ARMENIA Country Gender Assessment © 2024 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Rights and Permissions Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: World Bank. 2024. Armenia Country Gender Assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank. Translations—If you create a translation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This translation was not created by The World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation. The World Bank shall not be liable for any content or error in this translation. Adaptations—If you create an adaptation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank. Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility of the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank. Third-party content—The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work. The World Bank, therefore, does not warrant that the use of any third-party- owned individual component or part contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you. If you wish to reuse a component of the work, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is needed for that reuse and to obtain permission from the copyright owner. Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images. All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Editor: Robert Zimmermann Cover design: Cybil Nyaradzo Maradza Armenia has made important advances in promoting gender equality in recent years. Yet the country stands to benefit from the narrowing of persistent gaps in human endowment, economic opportunity, and voice and agency. This assessment offers new insights on what remains to be accomplished to bolster gender equality, maximize opportunities, and raise the returns to human capital among women and men in the country. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was prepared by a World Bank team led by Natsuko Kiso Nozaki (Economist, EECPV) and including Carmen de Paz Nieves (Consultant), Marika Verulashvili (Consultant), Marlen Yamilet Cardona Botero (Consultant), and Armine Grigoryan (Consultant). The report was prepared under the guidance of Carolin Geginat (Country Manager, ECCAR) and Ambar Narayan (Practice Manager, EECPV). Support was also provided by Miguel Eduardo Sanchez Martin (EFI Program Leader for the South Caucasus, ECCDR), Obert Pimhidzai (Lead Economist, EECPV), and Saida Ismailakhunova (Senior Economist, EECPV). The team is grateful to peer reviewers Nistha Sinha (Senior Economist, EAEPV), Anna Fruttero (Senior Economist, EECPV), Ferdous Jahan (Senior Social Development Specialist, SCASO), and Lucía Solbes Castro (Senior Social Protection Specialist, HECSP). The team extends its gratitude to all focal points and colleagues at the World Bank, the Armenia Country Management Unit, and others for their invaluable inputs, comments, and contributions, which were instrumental in creating this report. Contributors include David Jijelava (SCASO), Sonya Msryan (SCASO), Renata Freitas Lemos (HECED), Ahmet Levent Yener (HECDR), Shizuka Kunimoto (HECED), Sona Koshetsian (HECED), Christine Lao Pena (HECHN), Artemis Ter Sargsyan (HECHN), Mirey Ovadiya (HECSP), Besa Rizvanolli (EECPV), Bujana Perolli (EECH1), Metin Nebiler (EECPV), Vladimir Kolchin (EECPV), and colleagues at the International Finance Corporation. The team is grateful to the government of Armenia, as well as representatives of the private sector, civil society, development partners, and academia, for their active engagement and valuable feedback during the consultations held in December 2023 and April 2024. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................................................................... x List of Boxes .......................................................................................................................................................................................... xi Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................................................................................................................. xii Glossary .................................................................................................................................................................................................... xiii Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................ xv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 2. HUMAN CAPITAL ACCUMULATION ................................................................................................ 11 2.1. Health ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 11 2.2. Education ................................................................................................................................................................................ 20 CHAPTER 3. ACCESS TO ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY ..................................................................................... 27 3.1. Labor force participation ........................................................................................................................................... 27 3.2. The type and sector of employment ............................................................................................................... 32 3.3. Gender wage gaps .......................................................................................................................................................... 42 3.4 Entrepreneurship and access to assets ....................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER 4. USE OF CAPITAL (VOICE AND AGENCY) .................................................................................... 49 4.1. Decision-making .............................................................................................................................................................. 49 4.2. Gender-based violence ............................................................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER 5: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................. 59 5.1. Accumulation of Human Capital ......................................................................................................................... 60 5.2. Access to Economic Opportunity ....................................................................................................................... 63 5.3. Use of Capital (Voice and Agency) ..................................................................................................................... 65 References ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 67 vi ANNEXES ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 82 Annex A. Gender gaps in 2016 and 2024 Country Gender Assessments ..................................... 82 Annex B. Alignment of Armenia Country Gender Assessment with Armenia Gender Strategy 2024-2028 and the World Bank Gender Strategy 2024-2030 .............. 83 Annex C. The consultation process for the report .......................................................................................... 86 Annex D. Selection of peer countries .......................................................................................................................... 87 Annex E. The effect of mandatory military service on pursuit of tertiary education .......... 88 Annex F. Students of state educational institutions conducting first degree educational programs of higher education, by sex and specialization (2010) ............................... 91 Annex G. Mean hourly wage by occupation and sex ..................................................................................... 92 Annex H. Ordinary least squares results, analysis of sex on hourly wages, workers ages 15–74 ........................................................................................................................................... 93 Annex I. Probit estimation on labor force participation among women ages 15–74 ....... 96 Annex J. Ñopo decomposition to decompose gender wage gaps .................................................... 98 Annex K. Probit analysis results of factors associated with gender role perceptions .... 100 Annex L. Knowledge gaps .................................................................................................................................................... 111 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1. Gender inequality index vs. GDP per capita, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 2022 ................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Figure 1.2. Trends in the gender inequality index ................................................................................................ 2 Figure 1.3. Global gender gap index ................................................................................................................................. 2 Figure 1.4. Poverty rates, by sex and age-group .................................................................................................. 3 Figure 1.5. Poverty rate, by head and household type, % of individuals .......................................... 4 Figure 1.6. Poverty rate, by household composition, % of households ............................................ 4 Figure 1.7. Understanding the key gender challenges in Armenia ........................................................ 5 Figure 2.1. Two population pyramids in Armenia ................................................................................................ 12 Figure 2.2. Birthrate and dependency ratio, 2021 ................................................................................................ 12 Figure 2.3. Total dependency ratio, projections ..................................................................................................... 12 Figure 2.4. Sex ratio at birth, selected countries .................................................................................................. 14 Figure 2.5. Trends in the sex ratio at birth, Armenia ........................................................................................... 14 Figure 2.6. Preferred sex of the first child, % of respondents .................................................................... 15 Figure 2.7. Reasons for the sex preference of first child, % of respondents ................................ 15 Figure 2.8. Female-to-male life expectancy ratio .............................................................................................. 16 Figure 2.9. Trends in adult mortality, by sex .............................................................................................................. 16 vii Figure 2.10. COVID-19 deaths, by sex, % ........................................................................................................................ 17 Figure 2.11. Expected and observed deaths, 2020 ............................................................................................. 17 Figure 2.12. Maternal mortality ratio, per 100,000 live births, 2020 .................................................... 19 Figure 2.13. Antenatal care coverage, at least four visits, 2022, %* .................................................... 19 Figure 2.14. Gross enrollment rates, by sex, 2022, % ....................................................................................... 22 Figure 2.15. Enrollment in tertiary education, by sex, % ................................................................................ 22 Figure 2.16. Reasons the 16–20 age-group did not continue in education, by sex and income quintile, 2022, % .............................................................................................................................. 23 Figure 2.17. Higher education, by sex and field, 2022, % ................................................................................. 24 Figure 2.18. TIMSS achievement, by sex, 2019 ........................................................................................................ 24 Figure 2.19. NEET distribution, by sex, 2022, % ...................................................................................................... 25 Figure 2.20. NEETs, ages 20–29, by sex and marital status, 2022, % .................................................. 25 Figure 2.21. NEETs, by sex and education, 2022, % ............................................................................................. 26 Figure 2.22. Reasons for NEET status, by sex, 2022, % ................................................................................... 26 Figure 3.1. Labor force participation rate, by sex, % ....................................................................................... 28 Figure 3.2. Man- woman gap in labor force participation, 2022 ........................................................... 28 Figure 3.3. Labor force participation rate, by sex and age, 2022, % .................................................. 28 Figure 3.4. Reasons for not working during the last month, by sex, ages 15–74, 2022, % .. 28 Figure 3.5. The marginal effect of having a child on labor force participation ......................... 29 Figure 3.6. The marginal effect of having a child on female labor force participation, by number of children ........................................................................................................................................... 29 Figure 3.7. Reasons not to work in previous week, by sex, % ................................................................. 30 Figure 3.8. Time allocation, by sex, hours per week ......................................................................................... 30 Figure 3.9. If jobs are scarce, men should take the jobs before women , % of respondents .. 31 Figure 3.10. Who should normally be the breadwinner, % of respondents .................................... 31 Figure 3.11. The man should earn the money, and the woman should take care of the children, 2023, % ...................................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 3.12. A woman should do most of the household chores even if the husband is not working, 2023, %....................................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 3.13. Unemployment, by sex, % .......................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 3.14. Women to men unemployment ratio ............................................................................................... 32 Figure 3.15. Unemployment rate, by age and sex, % ........................................................................................ 32 Figure 3.16. Youth unemployment rate, 2018–22, % .......................................................................................... 32 Figure 3.17. Distribution of occupations, by sex, % .............................................................................................. 33 Figure 3.18. Worker shares, by sex and educational attainment, % ...................................................... 33 Figure 3.19. Education among the employed, % .................................................................................................... 34 viii Figure 3.20. Marginal effect of education on labor force participation, women ........................ 34 Figure 3.21. Part-time employed, by sex, % .............................................................................................................. 34 Figure 3.22. Part-time employment, 2022, % of total employment ..................................................... 34 Figure 3.23. Reasons for part-time employment, by sex, % ......................................................................... 35 Figure 3.24. Employment, by activity, sex, and mean hourly wage ....................................................... 35 Figure 3.25. Labor market impacts of COVID-19 .................................................................................................... 37 Figure 3.26. Main reasons for not using childcare services, by sex of the respondent, 2022, % ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Figure 3.27. How suitable are the following occupations for men or women by country and sex, 2023, % ................................................................................................................................................. 41 Figure 3.28. Mean hourly wage and gender wage gap, by year ................................................................ 42 Figure 3.29. Hourly wage by part- and full-time jobs ........................................................................................ 42 Figure 3.30. Gender wage gap, by age, % ...................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 3.31. Mean hourly wage, mothers and others, by age .................................................................... 44 Figure 3.32. Share of entrepreneurs among workers 15-74, by sex and year, % ............................ 45 Figure 3.33. Entrepreneur business, by number of employees, % .......................................................... 45 Figure 3.34. Impacts of COVID-19 on female- and male-led companies, %..................................... 46 Figure 3.35. Trends in financial account ownership, by sex, % ................................................................... 46 Figure 3.36. Obstacles to entrepreneurship, by sex, 2021, % ...................................................................... 47 Figure 3.37. Reasons why most businesses are run by men, 2021, % ................................................ 48 Figure 4.1. Share of women in parliament, Armenia and comparators, % ..................................... 49 Figure 4.2. Share of women as committee chairs and deputy chairs, 2023, % .......................... 50 Figure 4.3. Share of women as heads of communities, 2023, % .............................................................. 50 Figure 4.4. Share of women among ministers, 2023, % ................................................................................. 50 Figure 4.5. Share of women among deputy ministers, 2023, % .............................................................. 50 Figure 4.6. Share of women among judges, Armenia and comparator countries, 2021–22, % ................................................................................................................................................................ 51 Figure 4.7. Who manages your family budget? 2021, % ................................................................................. 52 Figure 4.8. Share of women and men that report believing that men make better political leaders than women do (agree/strongly agree) by country and sex, 2023, % .. 53 Figure 4.9. Is it an important reason why more women are not politically engaged in the country? (Share of positive responses, by gender), 2021, % ............................................ 53 Figure 4.10. In your opinion, how prevalent is domestic violence as a problem in Armenia? 2021, % of all respondents ........................................................................................................................... 54 Figure 4.11. It is justified for a man to beat his wife, by country and sex, 2023, % ........................... 56 Figure 4.12. Public perceptions on using violence, by country, 2023, % ................................................ 56 ix Figure 4.13. In your opinion, what are the main reasons for domestic violence in our society, in general? 2021, %.......................................................................................................................... 57 Figure F.1. Students of state educational institutions conducting first degree educational programs of higher education, by sex and specialization, 2010, % .......................... 91 Figure G.1. Mean hourly wage by occupation and sex – among full-time workers ................ 92 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. Policy recommendations ............................................................................................................................... 8 Table 3.1. WBL 2024 Index, Armenia ............................................................................................................................. 37 Table 3.2. Hourly wage gap, workers ages 15–74 ............................................................................................... 43 Table 3.3. Ownership of assets by women, 2021, % ........................................................................................ 47 Table 4.1. Prevalence of GBV in Armenia in 2021, % ........................................................................................ 54 Table 4.2. Share of women who expect help as victims of gender-based violence, 2021, % ................................................................................................................................................................... 55 Table E.1. Results from probit regression for men ages 19–53 .............................................................. 89 Table E.2. Results from probit regression for women ages 19–53 ...................................................... 90 Table G.1. Mean hourly wage by occupation, 2022 ........................................................................................... 92 Table H.1. Ordinary least squares results, analysis of sex on hourly wages, workers ages 15–74 ........................................................................................................................................... 93 Table I.1. Probit estimation on labor force participation among women ages 15–74 ....... 96 Table J.1. Unexplained gender wage gap following the Ñopo decomposition ......................... 99 Table K.1. Probit analysis results of factors associated with gender role perceptions — Marginal effects .................................................................................................................................................... 100 Table L.1. Knowledge gaps .................................................................................................................................................... 106 x LIST OF BOXES Box 1.1. The gender landscape in social norms in Armenia ......................................................................... 6 Box 2.1. The efforts of the government to end sex-selective abortion ............................................. 14 Box 2.2. Health and gender in conflict settings ....................................................................................................... 18 Box 2.3. Education and gender in conflict settings ............................................................................................... 21 Box 3.1. The impact of conflict on employment: international experience .................................... 30 Box 3.2. The family policy system in Armenia .......................................................................................................... 38 Box 4.1. Global Reality of Gender-based Violence Underreporting ....................................................... 55 Box 5.1. Principles for successful interventions to changing social norms ................................... 