a. including the Thai, H’Mong, Kinh, Dao, Kho Mu, Ha Female 2.4 n.a. Nhi, Lao, Hoa (Chinese), Khang, Muong, Cong, Xi Mun, Urban 4.3 3.6 Si La, Nung and Phu La, Tho, Tay, and San Chay. Rural 2.1 2.7 There are more than 312,000 workers in Dien Bien; 49 Source: Yearly Statistical Book of Quang Nam, 2016 and 2017. percent are women, and 17.6 percent working in urban zones. The unemployment rate is 0.5 percent, with nearly no men (0.1 percent) and only 1.1 percent of women Provincial authorities report that they are implementing claiming to be searching for work. Unemployment is inclusive human resource development solutions that 20 times higher (2.9 percent) in urban than rural zones. focus on creating new jobs and restructuring the labor In 2017, 64 percent of workers were engaged in the force. They also emphasize improving the quality of agricultural sector (DBBS 2017). human resources in three key areas: (1) leaders and managers; (2) scientific and technological staff; and (3) There is only one job placement center (public institution) intellectuals and skilled workers to meet the requirements in Dien Bien under DoLISA, with three branches located of integration and development. The province is in Muong Cha, Dien Bien Dong, and Tua Chua districts. continuing to revise and finalize its institutional The main activity of the Dien Bien Job Placement Center mechanisms and policies to attract, recruit, and employ is the dissemination of labor market information: job talented people, especially in fields where there is a vacancies in enterprises within and outside the province, shortage. The province is also implementing vocational collected survey data on labor demand in the province, training projects for rural laborers (QNBS 2017). and websites to disseminate recruitment information to 8 On October 14, 2016, the Quang Nam province issued Decision No. 3577/QD-UBND, stipulating policies to support key vocational training programs and projects in the province for the period 2016–20. 11 job seekers. In 2017, the center organized job placement services for 461 laborers, of which 81 found jobs outside TABLE 2.4. Labor Indicators of Dien Bien in 2017 the province and 34 found jobs in the province. Indicator 2017 (estimated) Given the limited job opportunities in Dien Bien, local Population (number) 563,000 authorities encourage outmigration.9 It is mostly young Female (percent) 50.0 men who migrate; ethnic minorities, middle-aged Labor force (number) 320,000 workers, and married women prefer not to work outside the province. Most migration is internal to Vietnam. Female (percent) 48.5 Despite its proximity to China, few people formally Labor force by urban/rural areas migrate abroad to work. Only 30 laborers legally migrated Urban (number) 48,000 to Japan and Malaysia for work in 2017; there are no Rural (number) 272,000 official figures for informal migration. There are scarce Working people, age 15 and older on 272,000 opportunities for contract work abroad for Dien Bien July 1, 2017 annually (number) 312,580 residents due to their limited professional qualifications, Female (percent) 49.0 low level of awareness, language barriers, and cultural differences. Employees in the Dien Bien job placement By state 15.0 center felt that most of the laborers, particularly the By nonstate 86.0 ethnic minority and rural residents, were not confident By foreign direct investment 0.0 enough to work overseas under defined contract terms. Total rate of trained work force 23.0 (percent) Dien Bien’s labor force is low skilled. Workers have low Male (percent) 26.4 educational and professional levels. Women, especially Female (percent) 19.6 those from ethnic minorities, face more disadvantages in Urban (percent) 61.0 terms of language, culture, customs, and traditions. Rural (percent) 18.2 Total unemployment rate (percent) 0.5 Male (percent) 0.1 Female (percent) 1.1 Urban (percent) 2.9 Rural (percent) 0.13 Source: Yearly Statistical Book of Dien Bien in 2016 and 2017. 9 Enterprises located in other provinces have gone to Dien Bien to recruit employees but found that the education levels and skills were not sufficient to meet their needs. Nonetheless, Dien Bien authorities have implemented their own policies to encourage migration for work, such as supporting job seekers applying for jobs in industrial zones and enterprises outside Dien Bien or in the form of train or bus tickets to other locations (Dien Bien Job Placement Center 2017). 12 3. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH The focus of this study’s research was the exploration of either small- and medium- or large-size firms, the of the problems and challenges that Vietnamese women disabled, or ethnic minorities. It was also necessary to experience when they try to enter or leave the labor carry out focus group discussions with groups that serve market. By collecting qualitative data, the study aimed as a contrast to the groups of interest. This required to uncover the array of experiences and underlying discussions with men sharing similar characteristics to motivations and thinking about observed trends the female focus groups. through a small carefully selected sample. Because of the relatively small samples involved in the qualitative The precise composition of the 32 focus group research, it was important to account for the fact that discussions, according to observable characteristics of Vietnamese women are heterogeneous and vary by age, participants, is summarized in table 3.1. marital status, educational background, ethnicity, and other characteristics. This consideration influenced the Third, a professional research team from the Institute decision regarding how best to collect the necessary of Labour Science and Social Affairs (ILSSA) within data.10,11 the Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs organized, implemented, and documented the focus A four-step process was used to ensure the quality of group discussions. Each discussion was led by a the data. First, 24 individual biographical interviews moderator whose role was to encourage the participants were conducted with different groups of Vietnamese to discuss general topics while minimizing his or her people, selected according to education level and own influence over the dialogue (Weimann-Sandig income indicators, which the literature shows are 2014). A secretary took notes during the discussions instrumental to cementing social inequalities. Age was and supported the moderator to carry out logistical also a factor in the group selection. For example, one tasks. The moderators and secretaries were required to of the biographical interviews was conducted with an be Vietnamese speakers to reduce linguistic and social unskilled woman living in a poor area of Hanoi, while barriers to the qualitative data collection process. All of another took place with a well-educated female teacher the discussions were recorded electronically so that the living in a comfortable home. Both women were material gathered could be transcribed and translated nearly the same age but had different life stories. The into English immediately following the discussion, and biographies of a young female graduate and a young then systematically coded using MAXQDA software. male graduate were also factored in to explore gender- specific constraints. Fourth, the ILSSA team conducted 32 key informant interviews with decision makers in the fields of Second, thematically structured guidelines were education and job placement, including heads of developed for the focus group discussions, and the universities and vocational training centers, job sampling strategy was defined to select the focus groups. placement officers, and human resource managers from Based on the biographical interviews, the composition local firms. In selecting the people to be interviewed, of focus group discussions was stratified by gender, the ILSSA team accounted for local gender disparities in age, ethnicity, educational background, employment these fields. In contrast to the biographical interviews, status, marital status, and locality. Participation was the expert interviews explored the interviewees’ further restricted for some focus groups according to professional and organizational knowledge of their additional criteria. For instance, in some focus group given institutions and of the work performed within discussions, participants were restricted to employers them (Gläser and Laudel 2015). 10 While quantitative research deals with statistical parameters and aims to achieve a representativeness and random sample, qualitative research makes different assumptions from qualitative analysis. In particular, the objective is not to test standardized hypotheses. Instead, qualitative research aims to reconstruct typical cases by identifying contrasting and common issues in individual experiences and perceptions. This is only possible if contrasting cases are actually present in the sample, so the composition of an appropriate sample according to observable attributes is of paramount importance. While statistical representativeness plays no role in a qualitative research design, one has to show that the sample exhibits the appropriate contrasts. In addition, it is necessary to use an empirically appropriate methodology (Glaser and Strauss 1967). 11 Data collection and data analysis took place during 2018 and 2019. 13 Before the focus group discussions were held, the ILSSA The 32 focus group discussions and the 32 key informant team organized a one-day training workshop for the interviews were conducted in four varied parts of the moderators and secretaries to make them aware of country: Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, the two biggest the special implications and challenges of focus group cities in Vietnam, and the rural regions of Dien Bien and discussions. A field survey guidance manual helped the Quang Nam, selected for their different socioeconomic ILSSA research team carry out the field-work. Most of and regional structures. the discussions lasted one or two hours, depending on the participants’ willingness to speak and emotional involvement in the subjects being discussed. Considerations Made About Objectives, Choice of Methodology, and Limitations This study aims to go beyond information that can be collected in a survey format, instead seeking to uncover the array of experiences and underlying motivations and thinking around observed trends. In other words, we are interested in looking deeply into a carefully selected, but limited, number of experiences rather than collecting general information across a large sample. The team chose to collect and analyze qualitative data to supplement the existing quantitative data on men and women’s participation in the Vietnam labor market. Using a methodology that collects data—in this case, the data are not numbers but instead ideas and concepts—through unstructured small group conversations, we then convert the information collected in the interview into a data set and systematically analyze the data. The objective is to understand a range of perspectives; the data are therefore not intended to be representative of the population. We hypothesize that women with similar characteristics will have similar experiences and perspectives while there will be marked differences between groups of women. The group comparisons are particularly valuable as each group uses the other as a “benchmark.” Given the heterogeneity of the Vietnamese population, it is not feasible to collect data from all subgroups with shared characteristics. Instead, there is a need to create subgroups with shared characteristics that are of interest to policy makers tasked with improving women’s labor market experience. Based on a review of the academic literature, discussions with clients who are policy makers, and the ongoing gender discourse in Vietnam, we “stratify” the sample (select a sample that includes members with particular characteristics) according to characteristics that we assume will generate useful benchmark comparators and thus provide insight into those larger policy questions. Our stratification variables include principle role— potential worker, employer/manager, parents of potential worker. Among potential workers, we stratify by sex, age, educational attainment, employment or school status, marital status, locality/province, parental status (single mothers), ethnicity, urban/ rural residence, and disability status. Each focus group was selected to have a combined set of these characteristics; for example, women of postsecondary school age living in urban areas. The data from this group, then, might be compared with that of women with the same profile but who live in rural areas or to women of a younger age who live in urban areas. Due to limited resources, we were not able to include in our sample some valuable subgroups, including senior (above age 60) women and men who are potential workers, parents (of potential workers) with varied profiles, and the many other possible comparator groups not listed in table 3.1. 14 TABLE 3.1. Characteristics of the Focus Groups Group Gender Age Educational Employment Status Marital Locality/ Other Attributes Group Attainment* Status Province 1 Female 20–30 Tertiary Students Mixed Hanoi 2 Female 20–30 Tertiary Students Mixed HCMC 3 Female 20–30 Tertiary Students Mixed Quang Nam 4 Male 20–30 Tertiary Students Mixed Hanoi 5 Male 20–30 Tertiary Students Mixed HCMC 6 Male 20–30 Tertiary Students Mixed Quang Nam 7 Female 20–40 Tertiary Unemployed Mixed Hanoi/rural Well-educated women who cannot find a job 8 Female 20–40 Tertiary Unemployed Mixed HCMC/urban Well-educated women who cannot find a job 9 Female 20–40 Tertiary Unemployed Mixed Dien Bien/ Well-educated women urban who cannot find a job 10 Female 20–40 Tertiary Unemployed Mixed Quang Nam/ Well-educated women rural who cannot find a job 11 Male 30–50 Mixed Unemployed Married Hanoi/urban Unemployed men where the wife earns the family income 12 Male 30–50 Mixed Unemployed Married HCMC/urban Unemployed men where the wife earns the family income 13 Male 30–50 Mixed Unemployed Married Quang Nam/ Unemployed men where urban the wife earns the family income 14 Female 20–40 Mixed Vulnerable Single Hanoi/rural employment mothers 15 Female 20–40 Mixed Vulnerable Single Dien Bien/ employment mothers rural 16 Female 20–40 Mixed Vulnerable Single HCMC/urban employment mothers 17 Female 20–40 Mixed Vulnerable Single Quang Nam/ employment mothers rural 19 Female 20–40 Mixed Employed and Mixed Hanoi/urban Women with disabilities unemployed 20 Female 20–40 Mixed Employed and Mixed HCMC/urban Women with disabilities unemployed 21 Female 20–40 Mixed Employed and Mixed Quang Nam/ Women with disabilities unemployed rural 22 Mixed Mixed Mixed Employers/managers Mixed Hanoi/urban Employers/HR managers 23 Mixed Mixed Mixed Employers/managers Mixed HCMC/urban Employers/HR managers 24 Mixed Mixed Mixed Employers/managers Mixed Quang Nam/ Employers/HR managers urban 25 Male Mixed Primary/ Mixed Married Dien Bien/ Thai ethnic minority secondary rural 26 Male Mixed Primary/ Mixed Married Dien Bien/ H’Mong ethnic minority secondary rural 27 Female Mixed Primary/ Farming Married Dien Bien/ Thai ethnic minority secondary rural 28 Female Mixed Primary/ Farming Married Dien Bien/ H’Mong ethnic minority secondary rural 29 Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Quang Nam Parents of teenagers or young students 30 Female 30–50 Primary/ Farming and care Mixed Hanoi/rural Women returning to secondary duties rural areas 31 Female 30–50 Primary/ Farming and care Mixed Ho Chi Minh/ Women returning to secondary duties rural rural areas 32 Female 30–50 Primary/ Farming and care Mixed Quang Nam/ Women returning to secondary duties rural rural areas HCMC = Ho Chi Minh City; HR = human resource. * Tertiery eduction: this group comprise both university and VET students 15 4. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS In this section, the findings from the qualitative Thirst for knowledge but limited access to well- research 12 are presented on various aspects of the paying and stable jobs gender gap in the labor market as they relate to: Most female students in the focus group discussions 1. Perceptions of the labor market among students; acknowledged having a tremendous thirst for 2. Attitudes of parents regarding gender; knowledge. All female participants from both rural and urban areas stressed that it was a privilege to get a 3. Gender stereotypes in vocational education and tertiary education, whether at a university or a college. training institutions; 4. Perceptions of access to education and the labor Although the female students expressed a desire to market among ethnic minorities; hold a job and dream of careers aligned with their majors, the extent of poststudy job-involvement varies 5. Perceptions among employers; considerably. The female students attending university 6. Perceptions among vulnerable groups; and or vocational education and training (VET) colleges want to be employed as skilled workers and to receive 7. Perceptions of employment service centers. appropriate wages. Female students from rural areas are deeply attached to their families and their farming 4.1. Perceptions of the Labor Market Among tradition and therefore aspire to work in companies Students located near their families’ homes, even if the jobs and wages offered do not meet their expectations. In fact, To identify gender differences in the perceptions companies in rural areas seem to take advantage of this of young male and female students about the labor desire among young rural women by offer low wages market, separate focus group discussions were held in and fixed-term contracts. The most important thing for all four regions with female and male students. The rural young female students is to support their parents students in the sample studied a range of subjects, by earning their own money. including marketing, accounting, Vietnamese studies, English, social work, economics, and engineering. F7: I want to work in a place near my family. The This made it possible to compare perceptions among ideal location would be in Tam Ky or Da Nang city. I students who had chosen typical “female” courses with want a job which is in line with what I have learned those who were studying typical “male” courses. The at university. I hope to have my own business in the following section illustrates the reasons that students sector in which I am studying. However, although I gave for having chosen their course of study, their have economic potential, the outcome will entirely perceptions about studying, and their thoughts on their depend on the market. It is my future plan. (Focus careers and on the labor market. The students also gave group discussion with female students at Quang their opinions on entering vocational education and the Nam University) importance of successfully passing university entrance exams in differentially determining the career paths of F2: In the future, I want to become a forest engineer, women and men. not only in Tam Ky but also in other provinces. I want to take full advantage of my discipline. I want to have a good family and a stable job so that my parents can feel secure about me. (Focus group “I want to change my life but also feel obliged discussion with women, Quang Nam) to follow my parents’ wishes.” In accordance with the predominant expectation that men are the main breadwinners, the female students do not stress the need to earn a lot of money in their professions. 12 The direct quotes provided in this section maintain the anonymity of the focus group participants. Numbering is used rather than using names or other descriptors. This is done to ensure confidentiality, and thus greater accuracy, in the information shared by the sample. 16 This is in sharp contrast with the male students, who Female students tend to believe they fail university report feeling significant pressure to get a well-paying entrance exams to study technical subjects more often job to fulfill the expectations of society and their than men do.13 So, if they want to study a technical parents. Only a few male students are prepared to profession, their only possibility is to go to a college. accept the idea of being part of a dual-career couple The focus group discussions also highlighted the in which both partners have an academic education, fact that young women from ethnic minorities fail equally well-paying jobs, and long-term career paths. university and college entrance exams more often than other women. Young men and women in the focus group discussions described the traditional male breadwinner model as Young women from ethnic minorities or poor families most suitable for Vietnamese families. Young women in rural areas said say they have less self-confidence in are therefore highly influenced by this model in their their skills and abilities and regard themselves as less attitudes toward the labor market and would prefer to qualified than other students. The reasons given include have a steady job with maternity leave and a guarantee that their parents are not well educated and do not of no overtime work than a job with high wages. They care about the education or literacy of their children, also say that their choice of job would depend on its regarding this as the school’s job. Therefore, even geographic location as they expect the need to live near though they passed the entrance exams for universities, their parents who can help with childcare while the these young women do not believe they have the young men are at work. ability to complete a degree. They say that this is why young women from rural areas hesitate to go away for Women’s “one shot” at university entrance exams university and prefer to attend vocational college and find a suitable job near their family’s home. Young female students more often describe the process of failing an entrance exam than young male students F1. I was born in 1998 and completed secondary do. Female students think of their labor market career school. I am not married yet. I am learning garment within a narrower timeframe and consider tertiary technology and am in my second year. I go to education not as a lifelong process but as a one-off school in the day and in the evening, I work for a period of time, usually between the ages of 18 and 25. coffee shop to earn money to cover my studies. While a man can switch jobs or focus on building his Previously, I passed the entrance exam to the Quang career, a young woman considers a failed exam to be a Nam College of Medicine, but I was afraid of not lost opportunity. finding a job after graduation. I come from Thang Binh. I do not live in the school’s dormitory but Q7: I had never thought that I would major in stay with some friends outside the campus. (Focus this subject. I took an examination with the aim group discussion with female student, Quang Nam of entering the Da Nang University of Economics Vocational College) but failed. Later I applied to enroll in this school. I didn’t like this major at first, but after a period F3. I was born in 1997 in Nui Thanh district. I am of time, I came to like it. I like this major because not married yet. When I finished secondary school, of many factors, including the teachers and the I stayed at home to help my aunt with work in her learning process. Generally speaking, I want to coffee shop. I had already passed the entrance pursue this job. I think that this job is more suitable exam to a teacher training university in Da Nang, for men as women will face more pressure. But but I did not go to school because I was afraid of my father told me to do this, and I will follow his not finding a job in the future. I like tailoring, wishes. (Focus group discussion, female students, so I decided to enter this school. I want to find a Quang Nam University) suitable job after graduation to feed myself. (Focus group discussions with female students, Quang Nam Vocational College) 13 In general, studies on the psychological effects of entrance exams point out that this high-level competition can lead to somatic and cognitive anxiety and can also have negative impacts on self-confidence for those who fail (Gilbert and others 2009). It also has deleterious effects on intrinsic motivation because the first choice could not be achieved (Seddigh and others 2016). As shown, in a country that must handle multiple factors of social inequality as well as local disparities, the suitability of entrance exams should be discussed. From a gender perspective, young female students feel themselves to be disadvantaged compared with their male cohorts. 17 Being a homemaker and a worker, but not a F3: I have a sister working in the Ho Chi Minh career woman Academy [vocational college]. For her, salary is not important. The thing she is concerned about Among the group of students who participated in the is having flexible time to take care of her children. focus group discussions, there was a clear division (Focus group discussion with female student of Ton between how men and women defined the labor Duc Thang University, Hanoi) market, which was not manifest in the other focus groups. Unlike male students, female students prefer Male students do not regard overtime work, travelling, the public sector because they see it as the most likely and inflexible working times as an obstacle but rather as way for women to balance work and family (this a necessary obligation. corresponds with inferential research findings done under the Vietnam Women’s Economic Empowerment Interestingly, most female students do not look up to Project. See Chowdhurry et al. 2018). women in leadership positions. On the contrary, they characterize those women as “hard hearted, mean, and F3: [I’d like], for example, an office job that would selfish.” Those students are more afraid of female bosses allow me to leave home in the morning and return than of male bosses. They do not see such women as in the evening and have time to take care of my having taken a positive career step but rather having children and family. (Focus group discussion with decided against having a family and children, going female students at Ton Duc Thang University, against traditional social norms and values. The young Hanoi) women believe that women in leadership positions are not happy or satisfied. There is a clear divide among female students between those who want to follow the traditional path (marrying Gender stereotypes are strong in their 20s, having children, and living according to the male-breadwinner model) and those who are The focus group discussions with young students clearly making a conscious decision to have a career and lead show that the female students are much more attached a modern life, breaking away from the role of mother to gender stereotypes than the male students are. This and housewife. The former group plans to apply only could be because the young women who had chosen for public sector jobs whereas the latter group plans to “masculine” subjects like engineering face difficulties apply for jobs with private companies. When the young when competing with male students. women in the second group are asked why they did not believe it was possible to have a career in the private F4. There are more than 20 students in my class, I’m sector as well as a family, they cite the lack of good the only female, and as a result I’ve received some childcare institutions as well as the lack of part-time or preferential treatment. But because I’m the only home-based job opportunities in Vietnam. female student, there are some inconveniences and I don’t have anyone who shares my feelings about F1: I have a different viewpoint from many girls. I them. Also, the male students sometimes tease me. do not want to get married or give birth. For me, (Focus group discussion with female students at a career is more important. A good job for a girl Hanoi Industrial College) like me is the one with adventure, challenges, and a high salary. Women also like an innovative and Young women feel that their teachers favor the male free environment. In the past, women liked simple students by offering them more training opportunities jobs, but now I find that modern women do not and by helping them with jobs. like a simple job that is the same every day. Men like to make a high salary and to have promotion The female students assess their male fellow students opportunities … They want to make their families as being more competitive, more career-oriented, proud of them and become richer in order to affirm better organized, and more effective at communicating their position in society. (Focus group discussion their needs. They believe that men have more physical with female students at Ton Duc Thang University, strength than women, which enables them to cope with Hanoi) unstable working conditions and heavier workloads more easily than women. By contrast, the young female students consider themselves to be more social, 18 sensible, and subtle than men, and thus more suited to The location of the university or college plays a more social fields of work. important role in the decision making of the female students than the male students. Typically, at least three Conclusions generations live together, and each family member is cared for and has to care for other family members.14 The focus groups with female students reveal that most In general, parents advise their daughters to choose an young women are interested in jobs that will enable educational institution located near their homes. This is them to fulfill their roles as wives and mothers. While because the parents believe their daughters to be weaker young male students generally focus on getting good and more vulnerable than their sons, so they do not jobs, earning good money, and transforming their want them to go too far away from parental protection. human capital into economic success, only a small number of female students have the same approach to PA5: Girls are weaker than boys. I’m not talking their careers, usually those who are supported in such about their health but their will and endurance. If a decision by their parents or families. In general, both people only work in jobs with an average salary, men and women report feeling heavy social pressure then [men and women] are the same, but to around their future life plans. While male students pursue higher position people have to do more. experience stress over societal expectations of their Women are not as “solid” and resilient as men. I being the breadwinner for their (extended) family, find it appropriate for my daughter to learn to be a female students feel societal expectations that they give teacher because it is the right fit for her. The family’s birth to the next generation. happiness will be [negatively] affected if women pursue opportunities for promotion. (Focus group Gender inequality is evident throughout the university discussion with parents with children aged 16 to 22 or college years, beginning with the entrance exams. in Hanoi) Both men and women feel that men are more supported by teachers and teaching methods than women. Parents think that their daughters are too young to Men and women differ in their approach to the labor decide on their future careers. market: female students stress the importance of the public sector to provide secure and gender-equal job P5: They cannot figure out what to do. Now they opportunities while male student express a preference just study. Everyone has a university degree, it is for private companies that offer broader career impossible for them to have no degree. In addition, opportunities. the children finish grade 12 when they are 18 years old. At this age, they do not know to do anything. 4.2. Attitudes of Parents Regarding Gender (Focus group discussion with parents with children aged 16 to 22 in Quang Nam) Asked about the criteria they used to select a university or college and field of study, most female students Some girls rely completely on their parents to determine report taking the advice of family members or friends, a field of study. The parents put heavy weight on their especially their parents. This is not uncommon. In most daughter’s child-bearing future when selecting a field of Vietnamese families, successful family members are study and envisioning a potential future job. asked to offer their advice. Young women say that their relatives tend to recommend the universities or colleges DB2: As my parents wanted me to study social work from which other family members had successfully so that I could become a civil servant more easily, graduated or those to which family members have links they oriented me toward this subject. As my parents through their jobs. are public employees, they also want me to follow them. I decided to follow their direction. (Focus group discussion with female students at Ton Duc Than University) “Girls are weaker and therefore limited in their careers.” DB3: At first, my father oriented me toward the public security school, but he did not notice the 14 The extended family plays a very important role in Vietnam (Georgas 2003). 19 dossier submission deadline, so we were too late. the information for their own children to apply. All He told me that I should go to university for one vacancies in these agencies are all for paid jobs. If year first so as to become familiar with the tertiary you see recruitment or employment websites, you environment. I received leaflets from this school will only find jobs in small businesses and short- and came to know about majoring in social work. term and seasonal jobs—in general “low-level” jobs. I thought it was interesting, so I registered to study We can never find any employment information it. Now that I have entered the second year, I do not related to large enterprises or reputable agencies want to change anymore because I have become like banks. (Focus group discussion with parents of interested in social work. (Focus group discussion, children aged 16 to 22 in Quang Nam) female student of Ton Duc Than University) Nevertheless, parents shared strong opinions about Most young women seem to think making decisions the kind of jobs that are suitable for women and men, about their careers without input from their parents which are strongly influenced by prevailing social is impossible. Nevertheless, many female students norms around gender roles and gender stereotypes. claim that they do not like their major but chose it to The parents want their daughters to take jobs that give satisfy their parents’ expectations. In the focus group them the possibility of dropping out and coming back discussions, most of the young female students confess after maternity leave. In Vietnam, this means being that they would have liked to have made their own employed in the public sector, where staff are provided decisions or at least to have been able to choose one or with job contracts and social insurance. Parents see two subjects for themselves in accordance with their those jobs as being predictable and offering women own talents and interests. the possibility of getting into top jobs despite having a family. SF5: I wanted to be a police officer when I was small, but I’m too short to be eligible. I learned All parents in the focus group discussions consider about universities on the Internet, then I applied gaining a good education to be important. Generally, for the faculties of law and sociology at Ton Duc the parents said that they tried to do their best to Thang University. At first, I could not decide which support their children as much as possible. major I should study. After receiving advice from my father, I chose this faculty. My elder sister is a P6: Despite difficult circumstances, we also try our public employee at the district court. I took the best to send our children to university. When all of examination