59 xi ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ALB Albania AMD Armenian Dram ARM Armenia ArmStat Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia BIH Bosnia and Herzegovina CGA Country Gender Assessment COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease 2019 CSO Civil Society Organization EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ECA Europe and Central Asia EU European Union EST Estonia GBV Gender-Based Violence GDP Gross Domestic Product GEO Georgia GNWP Global Network of Women Peacebuilders HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labor Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IRI International Republican Institute XKX Kosovo LFS Labor Force Survey LiTS Life in Transition Survey MDA Moldova MoLSA Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs NEET Not in Education, Employment, or Training NGO Non-Governmental Organization OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development SME Small and Medium-size Enterprises STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics UN United Nations UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund WBL Women, Business, and the Law WHO World Health Organization xii GLOSSARY Dependency ratio Measure of the number of dependents ages 0–14 or 65 or more relative to the total population ages 15–64 (the working-age population). Enrollment in The gross enrollment ratio is the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, tertiary education to the population of the age-group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Tertiary education, whether or not to an advanced research qualification, normally requires the successful completion of education at the secondary level as a minimum condition of admission. Expected years Number of years a child of school entrance age is expected to spend at school of schooling or university, including years spent in repetition. It is the sum of the age- specific enrollment ratios for primary, secondary, postsecondary nontertiary, and tertiary education. Infant mortality The number of female/male infants dying before reaching age 1 per 1,000 female/male live births in a given year. Learning poverty rates Share of female/male children at the end of primary-school age who test below the minimum reading proficiency, adjusted by the share of out-of- school children. Life expectancy The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to remain the same throughout its life. Maternal The number of women who die from pregnancy-related causes while mortality ratio pregnant or within 42 days of pregnancy termination per 100,000 live births. Mortality rate The number of deaths per 100 adults. It represents the probability of dying between the ages of 15 and 60, that is, the probability of a 15-year-old female/ male dying before reaching age 60 if subject to age-specific mortality rates of the specified year between those ages. Noncommunicable Share of total female/male deaths caused by noncommunicable diseases. disease as cause of death xiii Sex ratio at birth Male births per female births. The data are five-year averages. Share of Arts and % of female tertiary graduates. Humanities graduates Share of NEETs The ratio of young people who are not in education, employment, or training (NEET) to the population of the corresponding age-group: youth (ages 15–24), persons ages 15–29, or both age-groups (% of female or male youth population). Share of STEM % of female/male tertiary graduates in science, technology, engineering, and graduates mathematics (STEM). xiv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Gender equality is critical to the economic emerge from the analysis presented here, for prospects of Armenia. There is still substantial instance, in the vulnerability of women and men untapped potential for women to participate to conflict and the COVID-19 pandemic. in and contribute to economic growth. This is particularly important given the country’s current GAPS IN OUTCOMES demographic profile, characterized by a shrinking population and a rising dependency ratio. Gender Accumulation of capital (endowments) parity also serves as a cornerstone for building resilience against external shocks, such as the Armenian women outperform men in some COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, or the aspects of human capital accumulation. Women military conflict with Azerbaijan. live 10 years longer than men on average, one of the largest gaps across comparator countries, This Country Gender Assessment (CGA) aims to partly as a result of the recent decline in life identify the main gender gaps in Armenia and expectancy among men. The higher mortality their most relevant drivers, with the objective of rates among men may be explained to some determining effective policies to reduce these gaps. extent by the prevalence of risky behaviors, such as smoking, and the mortality caused by traffic Armenia has achieved major progress in accidents. COVID-19 and the military conflict are developing an adequate framework for the likely to have driven the increases in mortality promotion of gender equality in recent years. This observed in 2020. is demonstrated, for instance, by the advance in the country’s gender inequality index, from 0.35 Still, traditional gender gaps persist. While the in 2010 to 0.22 in 2021, and in the global gender sex ratio at birth has declined, it remains high gap index, where Armenia improved from the compared with international averages and the 102nd to the 61st place between 2016 and 2023.¹ natural level of 1.06. The ratio even increased in 2022, from 1.08 boys to every girl in 2021 to 1.12 in Since the last CGA (World Bank 2016a), positive 2022, likely in connection with the fresh flare up progress has occurred in closing the gaps in the conflict. Skewed sex ratios arise because of in some priority areas identified at the time, the practice of sex-selective abortion associated including the sex ratio at birth and the share of with the persistent preference for sons, although women in the National Assembly. Yet, crucial this trend is improving (UNFPA 2022a). The gender gaps persist, mostly to the advantage of maternal mortality ratio remained high compared men, as demonstrated by the high concentration with the ratio in peer countries and slightly in women’s traditional fields of study, their lower increased over the past decade, largely due to labor force participation, the persistent gender the deterioration in the reproductive and general wage gap, and the more limited agency of women physical health of the population, accentuated by relative to men. In addition, new challenges quality gaps in health service provision. However, ¹ The gender inequality index reflects gender-based disadvantage in three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor market. It ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 is complete gender parity and 1 is total gender inequality. xv recent efforts have led to declines in the maternal Access to opportunity (labor market and mortality ratio. entrepreneurship) In education, a reverse gender gap—to the Armenian women have made advances in the disadvantage of men—is observed in the labor market, as demonstrated by their significant transition from secondary to higher education. presence in skilled positions and comparable While the share of women enrolled in bachelor’s levels of unemployment with men. However, degree programs has increased from 49.2 challenges persist in translating women’s percent in 2013 to 65.1 percent in 2022, the educational gains into higher economic returns share of men has been steady at around 44.0 through greater access to opportunities. This is percent.² Mandatory military service appears especially evident in the widening and relatively to be one of the factors contributing to this gap. large gap in labor force participation. In 2022, the In addition to and despite the advances among female labor force participation rate was 48.2 women in science, technology, engineering, percent, significantly lower than the 71.2 percent and mathematics (STEM) fields, the share of among men. This 23-percentage point gap is women in education, social work, health, the higher than the regional average of 15 percentage arts and the humanities is much higher than points. This trend persisted throughout the period that of men, while most students in engineering, of analysis, from 2018 to 2022. A concerning industry and technology, information and observation is that more than 50 percent of communication technology, and architecture women ages 25–29 in Armenia were neither and construction are still men — at a share working nor studying, a strikingly high rate by ranging from 62 percent to 91 percent (ArmStat regional standards.⁴ This indicates a significant 2022). This is likely related to social beliefs on misallocation of human capital potential. women’s abilities and woman-appropriate jobs, rather than their actual skills. Gaps in labor force participation in Armenia are influenced by family formation and the traditional Although women’s accumulation of human role of women as primary caregivers. These capital and especially education is high in gaps widen significantly during women’s peak Armenia, their transition from school to work reproductive and caregiving years. The main appears to be challenging. Indeed, more than one reported reason for not being in the labor force woman in three among ages 15–29 was neither is family obligations (22 percent among women in education nor employment in Armenia in 2022, relative to 0 percent among men) (ArmStat which was more than twice the share among men 2023c). This is supported by the analysis and above the average for women in the Eastern presented in this report, which confirms that Europe and Central Asia region in 2019 (15.2 the presence of dependents in the household percent).³ This phenomenon is largely related to (children and family members with a disability) family formation and care responsibilities. affects female labor force participation. ² See ArmStat (2023c); 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. ³ Calculations using the 2022 round of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212; WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. ⁴ Calculations using the 2022 round of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. xvi Women are also more likely to be in part-time wage gap between women with and without jobs and in sectors associated with lower pay. children is large during these years, suggesting In Armenia, the share of part-time workers, there is a motherhood penalty in Armenia. which is relatively high compared with the regional average, remained consistently higher Armenian women are less active in among women throughout 2018–22, nearly entrepreneurial activities relative to men. doubling the share among men. While part-time In 2022, the share of women entrepreneurs employment is a choice for some women, who reached 27.1 percent of the labor force, are thereby enabled to combine employment compared with 37.8 percent among men, while with household duties, nearly 21 percent of the size of businesses is smaller among women these women are working part time at the entrepreneurs.⁶ One of the constraints on women request of their employers, compared with only wishing to become entrepreneurs and to grow 9 percent among men. Women also continue their businesses is their limited access to finance. to be overrepresented in sectors and activities Financial account ownership is lower among that have been traditionally deemed female and women (51 percent among women and 59 percent that tend to be associated with lower hourly among men in 2021).⁷ While the requirements wages relative to men. For example, 19 percent for collateral are challenging in Armenia, a large of employed women work in education, whereas share of women do not own physical assets, such only 4 percent of men do so. The hourly wage as land and dwellings. Household and caregiving in education is nearly half of the hourly wage in tasks as represented by traditional social norms construction, a sector dominated by men.⁵ The make it more difficult for women to become gap in hourly wages across sectors is, at least entrepreneurs (IFC 2021). partially, explained by the mismatch between the supply side and the demand side of the labor The use of capital (voice and agency) market. Policies therefore need to address this issue from both angles. Armenian women are particularly disadvantaged in voice and agency. Despite a notable increase The returns to human capital differ between in women’s political representation at both women and men. Armenian women earn, national and local levels driven by a gender on average, around 25 percent–30 percent quota introduced in 2016 mandating a 30 less than men after controlling for observed percent representation among women, there characteristics, such as education, employment is still scope for improvement. While the share sectors, and occupations. This is consistent of women in the National Assembly rose from with the results of the decomposition analysis 10.7 percent to 35.5 percent in 2016–22, only indicating that unobservable factors appear one woman across the 12 standing committees to account for a large share of the hourly wage of the National Assembly holds the position of gap. The gender wage gap widens among the committee chair, while four women are deputy 25–34 age-group, which corresponds to the age chairs.⁸ While the share of women in Councils of at which women typically have a first child. The Elders rose from 9.4 percent to 29.0 percent in ⁵ Calculations using the 2022 round of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. ⁶ Calculations using the 2022 round of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. ⁷ WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/ search/dataset/0037712. ⁸ ArmStat (2023c); WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog. worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. xvii 2019–22, only four local community heads in Armenian women are exposed to a substantial 71 are women (ArmStat 2023c). The share of risk of gender-based violence (GBV), one of the women in appointed political positions, where most extreme manifestations of poor agency. quotas do not apply, is also relatively lower. A survey by ArmStat finds that, in 2021, 17.2 Women represent 17 percent and 18 percent of percent of Armenian women were subjected ministers and deputy ministers, respectively to domestic violence (ArmStat 2021). Another (ArmStat 2023c). Despite improvement due to survey reported that 18 percent and 46 quotas applied in the past years, women are percent of Armenians considered GBV as highly also underrepresented in the judiciary. prevalent or somewhat prevalent, respectively (IRI 2021). The majority of the victims of Armenian women also appear to have slightly domestic violence have not left their abusers less decision-making power compared to men because they regard violence as not severe or at home. 37 percent of women compared to normal (52 percent), while most of those who 40 percent of men say they are responsible have left their abusers, have returned home for managing the household budget (IRI 2021), to protect family honor (54 percent) (ArmStat while women having fled the conflict may 2021). Economic status seems to affect the be experiencing mobility restrictions, under- incidence of GBV: a woman who does not prioritization during resource allocation, and earn money is 3.5 percentage points more exclusion from social gatherings (UNFPA 2024). likely to become a victim of domestic violence Moreover, the reason most frequently cited for (ArmStat 2021). More data are needed for a preventing women from engaging in politics is comprehensive assessment of the prevalence women’s childcare responsibilities (IRI 2021). of and trends in this phenomenon. THE DRIVERS OR AMPLIFYING FACTORS External shocks affected by the double shock of the COVID-19 pandemic and the military conflict (World Bank The combined impact of COVID-19 and the 2020b). The latest survey shows that women military conflict seems to partially explain the and girls having fled the conflict experienced disproportionate increase in mortality rates various forms of GBV, including sexual violence, among men in Armenia. It has been estimated domestic violence/intimate partner violence, and that the 2020 conflict led to almost 2,800 excess workplace harassment, including in their host deaths among men ages 15–49 in Armenia communities (UNFPA 2024). (Karlinsky and Torrisi 2023). Climate change is likely to impact Armenian The above-mentioned external shocks may also women and men in particular ways, as they have had negative impacts on women through, are equipped differently to mitigate and adapt for instance, changing health-seeking behaviors, to the negative consequences of climatic more restricted access to maternal, sexual, events, including drought, floods, and landslide and reproductive services, and higher maternal hazards. Women must therefore be part of the mortality. Women’s employment and business response. More data and analysis are required activity likewise appear to be more vulnerable to to understand the gender dimensions of these shocks, as revealed in 2020 when Armenia was events in Armenia. xviii Social norms Holding more progressive views on gender roles has significant implications for women’s Recent demographic trends signal an improvement outcomes in education and the labor market, in social norms on the societal role of women as evidenced by the positive correlation relative to men. The age of marriage was raised between more gender-equitable views and a from 22.2 in 2020 to 27.9 in 2022, while the average greater likelihood that women attain tertiary or age at first birth rose from 22.7 in 2005 to 25.9 in postgraduate education and participate in the 2022.⁹ In Armenia, beliefs across most areas have labor force. also shown some improvement, especially among women. For example, the share of women who The legal framework believe it is better for everyone involved if a man earns the money and a woman takes care of the Despite the recent efforts deployed by home and children declined from 80 percent in the government of Armenia to establish a 2016 to 69 percent in 2023 (EBRD 2023). comprehensive institutional framework for gender equality, gaps in formal institutions Yet, persistent traditional social norms are still continue to undermine women’s status and behind the challenges identified in this report prospects in the country. Legal provisions and supported by evidence from the 2023 Life in on equality in pay are suboptimal, while the Transition Survey IV (EBRD 2023). For example, legal prevention of discrimination on the a large share of men (51 percent) and women basis of pregnancy or child-rearing needs to (42 percent) in Armenia either agree or strongly be strengthened.¹⁰ Meanwhile, inheritance agree with the statement that “Men should practices that favor men over women may be have more right to a job than women when jobs limiting women’s asset ownership and access are scarce.” The survey also shows that strong to finance. Despite the 2024 amendments to traditional stereotypes persist in Armenia about the “Law on Prevention of Family and Domestic the types of jobs for which either women or men Violence and Protection of Persons Exposed are perceived as more competent. For instance, to Family and Domestic Violence” to make over half of the respondents believed that men legally mandated DV measures more inclusive were more suitable than women as engineers and targeted, the effectiveness of the law and surgeons. More than a quarter believe that seems to be challenged by bottlenecks in men were better suited to be business managers, implementation (HRW 2022). The government and more than 80 percent believe that men are recently introduced amendments to the better pilots. These represent some of the largest Labor Code prohibiting violence and sexual shares across peer countries in the survey. In harassment at the workplace (National addition, 71 percent of men and 58 percent of Assembly 2023). Despite the presence of such women believe that men make better political specific and separate legal norms in Armenia, a leaders. Among men respondents, 48 percent comprehensive anti- discrimination law which reported that they enjoy it if men are in charge of defines procedures and assigns responsibility women, while 20 percent believe that violence is for examining the reported cases is not yet sometimes necessary against women. in place. Absence of established mechanism ⁹ ArmStat (2023c); Gender Statistics (database), United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, https://unece. org/statistics/gender-statistics; WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https:// datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. ¹⁰ Global Data on Women’s Political Participation (dashboard), UN Women, New York, https://localgov.unwomen.org/ data?indicator=Value&year=2018&countries=14,14&; World Bank (2023a). xix for examination limits authorities’ capacity effectively and leaves victims without a clear to investigate and address harassment cases process for seeking justice (Karapetyan 2023). POLICY IMPLEMENTATION Accumulation of capital of women, while promoting a more balanced Continuing efforts to eliminate the bias in distribution of responsibilities over household sex ratios at birth are necessary given the and childcare tasks between men and women, recent reversal in this area. Despite progress, for instance, by extending the paternity leave or strengthening reproductive health through the instituting incentivized shared parental leave. early detection of disease, the prevention of high- Improving access to quality childcare is expected risk pregnancies, and the expansion of the scope to increase female labor force participation. The of prenatal screenings are recommended to improvement in long-term care and access to continue addressing maternal deaths. Similarly, social services among people with disabilities is it is important to continue developing measures also crucial. to reduce risky behaviors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and unsafe driving It is necessary to enhance the quality of women’s among men and to ensure adequate access to employment and to encourage the presence of physical and psychological rehabilitation among women in higher productivity and higher paying survivors of conflict. sectors and occupations through, for example, improved technical and vocational education Improving the educational opportunities among and training programs and enhanced workplace men requires better information and incentives conditions. Measures that may help ensure for male students, strengthening the role of equality in employment include hiring practices teachers, and enhancing the classroom climate. that promote credible attention to the skills of The education system should offer opportunities jobseekers and prevent discrimination. Expanding to resume education among men serving in the women’s access to entrepreneurship requires military. This could be accomplished through easing access to finance among women through, financial incentives, remedial and second-chance for instance, alternative means of assessing programs, or in-service training. Recent efforts risks. Ongoing efforts to offer training to women to establish policies to prevent or discourage entrepreneurs should be strengthened to include smoking may be strengthened by tightening a focus on soft and digital skills. prohibitions on smoking in public and private spaces, the promotion of healthier lifestyles Use of capital among youth, and raising tobacco taxes. Improving the representation of women in decision-making requires ensuring the Access to opportunity enforcement of existing quotas, while continuing Although Armenian family policy is to seek parity, including by addressing women’s comprehensive, maternity, paternity, and self-exclusion from candidature. Complementary parental leave could be improved to protect measures include increasing the presence of the household incomes and the job prospects women in political party structures and leadership xx and providing women with training, finance, and acknowledged. There is a need to ensure the means to establish networks. consistent and structured data collection to identify and address GBV, including beyond Separately, GBV prevention and response domestic violence. measures need to be strengthened. To prevent GBV, it is important to assess the Social norms limitations of the existing institutional The report highlights that social norms are one framework and enhance the effectiveness of of the key factors underlying many of the gender legislative efforts. Gaps involve the potentially gaps identified. Policies aimed at addressing incomplete coverage of existing laws, as well the gaps must therefore be combined with as enforcement hurdles stemming from social interventions that shift biases and influence stigma and other factors. Shifting social norms behavior. Addressing adverse social norms that favor violence among all stakeholders requires coordinated multisectoral approaches including boys and men, service providers, with a special focus on awareness raising communities, leaders, and the private sector activities, for instance, through mass and social will be crucial for effectiveness. Investments media campaigns, which have been shown to in high-quality survivor services need to be have positive effects. International experiences ramped up, including shelters, adequate have also shown that starting interventions at psychosocial support, and legal advice. The an early age, engaging various stakeholders role of health care facilities in detecting and including boys and men, and involving role responding to GBV should be adequately models can be effective. xxi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Despite recent progress, Armenia 2020; Pervaiz et al. 2023).¹¹ By promoting gender stands to benefit from the equality and fostering a more inclusive society, promotion of gender equality the country can progress along a pathway toward a virtuous circle of gender equity and economic Gender equality is critical for sustainable and growth (Figure 1.1). inclusive growth and poverty reduction efforts in Armenia. This is particularly the case at the Recent efforts by the government have led country’s current demographic stage, marked by a to progress in closing the gender gap. This is shrinking population and increasing dependency demonstrated by the positive change in the gender ratio, largely attributable to low fertility rates. inequality index, which declined from 0.35 in 2010 This trend is exacerbated by outmigration, to 0.20 in 2022 (Figure 1.2). Similarly, the rank of especially among working-age men. Gender the country in the global gender gap index has equality remains a cornerstone for building drastically improved, from 102nd in 2016 to 61st in resilience against external shocks, facilitating a 2023. Yet, Armenia lags some of its peers (Figure sustainable and inclusive growth, and mitigating 1.3). As the assessment will show, the government and preventing the potential impacts of climate has made important strides in strengthening the change (Ali 2021; Bertay, Dordevic, and Sever legal and policy framework for gender equality. Figure 1.1. Gender inequality index vs. GDP per capita, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 2022 140 140 GDP per capita (thousand USD) 120 120 100 100 Higher wealth, Higher wealth, Lower gender Lower gender Thousand USD inequality 80 80 inequality 60 60 Lower wealth, 40 40 Higher gender Lower wealth, Higher gender EST BIH inequality inequality 20 20 ARM GEO ALB MDA 00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.35 0.35 0.40 0.40 UNDP GII Gender inequality index ECA average GII (0.22) ECA average GDP per capita PPP (36.7 thousand USD) ECA average GII (0.22) ECA average GDP per capita PPP (36.7 thousand USD) Sources: GII (Gender Inequality Index) (dashboard), Data Center, United Nations Development Programme, New York, http://hdr.undp.org/en/ content/gender-inequality-index-gii; WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog. worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. Note: Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is in constant 2017 international purchasing power parity US dollars. ECA = Eastern Europe and Central Asia. ¹¹ The literature suggests that the causal impact of gender equality on economic growth is far more consistent and robust than the positive effects of growth on gender equality. 