to enter the law faculty but failed by their friends go to school, we cannot let them stay half of a point. Later, I chose to learn sociology, at home. (Focus group discussion of parents with and I’m now in the third year. I’m also studying law children aged 16 to 22 in Hanoi) in the second year. (Focus group discussion with female students at Ton Duc Thang University) Nevertheless, the parents’ approach to the education of daughters is different than that of their sons. For The girls say that they or their parents had often example, parents worry more about their daughters searched for information on the Internet, regarded it as studying too far away from home because they consider an essential resource for finding information about the young women to be less independent than young men. reputation of a college or university and the subjects it Studying away from home is often allowed only if a offers. woman can stay with other family members or live in a flat with an elder sibling. Most parents prefer their The parents in the focus group discussions claimed that daughters to study at an educational institution that is there is less information available on the Internet about close to home. By contrast, parents consider it necessary labor market demand and about what jobs are available for young men to travel abroad as a first step toward in specific subject areas. adulthood and a career. Most parents see their sons as healthier and more resilient than their daughters and P2: I agree with you, the information is not clear therefore think them better able to work in private and transparent. Reputable agencies and good companies, do shift work, or go abroad. Although workplaces such as banks, schools, and state most parents said that their daughters have a thirst for agencies never post recruitment information. We knowledge and that their sons are often lazier, they still never know who they recruit and what qualifications believe that their sons should take subjects that require are required. The reason is that they want to hide 20 significantly more cognitive ability and that lead to platforms provided by the labor and educational competitive careers. sector that are accessible to less-educated parents who need illustrations (rather than written information) Most urban parents stated that they want their to understand what degree is needed for a certain daughters to have a good education because it increases profession and if this profession is seen as a future job their chances of finding a well-educated husband opportunity in Vietnam. who earns enough money to enable them to lead a safe and comfortable life. It is important to stress that P4: I think this is a topic that should be raised, and higher education is not seen as equivalent to a career the government needs to make some adjustments. in the eyes of parents. From the beginning, when their Employment information is very hard to find as daughters are selecting a university or college, parents there is no official information channel at all. (Focus are thinking of the time when they will start a family group discussion with parents of children aged 16 to and have to exit the labor market. 22 in Hanoi) P1: My daughter likes tourism. I advised her that as P6: The employment information on the websites a girl, she should not pursue this profession, because is not reliable. Now it is better, but a few years ago, she would have to travel a lot. When she has her many people were cheated by online employment own family, traveling away from home regularly services. The most important problem is that there will affect her family’s happiness. A married woman is nothing useful for us to look at. Plenty of job has to do housework and care for her husband and information is provided, but it is not reliable. We children, but she did not listen to me. She told me to do not know where to find long-term information, let her do what she likes. But when she gets married, such as which professions will be in need of workers she will find this out. (Focus group discussion with in a few years, which fields will be making workers parents of children aged 16–22 in Hanoi) redundant, and what are the best majors to take to gain the skills that will be needed by the labor Another impression from the focus group discussion market. (Focus group discussion with parents of is that less-educated parents are generally fearful of children aged 16 to 22 in Hanoi) letting their children attend university or get a higher education because they fear that they might not be able Asked about the career counseling provided by to help their children in their studies. Young students employment service centers, parents were ambivalent. from the Thai ethnic group said that their parents On one hand, they send their children to employment are engaged in rice planting, and only a few have a service centers but, on the other, they do not put higher education. These parents feel that they cannot much faith in their advice. Asked why, some parents advise their children about their choices of subjects or responded that they had heard bad things about the careers. Some of them have even decided to let their reliability of the centers. children live with better-educated family members to compensate for their own educational gaps. P2: I have a son who is in the 11th grade. Next year, he will take the university entrance exam. But I Regarding career guidance, parents claimed that high have never thought that I would need employment schools do not provide enough information about the services or career guidance establishments because skills needed by the labor market. They feel that they I do not trust those centers. They only do job have to give advice to their children, mostly based placement services. If he is well-educated, he will on their own experiences and on information shared find a job as expected by himself. If he chooses to by other family members or friends.15 They also said become a free worker or a trader like his parents or there is a lack of joint career counseling provided by get hired, he does not need to go to the job service companies and universities. While colleges provide centers. Now there are many jobs available. If he better career counseling, universities focus on wants, he can go to work immediately. I see the providing a theoretical education. Many parents try activities of these centers are not necessary. Maybe to provide career counseling by using the Internet they are useful for laborers from other provinces. to find information about professions, colleges, and (Focus group discussion with parents of children universities. They claimed that there are no information aged 16 to 22 in Hanoi) 15 The only gender difference that emerge from the FGDs is that fathers seem to be more acknowledgeable about the labor market at the macro-level (government policies/incentives) while mothers tend to refer to the micro-level issues (supply-demand, gender segregation). 21 Conclusions However, teachers’ attitudes vary among typically male and female subjects. While teachers in the Parental or family advice has a strong influence on “female” professions are keen to include male students the career choices of Vietnamese students. Although and try to support them in finding jobs, teachers in parents claim that much greater distinctions existed in typically male professions do not support their female previous generations regarding the education of sons students particularly well—these teachers feel obliged and daughters, they are still evident, as demonstrated in to dissuade female students from pursuing these jobs the focus group discussions. The participating parents because companies are hesitant to employ women in believe that their daughters should stay close to their typically male professions, not trusting that they can families while they encourage their sons to move away handle the work. This disenchantment is parceled and become out to female students even when their abilities and qualifications are at least as good as those of their independent. They assess girls as being weaker and male peers. less independent. This reasoning influences the advice they give regarding jobs and career choices. Students and parents who participated in the focus Their own educational background also influences group discussions do not think the reputation of their advice: those with less education demonstrate a vocational institutions is as good as that of universities. limited understanding of the opportunities available to One of the main reasons why many students choose educated young women. Those parents are often afraid vocational training is a failure to pass the university of not being able to help their daughters or of their entrance exams. Another reason is that many parents daughters becoming independent of the family. While (such as rural farmers and ethnic minorities) cannot most urban parents want their daughters to get a higher afford the fees for a university education. Many parents education so they can find a well-educated husband, from rural areas also regard vocational training as the rural parents stress that time spent on education is a best way for their children to support the family’s small waste because young women should marry at an early business or farm. Young female students in particular age. However, not even urban and better-educated reported that vocational education is a more practical parents saw higher education as foundational to a choice that gives them the opportunity to learn a career for their daughters because they see careers as an broader range of issues, ideas, and skills to which they obstacle to their daughters starting a family. had been previously exposed. 4.3. Gender Stereotypes in Vocational By encouraging the establishment of more and more Education and Training Institutions colleges across the country, the Vietnamese government has tried to fill the educational gap that still exists The focus group discussions with male and female between rural and urban populations. Between 2001 students and parents, as well as the key informant and 2011, 8 universities and 12 colleges were created interviews with leaders of vocational institutions, show in Vietnam each year (DAAD 2017), mostly private that gender stereotypes are widespread in the fields institutions. More than 4 million students are expected taught at vocational schools. In addition, among all of to be studying in Vietnam by 2020.16 However, the the studied vocational education institutions, there are quantity and quality of teaching staff is a great challenge significant gender imbalances in the various training due to a lack of professors or lecturers with a PhD. Rural disciplines. The concept of subjects having “female institutions and colleges often employ staff without relevance” or “male relevance” is still prevalent and master’s degrees. strongly influences the choices of men and women. Male and female students who are “minorities” in those Focus group discussions with students reinforce this faculties or classes dominated by the opposite gender picture, especially of the rural vocational colleges. report that they often suffer from disadvantages and Although the students regard public institutions as pressure in their studies and daily activities. As a result, more trustworthy than private ones, they complained some students decide to change their subject of study about the heterogeneous teaching quality as well as the because they do not want to continue being an anomaly. old and insufficient facilities. 16 http://cheer.edu.vn/en/?p=3728. 22 F5: Teachers in this school are very easy-going. We F1. Several years ago, there were many students only go to school in the day, while in many private in the faculty of economics, and they won many schools, students have to learn in the evening. It is prizes when taking part in contests. There are inconvenient for them. (Focus group discussion few students in my class, but the teachers are very with students at Quang Nam Vocational College) enthusiastic and give individual attention to each student. (Focus group discussion with students at F6: Public schools are still better than nonpublic Hanoi Vocational College) ones. They have to operate under state regulations, while private schools have their own rules. In this With regard to the gender perspective, female students school, if there is any problem, the state will be apply less often than the male students to take university responsible for solving it. (Focus group discussion entrance exams. This is particularly the case among with students at Quang Nam Vocational College) rural young women, who tend to choose vocational colleges because they are located near their homes and With regard to teaching quality, students value the because the tuition fees for public colleges are much practical knowledge of their teachers and lecturers lower than those for universities. Their parents also because most come from companies or have their own usually advise them to pursue a vocational education. businesses, and therefore their teaching is relevant and practical. On the other hand, students complain about F1: The tuition fees are not as high as universities, the low quality of theoretical teaching, which they see about 3 million VND per semester, plus 300,000 to as oldfashioned and not useful for their future jobs. 500,000 VND per semester for learning materials. And I only have to pay the tuition fee from the F3. I do not know whether they are good or not, but second year. (Focus group discussion with female what they teach us is right. (Focus group discussion students at Quang Nam Vocational College) with students at Quang Nam Vocational College) F2: The tuition fee is affordable for students, about 5 F4. Their knowledge meets students’ expectations. million VND per year. (Focus group discussion with They guide students carefully and with dedication. female students at Quang Nam Vocational College) (Focus group discussion with students at Quang Nam Vocational College) F6. I receive a tuition reduction so only pay about 4 million VND per year. I spend 300,000 VND F5. Teachers of practical skills supervise us more purchasing learning materials per semester. I do not carefully than those who teach theory. (Focus group know what tuition fees are in other schools. (Focus discussion with students at Quang Nam Vocational group discussion with female students at Quang College) Nam Vocational College) The foundation of new colleges has, on one hand, led to F1: Those from [tuition waiver] beneficiary families a great variety of educational institutions, which means receive reductions in tuition fees and the costs of that students can chose which college is suitable for learning materials. (Focus group discussion with their financial situation and career plans. On the other female students at Quang Nam Vocational College) hand, colleges are concerned about decreasing student numbers. While the students like the idea of learning in Although qualitative data is not representative, the study small groups, they also realize that the variety of courses finds that many students from ethnic minorities were is shrinking. Skills that are regarded as necessary to get studying at vocational colleges but only few of them at a good job are often not provided in the curriculum or universities. The results show that young women from through extracurricular activities. ethnic minorities often drop out of high school without graduating because they become mothers at an early F2. As there are few students in my class, teachers age. Male students from ethnic minorities benefit from can give each of us plenty of attention. Also reduced tuition, which enables them to learn the skills because of the small number of students, there are needed to become skilled professionals. Those students not many extracur-ricular activities in my class. say that they have to pay the fees themselves because (Focus group discussion with students at Hanoi their families are so poor that they cannot afford even Vocational College) the reduced tuition. Students from ethnic minorities clearly see the government’s support program as 23 an essential step to reducing poverty among ethnic Results from these focus group discussions illustrate minorities by giving them a real chance to receive a the social norms and values of people leading a simple vocational education. life deeply entrenched in farming. Most Hmong women in the focus group discussions were primarily engaged M4. I am exempt from the tuition fee as I attend an in slash-and-burn farming 17 while the Thai women intermediate diploma course and I am an ethnic spent their days planting rice and other vegetables or minority. I make money myself to cover my living breeding cattle. In the focus group discussions, many costs, so my family does not have to give me money. of the women were illiterate and had no expectations I am working for a restaurant for 2 million VND a except doing fieldwork for the rest of their lives. Only a month. (Focus group discussion with male students few of the women had graduated from high school, and at Quang Nam Vocational College) many had left before graduation. Most had married at a young age and given birth to their first child between M1. The tuition fee is not high, about 2.6 million the ages of 19 and 22. In previous generations, women VND per semester for local people. (Focus group from ethnic minorities became mothers even earlier at discussion with male students at Quang Nam age 15 or 16. Vocational College) M3. Those from poor households will be granted a 30 percent tuition fee waiver. I pay about 3 million “I work all day in the field staying in the sun— VND per semester for my course. (Focus group going to school is much better.” discussion with male students at Quang Nam Vocational College) Conclusions ME1: I am T., 24 years old. I have a four-year-old child. (Focus group discussion with Hmong women, The focus group participants perceived strong gender Dien Bien) stereotyping in VET institutes. The female students appreciate the daytime hours and low demands of the ME2: I am C., 38. I have two children. One is 20 VET courses but believe instructors to be biased against years old and the other 18. They completed the girls by discouraging them from studying for some general education program and now do fieldwork professions. However, they claimed to be generally in our hometown. (Focus group discussion with happy with the quality of the teaching instruction. Hmong women, Dien Bien) Both girls and boys are highly sensitive to the cost of VET compared with a university education. Financial ME3: I am E. I am 36 years old, have two sons. One support from the government is vital to their accessing is 18 years old and the other 16. Both are single. VET, particularly among respondents from ethnic (Focus group discussion with Hmong women, Dien minorities. Bien) ME4: I am H., aged 17. I got married. I now live 4.4. Perceptions of Access to Education and with my parents-in-law. I am pregnant and expect the Labor Market Among Ethnic Minorities a baby in July. (Focus group discussion with Hmong women, Dien Bien) To get a clearer impression of how gender disparities affect the various ethnic minorities in Vietnam, focus Many ethnic minority families have 8–10 children, groups were held with Thai and Hmong women in the although the women in the focus group sample said province of Dien Bien. The Thai represent the second more families these days are having only 2 –3 children largest ethnic minority group in Vietnam. They live to enable them to get a good education. Modern parents mainly in Son La, Hoa Binh, Dien Bien, Lao Cai, and in ethnic groups consider higher education as essential Lai Chau. The Hmong people are an ethnic minority for both their sons and their daughters. During the living in the northern mountainous Son La, Lao Cai, focus group discussions, all of the women in ethnic and Ha Giang provinces of Vietnam. 