1 In addition, gaps in the accumulation of human Women are generally underrepresented in capital, especially in health and education, have decision-making and are exposed to the most generally been narrowed, with women showing extreme manifestation of gender inequality, better outcomes partly due to the differentiated gender-based violence (GBV). Traditional social role in the conflict. Women have also made norms on the role of women relative to men in the advances in the labor force, as demonstrated family and society persist and underlie many of by their higher numbers in skilled positions the observed gaps. and their unemployment rates, which are similar to the rates among men. There has also 1.2. Poverty in Armenia has been progress since the last Country Gender gender dimensions Assessment (CGA), conducted in 2016, in the sex ratio at birth and the representation of women Although overall poverty rates among in the National Assembly (annex A). women and men are equal in Armenia, gender gaps widen at age 18 and peak during the However, traditional gender gaps continue reproductive years of women. In 2022, poverty to undermine the development prospects of rates were 25 percent for both women and the economy and society. Large gaps to the men.¹² The gap in the poverty rate has always disadvantage of women persist in labor market been small, ranging from 0 to 2 percentage participation, access to full-time jobs, and pay. points in 2016–22. Multidimensional poverty Women still earn much lower wages than men rates were also comparable between women regardless of educational attainment, sector, and men in 2022 (21.8 percent and 19.4 percent, occupation, and other observable factors. Gender respectively). However, averages mask the gaps are especially evident in indicators of agency. differences in poverty experienced by women Figure 1.2. Trends in the gender inequality index Figure 1.3. Global gender gap index 0.45 0.82 0.40 0.8 0.35 0.78 0.30 0.76 0.25 0.74 0.7 Index Index 0.72 0.20 0.2 0.7 0.15 0.68 0.10 0.66 0.05 0.64 0.00 0.62 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 0.6 2016 2017 2018 2020 2021 2022 2023 ARM ALB BIH GEO EST MDA ARM ALB BIH GEO EST MDA Source: GII (Gender Inequality Index) (dashboard), Data Center, United Nations Development Programme, New York, http://hdr. Source: WEF 2022. undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii. Note: The global gender gap index reflects the gender-based gap in Note: The gender inequality index reflects gender-based disadvantage four dimensions: economic participation and opportunity, educational in three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment. Scores labor market. It ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 is complete gender parity are on a 0 to 1 scale, where 1 represents the optimal situation or parity. and 1 total gender inequality. ¹² Poverty is measured at the household level and, by assumption, all household members are classified as poor or nonpoor if the household is, respectively, poor or nonpoor. Measuring poverty at the household level assumes there are no intrahousehold inequalities in access to income and consumption. 2 and men during the life cycle, favoring each sex with multiple adult women, along with children, at different stages. Although, in 2022, poverty exhibit a particularly high poverty rate of 45.6 rates among girls and boys were nearly even percent (Figure 1.6). Irrespective of the number during childhood, the gap widened to over 8 of adults or their ages, households with children percentage points at ages 18–19 (Figure 1.4). tend to be poorer than households without Poverty rates are persistently higher among children, with significant disparities across all women of peak childbearing and reproductive household types. The analysis indicates that age (18–40) than among men. This trend impoverished women living with children are reverses at ages 40–49, likely in connection more likely to be ages 25–44, aligning with the with changing trends in labor force participation. upward trend in women’s poverty within this age Female labor force participation rates are lower range (Figure 1.4).¹⁴ The opportunity costs and among women during the reproductive years direct costs associated with raising children are but start rising at age 44 (Chapter 3. Access to potential reasons for this trend, but more analysis Economic Opportunity). This is consistent with is needed to explain the causes. global trends (Muñoz-Boudet et al. 2018). 1.3. The assessment provides an Household demographics affect poverty update on gender gaps and the rates. The presence of children is a significant driving factors factor. The poverty rate is significantly higher among individuals living in woman-headed This report provides an overview of the households with children below age six (Figure challenges to achieving gender equality in 1.5). An analysis reveals that the majority of poor Armenia using an analytical framework based households (76 percent) consist of multiple on the World Bank’s New Gender Strategy adults with children.¹³ Among these, households 2024–2030 and the World Development Report Figure 1.4. Poverty rates, by sex and age-group 40 30 % of population 20 10 0 0-5 6-9 10-14 15-17 18-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65+ Age range Women Men Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. ¹³ Based on calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. The demographic typology of households is defined based on Muñoz-Boudet et al. (2018). ¹⁴ According to calculations using the 2022 round of the Integrated Living Conditions Survey, 50 percent of poor women living with children were within the 25–44 age range, and 52 percent live in urban areas. 3 2012 (World Bank 2024b, 2011). This framework and policy institutions, informal institutions (that is also in alignment with Armenia’s New Gender is, social norms), and external shocks, including Strategy 2024–2028 (MoLSA 2024) (annex B). COVID-19, climate change, and military conflict. The analysis reveals that the major challenge The ultimate goal of the analysis is to expand in Armenia lies in the returns to human capital the existing knowledge base and to contribute disfavoring women. The returns to human to inform and improve policymaking to close the capital are a function of three main factors: persistent gender gap in the country. (1) the accumulation of capital (endowments especially in health and education), (2) access to This assessment is based on quantitative and opportunity (focused on economic opportunities qualitative analyses using the latest available in the labor market and entrepreneurship), and data and relying on the feedback received during (3) the ability to use accumulated capital (agency the consultations with major stakeholders. The or capacity to make decisions and act upon them) main datasets used in the analysis are taken (Figure 1.7). The report identifies gender gaps in from the 2022 round of the Integrated Living outcomes across these areas and explores the Conditions Survey, the 2022 Armenia Labor Force main drivers and barriers behind them. These Survey, and the 2023 Life in Transition Survey drivers and barriers emanate from formal legal IV.¹⁵ Wherever relevant, Armenia’s performance Figure 1.5. Poverty rate, by head and household Figure 1.6. Poverty rate, by household type, % of individuals composition, % of households 45.6 60 34.1 36.6 % of households 50 41.0 21.1 21.6 19.1 17.6 18.4 15.6 % of population 32.8 11.7 31.1 32.6 5.2 6 26.8 24.8 0 0 40 26.8 22.4 21.3 23.3 23.2 woman With child With child With child only women With child only men With child combinations With child With child No child No child No child No child No child No child No child 20.1 20 Multiple adults, Multiple adults, One adult One adult man Other adult Senior(s) only Adult couple 0 HHs with children<6 HHs without children age <6 HHs with elderly age>=63 HHs with disabled person HHs without elderly age>=63 HHs without disabled person Women headed HH Men headed HH Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat. am/en/?nid=205. Note: The classification is by the number of adults (regardless of Women headed HH Men headed HH marital status) and the presence of children. Children refers to the 0–17 age-group. Seniors are ages more than 62. The number of Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living observations is small for some types of households: 8 observations Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), for one adult male with children; 0 for multiple adults, only male, Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat. with children; 10 for senior(s) only with children; and 17 for multiple am/en/?nid=205. adults, only male, no children. ¹⁵ The 2022 round of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212; ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205; EBRD (2023). 4 is benchmarked against peer countries selected the outlook is uncertain because of the risk of a based on several indicators (annex D). The peer reversal in inflows from trade and remittances, countries include Albania (ALB), Bosnia and continued geopolitical tensions, and unresolved Herzegovina (BIH), Estonia (EST), Georgia (GEO), border issues (World Bank 2023d). COVID-19 has Kosovo (XKX), and Moldova (MDA). The report demonstrated gender differentiated impacts focuses on trends since 2016, when the previous across countries and Armenia is no exception. assessment was published. Chapter 3, which The assessment presents differentiated impacts discusses the opportunities in the labor market, of the pandemic on women and men in Armenia analyzes data from 2018 onward because of the based on the available evidence. The conflict revision to the definition of labor market status in that afflicted the country for decades has also the Labor Force Survey, which is the primary data shown important gender differentiated impacts. source for that chapter. The report also relies on Although more data are needed to assess the the feedback received during the two rounds of impact in Armenia quantitatively, each chapter in-person consultations with major stakeholders provides a snapshot of actual and potential in Armenia (annex C). The assessment identifies gendered impacts of these external shocks. several knowledge gaps that require more analysis. These are listed in annex L, Table L.1. There is growing evidence that climate change has specific gender dimensions that need to Figure 1.7. Understanding the key gender be acknowledged in mitigation and adaptation challenges in Armenia measures. Increased drought risk, floods, and landslide hazards are a particular threat to poorer rural communities in Armenia. Without adaptation ks So hoc cia l and disaster risk reduction, climate shocks and S climate change will exacerbate income and wealth No al ern rm inequalities and hinder attempts to reduce poverty Ext s Accumulation Access to of Capital Opportuni- rates (World Bank and ADB 2021). Acknowledging (education, ties (labor the different vulnerabilities, concerns, and health, Returns market, financial, to Capital jobs, repre- priorities among women and men is essential physical) sentation) to mitigating the effects of climate change and preventing the widening of gender gaps, but also to Ability to Use Accumulated Capital (agency) improving the resilience of households, raising the effectiveness of climate policies, reducing poverty, and accelerating economic growth. Persistent gender gaps are likely to make it more difficult for women to prepare for or prevent the impacts of climate change. The more vulnerable position 1.4. External shocks and social norms of women, for instance, in access to finance, has are important amplifying and a bearing on the ability to manage the effects explanatory factors of shocks and disasters. Women’s inadequate representation in decision-making bodies working The COVID-19 pandemic and the military conflict, on climate change may limit women’s opportunity together, had a heavy negative impact on the to contribute to solutions. More data and evidence economic prospects of the country, with many specific to Armenia are needed on these issues. gender implications. Although Armenia has continued on a positive track in recent years, The assessment addresses social norms as 5 central barriers and drivers underlying gender although measuring and quantifying the impact gaps in outcomes across all areas. Social norms is challenging. Recent changes in demographic are increasingly acknowledged as a key factor in indicators, accompanied by improvements explaining the persistence of gender inequality in perceptions on the role of women and across countries, including Armenia. For example, men in society, have signaled a progressive the World Bank Gender Strategy 2024–2030 transformation in social norms in Armenia (Box highlights the importance of understanding 1.1). Yet, traditional social norms persist, largely and addressing social norms in the effort to explaining the observed gaps in outcomes across achieve more equitable gender outcomes (World dimensions of well-being. The analysis in this Bank 2023e). The impact of social norms on report relies on multiple sources to substantiate gender outcomes is well documented globally, the argument. Box 1.1. The gender landscape in social norms in Armenia Social norms are the perceived, but mostly unwritten rules that shape acceptable behavior within a society, thereby guiding human actions (UNICEF 2023). Social norms in Armenia are embedded in traditional and patriarchal values that tend to draw a clear distinction among gender roles. In Armenia, there has been a notable societal shift in women’s outcomes, indicating a progressive change in women’s agency in certain areas. For example, the adolescent birthrate—the number of live births per 1,000 women ages 15–19 —declined substantially, from 73.0 to 18.5, in 1990–2021.a Women’s mean age at birth of a first child rose from 22.7 to 25.9 in 2005–22b and women’s mean age at first marriage surged from 22.2 in 2000 to 27.9 in 2022. In part, this progress may be related to improvements in women’s access to education, with tertiary education enrollment rates rising from 40 percent to 68 percent in 2000–20.a However, Armenia still exhibits a higher adolescent birthrate and a lower age at the birth of a first child relative to peer countries, suggesting there is room for improvement.a Also, disparities by location persist, with urban areas generally being more progressive. For example, women in rural areas are more likely than urban women to marry and give birth to their first child at an earlier age.c The societal perceptions reported by respondents in the 2023 Life in Transition Survey IV (EBRD 2023) in Armenia indicate progressive transformation in some areas. For example, the share of women and men who believe that it is better for everyone involved if a man earns the money and a woman takes care of the home and children declined in 2016–23. The decline was more substantial among women (from 80.6 percent to 69.0 percent) than among men (from 91.7 percent to 86.5 percent) (EBRD 2023). Nonetheless, data show mixed results on perceptions of the extent of women’s economic opportunity and related beliefs. For instance, although the shares of firms with women employees and women leaders have grown (by 16.0 and 5.6 percentage points, respectively), labor force participation has remained low among women relative to men.d Moreover, perceptions about women’s competence in decision-making positions in the labor market exhibited a 6 negative shift. In 2016–23, the share of women and men who believed that women were as competent as men as business executives dropped, and the decline was more pronounced among men than among women (8.5 and 5.5 percentage points, respectively) (EBRD 2023). These findings indicate that despite significant improvements in the landscape of gender and social norms women still face serious disadvantages stemming from entrenched traditional attitudes and beliefs. a. WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog. worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. b. ArmStat (2023c); Gender Statistics (database), United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, https://unece.org/statistics/gender-statistics. c. Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. d. See chapter 3; 2005–20 data of WBES (World Bank Enterprise Surveys) (dashboard), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://www.enterprisesurveys.org/en/enterprisesurveys; World Bank 2020a. 7 11. Table 1.1 shows the policies recommended to address the gender gaps identified in the report (Table 1.1; see also Chapter 5: Policy Recommendations). Table 1.1. Policy recommendations Objective Policy recommendations Timelinea Human capital accumulation Improve specific Continue to eliminate differences in the sex ratio at birth: Shorter and health-related Continue awareness campaigns engaging with medical longer term outcomes among communities and faith-based organizations; promote the value both women of girls; engage regional and local authorities in implementation and men and increase their capacity. Address excess mortality among men related to smoking, traffic Longer term accidents, and conflict: Educate and inform the population about the risks of smoking; enact and enforce legislation banning smoking in public and private spaces; increase tobacco taxes; decrease average speed limits and enforce these limits; apply United Nations standards on safety; offer adequate physical and psychological rehabilitation to survivors of conflict. Reduce maternal mortality: Strengthen reproductive health; Longer term improve the capacity of maternal, sexual, and reproductive services to conduct prenatal screenings and reduce the rate of C-sections; improve the general health status of women and pregnant women. Eliminate gender Improve the educational attainment and opportunities of young Longer term gaps in education men: Build networks of key actors in the lives of boys and men between men and that promote norms of educational success; support the role women of teachers as motivational figures; offer financial incentives or information on careers; offer opportunities and incentives to continue studying for men who interrupted their studies to serve in the military. Reduce sex segregation by field of study: Address gender bias Longer term in learning materials; encourage participation in extracurricular activities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) from an early age; feature role models; promote partnerships with the private sector. 8 Objective Policy recommendations Timelinea Human capital accumulation Improve the transition of young women from school to work: Longer term Focus on improving cognitive, socioemotional, and in-demand technical skills; improve the quality and relevance of technical and vocational education and training and higher education. Access to economic opportunity Increase the labor Provide adequate parental leave: Enhance flexibility and equality Shorter and force participation in leave allocation; ensure adequate benefits and enhance longer term of women coverage; complement with information campaigns including positive male role models; consider a shift toward shared parental leave with embedded incentives for take-up by fathers. Improve access to childcare: Increase the availability and Longer term coverage of public or subsidized childcare services; improve the quality of childcare; seek to change social norms in the gender bias in the benefits of formal versus informal childcare. Enhance inclusion and the empowerment of individuals with Shorter term disabilities: Ensure the availability of health and social care services; continue promoting independent living principles and community-based services for people with disabilities; provide vocational training; improve accessibility in the workplace. Level the Promote equality in occupational and sectoral choices: Build Longer term playing field in skills and challenge gender stereotypes at school (for instance, employment and through technical and vocational education and training); entrepreneurship create woman-friendly working conditions in man-dominant sectors; continue seeking change in perceptions and bias among educators, parents, girls, boys, women, and men; encourage the visibility of women in STEM and in leadership positions; integrate gender-smart design in activation programs targeting women. Strengthen entrepreneurship and support services: Prohibit Shorter term discrimination in access to credit; promote alternative financial products that mitigate women’s collateral requirement needs; accompany financial support with business training and mentoring and networking support; continue to provide training in soft skills and digital literacy. 9 Objective Policy recommendations Timelinea Use of capital (voice and agency) Improve the Increase the presence of women in democratic institutions Shorter and decision-making through affirmative action: Continue investing in women’s longer term capacity of political representation; ensure women’s representation women in public through effective zipper systems and sanctions for and private noncompliance. spheres Support women’s leadership and political participation within Shorter term political parties as well as through activism: Build skills among women politicians and the promotion of women to leadership roles within political parties; invest in education and training among the new generation of women leaders with the help of civil society organizations (CSOs). Address gender- Assess the limitations in the existing institutional framework Shorter and based violence and ensure consistent data collection on all forms of GBV: longer term through adequate Evaluate the practical limitations of laws and complement the prevention and laws with necessary implementation cues; ensure thorough response investigation of cases of GBV; ensure consistent and accurate data collection on all forms of GBV. Destigmatize and strengthen preventative mechanisms Longer term to encourage reporting on GBV: Ensure the knowledge and awareness of law enforcement about GBV issues; establish cross-sectoral preventative mechanisms to ensure a holistic approach to GBV. Invest in high-quality and responsive survivors’ services by Longer term increasing the accessibility of relevant care facilities: Equip health care facilities with effective tools to detect and address GBV; improve the quality and number of survivor care facilities and establish integrated service delivery. Note: For a comprehensive list of policy recommendations, refer to the Background Note for the Armenia Country Gender Assessment. From the comprehensive list of policy recommendations outlined in the Background Notes, priority has been assigned to the recommendations that emerged directly from the analysis as most urgent and potentially exercising the greatest impact (Nozaki et al. 2024a, b, c). a. The timeline indicates the potential ease or the time required to implement the measures as assessed by the team. 10 CHAPTER 2 HUMAN CAPITAL ACCUMULATION Investing in human capital in Armenia is the 30–34 age-group is clearly skewed toward critical to engendering sustained growth and men because more boys than girls are being reducing poverty. This is especially so given the born in Armenia (Figure 2.1, panel a). At the top imminent demographic transition characterized of the pyramid, however, and beginning already by population aging, which is being exacerbated with the 45–50 age-group, women outnumber by substantial outmigration flows. Boosting the men, an indication of the higher mortality among human capital of women and men is essential. adult men. By 2050, if the current trends persist, Equality in the accumulation of human capital from the concentration of the population among the childhood into old age is crucial to ensuring that older age-groups will become more pronounced, girls and boys experience equal opportunities in and the number of older women will far exceed life. Such equality can determine the development the number of older men. Population aging is prospects of society by promoting inclusive, proceeding at full speed in Armenia. Thus, 25 sustained growth and poverty reduction. Poor years from now, more than a third of women and maternal health outcomes, for instance, have been almost a quarter of men will be ages more than found to exert a negative impact in household 60 compared with a quarter of women and 16 poverty (Heymann et al. 2019; Weber et al. 2019). The percent of men today (Figure 2.1, panel b). accumulation of human capital by mothers relative to fathers has intergenerational impacts because Rapid aging is exacerbated by high outmigration the enhanced status of women is associated with rates especially among young men with better outcomes among their children (Andrabi et relatively better educational attainment (World al. 2012; Dumas and Lambert 2011; Bishai et al. 2016; Bank 2022b). The outmigration rates in Armenia De Brouwere et al. 2010; Kuruvilla et al. 2014; Liu et are among the highest in the region, especially al. 2017; Ogunjimi at al. 2012; Tough et al. 2010). among men of working age (World Bank 2022b). Based on 2022 Armenia Labor Force Survey data, 2.1. Health 30.6 percent of men who departed to another country were between ages 25-34 and 26 percent 2.1.1. Demographic trends in Armenia have were among the 35-44 age-group in 2022.