17 Slash-and-burn farming is the process of cutting down vegetation on a particular plot of land, setting fire to the remaining foliage, and using the ashes to provide nutrients for the soil that will be used to plant food crops. 24 groups emphasized that they wanted their children to better educated due to the lack of infrastructure in lead better lives. The women mostly live their whole rural areas and the need to travel long distances to lives in their village, rarely leaving it. Some women have access schools. They describe a vicious circle in which only been to the district capital once or twice in their illiterate women are afraid to leave their local areas lives. They regard their villages as safe and peaceful even though they know that only the larger cities have places where people know each other. They see the training courses and good jobs. This mistrust of the cities as places where women might be sold as working unknown extends to their children. Even though they slaves or “brides” to China. During the discussions, the want their children to have a better education, they are women told a story about two women who had been afraid of letting them leave the village because they taken in this way and never came back. think that they will not be able to handle life in the wider world. These women shared a pragmatic view of Q: Do you know anybody who was sold to China their children’s futures. in your commune? (Focus group discussion with Hmong women) Q: What do you think about the jobs that your children should do, and what do you want your ME3: Many. children to do in the future? (Focus group discussion with Thai women) ME5: There have been two or three cases of women sold to China. F1. I don’t know, I just let them go to school at present. It is their right to choose what to do in the ME3: They were cheated into being sold to China. future. Q: If you were to leave to find work, where would you F3. If they don’t like going to school, they will stay at want to go and which jobs do think would suit you? home to work as their parents have done. (Focus group discussion with Hmong women) F4. After they finish studying, I will let them work ME5: There is no work around here. Work can be in the companies that are most suitable for them. found in Dien Bien city, but no work for me because I only finished grade 9. F8. I don’t know. ME8: I’m sure there are no other jobs for me because The focus group discussions reveal that ethnic minority I only finished grade 5. children have to start working at an early stage of life. In fact, in 2018, some national and international After finishing junior high school, every child— newspapers reported on the human trafficking of male or female—must help their parents with Vietnamese women. The most isolated, poorest, and farming. The whole farming process is organized as a ethnically diverse regions of Vietnam, such as the Lao combined family effort in which every family member Cai province, are particularly affected.18 This is due to knows exactly what to do. Compared with previous the fact that many women from ethnic minorities are generations, farming is increasingly becoming a illiterate and unable to read the “working contracts” female job among ethnic minorities. While wives stay offered by traffickers. at home to farm, husbands leave their villages to find jobs. There are more ethnic minority males operating Women suffering from extreme poverty due to being as hired workers than as farmers cultivating their own widowed or single serve as convenient victims for land. For most families, this is the only way to keep the human traffickers. farming tradition alive. Therefore, women carry out all of the duties in the household and on the farm, not During focus group discussions, women were quite only planting and selling the produce but also caring for clear on the importance of better education for ethnic children and for older family members. minorities. Most, 38–40 years of age, said they feel like a lost generation with no possibilities of becoming 18 ABC News, April 21, 2018. 25 F3. In the past, our grandparents and parents state organizations. The women said that job offers rarely worked as hired laborers outside the home. can come directly from local companies or through Now both men and women work as hired laborers family networks. Whenever more workers are needed, outside, though more men than women. Women the companies encourage their employees to recruit also work as hired laborers but after getting family members and friends. Most families work as married, they often work at home. Married men seasonal workers at two or three companies. During still work as hired laborers, and they seek jobs in periods of high demand, wives are also employed as other places when they don’t have enough work seasonal workers. The job service centers are mostly at home. (Focus group discussion, Thai ethnic irrelevant to the women. minority woman.) Conclusions F1. Many men work as hired laborers and builders because there are fewer fields at home. There were The focus group discussions with women from ethnic many fields in the past, but when their children minority groups clearly show that ethnic minority grew up, the parents had to give some fields to communities are lagging behind the rest of Vietnam them, so there are now fewer fields so people have to in terms of education and labor market aspirations, work as hired laborers to earn money. (Focus group and women are lagging even farther behind than discussion, Thai ethnic minority woman.) men. Because these communities tend to be located mostly in rural or even mountainous areas, this All women in the focus group want their children to makes it difficult for their children to attend school have a better life but feel that schooling and theoretical regularly after the primary level. To reach the nearest knowledge is not a part of their culture. The women secondary school, many children must either walk for report that teachers and social workers come to the several hours or stay in a school dormitory during the villages to convince parents to let their children go to week. Although ethnic minority parents want their school even if they have to stay in dormitories during children to study, the financial solvency of the family the school year. But only those parents who can afford forces many to choose which of their children would to spare the help of their children are willing to let them most benefit from, and thus should attend, school. go to get a secondary education. Gender norms around the division of home- and market-related work are stronger in ethnic minority F4: We are encouraged to take the children to communities than in their nonethnic counterparts. As school. In the beginning of the academic year, the in nonethnic minority communities, girls are expected teachers come to our families and encourage us to stay close to home, whether for security reasons or to allow the children to attend the school. (Focus to help with the housework; this necessarily impedes group discussion, Thai ethnic minority woman) further education due to the remoteness of many ethnic minority communities. However, girls from F2: All of the children receive kindergarten and ethnic groups seem to be expected to marry younger— primary schooling. Many are eligible to attend to secure their family’s economic well-being—than are secondary school, but not many go to high school or women in nonethnic minority communities. Farm receive higher education. Mostly, only the children work is increasingly becoming the responsibility of of well-off families have the opportunity to continue women in the house, so parents see little value in a studying after finishing high school. (Focus group girl receiving secondary education or having career discussion, Thai ethnic minority woman) aspirations. Women from ethnic minorities have limited opportunities to break through the cultural The women said that they prefer for their sons to go to norms and expectations regarding the traditional role high school while their daughters stay home to provide of women, who must now also shoulder an enormous essential help to the household. Also, they believe that workload to maintain the farming tradition. finding an appropriate husband for their daughters is crucial to stabilizing the family’s financial situation. 4.5. Perceptions Among Employers When asked about job opportunities and about their In general, the study’s focus group discussions with knowledge of employment service centers, either chief executive officers (CEOs) and human resource they did not know what tasks the centers perform (HR) managers reveal that enterprises are often or they did not trust them to serve their needs. In dissatisfied with the quality of the training provided by general, the women revealed a general distrust of universities and vocational education schools. Recent 26 graduates from such institutions often do not meet the (those who have just graduated from secondary needs of the enterprises because, while the graduates school). They pay more attention to furthering their have professional knowledge, they lack fundamental personal interests than to showing an interest in their communication and social skills. Most CEOs explained workshops. (Focus group discussion with CEOs and that they have had to retrain and upgrade the skills of HR managers in Dien Bien) the graduates after recruiting them. Participants also said that the demands of the labor market in terms The CEOs see some gender differences in worker skills. of skills and competencies are not being met by the The CEOs expressed a strong desire for both male education system in Vietnam. and female workers to be fully trained in hygiene and safety regulations and to be equipped with a general awareness of professional behavior. For employees with a university degree, they say the development of soft “New graduates do not meet the needs of skills is essential. The CEOs suggest male employees enterprises.” often fail to communicate well, especially with their colleagues and team members, whereas female employees lack a competitive spirit in the workplace and are reticent to speak with supervisors. CEO7. There are differences for each level of labor, but in general, the nonprofessional skills of With regard to introducing policies to help female local workers are still lacking and weak compared employees reconcile family and work obligations, the with the expectations of enterprises. The weakest interviewed managers state that they see no need to skills are those related to labor discipline; increase their efforts. They think that giving gifts to a compliance with hygiene and safety regulations family when a child is born or has achieved good marks in the production process; teamwork; and mutual in school is enough. However, a few managers are more support in production, communication, and committed to gender-equal working policies and talked behavior … Businesses must regularly educate them about having introduced family-friendly working times and integrate skill training into their daily work for mothers, special rooms for breast-feeding, and activities. (Focus group discussion with CEOs and health programs for all employees. HR managers in Dien Bien) CEO5: We are different from other sectors. CEO2. The weakest are the nonprofessional skills, However, we always try our best to arrange suitable mainly among the middle-level or primary-level duties for our workers. We have worked to ensure laborers and young workers who have never that the jobs are all in line with our workers’ worked in enterprises. It usually takes businesses capacity and health as well as their circumstances. at least one year to train these workers. This lack of We think that this has helped them to balance their skills is reflected in them stopping working without job and family affairs. We have focused on workers permission and their indiscriminate use of public who are raising their little babies, and pregnant places such as the shared toilets, canteen, and and older workers. They are prioritized in terms of dressing room. Their compliance with the cultural working time and intensity so that they can fulfill rules of businesses, their sense of how to use and their responsibility both in the company and at protect the property of enterprises, and their use home. (Focus group discussion with CEOs and HR of electricity and water are also not good. (Focus managers in Dien Bien) group discussion with CEOs and HR managers in Dien Bien) While some employers stress that they are meeting the legal requirements, others talk freely about the CEO9. The behavior of unskilled workers is discrepancies between the law and reality. Although normally worse than that of other groups, and their maternity leave is guaranteed by law, for example, communication is not good. Sometimes, when many employers do not give the full six months and being asked to explain their questions to the human put pressure on mothers to come back to work for fear resources staff, they do not know how to express of losing their jobs. Fathers are often not permitted to themselves. The lack of communication skills is leave work to care for their families in the first weeks particularly prominent in workers with low education after the birth of their child. 27 M4: Many enterprises do not comply with labor HR managers claim that there is a gap between labor law. For example, the female employees may not demands and job placements and that the centers get the full six months of maternity leave in foreign need to do a better job of finding better-qualified direct investment (FDI) enterprises; sometimes candidates. These company participants believe the they get only four months. My company complies recent cooperation between all educational institutions strictly with labor law, giving the full six months and employment service centers is insufficient and of maternity leave to women. Particularly in many that the centers should not only be responsible for job industrial zones and processing zones, labor abuse placement but also for career advice. is still popular. The government ought to strictly monitor FDI enterprises in Vietnam, especially HRM1: The first time I used the local ESC I thought Korean and Chinese enterprises, because they just it was a private organization, not a state-owned one. give four months of maternity leave. Labor law Employers do not know much about its services. I regulates that husband can have five to seven days have passed by this center a lot of times, but I did off from work to look after his wife after the birth, not know, I only knew [what is was] when I went to but only a few enterprises comply. In addition, I meet prospective employees. The cost to job seekers think the subject of “gender equality” should be to upload job applications is too high, about 1.5 to taught in the education system, at university, for 2 million VND in only one or two weeks. Every example. (Focus group discussion with CEOs and time applicants submit a CV, they must pay a fee. HR managers in Dien Bien) My office must pay 10 million VND per month to use its services, in the past two weeks we have had One of the main discussion topics was cooperation to pay 6–7 million VND for access to 14 offices. between enterprises and employment service centers. The cost of recruitment is very expensive. In the The CEOs claim that the centers disseminate little past, [my company] attracted a lot of employees, information and do not meet the requirements of but since about two years ago, recruiting has been enterprises in terms of the number or quality of workers difficult because of the competition or because new they provide as job candidates. graduates do not have the right skills to contribute to the company. (Focus group discussion with CEOs F1: The center needs to improve the labor and HR managers in Dien Bien) information they provide so that recruitment will be much more effective. For instance, my company CEO10: The ESC must closely coordinate with asked the center to find several workers with vocational training schools and higher education technical expertise and foreign language proficiency. institutions to inform them about the skills needed The center then gave us a slew of candidates who by local businesses. This will let them know what did not meet our requirements. Thus, their support future jobs will be available for their students so they was inefficient. (Focus group discussion with CEOs can make rational adjustments to their curriculum and HR managers in Dien Bien) to fit the labor market demand. Thus, the costs paid by trainees, educators, and employers will be Q: As a business, what basic support will you need slashed. (Focus group discussion with CEOs and from the job service center in the near future? HR managers in Dien Bien) F1: I hope that the centers will become more Some CEOs stress that they have been developing their effective in finding employees and that, before own ways to attract possible employees, especially sending job seekers’ documents to the companies, through social media. Some are developing their own the center screens them in a more meticulous way apps to attract applicants and to be seen as a modern to prevent the situation where they send us many and employee-friendly company. Other enterprises documents but none of the candidates meet the make use of traditional networks and channels like company’s requirements. (Focus group discussion youth unions, women’s unions, or rural unions. with CEOs and HR managers in Dien Bien) Online recruitment is mostly used by foreign-owned companies, while inperson recruitment is preferred by Many CEOs state that the costs of the services offered enterprises in the fields of handcrafting, tailoring, and by the employment service centers are too high. The personal services. 