¹⁶ important gender dimensions Around 95 percent of these migrants had attained higher than upper-secondary education (general The age distribution of the population in education), which suggests there is a flight of Armenia shows two distinct patterns, both a comparatively more highly skilled workforce with gender implications. One, at the top of given that this is higher than the level of education the population pyramid, is a concentration of attained by 89.8 percent of the population. To women that is expected to grow as population some extent, this outflow may be connected to the aging intensifies. The other is an unusually large conflict and the tightening of the regulations on concentration of men among younger age-groups. compulsory military service. The main reason given The lower part of the population pyramid up to for migration is, however, work (88 percent).¹⁷ ¹⁶ Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. ¹⁷ Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. 11 Figure 2.1. Two population pyramids in Armenia a. Distribution of population, by age and sex, 2024 b. Distribution of population, by age and sex, 2050 100+ 100+ 90-94 90-94 80-84 80-84 70-74 70-74 60-64 60-64 Age range Age range 50-54 50-54 40-44 40-44 30-34 30-34 20-24 20-24 10-14 10-14 0-4 0-4 10 5 0 5 10 10 5 0 5 10 % of population % of population Women Men Women Men Source: World Population Prospects (dashboard), Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York, https://population.un.org/wpp/. Population aging and substantial outmigration of working age, there were approximately 51 are expected to continue to drive the dependents. This trend is expected to escalate as dependency ratio upward. The dependency the bulge in the population pyramid climbs with ratio has been rising over the last two decades the increase in the numerator of the dependency because of the decline in the birthrate below the ratio. The rise in the old-age dependency ratio population replacement rate (Figure 2.2) and, to may be offset by the decline in the number of some extent, the improvement in life expectancy young dependents (children) in the short term, among women, from 74.5 years in 2001 to 77.3 but, over the long term, the total dependency years in 2021. In 2022, the dependency ratio was ratio is projected to double (Figure 2.3). 50.7 percent, indicating that, for every 100 people Figure 2.2. Birthrate and dependency ratio, 2021 Figure 2.3. Total dependency ratio, projections Armenia: Total Dependency Ratio Age <20 & 65+ 1.8 55 Age 20-64 % of working age population 160 1.7 50 150 Number of births per 100 persons ages 20-64) 140 1.6 Dependents (<20 & 65+) 45 130 media 80% prediction interval 1.5 120 95% prediction interval observed 60 sample trajectories 110 40 100 1.4 90 1.3 35 80 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 70 60 Fertility rate (left axis) 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2020 Dependency ratio (right axis) Source: World Population Prospects (dashboard), Population Source: World Population Prospects (dashboard), Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York, https://population.un.org/wpp/. New York, https://population.un.org/wpp/. 12 Narrowing the gender gap in human capital of the practice of sex-selective abortion, presents opportunities for growth and which has been widely documented (Dávalos, increased fiscal revenue. In the absence DeMarchi, and Sinha 2015; EU 2021; Schief, of adequate policy responses, these trends Vogt, and Efferson 2021; UNFPA 2018). Because entail particularly daunting challenges of the ongoing legal efforts undertaken by the through, for example, greater fiscal pressure government, the sex ratio at birth declined in because of rising expenditures on pensions 2012–21 (UNFPA 2022a) (Box 2.1). Yet, it remains and health care. However, because of their above the natural level (1.04–1.06 boys per girl) large working-age populations, late-dividend and the average in the region (1.06 throughout countries, such as Armenia, may obtain a 2012–22) (Figure 2.4). The ratio registered a substantial second demographic dividend and substantial increase in 2022, the last year on accelerate growth.¹⁸ Maintaining productivity which data are available, from 1.08 in 2021 growth is essential for this to occur, through to 1.12 (Figure 2.5). This trend is particularly encouraging aggregate savings and channeling acute in some rural areas, in the less well-off them towards investments in human and provinces, including Vayots Dzor (1.24), Armavir physical capital, boosting female labor force (1.19), and Tavush (1.19), and among third (1.23) participation and productivity, and starting to and fourth children (1.27) (ArmStat 2023c). address the longer term negative impacts of Differences across provinces are marked and ageing while preserving the living standards may be related to migration patterns. A large of the older population (World Bank 2016b). share of the men in some provinces spend Given the comparatively low female labor most of the year searching for job opportunities force participation rate in Armenia, the country in other countries (for example, the Russian would benefit substantially from such policies Federation), which may affect son bias (Schief, (Chapter 3. Access to Economic Opportunity). Vogt, and Efferson 2021). 2.1.2. Although on the decline in recent years, The practice of sex-selective abortions skewed sex ratios at birth persist associated with son preference in Armenia because of son preference since the 1990s appears to be declining. There is evidence of deeply rooted cultural preferences Despite improvements in recent years, the sex for sons going back to the early 1990s (Schief, ratio at birth in Armenia remains above the Vogt, and Efferson 2023). Although the preference natural level, higher than in peer countries, for sons as a first child persists among married and rose in 2022. Armenia has registered men and women, it has changed since 2017 skewed sex ratios at birth for decades because (UNFPA 2022a). Among women, the preference ¹⁸ A late-dividend country refers to a country that is experiencing a demographic transition whereby birthrates have declined, and the population is aging. 13 Box 2.1. The efforts of the government to end sex-selective abortion The government has deployed important efforts during the last decade to curtail the harmful practice of sex-selective abortion. In 2013, the government acknowledged the problem and addressed it as part of the state policy on maternal and child health and a program to combat GBV. Various initiatives to raise awareness and educate the population have been launched since then, such as the Caring for Equality Program, which involved training among students, parents, and service providers nationally and across communities in 2015–16. In 2016, the Law on Human Reproductive Health and Reproductive Rights was amended to reflect the explicit prohibition of sex-selective abortion. A recent, more comprehensive effort was the 2020–23 National Action Plan on the Prevention of Gender- Biased Sex Selection, which was aimed at the development of a scientific basis for action to build capacity and raise awareness on the issue. Within this framework, large-scale public awareness campaigns were conducted in collaboration with public institutions, international organizations, and local nongovernmental and community organizations. A community of practice on local participation and nondiscrimination was established. Sources: CEDAW 2021; UNFPA 2022a. Figure 2.4. Sex ratio at birth, selected countries Figure 2.5. Trends in the sex ratio at birth, Armenia 1.13 1.16 1.12 1.14 1.11 1.12 1.10 1.1 Ratio 1.09 1.08 Ratio 1.08 1.06 1.07 1.04 1.06 1.02 1.05 1 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 1.04 1.03 MDA EST GEO BIH ALB ARM Armenia ECA ECA average Sources: ArmStat 2023c; WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog. Sources: ArmStat 2023c; WDI (World Development Indicators) worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog. Note: The Eastern Europe and Central Asia average remained steady worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. at 1.06 throughout the analysis period. 14 for boys decreased from 32 percent to 28 percent addition, research shows that Armenians who in 2017–22, while their preference for girls rose are concerned about conflict exhibit a 20 percent from 16 percent to 27 percent. Among men, the higher son bias than those who are less concerned preference for sons was stronger (39 percent), (Mavisakalyan and Minasyan 2023).²⁰ although also declining from 41 percent in 2017, while their preference for girls increased from 9 2.1.3. Adult mortality rates are substantially percent to 19 percent (Figure 2.6). higher among men because of risky behaviors and conflict Armenians cite a diversity of reasons for their reported son or daughter preference (Figure Women in Armenia tend to live longer and 2.7). The main reasons for son preference include exhibit lower adult mortality rates than men. that sons continue the lineage (91 percent); sons On average, women live 10 years longer than men, are the defenders of the motherland (83 percent); which represents one of the highest gaps in the sons are the heirs to property (67 percent); and it region. The adult mortality rate among men is also hurts parents to see the difficulties of daughters high compared with peer countries, the second (59 percent).¹⁹ Among respondents in households highest after North Macedonia. In an unusual trend that prefer girls, the main reason given was that in Armenia, while the life expectancy of women daughters are always ready to help parents (67 rose in the last two decades (from 74.5 in 2001 to percent); there are fewer girls in the family (10 77.3 in 2021), that of men declined (from 67.0 to percent); and the love for girls in the family is big 66.6). The female-to-male life expectancy ratio (5 percent) (UNFPA 2022a). Son bias is especially was 1.16 in 2021, above the ratio in comparator strong among men and in certain less economically countries (Figure 2.8). In 2020, mortality rates rose advantaged provinces, whereas equal preference among women and men. However, the increase appears to be associated with higher educational was notably higher among men, resulting in rates attainment and higher wealth status (Schief, approximately three times higher among men than Vogt, and Efferson 2021; UNFPA 2022a). In women in 2021 (Figure 2.9). Figure 2.6. Preferred sex of the first child, % of Figure 2.7. Reasons for the sex preference of respondents first child, % of respondents 100 2 1 Daughter is a support for parents in old age 57% 80 % of respondents 52 45 48 41 Daughter gives parents psychological support 61% 60 Daughter stands ready to help parents 67% 9 19 Sons can provide financial support 44% 40 16 27 Sons personify authority and strength 58% 20 32 41 39 It is psychologically difficult to give a 28 daughter in marriage 58% 0 It pains a parent to see daughters hardship 59% 2017 2022 2017 2022 Boys are defenders of the homeland 83% Women Men Sons continue the family lineage 91% Boy Girl No difference Difficult to answer Source: UNFPA 2022a. Source: UNFPA 2022a. ¹⁹ A son typically continues the family business and perpetuates the family name (Dávalos, DeMarchi, and Sinha 2015). ²⁰ Communities close to the centers of conflict show a more skewed sex ratio at birth after the onset of the conflict. 15 The high rates of risky behaviors, such as professional. If health services are fragmented smoking and mortality caused by traffic and not available in a timely fashion, women may accidents among men may partly explain delay or forgo care, while men may avoid seeking these trends, while there are also major health care because of time constraints or norms differences in how men and women access surrounding masculinity.²¹ Armenia also has health care services. Close to half of Armenian the highest road traffic mortality rate among men consume tobacco, in stark contrast to only its peers. The mortality rate in road accidents 1.5 percent of women. This gender gap in Armenia is nearly three times higher among men than is the largest among comparator countries. among women (World Bank 2021a).²² Substantially more men than women engage in behaviors that are associated with the risk of The combined impact of the COVID-19 pandemic contracting a noncommunicable disease (for and the military conflict may also help explain example, see WHO 2020). Likely to some extent the growing differences in mortality among as a result, men ages 45–64 experience much younger population groups in 2020. Similar to higher mortality related to circulatory disease trends in other countries, in Armenia, a higher and malignant neoplasms (ArmStat 2023c). proportion of men than women died from In addition, men and women tend to access COVID-19 in 2020. While the difference in male health services in different ways. A substantially and female deaths was not large compared with larger share of men report that they have other countries, there had been 16 deaths among never had their blood pressure, blood glucose, men for every 10 deaths among women among or cholesterol level checked by a health care confirmed cases of COVID-19 as of November Figure 2.8. Female-to-male life expectancy ratio Figure 2.9. Trends in adult mortality, by sex 1.18 300 1.16 250 (per 1,000 persons) Number of deaths 1.14 1.1 1.1 200 1.1 1.12 150 1.1 1.1 100 Ratio 1.08 50 1.06 1.0 1.0 0 1.0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 1.04 1.02 ARM Women ARM Men 1 ARM GEO MDA EST ALB XKX BIH Source: WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ Source: WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World dataset/0037712. Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ Note: Adult mortality rate = probability of dying ages 15–60, that is, dataset/0037712. the probability of a 15-year-old dying before reaching age 60. ²¹ The government has developed plans to introduce multidisciplinary teams that could incorporate social workers and other staff, in addition to family doctors and nurses, into the family medicine system to bring services closer to people in communities. ²² This estimation is subject to a challenge that applies everywhere: the difficulty faced by traffic police to determine the cause of a crash. The average socioeconomic cost of road crash fatalities and serious injuries in Armenia in 2009–20 has been estimated at 3.0 percent–3.9 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) (World Bank 2021a). 16 23, 2020 (Figure 2.10). At the same time 3,822 Figure 2.10. COVID-19 deaths, by sex, % (military and civilian) deaths have been reported 100 by the Investigative Committee in the 44 days’ conflict of 2020, and 224 deaths in the September 33.9 40.1 80 45.7 41.6 2022 conflict. In particular, it has been estimated 50.6 % of population that the 2020 conflict led to almost 2,800 excess 60 deaths among people ages 15–49 in Armenia, and this was highly concentrated among late 40 adolescent and young adult men.²³ This suggests 66.2 58.4 59.9 that a large proportion of excess mortality 54.3 49.4 20 among men in 2020 was related to combat in the conflict (Figure 2.11). Beyond the tragic loss of life 0 and its significance for the affected households ARM EST ALB BIH XKX and communities, this trend had major economic Men Women and demographic impacts, for instance, through Source: COVID-19 Sex-Disaggregated Data Tracker: Armenia (web the resulting deficit of young men and the likely page), Global Health 50/50, University College London, London, rise in the share of households with only women https://globalhealth5050.org/the-sex-gender-and-covid-19-project/ the-data-tracker/?explore=country&country=Armenia#search. and children (Box 2.2). Note: Data reflect the situation on November 23, 2020. Figure 2.11. Expected and observed deaths, 2020 a. Mortality estimate: Women b. Mortality estimate: Men 55-59 55-59 50-54 50-54 45-49 45-49 40-44 40-44 35-39 35-39 Age range Age range 30-34 30-34 25-29 25-29 20-24 20-24 15-19 15-19 5-14 5-14 0-4 0-4 0 500 1,000 1,500 0 500 1,000 1,500 Annual Deaths Annual Deaths Confidence interval Observed 2015-2019 Expected 2020 Observed 2020 Source: Karlinsky and Torrisi 2023. ²³ According to the estimate, deaths among male adolescents (15–19) constituted nearly 38 percent of the estimated excess mortality (Karlinsky and Torrisi 2023). 17 Box 2.2. Health and gender in conflict settings The health impact of conflict is still poorly addressed in global literature because of the breakdown in health information systems. However, evidence indicates that men face a higher risk of death during conflict, while women and children constitute the majority of displaced persons (Buvinić, Das Gupta, and Shemyakina 2014; Plümper and Neumayer 2006). The rise in mortality among men may have important demographic implications. Mortality differentials have resulted in major discontinuities in population distribution in the years following a conflict (Guha-Sapir and D’Aoust 2010). Women of reproductive age living near high-intensity conflicts exhibit a mortality rate that is three times higher than their mortality rate in peacetime because of the indirect impacts of economic changes, displacement, and sexual violence (Bendavid et al. 2021; Buvinić, Das Gupta, and Shemyakina 2014; Plümper and Neumayer 2005). There is also evidence that conflict has an impact on maternal mortality. Thus, in 2008, the eight countries with the highest maternal mortality rates were experiencing or emerging from conflict (Namasivayam et al. 2017; Saferworld and Conciliation Resources 2014). There is evidence that other health outcomes among men and women are also affected in different ways. Ex-combatants exhibit a high prevalence of injury, disability, and mental health problems, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder. They are more likely to embark on substance abuse and other risky behaviors (Rockhold and McDonald 2009). The most recent estimates suggest that, for each death of a soldier, between three and 10 combatants are wounded (Fazal 2014). For the general population, novel studies indicate that war leads to significant losses in disability-adjusted life years resulting from increases in years of life lost attributable to conflict-related injuries (Jensen et al. 2021). A meta-analysis of sex differences in trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder indicates that women are at a higher risk than men of developing these conditions following traumatic events (Buvinić, Das Gupta, and Shemyakina 2014; Tolin and Foa 2006). The conflict is likely to be influencing other person’s functionality. Nearly 22,500 people in health outcomes among women and men Armenia are expected to experience a mental differently. The conflict has likely had other health condition following the conflict (WHO health-related impacts associated with gender, 2023). Although the increase in disabilities and including the increase in disabilities and the the direct mental health impacts of conflict effects on mental health (Box 2.2). According disproportionately affect men, the health- to MoLSA, as a result of injuries sustained in related impacts of conflict on women can be the 2020 conflict and the subsequent military significant not only through direct means, but operations, 1,199 people, of whom 1,179 also and perhaps predominantly through indirect were men, and 20 were women, have been channels such as malnutrition, the greater care registered in the “Pyunik” information system – burden, poor mental health, and inadequate a registry of the disabled, and the “e-disability” sexual and reproductive health. These effects information system for the assessment of a may become more pronounced in the longer 18 term (Box 2.2). More data and evidence on these mortality ratio was registered in 2018–21, and associations are required to assess the exact 2021 showed an unprecedented peak, at 58 and 35 scale of the challenges in Armenia. deaths per 100,000 live births in rural and urban areas, respectively. As highlighted by government 2.1.4. Women continue to face high maternal sources, this is likely related to COVID-19 and the death rates conflict. The increase was followed, however, by an important decline in 2022 (to 24 and 20 While Armenian men disproportionately deaths per 100,000 live births in rural and urban die because of conflict and risky behaviors, areas, respectively), although the ratio remained Armenian women continue to face high risk of high by international standards. Preliminary data mortality during childbirth. Maternal mortality for 2023 as reported by the government show remains high in Armenia compared with peer another large decline (by four), indicating that the countries, exceeding the Eastern Europe and efforts deployed by the Armenian authorities are Central Asia regional average. Among its peers, having an effect. Armenia ranks second highest in the maternal mortality ratio, trailing only Georgia (Figure 2.12). The direct causes of maternal mortality have ArmStat data show that the maternal mortality become less important, while the incidence of ratio has exhibited substantial fluctuation in indirect or extragenital causes has grown.²⁴ Armenia over the last decade, but, overall, The reduction of obstetric cases as causes of remains unchanged as the decline in mortality maternal mortality has occurred because of in urban areas has been accompanied by a enhancements in the quality and accessibility substantial increase in rural areas (ArmStat of obstetric services. Access to maternal, 2023c). A particularly drastic rise in the maternal sexual, and reproductive health services now Figure 2.12. Maternal mortality ratio, per Figure 2.13. Antenatal care coverage, at least 100,000 live births, 2020 four visits, 2022, %* 30 28 96.8 27 EST 25 ARM 96 Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) 20 ECA avg = 19 MDA 95.4 15 GEO 85.2 12 BIH 84.2 10 8 5 6 ALB 77.8 5 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 % of women EST BIH ALB MDA ARM GEO Source: WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Source: WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ dataset/0037712. dataset/0037712. Note: * The % of women aged 15-49 with a live birth in a given time Note: Estimates are for 2020. ECA = Eastern Europe and Central Asia. period that received antenatal care four or more times. ²⁴ The causes of maternal mortality can be divided into two main groups: (a) direct/obstetrical (hemorrhage, ectopic pregnancy, toxic abortion, sepsis) and (b) indirect/extragenital pathologies (embolisms, viral infections, pathologies of various organ systems, and so on). 19 appears to be universal, as shown by the share likely to have been a contributing factor during of women who had at least four antenatal care 2020–22 given the heightened vulnerability of visits in 2022 (Figure 2.13). Contraceptive use is pregnant women to complications (World Bank also comparatively high: 57.1 percent of married 2021a). According to one study, COVID-19 was or in-union women of reproductive age (15–49) the primary cause of 15 of 32 cases of maternal were using any method in 2010–20, compared death registered in 2020 (World Bank 2021a). with 40.6 percent in Georgia and 46.0 percent in Albania. However, adequate access to services 2.2. Education was disrupted during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020–21, while there are reports of changing 2.2.1. There is gender parity at lower levels health-seeking behaviors among women of education, but women outperform men affected by conflict as well as of overwhelmed at higher levels health service providers (Guivatchian and Rostomian 2023; World Bank 2021a). Gaps in enrollment have been closed at the lower educational levels. Consistent with the The rising share of extragenital pathologies global trend, the gender parity index in education highlights the deterioration in the general at the primary and basic levels has been close reproductive and mental health of the to 1 for the last decade, indicating the absence population and other quality gaps. Limited of gender gaps in enrollment nationwide.²⁵ prenatal screenings, particularly noninvasive Enrollment is balanced across provinces and screenings, and limited opportunities for economic groups, showing no significant research using expensive and complex disparities. However, the lockdown and school technologies often lead to late diagnoses of closures following the outbreak of COVID-19 maternal diseases and pregnancy complications may have had gender differentiated impacts or fetal intrauterine pathologies and sometimes on educational opportunities and outcomes, to omissions with irreversible consequences. although evidence from Armenia is not yet During pregnancy, screening for sexually available (de Paz, Gaddis, and Müller 2021). transmitted diseases—HIV, syphilis, gonorrhea, and trichomoniasis—is carried out on a limited The challenges faced by children affected by scale, while other diseases are screened only the conflict who are seeking to gain access if there are medical indications. The high rate to education may also involve gender issues. of c-sections may also be a contributing factor More than 70 schools and 10 kindergartens were because these are riskier procedures. Armenia’s damaged during the military escalation in the cesarean rate was 38 percent in 2022, more fall of 2020 (UNICEF 2020). Moreover, boys and than twice the range recommended by the World girls affected by the recent conflict either through Health Organization. Other potential reasons displacement or by residing near the violence may for this trend include the lack of adherence of be facing obstacles in accessing quality education. pregnant women to good nutrition practices By the end of 2023, an additional 101,848 people, and the impact of conflict and large-scale including an estimated 30,000 children, had displacement, which have resulted in poor health arrived in the country following the escalation of outcomes among pregnant women (Guivatchian hostilities in September 2023. Nearly 70 percent and Rostomian 2023) (Box 2.2). The pandemic is of this population are in Yerevan and surrounding ²⁵ The gender parity index is measured as the ratio of the gross enrollment ratio among girls to the gross enrollment ratio among boys. 20 provinces (Ararat, Armavir, Kotayk), and more suggests that girls and boys in conflict-affected than 80 percent of those school-age children are areas face distinct challenges that may result in enrolled in schools (UNICEF 2024). Yet, concerns diverse longer-term outcomes (Box 2.3). have been raised over accessibility to pre- school and the risk of school dropouts among A reverse gender gap to the disadvantage adolescents (UNICEF 2024). The risk of school of men is observed from middle vocational dropout, especially among adolescents, is high, education to higher education. It is at the more partly due to the differences in the mandatory advanced levels of education that differences years of schooling (UNICEF 2024). An analysis to the advantage of girls become more obvious using the needs assessment data collected by and persistent (ArmStat 2023c).²⁶ Although the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and the the share of men enrolled in basic vocational United Nations Children’s Fund in January 2024 education is higher than the share of women, is under way to assess the impact. The potential this trend reverses in higher vocational gender implications must be considered in the education (Figure 2.14). This is also the case at analysis, for instance, with regard to the different tertiary and higher levels. While the share of reasons boys and girls drop out of school and the women enrolled in bachelor’s degree programs specific needs of girls and boys. Global evidence rose from 49.2 percent in 2013 to 65.1 percent in Box 2.3. Education and gender in conflict settings There is abundant evidence of the negative impacts of a conflict on schooling through, for instance, destroyed infrastructure, school closures, forced displacement, reduced expenditure and returns to education, and heightened insecurity (Amoayad et al 2020; Dabalen and Paul 2014; Poirier 2012; UIS 2011). Girls living in fragile, conflict, and violent situations are more likely to be out of school and to attain fewer years than boys (World Bank 2022e). Displaced girls are only half as likely as boys to attend school, even if school may help protect girls (UNHCR 2018). Indeed, education has large conflict- reducing impacts and can play a protective and preventive role among children in fragile, conflict, and violent contexts (Rohner and Saia 2019; World Bank 2022e). Conflict may also disrupt education and careers particularly among individuals called up for combat. The literature on the effect of military service on educational attainment does not offer consistent conclusions. Military service seems to reduce educational attainment in Italy, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom (Buonanno 2006; Cipollone and Rosolia 2007; Hubers and Webbink 2015). However, it seems to increase the completion rate of tertiary education in France, Germany, and the United States mostly because of draft avoidance behavior (Bauer et al. 2009; Card and Lemieux 2001; Maurin and Xenogiani 2007). For more information, see the Background Note on endowments for the Armenia Country Gender Assessment (Nozaki et al. 2024a). ²⁶ For instance, this is reflected in the higher female-to-male gross enrollment ratio in high schools compared to that in primary and basic schools, a pattern that has remained unchanged between 2013 and 2022 (ArmStat 2023c). 21 2022, the share among men stayed at around 44 explaining the widening reverse gender gap at percent. A similar trend is observed in master’s higher education levels across middle- and higher- degree programs, where the share of women income countries (Kattan, Khan, and Merchant enrolled is twice that of men.²⁷ The gender gap 2023; Welmond and Gregory 2021). In Armenia, in tertiary enrollment has been widening (Figure the returns to tertiary education are comparable 2.15). This mimics the recent pattern observed among women and among men. A larger share of across countries whereby women tend to reach boys than girls tend to continue on the vocational higher educational attainment than men.²⁸ track through the upper-secondary level, which may explain some of the gaps in enrollment at the 2.2.2. Many believe they have enough tertiary level. However, the main reason reported education, which is a major reason for among men from the highest and lowest income discontinuing schooling quintile for dropping out of school in 2022 was that they had as much education as they wanted (61.7 The reasons behind the reverse gap in higher percent and 47.5 percent, respectively) (Figure education in Armenia require more research. 2.16). There are wide discrepancies among the Perceptions of low returns to higher education, main reasons reported among men and women, the greater pressure exerted on men relative to by income, for no longer pursuing education. For women to begin earning, the lack of skilled jobs, example, family is the second main reason among the higher returns on criminal activity, and norms wealthier women for dropping out of school (35.7 of hegemonic masculinity are some of the factors percent) (after achieving as much education as Figure 2.14. Gross enrollment rates, by sex, Figure 2.15. Enrollment in tertiary education, by 2022, % sex, % 70 80 70 60 60 % of individuals 50 50 % of individuals 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 10 0 Women Men Basic Higher Bachelor’s Master’s Source: WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World vocational vocational degree degree Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ dataset/0037712. Men Women Note: Tertiary education includes bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees, and other advanced academic programs that follow Source: ArmStat 2023a/b. secondary education. ²⁷ See ArmStat (2023c); 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. ²⁸ The tertiary enrollment rate among men (% of gross) in 2020 was lower in Armenia than the average in Eastern Europe and Central Asia and in upper-middle-income countries and also relatively lower than the average among Armenia’s peers. For example, while the rate among men was 42 percent in Armenia in 2020, it was 62 percent in Georgia. See WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ dataset/0037712. 22 they wanted), but the corresponding share among countries, Armenian women are represented in women in the lowest income quintile was only large numbers in certain fields of study in science, 1.8 percent. Ill health and disability represent technology, engineering, and mathematics the second most important reason among men (STEM). Thus, they account for a larger share of in the highest and lowest income quintiles (16.7 students in higher education degree programs in percent and 11.2 percent). Having a job was more state institutions in mathematics and statistics critical than continuing in education among lower- (Figure 2.17). They represent an even larger share income respondents. Mandatory military service of the graduates in this area (59 percent). This is another reason explaining, at least partially, the is a recent trend that deserves more attention, low educational attainment among men.²⁹ as data indicate that the share in mathematics was lower among women than men in 2016 2.2.3. Sex segregation into traditional fields (World Bank 2016a). Yet, a majority of students in of study persists in connection with the engineering, industry and technology, information perceived roles and competencies of and communication technology, and architecture men and women and construction are still men (ranging from 62 percent to 91 percent). At the same time, the Armenian women continue to concentrate in share of women in education, social work, health fields of study that are traditionally regarded as care, the arts, and the humanities is much higher female. Contrary to trends observed across other than that of men (ArmStat 2022).³⁰ In private Figure 2.16. Reasons the 16–20 age-group did not continue in education, by sex and income quintile, 2022,% 100 2.9 5.6 14.4 % of respondents 80 50.5 76.8 61.7 47.5 60 40 35.7 6.7 8.6 20 14.7 11.2 13.8 16.7 0 Women Men Women Men I V Poor health and disability Has to work Too expensive Family reasons Does not want to study Has studied as much as wanted Other Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. Note: I = lowest income quintile. V = highest income quintile. ²⁹ Preliminary analysis using 2022 ILCS indicates that the new Law on Military Service and the Status of Servicemen enacted in November 2017 could have negatively affected the motivation for men to pursue tertiary education. It should be noted, though, that parts 3, 5, and 7 of Article 22 of the Law on Military Service and the Status of Servicemen, and the RA government decisions N430 and N451 of April 12, 2018, and N383 of March 23, 2023, define the cases and order by which citizens of Armenia are granted deferment from military service for educational purposes. According to the information provided during the April 2024 consultation, government’s 383N decision of March 23, 2023, defines the priority areas by the government to defer military service. These priority fields are mainly in STEM disciplines. Further research is needed to assess the impact of these additional changes in the law. The analysis was based on the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. ³⁰ Among women graduates in STEM in 2018 across the countries on which data are available, Armenia was among those with a relatively modest share, at 40 percent, relative to Albania (47 percent), Bosnia and Herzegovina (45 percent), Georgia (39 percent), and Moldova (31 percent). See WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. 23 institutions or at the postgraduate level, women Figure 2.18. TIMSS achievement, by sex, 2019 are no longer overrepresented in mathematics and statistics and there have not been any major 510 changes since 2010 (annex F, Figure F.1). 497 499 500 Sex-segregation into specific fields of study 400 is likely driven by societal perceptions of 480 Scores women’s competencies - rather than by actual 471 competencies. The data of the 2019 Trends in 470 462 International Mathematics and Science Study 460 demonstrate that girls outperform boys in 450 mathematics and science in Armenia (Figure 2.18). Perceptions that women and girls are not 440 Mathematics Science good mathematicians and the lack of role models for women and girls in STEM persist globally Boys Girls (Encinas-Martín and Cherian 2023). Biased social Source: Mullis et al. 2020. perceptions on the economic activities of women and Note: TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. Figure 2.17. Higher education, by sex and field, 2022, % 100 90 80 % of individuals 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Earth sciences Engineering Philological sciences Biological sciences Humanities Journalism & Information sciences Social and behavioral sciences Business and Administration Mathematics and statistics Law Security services Architecture and construction Physical sciences Environment Veterinary medicine Industry and technology Agricultural sciences Social work Art Chemistry Personal services Education ICT Forestry Healthcare Men Women Source: ArmStat 2022. 24 men endure in Armenia. Armenia and Georgia in education nor employment in Armenia, which show the smallest share of women and men (79 was more than twice the share among men percent and 73 percent, respectively) who agree and above the Eastern Europe and Central Asia with the notion that men can be as competent average for women in (15.2 percent) in 2019.³² as women in nursing relative to regional This highlights the persistence of major labor comparator countries (EBRD 2023). Armenia market and skill mismatches and represents likewise stands out among its peers showing a serious misallocation of human resource the largest share of women and men who view potential. In 2022, 69 percent of all NEETs were engineering as more suitable for men and the women (Figure 2.19). The gender gap was larger smallest share of individuals who believe both in rural areas (28.3 percentage points) than urban genders are equally suited in this area (Chapter areas (16.8 percentage points). The largest share 3. Access to Economic Opportunity). of women NEETs was among the 25–29 age- group (55.4 percent), followed by the 20–24 age- 2.2.4 The share of women not in education, group (43.2 percent). Education does not seem to employment, or training is relatively high protect Armenian women against NEET status. NEET rates are higher among women with upper- Over half of women ages 25–29 are neither secondary, technical, and vocational education working nor studying in Armenia, a striking and training, and tertiary education relative to share by regional standards.³¹ In 2022, among women with general basic and lower-secondary women ages 15–29, 36.8 percent were neither education (Figure 2.21). Figure 2.19. NEET distribution, by sex, 2022, % Figure 2.20. NEETs, ages 20–29, by sex and marital status, 2022, % 80 70.7 65.4 31% 60 % of individuals 40 133,609.7 NEETs 26.6 20.4 20.2 18.3 15.8 20 0 69% 0 Single Married Widowed Divorced/ Separated Women Men Women Men Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. ³¹ According to the International Labour Organization, in 2021, the overall share of NEETs among youth ages 14–24 was 27.7 percent in Armenia, compared with 20.2 percent in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 10.9 percent in Estonia, 26.8 percent in Georgia, and 22.5 percent in Moldova. See Work Statistics: 19th ICLS (WORK database), International Conference of Labour Statisticians, ILOSTAT, International Labour Organization, Geneva, https://ilostat.ilo.org/methods/concepts-and-definitions/description-work-statistics-icls19/. ³² See WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ dataset/0037712. 25 Figure 2.21. NEETs, by sex and education, 2022, % Figure 2.22. Reasons for NEET status, by sex, 2022, % 80 100 7.1 58.9 17.3 60 80 5.1 % of individuals 13.6 % of individuals 43.1 41.2 7.3 60 40 9.3 60.7 23.2 40 18.2 16.4 20 52.1 7.4 7.1 20 21.4 0 0 General General Secondary, Tertiary, Women Men basic and secondary specialized, Post- 2022 lower vocational graduate Job seeker Homemaker/caregiver Women Men Discouraged Unavailable Illness Other Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Family formation seems to play a crucial role among women, but not men, even in the case among young women who discontinue education when educational attainment is higher among and do not join the labor force. In 2022, the share of women than among men (World Bank 2019).³⁴ married women who were NEETs was significantly higher, at 70.7 percent compared with only 26.6 Conclusions. Armenian women tend to percent among single women - which was close to outperform men in the accumulation of human the 20.4 percent among single men (Figure 2.20). capital, especially in education. Armenian men The predominant reason women are classified as show higher mortality and lower educational NEET is homemaking and caregiving responsibilities, attainment than women, likely in connection accounting for 60.7 percent of women, compared with the military conflict. Women continue to with 0 percent among men.³³ Job-seeking accounts experience specific disadvantages, including for 52.1 percent of NEETs among men, while other persistently high maternal mortality ratios reasons account for 17.3 percent. The category and segregation into fields of study that are of “other” may reflect the high share of men who associated with less-productive, lower paying become NEETs after undergoing compulsory jobs. The share of women NEETs is also large, military service (Figure 2.22). Regression analysis which points to challenges in the transition from has shown that household composition (the school to work among women. This is the case presence of young children) and marital status even if Armenian women are overrepresented in (being married, in a union, or ever having been some STEM fields in education, unlike the trend married) are important correlates of NEET status across most countries. ³³ This aligns with the finding that the majority of NEET women of working age are mothers (61 percent) (calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212). ³⁴ Additionally, the poverty rate is higher among NEET women with children (29 percent) compared with NEET women without children (16 percent) (calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212). 26 CHAPTER 3 ACCESS TO ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY Additional efforts to advance gender equality 3.1). Although the female labor force participation in economic opportunity could yield significant rate in Armenia is within the regional average and benefits. By boosting labor supply, such efforts comparable with the rates in most peer countries, have the potential to reduce the significant the difference between men and women is demographic pressure on economic growth relatively substantial and greater than the 15.2 resulting from a shrinking and aging labor force.³⁵ percentage point average difference in Eastern They could also help overcome the stagnation in Europe and Central Asia in 2022 (Figure 3.2). The labor productivity growth, given that Armenian small drop in labor force participation among women generally have higher educational men in 2020 was likely related to the renewed attainment than men. According to estimates, military conflict in that year. achieving gender parity in labor force participation could increase Armenia’s gross domestic product 3.1.2. The labor force participation gap is linked (GDP) by 4 percent to 6 percent (IMF 2019).³⁶ to family formation and the roles of women 3.1. Labor force participation The primary reason women leave the labor 3.1.1. A comparatively large and growing gap in market is to start a family, and they tend to labor force participation persists stay inactive to take care of young children. The in Armenia gender gap in labor force participation is much larger among Armenian women during their peak Participation in the labor market remains more reproductive and caregiving years (ages 25–39) limited among women than men. The gap is (Figure 3.3). The gap in participation among these relatively large in Armenia compared with peer age groups ranges from 30.1 to 37.2 percentage countries and has been widening in recent years.³⁷ points compared with 23.0 percentage points In 2022, less than half of working-age women overall. Family circumstances are the primary were in the labor force, more than 20 percentage reason working-age women are not in the labor points below the male labor force participation force; 26 percent of women cite this reason rate. Moreover, the gap grew in 2018–22, as the compared with negligible percent among men, labor force participation rate rose to a greater while, among men, the main reason is education extent among men than among women (Figure followed by illness or disability (Figure 3.4). ³⁵ Women are also more engaged than men in unpaid work, representing untapped potential for economic growth (ArmStat 2023b). ³⁶ The analysis covers 2008–17. The estimate is based on the simple growth accounting framework. GDP growth is decomposed into the change in labor and labor productivity growth. The predicted impact on GDP is calculated by estimating the direct impact through an increase in labor input and the indirect impact through the productivity enhancing channel. ³⁷ In the comparison of rural and urban labor force participation rates, there is no spatial gap among men until they reach age 60, at which point the rate becomes slightly higher in rural areas. Among women, however, a significant gap exists among the younger cohort (ages 20–29), and urban women show higher labor force participation rates. This trend reverses as women age, mirroring the pattern observed among men, with higher labor force participation rates among women in rural areas. This is based on calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. 27 Figure 3.1. Labor force participation rate, by sex, % Figure 3.2. Man- woman gap in labor force participation, 2022 80 68.8 71.7 69.3 70 71.2 40 % of working age population 60 30.1 30 Percentage point 49.6 49.4 47.8 48.2 22.2 22.2 22.9 40 47.2 20 15.2 11.6 20 10.2 10 0 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 0 MDA EST ECA GEO ARM BIH XKX Women Men Sources: ArmStat 2022; Work Statistics: 19th ICLS (WORK database), International Conference of Labour Statisticians, ILOSTAT, International Sources: ArmStat 2022, 2023c. Labour Organization, Geneva, https://ilostat.ilo.org/methods/ Note: Working-age population = ages 15–74. concepts-and-definitions/description-work-statistics-icls19/. Figure 3.3. Labor force participation rate, by sex Figure 3.4. Reasons for not working during the and age, 2022, % last month, by sex, ages 15–74, 2022, % 100 88.3 90.4 89.2 89.3 Student (studying/going to continue education) 87.5 83.7 79.3 Illness/injury/incident 80 62.3 % of individuals 66.5 Household chores/family circumstances Considered too young/too old to find a job 60 68.4 66.4 Childcare 62.5 42.7 59.1 Have just returned from abroad 40 51.1 53.7 57.7 30.8 Lack of jobs in the area 12.8 43.4 42.7 No hope to find a suitable job 20 Waiting for the work/work season to resume 8.8 24.5 0 Care of a sick family member Going abroad/is abroad Do not want to work 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 Do not know where and how to look for a job Others Age range 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Women Men % of respondents Women Men Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Note: Includes all individuals ages 15–74. Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Quantitative analysis confirms that the of participation by around 17 percentage presence of young children (ages 0–5) in points. Among men, the impact is the opposite, the household is the main factor behind increasing the participation rate by almost 3 the lower labor force participation among percentage points (Figure 3.5). The more children women. Simple regression results show women have, the more likely they are to be out that the marginal effect of having a child on of the labor force (Figure 3.6). The fact that rural women’s labor force participation is negative and residence impacts participation positively may be statistically significant, reducing the probability an indication that agricultural work can be more 28 easily combined with family responsibilities, use survey finds that one woman in four and one which is consistent with findings in international woman in five who had not worked during the studies.³⁸ The presence of persons with previous week reported homemaking and taking disabilities in the household affects women’s care of a child as the main reasons, respectively. participation in the labor force, but to a lesser Almost no men reported these reasons (Figure extent (decreasing it by around 12 percentage 3.7). Half of the men respondents indicated that the points). This is important given the higher main reason they were not working fell under the numbers of men with a disability as a result of category “other”, which may include compulsory the military conflict. Having an elderly member, military service for younger men (Box 3.1). Gender however, does not seem to affect female labor gaps in time allocation persist. Relative to men, force participation. women dedicate more time to childcare by a factor of three and more time to household chores by a Women continue to shoulder most household factor of four (Figure 3.8). The fact that women chores and care responsibilities, which earn significantly less than men seems to be prevents them from engaging in paid work another strong deterrent to women’s engagement outside the household. A recent World Bank time in paid work (World Bank 2019). Figure 3.5. The marginal effect of having a child Figure 3.6. The marginal effect of having a child on labor force participation on female labor force participation, by number of children 1 2 3 4+ 0 -17.3 Women Percentage point -10 -9.6 -20 -18.4 2.9 Men -24.4 -30 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 -31.9 Percentage point -40 Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat. Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat. am/en/?nid=205. am/en/?nid=205. Note: Reference group = individuals without a child (age 0–5) in the Note: Reference group = individuals without a child (age 0–5) in the household. The estimate relies on the coefficient under the regression household. The estimate relies on the coefficient under the regression model that controls for age, age square, presence of the child(ren) model that controls for age, age square, presence of the child(ren) ages 0–5, educational attainment, presence of a disabled person in ages 0–5, educational attainment, presence of a disabled person in the household, location, and province. For the regression results, the household, location, and province. For the regression results, see annex I, Table I.1. The regression is restricted to individuals ages see annex I, Table I.1. The regression is restricted to individuals ages 15–74 and individuals not in school. 