28 Conclusions and second grades. My main source of income is from selling food for breakfast (bread). (Focus In the focus group discussions, CEOs and HR managers group discussion with single mothers in Tan Thanh emphasized the lack of social skills among recent Ward, Tam Ky City, Quang Nam Province) graduates from universities and colleges and say that they have no sense of collegial cooperation and F2. My name is Son. I graduated from the middle teamwork. They feel that men and women have different school. The reason for my divorce was that my skills sets, with the former being poor communicators husband had another woman. He is a driver and and the latter being passive. CEOs and HR managers does not send me any money for child support. The argued that they are gender sensitive, either by abiding courts ruled that he had to provide me with child by gender-focused labor laws or by providing gifts or support but in fact he does not send me any money. special treatment to new mothers, although workers do I have to bring up three children by myself. (Focus not perceive this to be the case. group discussion with single mothers in Tan Thanh Ward, Tam Ky City, Quang Nam Province) The CEOs and HR managers also state the need for employment service centers to inform educational F3. My name is Phuong, born in 1972. I do farm institutions about the skills needed by different kinds work (farming and gardening). I have a son who of companies—currently and in the near future. was born in 2003. I have never been married. (Focus Participants feel that the services currently provided by group discussion with single mothers in Tan Thanh the centers are expensive and lack quality. They believe Ward, Tam Ky City, Quang Nam Province) that the centers should not only provide job placement services but also career counseling in high schools, F4. My name is Qua, born in 1978. I do farm work. universities, and colleges to give students a realistic My husband died in a work accident in 2012. After view of labor market demand. his death, my life was much more difficult. In addition to farming, I have had to do many other 4.6. Perceptions Among Vulnerable Groups jobs to make a living. (Focus group discussion with single mothers in Tan Thanh Ward, Tam Ky City, Single mothers with young children Quang Nam Province) The study included focus group discussions with a All single mothers participating in the discussion sample of single mothers from both urban and rural indicated being stuck in lowpaying, informal jobs such areas. All of the women indicated that there are many as street vendors, seasonal farm workers, and household circumstances that can lead to a woman becoming a maids, despite most having graduated from high school single mother, such as the death of a husband; divorce, and some having even graduated from university. The which seems more common in urban than rural areas; education level of rural single mothers was much lower or pregnancy outside of marriage or a committed than those raised in urban areas. The urban women relationship. A few women say that they had always participants indicated having a life plan that includes wanted to have a baby but no husband.19 a good job commensurate with their abilities; rural women participants had no life plans. F1. My name is Huong, 43 years old. I graduated from the accounting department of the Economics In general, the women feel dissatisfied with the low University. The main reason for my divorce was quality of the public childcare system. Their perception that my husband was an alcoholic and had sexual is that facilities employ childcare providers who have intercourse with other women. He was also violent no formal pedagogical experience with young children’s to me. We divorced 10 years ago. At that time, my health and development. Private childcare institutions children were small, so it was difficult for me to get with qualified educators and nurses have higher quality a job. At present, my two children are in the fourth 19 According to analysis of surveys informing this study, the majority of the rural population believes in the traditional family model. Divorced women are regarded as the ones who are not able to have a satisfying marriage because they lack of positive female attributes such as being a good mother, being able to care for the family, or being a sympathetic wife. Social life in rural areas is more about being an accepted member of a village community. Being divorced often means being excluded from social life. This stigma includes both single mothers as well as their children and their entire family. 29 standards and provide care for longer hours but are 5: Women find it hard to be promoted after they much more expensive. have children. (Focus group discussion with single mothers in Muong Thanh Ward, Dien Bien City, F3. There is a gap between public and private Dien Bien Province) schools. Public schools have better conditions but are not suitable for many people like us as we cannot 2: Women have ver y few opportunities for pick up our children before they close, whereas promotion as they have to take care of their children private schools allow us to collect them later. (Focus and educate them. (Focus group discussion with group discussion with single mothers in Quang single mothers in Muong Thanh Ward, Dien Bien Nam) City, Dien Bien Province) F6. Local people need good service and food safety Most of the women stress that before becoming a single and hygiene in kindergartens so that they can feel mother, a high-quality job that used their qualifications confident about leaving their children there while was the most important thing to them. However, after they go to work. (Focus group discussion with single motherhood, their perception of a good job changed. mothers in Quang Nam) Set work hours and sufficient income to support their children became most important, followed by interests The focus group discussion also reveals that the public and qualifications. The single mothers would take primary and lower secondary schools in rural areas whatever job provide them with a good income to only teach students for one (morning or afternoon) support their children. session; thus, children are on their own for a long time every day. The mothers expressed concern that this In general, the single mothers feel abandoned by lack of supervision could easily have negative effects on society and the government because they do not fit their children. into the traditional family model. The women stress the importance of giving their children as much as possible, Single mothers without family networks find it difficult even if that means depriving themselves. to work when they have toddlers. Daycare providers only look after children who are at least 3 years old. Because searching for a job is so difficult, most single Single mothers in urban areas sometimes live far away mothers become self-employed in such basic jobs as from their families and the childcare that families selling handcrafted goods or vegetables. Most have at provide. Family is the most important support for least two jobs to make ends meet. Some said that they single mothers with young children. have received state loans to buy small machines for handcrafting or farming, but others had no idea how to All single mother participants, no matter which province apply for such loans. they are from, stressed that employers’ working policies are not meeting the needs of single parents. Even with Conclusions female HR managers, female workers are not treated equally. The focus group participants said that they are Single mothers of young children feel that the lack of promoted less often than their male colleagues and are flexible working times and possibilities to combine always faced with the reality of being a (single) mother work and family leads to poor job prospects. Even those and not having the flexibility to pursue a higher-level with a high school degree (or higher) are stuck in low- job, career, or job development opportunities. paying and informal jobs. Career development seems impossible to most because they are not supported 6: My office does not take gender into account at as much as their male colleagues are. There are few work. There are female leaders in my office. Most policies that support the particular constraints faced employees are female, and very few are male, so by single mothers with small children. While some gender is not an issue. However, men have more female farmers have the opportunity to apply for loans, opportunities for promotion than women. They no general criteria or laws exist to make this a robust have physical strength and do not have to take option for most single mothers. The private childcare maternity leave. (Focus group discussion with single system does not align with women’s work times, and the mothers in Muong Thanh Ward, Dien Bien City, public system is perceived to be of low quality. Instead, Dien Bien Province) most single mothers depend on family networks to 30 provide child-care that is convenient with their work Because there are few or no networks, associations, or duties. counseling centers for disabled people in rural areas, most, especially women, live their whole lives with their Disabled women families. However, the participants stressed that families can often prevent disabled people, especially women, In Vietnam, 5.8 percent of the population is disabled, from becoming independent; this occurs mostly in which means that more than 5 million people are rural areas but sometimes also in cities. They also said physically handicapped or suffer from mental disorders. that, even within families, there can be considerable More than 4 million people suffer from diseases or prejudice against disabled family members. accidents that happened to them between the ages of 20 and 60, leaving only 1.8 percent born with a disability. D6: Here’s my situation. My lover and I are blind. As a consequence, the majority of disabled people know We have been in love for five years, but my parents the difference between living a life of being treated have prevented our love. They said, “it is the best equally and feeling excluded. when you stay at home. If you get married to a blind person, your life will be very hard. Then you Most disabled people in Vietnam live in rural areas will come back and make your parents worried.” I and stay close to their families. 20 This has several told them that “I will get married and not rely on implications. The disabled women in the study’s you,” but my parents still oppose our love and do focus group discussions stressed that while there is an not want me to marry a person with the same visual increasing awareness in urban areas of how important impairment. My view is firm. Although my parents it is to be inclusive of disabled people in society and do not agree, I am still resolved to get married. I said, even in the labor market, there remains extreme “We can live separately to build our own happiness.” ignorance, uncertainty, prejudice, and superstition We can’t live with our parents for our whole lives. around disability in rural areas. The discussants also Why do we have to do what we do not want for the described the northern parts of Vietnam as traditional sake of others? I will overcome difficulties gradually and conservative, and said that more and more disabled and never give up. Here I want to say that it’s not just people are thinking about moving to the south so they the families of the men who do not agree but also can lead a self-determined life. the families of women, as in my case. Despite being visually impaired, I still can see and do everything. D1: 1: Men are always preferred to women. In My parents … are worried about me. “Even if I have the Hoan Kiem district, men and women with children, I do not need your help,” I told my parents. disabilities are almost equal, unlike in rural areas. I But they said: “You must stay at home to look after know the case of Huong Giang, a disabled athlete your siblings’ children. If you get married, you will with crutches. She was born in 1983. She is a member be not be a daughter to us.” Before, many people of my association. As neither of their families accept loved me, but I was afraid of becoming a burden to their relationship, she and her lover moved to the them. When I met my lover, I gave up this thinking south to live together. Now they have a spacious and thought that I could take care of myself. My chicken farm and a lovely baby. It will not be good parents treated my lover so badly that I could not for you (addressing another participant) if you let hold back my tears. But I will struggle until my this situation last too long. If your parents are in the parents agree. After I had my lover, I understood city, their thoughts may change. It is very hard, even why males are bolder than females. Women are impossible, for rural people to change their minds. usually shy, thoughtful, and highly self-respectful. (Focus group discussion with disabled women in (Focus group discussion, disabled women, Hanoi) Hanoi) The discussants claimed that there is a kind of social exclusion or “stigma” that makes them second choice “People with disabilities face difficulties— for possible husbands or prevents them from getting every day and everywhere.” married. They believe the reason for this is rooted in traditional role models: women have to care for children 20 For this study, the surveyed women with disabilities were chosen through the introduction of the local associations of people with disabilities. The focus group discussions with them were held in two urban wards of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City and a rural commune of Quang Nam Province. 