15–74 and individuals not in school. ³⁸ For example, using cross-country panel data, Bloom et al. (2007) show that women’s labor force participation is higher in agricultural economies. 29 Figure 3.7. Reasons not to work in previous Figure 3.8. Time allocation, by sex, hours week, by sex, % per week 100 Women Men % among adult respondent who did not work during 18.2 80 48.2 the past week 19.2 60 2.4 12.6 7.5 3.2 9.6 2.9 22.6 5.1 19.8 40 9.4 17.7 31.3 3.1 32.7 20 24.8 26.3 4.8 0 26.8 Women Men 14.4 9.8 1.9 3.5 Other Taking care of elderly person at home 1.3 Taking care of child Family circumstances Have given up looking for job Have found a job, waiting for it to start Sleeping Elderly care Childcare Don’t want to work Pensioner Working and commuting Studying Homemaker Student Leisure Domestic tasks Other Source: Armenia: Special Survey on Time Use and Gender Disparities Source: Armenia: Special Survey on Time Use and Gender Disparities 2022 (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https:// 2022 (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https:// datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0064739/Armenia--- datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0064739/Armenia--- Special-Survey-on-Time-Use-and-Gender-Disparities-2022. Special-Survey-on-Time-Use-and-Gender-Disparities-2022. Box 3.1. The impact of conflict on employment: international experience A crucial way in which conflict is expected to affect individual well-being negatively is through the impact of conflict on the labor market. Data are limited on this topic, but the few international studies available show a negative correlation. For example, a negative correlation has been reported in Argentina, Gaza, Peru, Spain, and Türkiye (Caceres-Delpiano 2019; Di Maio and Sciabolazza 2022; Torun 2016). Similarly, Feldmann (2009) finds a positive correlation between no or short-term military conscription and lower unemployment in 73 economies. More data are also needed to assess the impact of conflict on women’s employment. International evidence shows mixed results. Some studies indicate that women’s participation in the labor market, especially in low-skill and informal jobs, tends to rise with crises (Klugman and Mukhtarova 2020; Menon and Rodgers 2015; OECD 2022; UN Women 2012), while others reveal a decline in female labor market participation (Pulido-Velásquez, Alegría Castellanos, and Cruz 2022), particularly among displaced women (Brücker, Jaschke, and Kosyakova 2019; Brücker, Kosyakova, and Vallizadeh 2020; Carlson and Williams 2020; Graeber and Schikora 2020; Kosyakova and Brenzel 2020; Liebig and Tronstad 2018; Maliepaard, Witkamp, and Jennissen 2017; OECD and EC 2016; Salikutluk and Menke 2021; Spörlein et al. 2020; Worbs and Baraulina 2017). For more information, see the Background Note on access to economic opportunity for the Armenia Country Gender Assessment (Nozaki et al. 2024b). 30 Social norms affect women’s labor force household income, as indicated by the larger share participation. This is supported by findings from a of women who believe that both women and men few data sources, such as the 2023 Life in Transition should be breadwinners, the data also show that a Survey IV (EBRD 2023). For instance, in Armenia, a significant number of men (87 percent) and women considerable share of adults agree or strongly agree (69 percent) believe that it is better for everyone with the notion that men should have more rights involved if the man earns the money, and the woman to a job than women when jobs are scarce (Figure takes care of the home and children (Figure 3.11). 3.9).³⁹ A majority of the men, along with half of the More than two respondents in three agreed that a women, believe that men should be the primary woman should do most of the household chores breadwinners (Figure 3.10). While there is a greater even if the husband is not working (Figure 3.12). This aspiration among women to contribute more to belief is more common among men in Armenia than Figure 3.9. If jobs are scarce, men should take Figure 3.10. Who should normally be the the jobs before women, % of respondents breadwinner? % of respondents 80 14% 72 19% 60 % of respondents 50 49 40 28 26% 20 28% 10% 1 0 A man A woman Equally Disagree strongly Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Agree strongly Women Men Source: Armenia: Special Survey on Time Use and Gender Disparities Source: GNDPREF: The Preferred Gender of the Child (dashboard), 2022 (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https:// Caucasus Barometer 2019 Regional Dataset (Armenia and Georgia), datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0064739/Armenia--- Caucasus Research Resource Center, Tbilisi, Georgia, https:// Special-Survey-on-Time-Use-and-Gender-Disparities-2022. caucasusbarometer.org/en/cb2019/GNDPREF/. Figure 3.11. The man should earn the money, and Figure 3.12. A woman should do most of the the woman should take care of the children, household chores even if the husband is not 2023, % working, 2023, % 100 80 87 68 69 78 81 80 80 73 74 72 58 % of respondents 70 % of respondents 69 64 60 55 53 62 47 50 60 59 45 46 44 40 35 39 40 40 30 20 16 20 10 0 0 ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX Women Men Women Men Source: EBRD 2023. Source: EBRD 2023. ³⁹ Among men, 51 percent agree or strongly agree with the statement, compared with 42 percent among women. 31 in comparable countries. The simple regression remain high for both Armenian women and men. model that accounts for individual characteristics The unemployment rate has decreased by 6.6 (such as age, marital status, educational attainment, percentage points for women and 4.7 percentage and presence of children) also reveals a positive points for men between 2018 and 2022. There correlation between gender-equitable views and has also been a decline in the gender gap in the labor force participation among women but not unemployment rate, down from 2.5 percentage among men (annex K, Table K.1, panel c). points in 2018 to below 1 percentage point in 2022 (Figure 3.13). Moreover, the gap is relatively 3.2. The type and sector of employment small by international standards, demonstrated by the women-to-men ratio in unemployment 3.2.1. Women show comparable unemployment rates being very close to 1 (or nearly equal) (Figure rates and have entered higher-skill 3.14), although there may be variations in this occupations gap across the lifecycle (Figure 3.15). Moreover, unemployment rates for those under 25 are Overall gaps in unemployment have narrowed significantly higher than the national average over time, although youth unemployment rates for both women and men (Figure 3.15). Although Figure 3.13. Unemployment, by sex, % Figure 3.14. Women to men unemployment ratio 30 2 1.6 % among the labor force 20.4 1.5 19.3 19.1 20 1.0 Ratio 15.2 1 0.8 13.8 0.7 0.8 17.9 17.5 17.2 15.7 13.2 0.5 10 0 MDA GEO EST ARM BIH 0 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Sources: ArmStat 2023c; Work Statistics: 19th ICLS (WORK database), International Conference of Labour Statisticians, ILOSTAT, International Women Men Labour Organization, Geneva, https://ilostat.ilo.org/methods/ Sources: ArmStat 2022, 2023c. concepts-and-definitions/description-work-statistics-icls19/. Figure 3.15. Unemployment rate, by age and sex, % Figure 3.16. Youth unemployment rate, 2018–22, % % of unemployed to labor force % of unemployed to labor force 40 60 35 50 30 40 25 30 20 20 15 10 10 5 0 15-19 20-24 15-19 20-24 15-19 20-24 15-19 20-24 15-19 20-24 0 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Age range Women Men Women Men Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. 32 youth unemployment has declined (Figure (Figure 3.18). The correlation between educational 3.16), it deserves special attention as it implies attainment and labor force participation is positive a weak start in the labor market with long- among women. The highest correlation is observed term implications (for example, see Sawhill and among women with tertiary education (Figure 3.20). Karpilow 2014). 3.2.2. Women tend to be engaged in part-time Women have made advances into occupations jobs and activities associated with that require higher skills, partly because of their lower pay higher levels of education. The share of people employed in occupations that require advanced Despite the trends described above, women’s skills, such as professionals and technicians, is access to opportunities in the labor market larger among women than men, and this is true is limited as reflected in their larger share throughout the period of the analysis (2018–22). in part-time employment, which is nearly The share in elementary occupations is smaller double that of men. The gap in the share of among women than men (Figure 3.17).⁴⁰ The part-time workers between women and men narrower vertical labor market segregation may was persistently around 10 percentage points be related to higher educational attainment among during 2018–22 (12.5 percentage points in 2022) women (Chapter 2. Human Capital Accumulation; (Figure 3.21). The share of women among part- Figure 3.19). The gender gaps in employment narrow time workers was relatively larger in Armenia as educational attainment among women rises compared to peer countries (Figure 3.22). Figure 3.17. Distribution of occupations, by sex, % Figure 3.18. Worker shares, by sex and educational attainment, % 100 8.7 % of workers aged 15-74 13.2 100 6.2 10.2 21.6 15.1 80 46.9 49.9 % of individuals 63.7 69.1 17.4 19.6 60 70.2 50 12.7 15.8 40 6.2 53.1 50.1 25.6 12.8 20 36.3 30.9 0 29.8 Women Men 0 Basic vocational Higher vocational Tertiary and higher Secondary Preliminary Elementary occupations Operators & assemblers Craft workers Agricultural workers Services & sales workers Clerks Technicians professionals Professionals Legislators, senior officials, managers Women Men Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Source: Calculations using 2022 LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Note: Calculations using the indicators labelled employed persons by Note: The estimates include all workers ages 15–74. Estimates for occupation groups and by sex. Since 2018, the methodology behind those with primary education or lower are dropped because of the the Labor Force Survey has been revised. See ArmStat (2020). small sample size. ⁴⁰ This pattern is consistent across urban and rural areas. A larger share of women work as professionals and technicians compared with men (49 percent and 28 percent, respectively), while a larger share of men are employed in elementary occupations. In rural areas, 53 percent of women work as agricultural workers compared with 44 percent of men. However, the share of legislators, senior officials, and managers is consistently greater among men than women, especially in urban area (7.0 percent and 3.8 percent, respectively) (calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212). 33 Figure 3.19. Education among the employed, % Figure 3.20. Marginal effect of education on labor force participation, women 100 53.7 60 Percentage point 44.4 43.9 80 29 37.3 35.3 40 28.3 % of individual 60 16.6 20 3.9 24.2 40 0 2.3 Tertiary and higher Basic Secondary Preliminary vocational Higher vocational 46.1 20 33.8 0 Men Women Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Primary and below Basic Secondary Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat. Preliminary vocational Higher vocational am/en/?nid=205. Tertiary and higher Note: The regression is restricted to women ages 15–74 and women not in school. Reference group = those with educational attainment Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, lower than basic. The estimate relies on the coefficient under the Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of regression model which controls for age, age square, presence of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. child(ren) ages 0–5, educational attainment, presence of disabled Note: The estimates include all workers ages 15–74. person in the household, location, and region. For regression results, see annex I, Table I.1. Figure 3.21. Part-time employed, by sex, % Figure 3.22. Part-time employment, 2022, % of total employment % among employed women/men 30 27 25.5 45 23 40 % of total employment 21 22 35 20 30 25 20 14 13 10 13 12 15 11 10 5 0 0 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 BIH MDA XKX ARM EST Women Men ECA Women ECA Men Women Men Sources: ArmStat 2023c; WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog. Sources: ArmStat 2022, 2023c. worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. Although part-time employment is a choice part-time roles are there at employer request, for some women, the rate of involuntary compared with only 9 percent among men part-time work driven by employer demand is (Figure 3.23). Given that part-time employment is notably higher among women. In Armenia and associated with lower hourly wages and typically in many other countries, part-time work serves with poor career prospects, the prevalence of as an entry point into the labor market among part-time jobs driven by the demand side of women who may not otherwise participate, the labor market (that is, by employer demand often because of caregiving responsibilities instead of worker preference) may be one of the (for example, see Barbieri et al. 2019). However, factors reinforcing gender segmentation in the the data also show that 21 percent of women in labor market.⁴¹ ⁴¹ The hourly wage was lower for part-time employment than for full-time employment among both women and men ages 15–74. The hourly wage was AMD 494 among women and AMD 555 among men in part-time work, compared with AMD 781 among women and AMD 1,057 among men in full-time work. 34 Figure 3.23. Reasons for part-time employment, Women continue to be overrepresented by sex, % in traditionally female activities that are associated with lower pay. Women are 100 16.4 12.0 disproportionately present in activities associated 80 with lower mean hourly wages such as education, % of individuals 30.0 43.2 human health, and social work activities, while 60 men are over-represented in activities with higher 20.7 9.0 average wages, such as mining and quarrying, 40 construction, defense and social security, 20 22.8 34.4 transportation and storage or electricity and 10.1 related activities (Figure 3.24). For example, 14.6 0 1.4 Women Men percent of the employed men were in construction Others Seasonality compared with almost 0 percent among women.⁴² By the initiative of the employer The opposite is true in education, where almost one Could not find a full-time job Care responsibilities employed woman in five is engaged in education compared with only 3.8 percent of men. The Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of mean hourly wage in construction is almost twice Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. the wage in education. This disparity in hourly Figure 3.24. Employment, by activity, sex, and mean hourly wage % of employed population 25 2,000 1,800 20 1,600 1,400 15 1,200 AMD 1,000 10 800 600 5 400 200 0 0 Mining and quarrying Electricity, gas, steam, air conditioning supply Public administration, defense, social security Wholesale, retail trade, repair Extraterritorial organisations and bodies Financial and insurance activities Transportation and storage Manufacturing Construction Other service activities Professional, scientific and technical Real estate activities Administrative and support service Arts, entertainment and recreation Human health and social work activities Water supply, sewerage, waste management Agriculture, forestry and fishing Information and communication Education Activities of households as employers Accommodation and food service Women Men Mean hourly wage (right axis) Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Note: This includes all workers ages 15–74. Green indicates sectors with a substantial gap in employment share, wherein women are overrepresented. Orange indicate cases where men are overrepresented. ⁴² The estimate may be affected by the small sample size. For example, among 919 observations in the construction sector, only 14 were women in 2022. Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. 35 wage, with the construction sector paying higher appealing for women due to safety concerns than the education sector, appears to be specific and the physical nature of the work. In contrast, to Armenia. According to a study of 2019 that the demand for teachers in the education sector presents the hourly wage by sector in Bulgaria, seems to be declining, accompanied by a rise in Croatia, Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovak part-time employment, attributed to a rise in Republic, and Slovenia, the education sector wage school closures and a decrease in the school- is higher than the construction wage in these age population in recent years (UNICEF 2022).⁴⁵ countries (Astrov et al. 2019). Nonetheless, the share of women working in education has risen slightly since 2018, while Women remain engaged in sectors that are a substantial share of women are still pursuing considered socially acceptable, yet these majors in education (Chapter 2. Human Capital sectors may not be generating new demand for Accumulation).⁴⁶ labor, possibly leading to comparatively low wages.⁴³ For instance, Armenia’s information Women’s employment appears to be more technology sector has emerged as a rapidly vulnerable to shocks as revealed during the growing export-oriented industry, with service COVID-19 pandemic. Among workers laid off exports in 2022 surpassing those of peer during COVID-19, 70 percent were women (World countries, except for Estonia, and is associated Bank 2020b). In services, women represented with high hourly wages (Figure 3.24).⁴⁴ nearly 90 percent of laid-off workers (Figure However, the most in-demand professions in 3.25). The disproportionate impact of COVID-19 the information technology sector, according on women’s employment is likely related to to a survey conducted by the Ministry of High- the types of sectors and occupations where Tech Industry, are engineering, information and women are more usually found and on which the communication technology, and physics, fields pandemic took a particularly high toll. In addition, in which a small share of women specialize and as highlighted earlier, women have taken on (Chapter 2. Human Capital Accumulation; ARKA a larger share of the additional demand for care, Telecom 2021). Construction, another rapidly making it more difficult for them to continue with growing sector associated with a relatively high their economic activities (de Paz, Gaddis, and hourly wage, is by men and is less likely to create Müller 2021). labor demand for women while also being less ⁴³ There are rural-urban gaps in the sectors of employment. In rural areas, approximately half of the working population ages 15– 74 is employed in agriculture (55 percent of women and 48 percent of men). For women in urban areas, the largest is education sector (19 percent). For men, the largest sector in urban areas includes manufacturing, wholesale, and construction, whereas in rural areas, it is primarily construction following agriculture. The calculations are based on LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212.). ⁴⁴ Armenia’s information and communication technology service exports were valued at approximately AMD 711 million, with a growth rate of about 86 percent, in 2021–22. See WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0037712. ⁴⁵ Among part-time workers in the education sector, the share of women working part-time because of employer requests increased in 2018–21, peaking at 55 percent in 2021 before dropping to 38 percent in 2022. Among men, the share of part-time workers because of employer requests remained stable at around 36 percent–38 percent in 2020–22. The calculations are based on LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212.). ⁴⁶ The share of working women ages 15–74 in the education sector was 18.7 percent in 2018 and 19.2 percent in 2022, according to calculations using LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. 36 arose partly because paid paternity leave became Figure 3.25. Labor market impacts of COVID-19 possible in Armenia in 2021, allowing fathers to take 100 88.9 87.6 up to five days within the first 30 days after the % of workers 80 70.2 birth, and partly because of the recent enactment 60 44.5 49.1 of legislation prohibiting sexual harassment in the 40 20 9.7 workplace. The WBL 2024 index recognizes this 0 reform, leading to an improvement in the WBL 1.0 Manufacturing Country average Services Men Women score from 85.5 in 2023 to 90.6 in 2024. However, room for improvement exists in the areas of workplace legislation and policies, especially with regard to pay and entrepreneurship. Legal National Sector Manager provisions to prevent discrimination on the basis Proportion of women workers among the workers of pregnancy or child-rearing exist in Armenia. laid off However, there are reports that employers are Proportion of full and part-time women employed reluctant to hire pregnant women, women who in each sector might become pregnant soon, or women who Sources: Calculations using 2020 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of have young children (Karapetyan et al. 2022). In Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212; World addition, the domestic legislative framework is Bank 2020b. insufficient for securing healthy and safe working 3.2.3 The gaps in employment type and sectors conditions for pregnant and breastfeeding women are largely related to social perceptions (Karapetyan et al. 2022). The WBL 2.0 score is lower on the types of activities that are better (75), reflecting the lack of supportive frameworks suited for women and the lack of a to implement the laws (World Bank 2024). complete, supportive family policy. The government has put into place a The government has made significant progress comprehensive system of family policies in putting together a complete and advanced providing support to parents during the early legal and policy framework for gender equality years of the child’s life. The provision of paternity in the economic sphere. Table 3.1 shows the leave, the maternity benefit for nonworking scores of each component comprising the mothers’ program, the parental childcare Women, Business, and the Law (WBL) 2024 index allowance, and the childbirth lump sum universal for Armenia. The improvement in the WBL score benefit are all important advancements in the using the WBL 1.0 methodology in previous years Armenian legislative and policy framework that will provide some degree of income security after Table 3.1. WBL 2024 Index, Armenia childbirth even to women that are not engaged in formal work. The Armenian legislation is WBL 1.0 WBL 2.0 WBL 2.0 WBL 2.0 legal legal supportive expert also quite advanced with regards to the right of frameworks frameworks frameworks opinions breastfeeding mothers to take breaks or work score score score score shorter hours (Box 3.2). Armenia also offers a public system of subsidized childcare services 90.6 75.0 33.3 71.9 for children ages 0–6 (World Bank 2019). Source: Armenia (dashboard), Women, Business, and the Law, However, the lack of public data on the number World Bank, Washington, DC, https://wbl.worldbank.org/en/data/ exploreeconomies/armenia/2024. of women and men benefiting from most of these Note: The WBL 1.0 was based on eight indicators of the legal schemes does not allow to evaluate them and framework. The new methodology, WBL 2.0, includes an evaluation of the legal framework and laws, the supportive mechanisms to inform policy developments moving forward implement the laws, and the opinions of experts on women’s rights and opportunities. WBL = Women, Business, and the Law. (Karapetyan et al. 2022). The focus of the system 37 seems to be on promoting childbirth, incentivize on facilitating conciliation, acquiring a more the registration of women in health facilities for balanced distribution of responsibilities between checkups, and to partially compensate families men and women and preventing discrimination for certain expenses after birth rather than (Karapetyan et al. 2022). Box 3.2. The family policy system in Armenia A compulsory maternity leave of 140 days exists in Armenia for working mothers with an employment contract and self-employed women – 10 weeks pre-birth and 10 post-partum. The benefit is calculated based on the last 12 months monthly wage. A ceiling of 15 and five monthly minimum wages is applied to the benefit for salaried and self-employed workers, respectively, as well as a floor of 50 percent of the minimum wage. The leave is funded from the state budget.⁴⁷ A noncontributory maternity benefit is provided as social assistance at childbirth to nonworking women. Beneficiaries receive a lump sum pregnancy benefit for the same maternity leave period—140 days—as working women but a lower benefit linked to the minimum wage (50 percent of the minimum wage is used as basis). Article 258(5) of the Labor Code stipulates that a breastfeeding woman shall be given an additional break of at least 30 minutes once every three hours to feed a child until the child is 18 months old. During the period of breaks prescribed to feed the child, the employee shall be paid the amount of the average hourly salary. While most countries with breastfeeding breaks provide two 30-minute breaks, a few countries (15) provide breaks totaling more than 60 minutes. Armenia is one of them. The Labor Code also foresees an obligation for employers to furnish dedicated lactation rooms or separate places (Karapetyan et al. 2022). There is also a childcare allowance for parents (both men and women) taking care of a child up age two.⁴⁸ The childcare allowance has been reformed twice in recent years and now covers the entire population, although with variations in benefits among parents in formal employment relative to other parents. No support is available, either for the child or the caregiver, when the child is age two–three. This, coupled with limited availability of childcare services, may disincentivize women’s participation in the labor force. Emergency and long-term care leaves are provided but remain unpaid and only recognized for formal employees, and not for own account workers (ILO 2022). For more information, see the Background Note on access to economic opportunity for the Armenia Country Gender Assessment (Nozaki et al. 2024b). Sources: ILO 2022; Karapetyan et al. 2022; MoLSA, World Bank, and UNICEF 2020. ⁴⁷ This is important, since leaves financed by the employer can lead to implicit bias, whereby young women are not hired. Smaller firms might not even be able to afford it. ⁴⁸ Armenian families receive childcare allowances in the form of cash assistance to care for children ages up to two in the form of a categorical universal scheme intended for working individuals who take time off to care for children after birth. Although this offers some support to caregivers (both men and women), it only reaches those in the formal sector. Based on the information provided during the consultation, the nanny program, which supported childcare arrangements parallel to work before the child reached age two, was terminated despite being quite successful. 38 Despite these commendable efforts, the distribution of responsibilities between men and existing leave and benefits system could be women. Paid emergency and long-term care further strengthened. A maternity leave of leaves do not exist (ILO 2022). There is evidence 20 weeks exists in Armenia, above the average that employers in practice do not provide nursing among the countries of the Organisation for mothers with the opportunity to take advantage Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) of the right to take extra breaks or work shorter of 18.5 weeks and the minimum recommended by hours to feed their child. As sanitary and hygienic the International Labour Organization.⁴⁹ However, requirements for nursing facilities have not estimations based on the number of child benefit been adopted, this requirement is currently not recipients suggest that only 3 percent of women mandatory for employers (Karapetyan et al. 2022). employees and 30 percent of babies were covered by maternity leave between 2016 and 2019 Access to childcare services appears to be (Karapetyan et al. 2022). In addition, half of the leave limited. The data of the 2022 round of the must be taken before birth regardless of the family Integrated Living Conditions Survey show that preferences. The generosity of average maternal a majority of children ages under six are not in benefits under the Armenian legislation appears to childcare (63.8 percent).⁵¹ Most of the childcare meet international standards, with the exception available in Armenia seems to cater to children of higher income women (Karapetyan et al. 2022). ages more than three, while services for younger However, income protection during maternity children remain more limited.⁵² has been reported to be limited, largely due to the duration of the maternity leave and the value Although the main reason for Armenian of wage replacement varying between formally parents not to use childcare services is that employed, self-employed and nonworking the mother fulfills that role and does not work women (Ramírez López et al. 2021).⁵⁰ While an outside of the household, accessibility, cost important development in this area, the paternity and quality also appear to be important factors leave has yet to show any relevant effects, and (Figure 3.26). The 2022 round of the Integrated it is short (five days) compared for instance with Living Conditions Survey also confirms that the the average number of days of paternity leave in main reason for not taking children to childcare OECD countries (2.3 weeks) (Fluchtmann 2023). or having a babysitter taking care of them is In addition, the family allowance system does that the mother is not working (68.9 percent).⁵³ not provide incentives for fathers to partake in Limited physical accessibility and affordability the responsibility over childcare, which makes it appear to be additional reasons for not using the largely ineffectual in promoting a more balanced service, along with a general distrust of formal ⁴⁹ As of April 2022. ⁵⁰ The maternity benefit for nonworking mothers launched in 2016 grants support to nonworking women. ⁵¹ Calculations using 2022 data of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. ⁵² Public kindergartens catering to children ages two years and over are subsidized mostly through local budgets (Ayliffe, Honorati, and Zumaeta 2019). Kindergarten fees for Yerevan are set and annually extended by the municipal council. Those who meet some vulnerability criteria (for instance, one of the parents should have Yerevan registration, war veterans, one/both parents have disability, etc.) are exempt from fees; for others the fee is AMD 12,000 annually (US$30.26). The same applies to other municipalities with fees varying from AMD 5,000 to AMD 12,000 (US$12.62–US$30.26) annually based on municipal budget allocations. However, capacity and quality concerns seem to move Armenian families into choosing more expensive, paid, private childcare arrangements (World Bank 2019). Concerns over the training and number of staff in kindergartens for children three-four years old would likely apply to facilities for younger children as well (Ayliffe, Honorati, and Zumaeta 2019). ⁵³ Calculations using 2022 data of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. 39 childcare institutions, especially among fathers. by social norms and perceptions. For example, Indeed, most care for children ages under six the 2023 Life in Transition Survey (EBRD 2023) happens in chargeable community kindergartens reveals gender bias in the perceptions on suitable (55.7 percent), followed by free community jobs for women and men, with these biases being kindergartens (26.8 percent).⁵⁴ The reforms in particularly pronounced in Armenia compared the childcare allowance (Box 3.2) are contributing with peer countries (Figure 3.27). Norms and to the affordability of services, making the issue stereotypes regarding women’s role as caregivers of availability and social norms more salient. and homemakers also seem to account for the significant share of women employed in part- The sectors and type of employment that time jobs. These norms also create additional women and men choose are largely influenced barriers for women to enter entrepreneurship. Figure 3.26. Main reasons for not using childcare services, by sex of the respondent, 2022, % Other family relatives or acquaintances provide childcare free of charge 1.8 1.4 Other household members provide childcare free of charge [elderly (63+)] 2.7 3.2 3 The mother of the child works from home and provides childcare 3.4 Do not trust childcare centers 6.3 3.8 Working hours of childcare center not suitable 1.8 4.1 Child requires special attention or has mental development, 2.8 disability problems 4.6 Too costly 5.7 8 Closed due to COVID-19 8.2 9.8 Too far away 9.3 13.7 The mother of the child does not work and provides childcare 19.7 14.7 0 5 10 15 20 25 % of respondents Men Women Source: Armenia: Special Survey on Time Use and Gender Disparities 2022 (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog. worldbank.org/search/dataset/0064739/Armenia---Special-Survey-on-Time-Use-and-Gender-Disparities-2022. ⁵⁴ Calculations using 2022 data of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205. 40 Figure 3.27. How suitable are the following occupations for men or women by country and sex, 2023, % Engineer Surgeon % of respondents 100 100 % of respondents 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX Business manager Pilot % of respondents % of respondents 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX Primary school teacher Cleaner % of respondents % of respondents 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX Suitable for women Suitable for men Equally suitable Source: EBRD 2023. Note: The category suitable for women (men) corresponds to the share of respondents from each country who reported that the occupation was somewhat more / definitely most suitable for women (men). The category equally suitable corresponds to the share of respondents from each country who responded that the occupation was equally suitable for both men and women. 41 3.3. Gender wage gaps 13 percent in 2021 and relatively large compared with peer countries.⁵⁶ Moreover, it persists 3.3.1. A large and persistent wage gap exists even when controlling for the employment type in Armenia regardless of the occupation, (Figure 3.29). In the preceding section, it was educational level, or type of employment highlighted that a larger share of women held positions that demand advanced skills. However, Armenian women earned only around 71 even within the same occupation, we observe a percent of men’s hourly wages in 2022, a gap wage gap between women and men. This holds that has remained unchanged since 2018 and true across all occupations.⁵⁷ A gender wage gap that persists regardless of the employment is also evident at all educational levels. Although type, the occupation, or the educational level the gap is smaller at higher educational levels, (Figure 3.28).⁵⁵ The gender gap in hourly wages it remains consistently above 30 percent at all in Armenia is equivalent to the Eastern Europe levels (Table 3.2). The gender wage gap is also and Central Asia average at around 30 percent, evident in both the public and private sectors but higher than the European Union average of (Figure 3.29). Figure 3.28. Mean hourly wage and gender wage Figure 3.29. Hourly wage by part- and full-time gap, by year jobs 1,200 1,200 1,057 1,030 1,000 1,000 Real hourly wage (AMD) 1,015 1,003 901 956 960 Hourly wage (AMD) 910 800 31% 30% 31% 29% 800 781 775 31% 712 711 600 663 665 599 627 600 555 494 400 400 200 200 0 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 0 Men Men Men Men Women Women Women Women Women Men Source: Calculations using data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Full-time Part-time Public Private Note: Hourly wage expressed in real terms (base = 2022). This includes all workers ages 15–74. Percentage in the dotted area denotes the Source: Calculations using data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) gender wage gap calculated as a difference between mean hourly (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, wages earned by men and women expressed as a percentage of Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. men’s mean hourly wage. Note: This includes all workers ages 15–74. ⁵⁵ This estimate pertains to working-age women and men, ages 15–74, and represents the gap in unadjusted wages. ⁵⁶ The gender pay gap situation in the European Union, https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice- and-fundamental-rights/gender-equality/equal-pay/gender-pay-gap-situation-eu_en. The ratio of women’s hourly earnings compared with men’s in Armenia was lower at 0.8 compared with Bosnia and Herzegovina (0.9 in 2022), Albania (0.9 in 2018), and Moldova (0.9 in 2022). See https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/#, DG indicator 8.5.1 - Average hourly earnings of employees by sex (Local currency). ⁵⁷ This holds true even when the sample is restricted to full-time jobs. 42 Table 3.2. Hourly wage gap, workers ages 15–74 Educational attainment Wage (AMD) Wage gap (%) Women Men Basic 448.78 805.17 44% Secondary 623.38 895.68 30% Lower vocational 490.49 866.51 43% Middle vocational 576.87 913.13 37% Tertiary and higher 881.15 1250.97 30% Total 711.32 1003.33 29% Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Note: The wage gap is the difference in the hourly wage earned by men and women in the labor market, expressed as a percentage of men’s wage. The estimates include all workers ages 15–74. The gaps are all statistically significant at 0 percent. Estimates for those with primary education or lower are dropped due to small sample size (four for women and one for men). Even when accounting for all the factors 15–24 earned approximately 93 percent of what considered above (e.g., education, age, men in the same age-group earned, but this sector, type of employment, and occupation) percentage decreased to around 75 percent for the wage gap persists. Simple ordinary least women ages 25–44 (Figure 3.30). The increase squares regression results show that even after in the pay gap seems to coincide with the age controlling for these observables, Armenian at which women are more likely to become women earn 25-30 percent less than men (annex mothers. In 2022, the average age of mother H, Table H.1). Estimates show that factors such at childbirth was 28.7 years, and the average as educational attainment and experience are age at the birth of the first child was 25.9 years less salient in explaining the hourly wage, when (ArmStat 2023a). There is also an indication of controlling for sex and other factors. On the motherhood penalty in Armenia – the negative other hand, employment sector and occupation impact that motherhood has on women’s have a significant impact on wages. As an earnings. For instance, in 2022, mean hourly example, being in education and health sectors wage among women with children was lower and working part-time significantly lowers the than women without children during these years hourly wages. (Figure 3.31). 3.3.2. The gender wage gap seems to be linked The large observed gender wage gaps may to women’s role as mothers be related to an incomplete legal framework. and caregivers The Armenian law does not guarantee equal remuneration for work of equal value for The gender wage gap widens during ages men and women (World Bank 2024c).⁵⁸ Gaps 25–34, a period that corresponds with women in occupational choices may also be due to having their first child. In 2022, women ages the legacy of the labor code from the Soviet ⁵⁸ According to the Labor Code of Armenia, men and women should receive equal pay for the same or equivalent work. The code focuses on ensuring equal pay if individuals are performing the same job or work that is equivalent in skill, effort, and work conditions, comparing tasks, duties, and qualifications. Equal pay for work of equal value recognizes that jobs may differ in title and tasks and still have equal value. 43 era, where women were banned from 450 that is explained by individual characteristics and occupations in 38 different industries, including, that which cannot be explained. After considering but not limited to, construction, mining, observable characteristics, the remaining manufacturing, transport, and communications. unexplained portion is frequently attributed to Even though the list was repealed in 2004, discrimination and unobserved worker traits, restrictions regarding pregnant women and such as a tendency to be risk-averse and a mothers taking care of children ages under three preference for negotiation (Annexes J). Our were kept (Labor Code of Armenia, Article 258). analysis reveals that in Armenia, out of the hourly wage gap of AMD 333.6 to the disadvantage of However, a significant share of the gender women, around AMD 220–AMD 280 (amounting wage gap remains unexplained by the to 60 percent–80 percent of the gap) cannot be observed characteristics of workers. The wage explained by observable characteristics (based gap can be decomposed between the portion on models 4–7 in annex J, Table J.1). Figure 3.30. Gender wage gap, by age, % Figure 3.31. Mean hourly wage, mothers and others, by age 40 36.3 35.4 32.9 1,000 Mean hourly wage (AMD) 900 800 % of gender wage gap 30 25.8 700 600 24.6 500 20 400 300 200 10 100 0 7.1 19-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 0 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 Age range Mothers Non-mothers Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Source: Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Note: Includes all individuals ages 15–74. The wage gap is calculated Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat. as a difference between the hourly wages earned by men and women am/en/?nid=205. in the labor market, expressed as a percentage of men’s wage. Note: Includes all individuals ages 15–74. 3.4 Entrepreneurship and access to assets though the numbers are slowly increasing.⁵⁹ In 2022 the share of women entrepreneurs reached 3.4.1 Armenian women are underrepresented in 27.1 percent of the labor force compared with entrepreneurship and have smaller 37.8 percent among men (Figure 3.32). Relative to businesses relative to men regional standards, the share of women business owners is low. In the Eastern Europe and Central Women’s participation in entrepreneurial Asia region, it averaged 33 percent in 2020, while, activities in Armenia is lower than men’s, in upper-middle-income countries, it was higher, ⁵⁹ Entrepreneurs are defined as either (a) employers who are owners of a business with a permanent employer or (b) own account workers (including workers in farming activities) in the labor force survey. Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. 44 at 38 percent (World Bank 2020a). Despite these salient differences between the business profiles figures, a significant majority of Armenian women of male and female respondents. Women-owned (71 percent) expressed willingness to engage enterprises tend to be smaller, with a larger in entrepreneurship if childcare services were share of them categorized as micro-business, in more accessible.⁶⁰ This indicates a strong desire contrast to those owned by men (Figure 3.33). among women to become entrepreneurs. This is consistent with a study by the International Finance Corporation, indicating that businesses Women’s businesses also tend to be smaller owned by men reported an average of 15.5 full- (micro and small enterprises). Based on a time employees (11.8 men and 3.8 women), recent International Finance Corporation survey, whereas those owned by women reported only the size of their businesses is one of the most 3.3 employees (1.2 men and 2.1 women) (IFC 2021). Figure 3.32. Share of entrepreneurs among Figure 3.33. Entrepreneur business, by number workers 15-74, by sex and year, % of employees, % 50 100 0.0 6.3 40 36.1 36.8 36.2 37.8 % of entrepreneurs 33.5 80 37.5 30 43.0 % of businesses 28.7 60 27 27.1 20 23.7 22.9 40 10 62.5 0 50.7 20 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Women Men 0 Women-owned Men-owned Source: Calculation using 2016–22 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Medium (20-99) employees) Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Small (5-19 employees) Micro (<=5 employees) Note: The estimates represent the share of entrepreneurs, including both employers engaged in own business with regular employees or Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, own-account worker engaged in one’s own/family/personal/business/ Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of farming without regular employees) in their primary occupation. Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. ⁶⁰ Armenia: Special Survey on Time Use and Gender Disparities 2022 (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0064739/Armenia---Special-Survey-on-Time-Use-and-Gender- Disparities-2022. 45 Figure 3.34. Impacts of COVID-19 on female- and physical assets such as land (72 percent) male-led companies, % and dwellings (51 percent) (Table 3.3). This is 40 concerning in Armenia, where the proportion of 17 loans that require collateral is relatively high at 20 % of companies 2.5 around 70 percent, a figure that has remained 0 unchanged over time. The value of collateral -20 needed for a loan was also high at around 210 -40 percent in 2020 – above the Eastern Europe -60 -58 and Central Asia average of approximately 170 -80 -68 percent and OECD average of 90 percent, and Change in monthly Temporary sales compared to one closures one of the highest in the Caucasus and Central year ago Asia (Atamanchuk and Tokuoka 2023). According Woman manager Man manager to the local expert and feedback from the consultation, there is currently no law ensuring Source: 2019 and 2020 data of WBES (World Bank Enterprise Surveys) (dashboard), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://www. equal ownership of physical assets such as enterprisesurveys.org/en/enterprisesurveys. land and real estates. Traditionally, these assets are inherited by sons in the family. A recent Woman-owned or woman-led businesses have International Finance Corporation survey found likely been disproportionately affected by that while men are more likely than women to use the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the analysis personal/household savings to start a business, of Enterprise Survey data before and after the women are more likely than men to seek loans, pandemic, women-led companies appear to have and higher share of women reported absence been more vulnerable to the negative effects of of initial capital as barriers for entrepreneurship COVID-19. The fall in monthly sales was greater (26.2 percent of men versus 52.3 percent of among companies with a woman manager, at women) (IFC 2021).⁶¹ −68 percent compared with −58 percent among those with a male manager. Furthermore, a larger Figure 3.35. Trends in financial account share of women-led companies experienced ownership, by sex, % temporary closures due to the pandemic (World 70 Bank 2020b) (Figure 3.34). 60 3.4.2. Limited access to productive assets is a 50 % of individuals major constraint on women in business 40 55.8 59.4 Limited access to finance is one of the obstacles 30 50.2 women face in starting and expanding their 40.9 20 businesses. While financial account ownership 21.1 10 14.7 in Armenia has been on the rise, women still lag behind men. In 2021, 50.2 percent of women had 0 2014 2017 2021 an account in a financial institution, compared with 59.4 percent of men (Figure 3.35). They also Women Men lag in mobile payments and use of digital means. Source: WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ A significant share of women does not possess dataset/0037712. ⁶¹ A majority (88.2 percent) of loan applications were approved. Yet, participants in the qualitative study mentioned difficulty in obtaining loans due to high interest rates and collateral requirements (IFC 2021). 46 Similar to the challenges faced in labor Table 3.3. Ownership of assets by women, 2021, % force participation and securing full-time Property Type Owner (%) Co-owner Nonowner employment, traditional social norms that (%) (%) assign women to household and caregiving Land 7 18.9 72 roles create additional barriers for women to enter entrepreneurship. More women than House 10.3 36.2 51.1 men respondents cited lack of time (20.1 percent men; 25.1 percent women) and maintaining work/ Company 2 1.8 95.6 life balance (14.0 percent men vs. 21.9 percent women) as barriers to entrepreneurship. Finance Large cattle 1.6 12.3 85.9 is reported to be a barrier to equality by both (cows, horses, etc.) men and women (Figure 3.36), but women tend Crop from 3.2 24.6 71.9 to face extra difficulties due to less access to agricultural property and land due to reasons such as local production customs that grant inheritances to sons rather than daughters (IFC 2021). Some of the main Car (passenger) 5 5.4 89 reasons why men respondents believed most businesses were run by men reflected gender role Other property 1.1 2.1 95.5 stereotypes and assumptions: housekeeping and Source: ArmStat 2021. childcare responsibilities, men’s tendency to take up more risk, women’s need for men’s guidance, The legal and policy framework in Armenia and current customs and traditions (Figure 3.37). could be more supportive of women’s entrepreneurship. According to the WBL 2024 Figure 3.36. Obstacles to entrepreneurship, by ranking, the legislation on entrepreneurship in sex, 2021, % Armenia could be improved, as it does not yet Maintaining work/life prohibit discrimination in access to credit based balance on sex (World Bank 2024c). In addition, and even Lack of time when the law provides for equal inheritance rights Practices of competitors in between men and women,⁶² practices that favor informal sector men over women in this area may be limiting Political instability female asset ownership and access to finance and thus their opportunity of becoming entrepreneurs Access to finance (IFC 2021). Regarding land ownership, in the early Inadequately educated 1990s post-independence period, land allocation workforce was based on household headship, resulting in 0 10 20 30 40 50 most land being registered in the names of men, % of respondents who were considered household heads by default Women Men (IFC 2021). Source: IFC 2021. ⁶² Sons and Daughters Have Equal Rights to Inherit Assets from Their Parents (1=Yes; 0=No), (dashboard), Gender Data Portal, World Bank, https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/sg-iht-asst-pt-eq/. 