31 and therefore have to be healthy. Disabled women often there in the commune? What are their economic fear giving birth because they feel incomplete, and this conditions? … The association organizes vocational leads to social exclusion. All of the participants stress training, sends its members to companies to work, that they do not feel fully accepted by society.21 and lets them know about job opportunities. Many donors also support and give loans to the disabled. With regard to labor market questions, the focus (Focus group discussion with disabled people in group participants stress that disabled people still face Quang Nam.) many difficulties in finding employment. Education levels among participants vary. Those from rural areas Q: How do you evaluate the role of the disabled have less education, particularly farmers from poorer people’s association? Why don’t you here participate families. Some of the women have side jobs in their in the association? villages to earn a bit of extra money, such as by collecting garbage. The disabled participants from urban areas D1: The association is very useful. It has set up have higher levels of education. All of them had links with other organizations to support us. The attended vocational training or successfully graduated association provides us with vocational training and from a college or university. Some even ran their own tools. If you learn hairdressing, they cover the tuition small businesses like a tailor shop or hairdressing salon. fee and provide you with hairdressing tools. If men They said that the main way in which they find work learn repairing machines or vehicles, the association is through a private network or with the help of an gives them maintenance tools. Hau is not confident association for disabled people. Few in the focal group, enough to participate in the association. However, particularly those from rural areas, had been to an ESC, it is her right to join the association, and it is the and many had no idea what kind of help these centers responsibility of the society to help the disabled. provide. Those women who had participated in training The association has also launched an eye surgery programs evaluated the ESCs positively, depending on program. (Focus group discussion with disabled the type of disability. For example, people who are blind people in Quang Nam) often have no way of using the Internet, lacking special keyboards or sound systems, or knowing of places that These associations conduct vocational training courses have this special hardware. all over the country, and members are encouraged to apply for them. Despite the usefulness of these training Associations for disabled people play an important role courses, there are still few companies willing to employ in Vietnam. They give disabled people an opportunity disabled people. A gap remains between the legal rights to meet with like-minded people, discuss their of the disabled and the practical implementation of problems, and find new friends, and also provide them the law. This is why most disabled people think of self- with technical and vocational support. employment as the best way to make a stable income. D1: Members of the the Phu Ninh disabled D8: The association does not provide jobs but people’s association meet every month. They share provides us with tools to earn a living through their own stories and support each other. The training courses. Moreover, my association has association operates thanks to the financial support a center for vocational training for the blind of the commune and the district. Thanks to the that collaborates with many non-governmental association, I feel more confident. Members of the organizations and small groups to provide association are divided into groups to implement vocational training. They teach many different different activities. Each contributes from 5,000 skills. In each session, we meet experts in the field to 10,000 per month to the association’s fund. The of training from whom we can seek advice on jobs money is to cover visits to sick people or memorial for people with disabilities. (Focus group discussion services. Members mainly come to share their own with disabled women in Hanoi) stories. How many disabled women and men are 21 The sociology of disabilities (e.g., Albrecht, Seelman, and Bury 2000) stresses these assumptions: human beings depend on each other and socialization is an essential part of human life. People create a social world through their interactions. If certain groups of people are not able to participate in these interactions, what happens to them? And who decides whether those groups are allowed to participate or not? The paradigm aims to show that disabilities are not only a biological or physiological phenomenon but also a social construct. 32 Q: What should the association do to provide better background. For example, in some regions, there support for people with disabilities in the future? are jobs suitable for disabled people but not in your own locality, and you are unable to move to another D6: I hope the Phu Xuyen Association for the locality. In some cases, you see that jobs exist that Disabled will have more training sessions, more would suit you, but there are no intermediaries exchange activities with other districts, and more who can introduce you to the employers. There short courses. I am a member of the association, but were people with both hand and foot abnormalities this is the first time I have been here. (Focus group coming to my shop to ask for a job. However, they discussion with disabled women in Hanoi) can perform only easy steps like sewing straight lines but cannot make a complete product like I can. I Survey findings by the United Nations Development introduced them to a unit that allowed them to bring Programme (2018) supports the notion that pieces of products home to make, helping them earn discrimination against disabled people exists in money. Although their income is not much, they still Vietnam’s labor market. Of the 132 people with feel happy because they can earn money. As Thuong disabilities surveyed, 55 percent had their applications said, it is hard to create a complete vest, as her skills rejected because of their disability. The disabled are not good enough. Besides, the market requires participants in the current research stressed that they both beautiful products and high production speed. often feel inhibited by their abnormal appearance If we submit our products late, it can affect the or their limited “normal” ability to communicate. entire production line. I have experience with this Although some, especially young women in urban areas, situation. Companies refuse to employ those who have at least a secondary education and some foreign work slowly. Many businesses accept people with language skills, employers do not offer them positions disabilities, who, however, are required to ensure the commensurate with these skills, instead tending to progress of production lines. I know some women offer them unskilled jobs. Also, many participants who cut threads and fold products for businesses. said that they often have problems accessing public Some people have to use wheelchairs and crutches transportation and buildings. but still work for Samsung in Bac Ninh province, earning from 6 to 7 million VND each month. D1: People with disabilities have difficulty with (Focus group discussions with disabled women in transport. People with mobility disabilities find Hanoi) it very hard to move. My girlfriend has to wear leg braces from her thighs. It takes her more than Conclusions one minute to get on a bus, but buses in Hanoi are only allowed to stop at each station for a short In general, the focus group discussions stress that time. It is not easy to let a disabled person get on women with disabilities in urban areas have more a bus. Currently, only number three buses have any advantages than those in rural areas. Disabled women wheelchair space. (Focus group discussion with in urban areas have access to better education at local disabled women in Hanoi) colleges and universities. And because these same women have more opportunities to access information D6: I witnessed a case where a bus worker refused and knowledge and to have a better understanding of to let a disabled person get on the bus. The bus socioeconomic issues, they have more self-confidence worker said it might make them late. (Focus group and self-determination with which to lead their lives. discussion with disabled women in Hanoi) However, although the social stigma against people with disabilities in urban areas has gradually been D1: I also know a case when a disabled person was diminishing over the last 10–15 years, there continues forced to get off the bus. (Focus group discussion to be a need for better support services, including with disabled women in Hanoi) counseling, health care, psychosocial support, employment transportation, equipment, and special Even after getting a job, a disabled person must support facilities. In rural areas, many disabled people overcome difficulties organizing working life and are not integrated into their communities. They feel transportation issues. limited by the stereotypes and reservations against D4: To any disabled person, a job opportunity disabled people. depends on different things, such as the type of job it is, the person’s living environment, and their family 33 The focus group discussions also reveal that women with Not many skilled laborers come to employment service disabilities have trouble accessing vocational training centers because they think that it is better to search for and employment. Some enterprises and employers do jobs on their own. Skilled professionals know how to not want to recruit workers with disabilities, which search for jobs and prefer to do so primarily online. The means that there is still a gap between the law and what majority of people coming to the centers are those with happens in practice.22 A majority of the participating less education who need jobs as soon as possible for women with disabilities had received financial or financial reasons. For these people, the quality of the childcare support from parents and siblings but with job is not as important as the wages being offered and the reverse consequence of sometimes preventing them the opportunity to start as soon as possible. from living a self-determined life and making their own decisions. With regard to the job placement of men and women, all of the job officers who were interviewed stressed that they feel obliged to honor the legal rights of all 4.7. Perceptions of Employment people to be treated equally. Nevertheless, they said, Service Centers companies often have clear expectations of what sort of workers they want. Employers still prefer men, The focus group discussions highlight the meaning even for unskilled working opportunities, because of ESCs in relation to men and women. The existence unlike women, men do not have to stay at home with of these centers in Vietnam is not widely known. their children. The job placement officers claim to And those who do know about them mistrust the listen carefully to the needs of their clients and to quality of their placements for both men and women. take family obligations into consideration. However, To understand their placement-related work better, they also stressed that more vulnerable groups of the study conducted key informant interviews with women—mostly older women who are often also job placement officers and with female and male job single mothers— have limited options for accessing a placement customers. stable job. Women with disabilities also face problems when trying to enter the labor market. Job centers have The ESCs have two major customer groups: (1) those therefore organized special training opportunities for claiming unemployment insurance and (2) those these groups. These opportunities need to be expanded seeking work. The number of people in each group over the next few years. varies depending on the specific state of the labor market. When no seasonal work is available, the number Some ESC clients from vulnerable groups agree that the of people claiming insurance rises. In all provinces, the training courses provided by the job centers increase main demand comes from employers for temporary, their chances of developing skills and finding a job. unskilled workers. Companies searching for skilled However, others claimed that they had no chance to professionals often carry out their own recruitment choose which training they preferred because those because the selection process is demanding. receiving insurance benefits are required to accept job training whether or not they feel it is appropriate for JPO1: Recently, there has been a severe shortage them. of unskilled laborers, not only in Hanoi but in other provinces as well. All enterprises have Older women in particular stated that they did not been witnessing this, especially enterprises in the know how to use the Internet to search for jobs and that production field in the industrial/processing zone, they preferred having personal guidance from someone that’s why they come to the job center very regularly. who could help them to look for vacancies online. (Key informant interview with job placement officer Clients from other socially disadvantaged groups said in Hanoi) that they had no computer or Internet access at home, 22 The Law on Persons with Disabilities (2010) stipulates that the state must ensure the right of persons with disabilities to free vocational orientation and training that is relevant to their capacity, on an equal basis to others (article 32). The law also requires that the state ensure the rights of people with disabilities to free job counseling, job placement, and work conditions in accordance with their health and types of disabilities (article 33). Institutions, enterprises, and individuals are not allowed to reject job applications of qualified people with disabilities or to create recruitment criteria that limit job opportunities for them (article 33). 34 making employment service centers the only place They also say that the creation of an official online job where they can search for jobs online. market where all job offers are categorized by region, occupation, and educational requirements would be Conclusions helpful. Key informant interviews reveal that clients often see Respondents feel that employment service centers need employment service centers only as contact points for to cater their services to women’s needs. While job receiving insurance benefits. The other services are counselors do consider the family-care constraints of not popular. Unskilled laborers use the centers to help women, this leads to fewer job opportunities for female them look and apply for jobs. Traditional farmers use clients. Older women in particular have difficulty the centers to determine where they should apply for using the Internet-based job search system, preferring loans and where to rent or buy machines. By contrast, instead personalized support at the centers. By contrast, better-educated people say that they do not like the idea younger job searchers and those with higher levels of of going to an employment service center because they education would prefer to have more information on would feel somehow stigmatized; they instead prefer the Internet so they can bypass the ESCs and directly to access the job center online rather than in person. search for their jobs. 35 5. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RESULTS FOR THE PROVINCES OF DIEN BIEN AND QUANG NAM There are significant rural disparities in Vietnam • Married women, especially ethnic minorities, are regarding labor market access and gender equality. mainly responsible for housework and family care. Therefore, many key informant interviews as well Most of them farm to survive. Daily tasks, such as as many focus group discussions took place in the planting and watering vegetables; breeding poultry; provinces of Dien Bien and Quang Nam. Some findings and raising pig, cows, or buffalo, prevent them are particularly valuable for policy and program design from engaging in regular jobs in the labor market. that is targeted to rural populations. Key ideas emerging However, men are often free from daily housework from the research are presented in this section. and can migrate to find jobs in nearby places for several days or even several months. The principle 5.1. Results for Dien Bien barrier to male workers is that many do not want to live far from their hometowns, families, or ethnic Job search strategies are similar for men and women. groups. Most use private contacts (family and friends). Some are offered seasonal employment, which they return The fields of study that offered by vocational schools to year after year. Few use Internet-based platforms or in Dien Bien are not aligned with the needs of the employment support centers (ESCs). Both men and local labor market. Dien Bien Vocational College women expressed that ESCs are often too far away, and provides a range of majors such as agriculture, social women in particular are uncomfortable and distrustful work, business accounting, information technology, of state-run institutions. automotive, and industrial electricity. However, most jobs are in subsistence agriculture or low-skilled The empirical results stress certain vulnerable groups seasonal or factory work. Graduates from teaching and that have particular difficulty accessing the labor medical colleges face even greater job shortages. market: On the positive side, most of Dien Bien’s vocational • Female, middle-aged, ethnic minority workers who and technical schools focus on practical training. are married; have small children; and are illiterate, Across most disciplines, the share of training volume unskilled, and untrained face a range of challenges. is 30 percent for theoretical teaching and 70 percent They do not want to live far from their hometowns of the training time for practices. In addition to and families, both to be able to manage their familial lessons, students get on-the-job practice in their duties and for the security of their family. Their chosen professions from arranged visits to agencies, lifestyles and working manners are different from enterprises, and production facilities. the standards of a more formal workplace. The empirical results show that parents and relatives • Male ethnic minority workers who are untrained, are primary sources of information and advice for a married, and do not wish to work outside their student’s career path. While parents in urban areas province have difficulty finding employment. may be able to provide some guidance, those in rural They tend to work in small-scale cultivation using communities, particularly in mountainous and ethnic traditional methods. minority areas, are unable to provide informed guidance due to their limited knowledge about the range of labor • Female graduates from universities and colleges market possibilities available. Children in these areas have limited employment options because they are often follow their parents’ path, working in agriculture bound to their families and homes. These young even though many aspire to a different type of career. women are often not permitted to leave their Children from urban households, especially in Dien families to seek well-paying jobs in other provinces. Bien Phu city, have more opportunities in a broader These women are not able to find jobs aligned with range of occupations and better access to information their skill level in Dien Bien, and therefore work in about the local labor market. low-paying and unsuitable jobs. 36 Career orientation is heavily influenced by gender Hiring firms also discriminate by gender. Job vacancy stereotypes in families and by employers. Most young postings may include gender and ethnicity as women are guided toward simple jobs in workplaces recruitment criteria. In some occupations, employers that are near their homes to allow them to easily prefer recruiting women because they believe they are spend significant time on housework and caring for more committed to work than men. Some businesses their children and families. The occupations and prefer to recruit Hmong people because they believe sectors that women are guided toward (in order of they are hardworking and cleverer than people of other preference) are farmers/agriculture, staff for provincial/ ethnicities. district/commune agencies, teachers, accountants, sales, garment workers, and workers in the provincial Not many of the interviewed employees or even the enterprises located in and outside Dien Bien. Young employers in Dien Bien were aware of the services of the men are oriented toward high-income jobs to fulfill ESCs. Many respondents, especially the people living their breadwinner role for their families. and working in rural and remote areas, did not know or have never used the services of the centers. Some Career choices reflect the gender stereotypes observed people did know of services of a ESC and said that most when choosing field of study. Women tend to work of the jobs offered were outside the province and were in teaching, accounting, social work, and nursing. not relevant to their needs. Jobs in the province referred Men tend to be mechanics, welding workers, and auto by the center require much higher qualifications, and motorbike repairers—professions that almost no capacities, and complicated skills, so few workers can women do. Both men and women believe that women meet the standards and requirements. should find jobs with regular work hours that are close to home, allowing more time for housework and caring 5.2. Results for Quang Nam for small children and families. In general, the Quang Nam labor market does not Ethnic minority women are at a greater disadvantage in attract high- or mid-level technical workers from the education sphere than ethnic minority men due to other provinces, so several enterprises have established family and societal pressures to marry and bear children incentive policies to attract and sustain female early. Most ethnic minorities, particularly women, workers. These policies focus on supporting women marry at a young age. However, getting married and during maternity leave in raising infants and young bearing children early have different implications for children and on improving working conditions and ethnic minority female and male students. Schools allow social benefits for female workers, such as building female students to take one month off after giving birth, and running kindergartens and nursery schools, milk after which they can continue their studies. However, extracting and storing rooms, and flexible time if the boarding schools do not allow families to live in school workers are not working on production lines. dormitories, so female students rent accommodations near the school and ask their parents to stay with them Young people’s career paths, especially among girls, to take care of their small children. The costs can be is highly influenced by parents and relatives. Parents prohibitive, commonly resulting in women dropping highly value the degrees and certificates that their out of school. Women who are married and want to children can obtain, so they invest heavily in their continue studying are limited by traditions and customs children’s education at universities and colleges. Even that dictate that the wife is responsible for caring for though many of their children may not find jobs her parents and her husband’s family. According to relevant to their training majors, the parents believe respondents, after getting married, a female student that a higher education is still better for their children must ask permission from her husband’s family to than no further education. Parents in Quag Nam use continue her studies. Male students, by contrast, can various sources to gather labor market information: continue their studies after getting married with few television, radio, and newspapers are the preferred barriers. They do not need to ask permission, and they sources of media. However, many parents realize that can live remotely and visit their families on weekends the level of influence they have on their children’s career or semester breaks. Men’s continued education is often orientation and choice is shrinking. Male youth tend highly supported by their families and wives. Hence, to make their own decisions on career choice whereas dropping out of school because of marriage seldom female youth are more reliant on their parents. occurs for male students. 37 In a familiar practice, gender stereotypes regarding job There are several vulnerable groups in Quang Nam who selection criteria could be found in Quang Nam. Most have particular difficulty accessing the labor market: young females are guided to choose workplaces that are near their homes. The women also prefer set work • Unskilled middle-aged women working in low- hours over higher incomes. Both men and women income and insecure agricultural jobs have trouble believe women should find jobs with predictable work transitioning into factory jobs. At this age, women shifts, located near their home; meanwhile, men tend are often not recruited by businesses, especially for to be pressured by their families to earn a high income. the professions that require mental and physical Male students tend to look forward to career promotions agility. Instead, these women tend to earn a living in and to achieve higher positions. Few parents and the agriculture sector. students have progressive perceptions of women’s career advancement. Female students tend to think of stable • Female and male graduates from universities, careers that allow them to reconcile family and work. colleges, and vocational schools have difficulty finding jobs related to their fields of study. Whereas While there are several vocational education male graduates migrate to other provinces, especially institutions in Quang Nam, the quality of education is Hanoi or Ho Chi Minh City, female graduates often still limited. Students and parents feel that the fields of accept lowpaying and unstable jobs so they can stay study are limited, duplicated, and not responsive to the with their families in Quang Nam. changing economic structure of the province and to technological advancements. Educational institutions • Ethnic minorities in mountainous districts are offer limited quality training, which the students characterized by low-education levels and rarely attribute to inadequate facilities and equipment and undergo vocational training. Some of them insufficiently qualified and experienced teachers cannot communicate in Vietnamese. Many do not with poor curricula and syllabuses. In recent years, want to work away from home, especially females vocational education institutions have been shifting raising small children or people with disabilities toward practical training methods. By 2018, in most or poor health. disciplines, the training curriculum allocated 30 percent of time to theoretical lessons and 70 percent to practical • Single mothers face a range of constraints as well as ones. In addition to practical lessons, students are requirements. Single mothers define decent work as sent to agencies, enterprises, and production facilities having flexible working times, work places nearby to gain apprenticeship experience. The institutions their homes, and good income to raise their children. have also focused on teaching behavioral and work Most of the interviewed single mothers do not work attitudes skills. Vocational education institutions have in the jobs that they were trained for, especially those not yet paid much attention to gender equality in their who are better educated. Instead, most accept unstable activities beyond noting gender gaps in enrolments for jobs that provide the time flexibility that they need. particular fields of study. Rural single women run home-based businesses, engage in agricultural jobs, or are domestic workers The Quang Nam job placement center is reinforcing in other households. There are nearly no social (care) gender segregation as some job vacancies still specify services in rural areas for small children, further gender as a recruitment criterion. Employers often restricting employment options for single mothers. specify women for employment in garments and The number of single mothers in Quang Nam has textile, leather and footwear, and electronic assembly increased in recent years. sectors. The employers tend to seek male employees in the automobile manufacturing industry. While many Women in Quang Nam say that the reason for their workers reported knowing about the job placement unemployment is related to marriage and childbirth. center, the staff observed that the number of clients Some women with good jobs report quitting their jobs using the service has been decreasing. after marrying or after giving birth to a child. When their children grow up, they want to join the labor market again but do not have the skills to do so. 38 6. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS The findings of this study have broadened an The LMIS should include the information that women, understanding of the constraints that underlie the men, and their parents use to make decisions. As gender disparities in Vietnam’s labor market and discussed in this report, women and men seek different how policies and interventions such as labor market types of information about careers, education and intermediation services can be improved to reduce training programs, and jobs. For example, in addition these constraints. The findings from focus group to basic information on careers—such as tasks carried discussions were generally robust and were largely out in jobs—the LMIS should identify the geographic consistent with the findings of the existing quantitative location of jobs, standard hours worked, career research. This made it possible to draw out several trajectories, share of workers who are female, and direct policy recommendations. family and maternity policies to address variables that girls and their parents care about. For boys and their 6.1. Strengthen Career Guidance Activities parents, the wage is the most important variable. for Students and Parents In collaboration with job centers and potentially The discussions with various focus groups revealed company representatives, teachers should provide a need for more user-friendly education and career consultation sessions in secondary schools targeted at orientation information and services. Girls and parents both students and their parents. Face-to-face career and reported that educational orientation can make girls and their parents aware of a wider range of options. The focus groups career trajectories were primarily based on the job could only name a limited number of occupations or experiences of family and friends. Respondents from areas of study that they believed would lead to jobs ethnic minority groups had trouble sketching out that would not interfere with family duties. They were education or career aspirations for their children. unaware of a larger set of options, including emerging Parents use the Internet to search for information jobs, that also allow for work-life balance. Consolidating on occupations, wages, and labor market trends that information about careers, education, and jobs and would allow them to provide better advice to their engaging girls and their families through orientation children, but they find that the information is difficult sessions, may broaden their options. Indeed, in 2019, the to locate, incomplete, and inaccessible to those with Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs piloted low literacy levels. bulletins called Labor Market Information for High School Students and their Parents, and employer support Vietnam should continue developing a labor market center staff engaged groups of students and parents in information system (LMIS). LMISs consolidate a discussion about the information; an evaluation of information about careers, educational opportunities, the intervention is under preparation. Such targeted and job vacancies, and present it in a userfriendly support could be particularly important to girls with manner for use by students, parents, job seekers, disabilities and those from ethnic minorities, who tend training institutes, and other stakeholders. They to envision even fewer career options for themselves. are commonly web-based to allow for broad access by users across the country as well as to allow for Employment support centers (ESCs) can expand and frequent (and in some cases automated) updating finetune their services to more effectively guide women of information as new data become available. and men according to their preferences. As noted by Importantly, the information needs to be up-to-date focus group participants who work in ESCs, career and, as highlighted by the focus group participants, guidance services already take into consideration the consolidated and easy to access. This may require career and family aspirations of women and men. including videos on LMIS sites, adding voiceovers for However, gender experts can help modify the ESC key information, and including a real-time counselor protocol for job counseling by defining a broader range to assist the LMIS site user. of careers, options for further schooling, and jobs than what the ESC professional is aware of. Further, ESCs 39 can offer referrals for services that may help women Information that challenges these stereotypes can begin alleviate homecare responsibilities, such as quality to change them. For example, the Asia Foundation’s childcare services or safe transportation options. Such Cambodia office produces short videos of young career guidance is particularly important to vulnerable women and men giving brief descriptions of their groups—young people from socially disadvantaged jobs, educational trajectories, and work-life balance groups or young people from rural areas—who face satisfaction. These personal stories show viewers that even more constraints to work and stronger gender people who look like them have been able to acquire norms. ESC personnel need training to incorporate such jobs. these new tools into their work with women and their parents. The centers need to change their image so they Exposure to individuals who have challenged gender are seen as a source for job searches throughout one’s norms can help others to begin to adjust their own lifetime. Women’s work aspirations will change more biases. Continued gender awareness courses in school than men’s as home duties fluctuate across the lifecycle. and in continuing education can challenge gender- ESCs can support career planning that accounts for based biases that may lead teachers, instructors, these fluctuations and provides information about firms, men, and women to limit education and career retraining or new job entry and/or options for further options by gender. This type of training often focuses schooling to accompany women’s work lives. on gender-based rights. This is important but can be complemented by histories and videos of people Perhaps most importantly, career guidance programs who have successfully challenged the stereotypes. It is that are targeted to young job seekers must also target particularly important to challenge the negative bias parents. While the study’s focus group discussions show toward professionally successful women. that both young men and young women are influenced by parental advice, the latter are more influenced by Perhaps most importantly is to help girls develop their family’s decisions. However, the focus group their own agency. The focus groups reveal that discussions also show that parents have little knowledge young women are largely in agreement with their of the labor market; and despite efforts to obtain it parents in determining their path in life in terms from various sources, parents cannot acquire sufficient of family, education, and work-life. They are more information to effectively guide their children in easily discouraged than boys if they fail the university selecting a field of study, college, university, or career. entrance exam, and they feel particularly threatened by Parents in Vietnam still abide by traditional gender role successful women. This agency begins at a young age models. Public jobs are regarded as more secure and but can be supported through structured afterschool better for females, although they often provide fewer programs or youth clubs where girls gather to engage opportunities for career advancement. Accordingly, in activities while exploring gender stereotypes and parents should be included in career guidance practicing how to challenge and overcome them. programs in a broader capacity. New job profiles must be explained and career paths must be illustrated. 6.3. Change the Workplace to Alleviate Structured and well-organized information sessions Home-related Constraints could help convince parents that their daughters can choose among a variety of job opportunities. The focus group participants regularly highlighted the tension between work and home duties, with an 6.2. Break—or at Least Challenge—Gender emphasis on societal expectations that work is only permissible if it does not disrupt home duties. Three Stereotypes policies could help women achieve a work-life balance Gender stereotypes emerged in many topics with all such that they are more successful in both worlds. focus groups, with implications for educational and career trajectories. Women, men, and their families feel First, in the standard Vietnamese working model, work that a woman’s career should be designed around her is primarily performed on site in offices, factories, or family-related responsibilities, while men’s careers should companies, in full time shifts during set hours. Flexible maximize earnings. Vocational education and training work policies relax this model through alternative (VET) instructors advised women against pursuing arrangements in terms of when, where, and for how traditionally male careers. Employers viewed women as long the work shift will be. Within this framework, shy and noncompetitive and men as poor communicators. employees can better organize their working times These biases are exacerbated among women from ethnic around their family obligations. Especially for minorities and those with disabilities. women, this is a good strategy for balancing work and 40 family life, and it also enables couples to break with Third, improving the quality, number, and services of traditional role models and share opportunities and public childcare centers will allow women to pursue obligations equally. more career options. The focus groups reported concerns about the quality of childcare centers, as Examples of flexible work arrangements do exist in demonstrated by caregivers who are not appropriately Vietnam. Firms participating in a job fair in Hanoi trained (UNICEF 2016) and by centers that had offered home office opportunities and flexible working questionable overall health and safety standards. They times for their staff. In tailoring businesses, for example, also noted that public childcare centers had restricted each worker is given a fixed number of pieces that have hours that were not commensurate with a standard to be finished within a week, while regular quality work shift (including transportation) or only operated controls ensure customer satisfaction. The study’s for half days, as experienced by some study participants key informant interviews with HR managers from living in rural areas. Even after providing more insurance companies emphasize that female workers childcare services that fit women’s work schedules and are more attracted than men to flexible working times, children’s developmental needs, mothers need to be and are thus available to interact with customers in the convinced that their children will not suffer from social evenings and weekends. or emotional negligence when attending kindergarten. Employing skilled and well-paid educators who follow Labor law regulations should be strengthened to the path of early childhood education can best ensure encourage and normalize flexible work policies. the quality of childcare. While the law recognizes that these forms of work are permissible, it largely leaves the details to the negotiation between the firm and the worker. This power imbalance 6.4. Support Small Business Start-ups and has the potential to lead to particularly poor working Growth arrangements for the worker. To encourage firms The issue of owning a small firm was a topic of and workers to more carefully consider flexible work particular discussion among single mothers. They felt arrangements, it may be important to prepare decrees that this was the most feasible employment option for governing the labor code that provides guidelines on the them, given perceived employer discrimination and nature of flexible work arrangements, responsibilities of the need for time-related flexibility to care for their each party, and remuneration guidelines. children. Indeed, women are overrepresented in this kind of work, which comprises 20 percent of all jobs in Second, Vietnam could consider implementing parental Vietnam (Cunningham and Pimhidzai 2018). leave into legislation. Both women and men in the focus groups observed that employers permit little, if Several well-established interventions focused on any, paternity leave. While the law for maternity leave is small business ownership by women may be feasible quite detailed—although several respondents noted that in the Vietnamese context. They might include the practice is less generous—employers permit little or microfinancing or business training. For example, no leave time for new fathers to care for a new mother India’s Grameen Bank is a well-established microloan or infant. Across the world, a range of countries have and small business development program targeted legislated parental leave, permitting families determine toward women; it relies on social capital, which how to divide the leave time between the parents.23 For tends to be stronger among women than men, to example, both partners could take parental leave at the support groups of women to leverage capital and lead same time or they can do so sequentially so that first the successful small firms. However, more recent small- mother and then the father stays at home with the baby scale interventions have found that business grants (Korabik, Lero, and Whitehead 2007). This enables tend to lead to micro-business longevity and higher both the mother and the father to spend time with the profits compared with business loans. The results tend family and to continue in their jobs. Since maternity to be stronger when accompanied by mentoring and leave is paid through the social security fund, parental coaching on business practices. leave could be also be monitored by it. 23 Parental leave in Vietnam would help increase awareness of the importance of men in the early lives of their children and reinforce that they do not need to choose between their family and their job. Paternity leave could reduce gender inequality not only within the present genera- tion of parents but also for the following generation because it would provide children with a different vision of the roles played by men and women. 41 6.5. Target Support to Disabled Women and employers to more fully abide by these laws, can better Single Mothers align practice with the law. Improved information about legal rights and processes for filing grievances, Women with disabilities who live in rural areas are at as well as shorter processes for investigating and a particular disadvantage in terms of accessing decent resolving violations, can help address shortcomings. jobs. To better facilitate access to regular vocational Social dialogue could also help employers appreciate training centers, buildings, and transportation to and and thus more closely follow gender-sensitive practices. from the centers have to be of a standard that allows For example, awareness campaigns, discussions, and for disabled people to easily access them. Moreover, the training can be developed for employers and human study suggests that women with disabilities have much resource managers on modern strategies of human better opportunities to integrate themselves into the resource development and gender-sensitive work regular job market in urban rather than in rural areas. planning. Tripartite discussions among government, In rural areas, women with disabilities face norms labor unions, and employers’ associations could develop and stereotypes that challenge such opportunities. innovative strategies toward a workplace that works for To address these norms, labor market programs and both genders. vocational training centers can further promote and publicize to regular employers in a way that targets a In a nutshell, skills and motivation must be analyzed diverse labor force. They can also engage more actively in the context of social norms. Social perceptions of in job placement services for women with disabilities in men and women cause inequality, not the fact that rural areas. individuals are male or female. Individuals within a society are highly influenced by the laws and signals Single mothers represent a group of women with varied set by the state. Therefore, policy makers bear a very backgrounds, but they share the perceived experience important responsibility for defining a gender-equal of stigmatization, exclusion and inequalities in the structure of work in terms of both labor market and labor market. Companies and financial institutions can family policies. acknowledge this experience in anti-discrimination policies and by establishing policies for flexible working hours. Particular urban single mothers lack access to quality childcare services for young children, including institutions which offer care services outside regular working hours. The lack of such services forces well- educated single mothers to employment in jobs they are overqualified for. The state and private sector can alone or jointly invest in childcare services that meet this demand. Such services would not only greatly benefit single mothers, but parents of young children in general. 6.6. Enforce the Law While Vietnam has some solid labor legislation to protect women’s rights and the right of those with disabilities, the focus groups report that the laws are not always followed. Women and HR officers noted that maternity benefits are not always fully permitted, with firms requiring women to cut short their time off or risk being fired. People with disabilities perceive that employers who are denying them employment are violating the laws that are designed to protect them from such discrimination. Greater dissemination of information about legal rights and redress mechanisms, as well as support to 42 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, Robert. 2008. Empowerment, Participation and Cunningham, Wendy, and Farima Alidadi. 2018. Social Work. Macmillan Education UK. Vietnam´s Future Jobs: Role of the Private Sector. Working Paper 129381. World Bank. Albrecht, Gary L., Katherine D. Seelman, and Michael Washington DC. Bury (eds). 2000. Handbook of Disability Studies. 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The Economist. 2015. “The Benefits of Paternity Leave.” The Economist, May 14.. https://www.economist. com/the-economist-explains/2015/05/14/ the-benefits-of-paternity-leave. 45 ANNEX 1. DETAILS OF THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS AND KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEWS HO CHI MINH CITY Focus Group Discussions Sinh viên nữ Đại học Tôn Đức Thắng Female university students Sinh viên nam Đại học Tôn Đức Thắng Male university students Nữ thất nghiệp có trình độ Skilled unemployed women Nam thất nghiệp, thu nhập từ vợ Unemployed men whose wives earn the family’s income Mẹ đơn thân Single mothers Nữ khuyết tật Disabled women Giám đốc điều hành và giám đốc quản trị nguồn nhân lực Chief Executive Officer or Human Resources Offices Sinh viên/học viên nữ tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp công lập: Cao Female students from public vocational colleges đẳng nghề TP. Hồ Chí Minh Sinh viên/học viên nam tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp công lập: Cao Male students from public vocational colleges đẳng nghề TP. Hồ Chí Minh Sinh viên nữ tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp ngoài công lập Female Students from private vocational institutions Sinh viên nam tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp ngoài công lập Male Students from private vocational institutions Key Informant Interviews Quản lý nữ Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp công lập: Cao đẳng nghề TP. Female manager of a public vocational college Hồ Chí Minh Quản lý nam Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp ngoài công lập Male manager of a private vocational institution Quản lý nam Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm TP. Hồ Chí Minh Male manager of a Public Employment Center Quản lý Doanh nghiệp hoạt động dịch vụ việc làm Male or female manager of a private job service center Khách hàng Nữ 1 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm TP. Hồ Chí Minh Female client of a public job service center hách hàng Nữ 2 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm TP. Hồ Chí Minh Female client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nam của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm TP. Hồ Chí Minh Male client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nữ 1 DN DVVL Female client of a private job service center Khách hàng Nữ 2 DN DVVL Female client of a private job service center DIEN BIEN Focus Group Discussions Nữ thất nghiệp có trình độ Skilled unemployed women Mẹ đơn thân Single mothers Phụ nữ quay trở về nông thôn Women returning to rural areas Nữ dân tộc Thái Thai ethnic minority women Nam dân tộc Thái Thai ethnic minority men Nữ dân tộc H’Mong H’Mong ethnic minority women Nam dân tộc H’Mong H’Mong ethnic minority men Sinh viên nữ tại trường dạy nghề Female students from public vocational colleges Sinh viên nam tại trường dạy nghề Male students from public vocational colleges Phụ huynh có con từ 16–22 tuổi (nông thôn) Parents with children between 16 and 22 years old Key Informant Interviews Quản lý nam trường nghề (công lập) Male manager of a Public Vocational College Quản lý Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Male or female manager of a public job service center Khách hàng Nữ 1 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Female client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nữ 2 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Female client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nam của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Male client of a public job service center PVS Phó phòng việc làm Sở LĐTBXH Điện Biên Manager of the Department of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs (DoLISA) Mẹ đơn thân có con từ 16–22 tuổi Single mother with children aged 16 to 22 years old 46 QUANG NAM Focus Group Discussions Sinh viên nữ tại trường Đại học Quảng Nam Female university students Sinh viên nam tại trường Đại học Quảng Nam Male university students Nữ thất nghiệp có trình độ (nông thôn) Skilled unemployed women (rural) Nam thất nghiệp, thu nhập từ vợ (thành thị) Unemployed men whose wives earn the family’s income (urban) Mẹ đơn thân (thành thị) Single mothers (urban) Nữ khuyết tật (nông thôn) Disabled women (rural) Giám đốc điều hành và giám đốc quản trị nguồn nhân lực Chief executive officer and Human Resource Officer Phụ nữ quay trở về nông thôn Women returning to rural areas Sinh viên nam tại trường CAO đẳng CÔNG NGHỆ Male students from public vocational colleges Sinh viên/học viên nữ tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp: Cao đẳng Female students from public vocational college[from what Phương Đông institutions?] Sinh viên/học viên nam tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp: Cao Male students from private vocational institutions đẳng Phương Đông Cha mẹ có con từ 16–22 tuổi (nông thôn) Parents with children aged 16 to 22 years old (rural) Key Informant Interviews Quản lý trường Cao đẳng Công nghệ Quảng Nam Manager of a public vocational college Quản lý Cao đẳng Phương Đông Manager of a private vocational institution Quản lý nam 1 Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Male manager of a public job service center Cán bộ nữ Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Female staff member of a public job service center Khách hàng Nam của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Male client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nữ 1 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Female client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nữ 2 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Female client of a public job service center TP Lao động việc làm Sở LĐTBXH Quảng Nam Manager of DoLISA HANOI Focus Group Discussions Sinh viên nữ tại trường Đại học Unmarried female university students Nữ học viên cao học có gia đình Married female university students Sinh viên nam tại trường Đại học Married male university students Nữ thất nghiệp có trình độ (nông thôn) Skilled unemployed women (rural) Nam thất nghiệp, thu nhập từ vợ (thành thị) Unemployed men whose wives earn the family’s income (urban) Mẹ đơn thân (nông thôn) Single mothers (rural) Nữ khuyết tật Disabled women Giám đốc điều hành và giám đốc quản trị nguồn nhân lực Chief Executive Officer or Human Resource Manager Phụ nữ quay trở về nông thôn Women returning to rural areas Sinh viên/học viên nữ tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp công lập: Cao Female students from public vocational colleges đẳng nghề công nghiệp Nội Sinh viên/học viên nam tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp công lập: Cao Male students from public vocational colleges đẳng nghề công nghiệp Hà Nội Sinh viên nữ tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp ngoài công lập: Cao đẳng Female students from private vocational colleges nghề Công thương VN Sinh viên nam tại Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp ngoài công lập: Cao Male students from private vocational colleges đẳng nghề Công thương VN Phụ huynh có con từ 16–22 tuổi (thành thị) Parents with children aged 16 to 22 years old (urban) Key Informant Interviews Quản lý Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp công lập Manager of a public vocational college Quản lý nam Cơ sở giáo dục nghề nghiệp ngoài công lập Manager of a private vocational college Quản lý nam Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Hà Nội Male manager of an ESC Quản lý Nam Công ty cung ứng nhân lực VHR Male manager of a private job service center Khách hàng Nam của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Hà Nội Male client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nữ 1 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Hà Nội Female client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nữ 2 của Trung tâm dịch vụ việc làm Hà Nội Female client of a public job service center Khách hàng Nam Công ty cung ứng nhân lực VHR Male client of a private job service center Khách hàng Nữ 1 Công ty cung ứng nhân lực VHR Female client of a private job service center Khách hàng Nữ 2 Công ty cung ứng nhân lực VHR Female client of a private job service center 47 HONG DUC PUBLISHING HOUSE Vietnam Lawyers Association Hong Duc Publishing House • Address: 65 Trang Thi Street, Hoan Kiem District, Hanoi • Email: nhaxuatbanhongduc@yahoo.com • Tel: (84 24) 3 9260024 – Fax: (84 24) 3 9260031 Publishing Manager: Bui Viet Bac, Director Editor: Nguyen Thi Phuong Mai Layout: Hoanghaivuong Cover photo: World Bank Print 300 copies in English, size 21cm x 28cm at Xuan An Printing Industrial Development and Investment Company, 199 Quan Tho 1 alley, O Cho Dua, Dong Da, Hanoi, Vietnam Publishing permit: 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