47 Figure 3.37. Reasons why most businesses are run by men, 2021, % Legal restrictions Lack of financial resources for women Initial distribution of wealth in the ‘90s Women lack relevant skills and experience Men make better executives than women Relevance of informal arrangements at which women are not good Current customs and traditions Women’s dependency on men’s guidance More risk-taking behavior of men Women’s housekeeping and childcare responsibilities 0 10 20 30 40 50 % of respondents Women Men Source: IFC 2021. Conclusions: Despite progress, the improvement and now exceeds that of men. However, women in women’s endowments in Armenia over continue to have lower labor force participation time has not yet translated into equal access rates and, when they work, they are engaged to economic opportunities and returns to in part-time and lower-paying jobs than men. human capital. Armenia has made significant Practical barriers limit women’s participation in the improvements to its labor code to promote gender labor market. Women spend large share of their equality in the labor market since 2016 and has time on domestic and childcare responsibilities, due introduced important family policies such as to the persistent gaps in the formal institutional paternity leave. Unemployment rates among men framework but especially in connection with and women are comparable, while the share of traditional gender stereotypes. women in higher skilled occupations has increased 48 CHAPTER 4 USE OF CAPITAL (VOICE AND AGENCY) Voice and agency, which refer to the capacity trillion, or 2 percent of GDP (CARE International to make decisions about one’s own life and the 2018). In some countries, the cost of GBV is up to potential to implement these decisions freely, 3.7 percent of GDP (Ouedraogo and Stenzel 2021). are the key enablers of the use of capital. There The main factors behind this association include is growing recognition of the important role that the decrease in hours worked, reduced productivity female leaders have in improving gender-specific per hour, lower long-term labor supply, diminished outcomes across dimensions of well-being through investment in human capital formation and in the enhanced provision of public goods and physical capital (Ouedraogo and Stenzel 2021). legislative reforms that benefit women (Anukriti et al 2022). Moreover, countries where women 4.1. Decision-making are better represented in decision making, for instance in government, tend to be more prosperous 4.1.1. Despite recent efforts and associated (Mirziyoyeva and Salahodjaev 2023; WPL 2023). The progress, Armenian women remain under- most extreme manifestation of women’s limited represented in democratic institutions agency is gender-based violence (GBV). Beyond its impact on individuals, GBV also incurs high economic Armenia has demonstrated remarkable costs for societies (Maruo et al. 2023; UN Women progress in women’s political representation 2024). Globally, the economic cost of lost productivity in national and local elected bodies, likely as due to domestic violence amounts to US$15 a result of the 30/70 quota. The government’s concerted efforts to promote women’s political Figure 4.1. Share of women in parliament, Armenia participation through legislative amendments and comparators, % led to women’s increased representation from 45 10.7 to 35.5 percent in the National Assembly 40 between 2016 and 2022. Consequently, Armenia % of parliamentary seats 35 outperformed many of its comparator countries as held by women 30 well as the Eastern Europe and Central Asia region, 25 averaging 31 percent (Figure 4.1). The effectiveness 20 of the quota system was further demonstrated 15 through a significant improvement of women’s 10 5 representation in the local elected body – Council 0 of Elders – from 9.4 percent in 2019 to 29 percent 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 in 2022 (ArmStat 2023c).⁶³ Despite significant improvements in women’s representation in the ARM ALB GEO EST BIH MDA legislative body of the government, considering that women make up 53 percent of the country’s Source: WDI (World Development Indicators) (Data Catalog), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/ population, there is still opportunity to move closer dataset/0037712. to gender parity in elected bodies. ⁶³ It has been conveyed during the stakeholder consultations that instances have occurred where elected female members of the local governments‘ Councils of Elders have resigned their positions by signing a form, subsequently transferring their mandates to male candidates. The exact number of such cases is unavailable. 49 Despite women’s improved participation grants to scientific teams headed by women in legislative bodies, their representation (Government of Armenia, decree of July 2, 2020, in leadership roles lags behind. In the 12 847-A/2). Data also show that the share of standing committees of the National Assembly, women managers is significantly lower in large women hold leadership positions only in five firms compared with men.⁶⁵ (one woman among committee chairs and four women among committee deputy chairs) (Figure Women’s representation in decision-making 4.2).⁶⁴ Moreover, in local governance, the share roles in appointed political positions where a of women as community heads constitutes quota does not apply is also low. Even though the only 6 percent, that is, four positions in the share of women ministers in Armenia reached its total of 71 (Figure 4.3). There are more women highest in the last decade, still out of 12 ministers represented as leaders in traditionally ’female’ only two ministerial positions (17 percent) are held sectors, such as education; however, the share of by women (Figure 4.4) (excluding deputy prime women is lower among leaders and managers in ministers both of whom are men). Women also sciences. To promote female leaders in science, account for only 18 percent of deputy ministers, the government has been issuing competitive holding eight of 45 positions (Figure 4.5). Figure 4.2. Share of women as committee Figure 4.3. Share of women as heads of chairs and deputy chairs, 2023, % communities, 2023, % 100 % of committee chairs and deputy chairs 80 6% 55.6 94% 60 88.9 40 20 44.4 0 11.1 Committee Committee Deputy Chairs Chairs Women Men Women Men Source: National Assembly 2023. Source: ArmStat 2023c. Figure 4.4. Share of women among ministers, Figure 4.5. Share of women among deputy 2023, % ministers, 2023, % 17% 18% 83% 82% Women Men Women Men Source: ArmStat 2023c. Source: ArmStat 2023c. ⁶⁴ The Standing Committees on Economic Affairs, Protection of Human Rights and Public Affairs, and Regional and Eurasian Integration are led only by a committee deputy chair. The Standing Committees on Financial-Credit and Budgetary Affairs, Foreign Relations, and Labor and Social Affairs are led only by a committee chair. The remainder of the National Assembly committees have both chairs and deputy chairs. ⁶⁵ Larger firms = firms with more than 51 full-time employees. The estimates are based on calculations using data from the 2021 round of WBES (World Bank Enterprise Surveys) (dashboard), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://www.enterprisesurveys. org/en/enterprisesurveys. 50 Improvements were observed in the judiciary, number of women in the judiciary (Figure 4.6).⁶⁸ although Armenia still does not compare In the Constitutional Court of Armenia, one of the favorably with peer countries. In the spirit of highest bodies of the judiciary, the share of women implementing the Action Plan on Promoting is even lower, at 11 percent (ArmStat 2023c). Gender Balance among Candidates for Judges, the government uses a legislatively prescribed 4.1.2. Women’s engagement in social quota to ensure women’s representation in the movements and in private sector decision- judiciary.⁶⁶ Nonetheless, the quota of 25 percent making are limited is below the Council of Europe recommendation of 40 percent. The quota of judges on the Supreme Civil society organizations (CSOs) in Armenia Judicial Court is also lower than recommended in play an important role in promoting gender practice (20 percent compared with 40 percent) equality both at the community and national (COE 2022). The quota led to a rise in the share of levels. Their efforts span from addressing issues women among judges in Armenia by 8 percentage through formal institutions to tackling barriers points, from 22.7 percent to 31.0 percent, in 2010– derived from social norms and stereotypes. 22.⁶⁷ Still, comparator countries show a higher To promote women’s representation in decision-making spheres, CSOs have actively Figure 4.6. Share of women among judges, participated in consulting Armenia’s Council on Armenia and comparator countries, 2021–22, % Women’s Affairs on women’s equal rights and 70 64.9 issues (Kopalyan 2023). They play a key role in 64.2 preventing and addressing GBV by providing % of women among judges 60 55.1 outreach and training programs and facilitating 50 48 crucial assistance for domestic violence 40 survivors.⁶⁹ Moreover, CSOs have been actively 31.3 30 engaged in responding to the crisis engendered 20 by the displacement of women and girls due to the conflict (UN Women 2023). 10 0 Despite improvements, women activists still ARM MDA GEO BIH EST face some obstacles in their capacity to exert Sources: ArmStat 2023c; Share of Women among Judges (data table), UNECE Statistical Database, United Nations Economic collective agency. Women are some of the most Commission for Europe, Geneva, https://w3.unece.org/PXWeb/en/ prominent and active human rights defenders Table?IndicatorCode=32. ⁶⁶ Article 109, part 5 provides that “where the number of the judges of either sex is less than 25 percent of the total number of judges, up to 50 percent of places in the list of contenders for judge candidates shall be reserved to the persons of the sex concerned who have received the maximum number of ‘for’ votes, but not less than at least more than half of those of all the members of the Supreme Judicial Council.” Article 76, part 3 provides “for the purpose of gender representation of judge members within the Supreme Judicial Council, the number of representatives of the same gender must be as restricted as possible to [a] maximum [of] three members, except for cases provided for by parts 12 and 13 of this Article.” See Armenia Commits to Implement a Law on Equal Rights and Opportunities and Sign the Istanbul Convention (Updated) (web page), UN Women (United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women), New York, https://www.unwomen.org/ en/get-involved/step-it-up/commitments/armenia. Also see COE (2022). ⁶⁷ See ArmStat 2023c; CEPEJ-STAT (Dynamic Database of European Judicial Systems) (dashboard), European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, https://www.coe.int/en/web/cepej/cepej-stat. ⁶⁸ Recent data on comparator countries are available only for 2021. The comparison is therefore made using 2021 data for comparator countries and 2022 data for Armenia. The share of women among judges in Armenia increased by only 2 percentage points in 2020–22. ⁶⁹ For instance, see Women’s Support Center (homepage), Yerevan, Armenia, https://www.womensupportcenter.org/?lang=en. 51 in Armenia, who advocate for the resolution of Armenian women still face some constraints prevalent issues that affect women and society in decision-making at home, especially among overall (Hovhannisyan and Shahnazaryan 2019). displaced populations. Nationwide, slightly more Women are particularly active as members of men (40 percent) are managing family budget CSOs. Nonetheless, in general, women in Armenia than women (37 percent), suggesting a dynamic are less likely to express interest in activism than where men have somewhat more agency at home men (IRI 2021). This may in part be attributed to than women (Figure 4.7). Moreover, the population certain challenges that women civic activists that comes from more conservative and rural fighting for gender equality come to face, in some conflict areas experience limited agency at home cases connected to time constraints and safety. with restricted mobility by their husbands or 24.7 percent of women, compared with 14.4 percent fathers, under-prioritization of women and girls of men name household chores as a hindrance to with pronounced preferential treatment toward engage in civic activism, a factor also contributing sons when it comes to resource distribution (food, to their limited economic opportunities and clothes, and so on), and exclusion of women from political participation (UNFPA 2011). Moreover, social gatherings (UNFPA 2024). along with other former Soviet Union countries, anti-gender equality campaigns have intensified 4.1.3. Traditional social norms underlie the in Armenia in recent years. Such campaigns have gaps in voice and agency targeted human rights defenders, including individuals and organizations advocating for Women’s limited voice and agency is likely gender equality (Khalatyan et al. 2020). connected with prevailing social norms in the country that tend to confine them to family Figure 4.7. Who manages your family budget? and household duties. Indeed, men are viewed 2021, % as better political decision-makers, while women’s main responsibility is believed to be My husband household matters. As many as 71 percent of I myself men and 58 percent of women consider that men All members of the family make better political leaders than women – the Together with a spouse highest share among all comparator countries My father (Figure 4.8). Stereotypes about women’s roles My wife and leadership abilities likely contribute to My mother Each family income earner internalized low self-confidence among women manages his or her own to take on public decision-making roles (Enfield My parents 2021). Additionally, public opinion polls show 0 5 10 15 20 25 that the main reason for women’s lack of political % of respondents participation is connected to their preoccupation Women Men with childcare and domestic responsibilities Source: IRI 2021. (Figure 4.9). 52 Figure 4.8. Share of women and men that Figure 4.9. Is it an important reason why report believing that men make better political more women are not politically engaged in leaders than women do (agree/strongly agree) the country? (Share of positive responses, by by country and sex, 2023, % gender), 2021, % 80 Women lack support from the 71 political parties they belong to 70 Even when women run for office, 64 61 61 61 they do not get elected 60 58 58 Women politicians are targeted by 50 hate speech in social media/media % of respondents 50 46 Women lack resources to 42 43 43 40 mount a campaign 39 40 Women lack the support network 30 Politics is dirty 20 Women lack family support 10 Women are preoccupied with childcare and domestic responsibilities 0 ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX 0 20 40 60 80 % of respondents Women Men Women Men Source: EBRD 2023. Source: IRI 2021. New data suggest that, while perceptions on gender roles has significant implications for of gender roles may vary by age, sex, and women’s outcomes in education and the labor educational attainment, some entrenched market. This is evidenced by a positive correlation social beliefs remain consistent. In addition, between more gender-equitable views and a traditional social norms are inversely associated higher likelihood of attaining tertiary or higher with important outcomes, such as women’s education, and participation in the labor force. civic engagement, pursuit of higher education, A positive correlation of progressive views and and labor force participation. Controlling for educational outcomes was also observed among individual characteristics, older women (above men (annex K, Table K.1). age 25) are less likely to believe that men should take as much responsibility as women 4.2. Gender-based violence for home and children, suggesting the deeply rooted perception of women’s role as better 4.2.1. The persistence of GBV continues to be the caretakers. Interestingly, stronger adherence to most extreme manifestation of the lack certain traditional social norms among women of agency among Armenian women with correlates with lower levels of civic engagement: very negative individual and social impacts women who believe that it is them who should do most housework even if the husband is not Despite the limited scope of evidence on working, as well as women who see men as the GBV in Armenia, it appears to be a persistent main breadwinners in the family, were also less phenomenon. Lifetime prevalence of domestic likely to have voted in the most recent nationwide violence among ever partnered women aged 15- and local elections in Armenia (EBRD 2023). Data 59 was recorded at 9.5 percent in 2009 and at also show that holding more progressive views 17.7 percent in 2021, with slightly higher incidence 53 reported in rural areas (Table 4.1) (ArmStat in transport, and nonpartner violence (by a family 2021).⁷⁰ However, tracking changes over time is member, friend, acquaintance, or a stranger) not possible due to data limitations. In particular, (World Bank 2022a). data collection shows inconsistencies, and higher incidence may just reflect, to some extent, the Underreporting is common and likely leading to increase in reporting of violence by women as the under-estimation of the real dimensions of the legal framework and social norms around GBV in Armenia. Underreporting of GBV cases is a it evolve. Notably, prior to mid-2018, data on worldwide issue (Box 4.1). As many as 43 percent reported instances of violence are unavailable, of women who were victims of the domestic making it impossible to ascertain any changes violence in Armenia, stated that they have never in reporting between 2018 and 2024. When it talked about the incident to anyone. More than comes to public perceptions, 18 percent and one survivor in two said they did not expect help 46 percent of Armenians consider domestic from anyone, while only 4 percent expected violence as highly prevalent and somewhat help from the police (Table 4.2). Another reason prevalent, respectively (Figure 4.10).⁷¹ In for underreporting may be the lack of thorough Armenia, studies conducted by official sources investigation of domestic violence cases that and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) is likely discouraging victims from seeking help focus mainly on domestic violence as a form of (HRW 2022). Improvement in the reporting of GBV GBV, while evidence is lacking on other forms of cases is crucial, given that women stated that, as violence, such as harassment at the workplace or a result of defending or responding to violence, the violence either stopped (in 39 percent of the Figure 4.10. In your opinion, how prevalent is cases) or decreased (in 17.6 percent of the cases) domestic violence as a problem in Armenia? 2021, % of all respondents (ArmStat 2021). 18% 4% Table 4.1. Prevalence of GBV in Armenia in 2021, % 7% Subjected to physical and/or 46% sexual violence (%), 2021 Settlement Throughout life During past 12 25% (%) months (%) Urban 16.8 4 Highly prevalent Somewhat prevalent Somewhat not prevalent Not prevalent at all Rural 17.7 5.3 Don’t know/Refused to answer Source: IRI 2021. Source: ArmStat 2021. ⁷⁰ The Survey on Domestic Violence against Women conducted by ArmStat focuses on the violence against ever-partnered women ages 15–59. It aims to investigate instances of violence experienced by these women from their current or former intimate partners. The indicators presented in the survey are based on self-reporting. ⁷¹ While these indicators do not reflect the actual cases of violence, they show the general public’s perception of GBV. 54 Table 4.2. Share of women who expect help as victims of gender-based violence, 2021, % Expects help from Total (%) Urban (%) Rural (%) No one 53.5 51.3 56.1 Husband’s relatives 8 6.1 10.3 Her relatives 13.6 13.9 20 Friends/neighbors 1.5 1.1 1.9 Medical center 1.3 1.1 1.4 Police 4 3.8 4.2 Priest/religious leader 0.8 1.1 0.5 Social worker 2.1 3 0.9 Human rights organizations and other structures 6.3 2 3 Source: ArmStat 2021. Box 4.1. Global reality of gender-based violence underreporting Global data from 44 countries suggest that one woman in two who has become a victim of any form of physical or sexual violence (49 percent), never asked for help to stop violence and never reported about the incident (World Bank 2022c). Women are much more likely to seek help from their own or their partner’s family, than from official sources (World Bank 2022c). Global analysis from 24 countries shows that out of the 40 percent of women who told someone about the incident of violence, only 7 percent reported it to an official source. At the same time, women who were formerly married, are not presently married, and older women were more likely to report the violence (Palermo, Bleck, and Peterman 2014). In some cases, the reasons for underreporting are related to social stigma stemming from the socio-cultural norms, or the fear of being denied help. In other cases, women fear that instead of receiving help, they will face intensified violence or shame and blame (World Bank 2022c). Underreporting may also be linked to conflict. Likely, two fifths of women who did not seek for help for physical and/or sexual violence have also experienced conflict (World Bank 2022c). Moreover, unfamiliarity with the reporting mechanisms, limited awareness of rights, or lack of quality services that provide survivors adequate safety, confidentiality, respect, or nondiscrimination could also increase the chances of underreporting (Maruo et al. 2023). 4.2.2 Despite progress in developing the GBV reported cases of GBV increased from 14 percent institutional framework, there is room to 45 percent between 2019 and 2023, while for improvement the share of offenders registered increased from 56 to 70 percent for the same period. In The government has made significant 2024, the government updated the name of the legislative and practical efforts to address 2017 ‘Law on Prevention of Violence Within the GBV. The share of urgent interventions among Family, Protection of Victims of Violence Within 55 the Family and Restoration of Peace in the (World Bank 2024a). Nonetheless, concrete Family’ to the ‘Law on Prevention of Family and procedures regarding investigation of such cases Domestic Violence and Protection of Persons are still to be determined, as an overarching anti- Exposed to Family and Domestic Violence’. At the discrimination law that would regulate them same time, the law expanded the concept of a does not yet exist in the country (Karapetyan partner to include unmarried couples, defined a 2023). Practical impediments in addressing child witnessing domestic violence as a victim, GBV include constraints in police response to revised deadlines for urgent interventions, and domestic violence complaints and the lack of established free and preferential medical care for adequate training on protection mechanisms survivors. The government operates three fully by law enforcement agents (HRW 2022). At state-funded shelters for survivors and their the same time, the limited number of domestic children, providing assistance in each region of violence shelters operating in the country does the country. Additionally, training and awareness not provide coverage to all survivors. raising activities have been conducted among service providers as well as for persons engaged Social norms seem to be one of the main drivers in administration of justice (judges, prosecutors, of domestic violence in Armenia. The majority of and investigators). The government has started women (67 percent) who have ever been subjected to prepare procedures and protocols for the to domestic violence, never left their abuser mostly adequate management of the cases of violence because “violence was normal/not serious” (52 and to organize school information events percent) (ArmStat 2021). Moreover, out of those (CEDAW 2021). who left the last time due to violence, 63 percent returned home because of family honor (54 Nonetheless, legal gaps and implementation percent) or the husband’s request to come back (41 hurdles in addressing GBV persist. The percent) (ArmStat 2021). Even though 96 percent government has recently enacted legislation of Armenian women think it is never justified for protecting women from harassment at the a husband to beat his wife, 14 percent of men still workplace, which is a crucial step equipping think that it is somewhat justified (Figure 4.11). In employers with legal tools to deal with the issue addition, 48 percent of men say they like when men Figure 4.11. It is justified for a man to beat his Figure 4.12. Public perceptions on using wife, by country and sex, 2023, % violence, by country, 2023, % 100 90 82 90 80 80 70 % of respondents % of respondents 70 60 60 48 52 51 50 42 50 40 40 30 27 25 21 30 21 20 19 20 20 14 Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men 10 11 10 10 0 0 ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX ALB ARM BIH EST GEO MDA XKX Never justified Sometimes justified I love it when men are in charge of women Always justified Sometimes violent action is necessary Source: EBRD 2023. Source: EBRD 2023. Note: Respondents for each country answered whether each activity Note: The percentage refers to the proportion of male respondents was justified or not, using a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 refers to “never in each country who agree or strongly agree with the sentence. The justified” and 10 corresponds to “always justified”. Values 2-9 were remaining percentage corresponds to male respondents from each categorized as “sometimes justified”. country who disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement. 56 “are in charge of women”, while 20 percent believe 2021). This is problematic as 23 percent of urban that sometimes a violent action is necessary (Figure and 22 percent of rural women, respectively, have 4.12). Results also suggest that men between ages been subjected to at least one type of economic 25-64 are more likely to justify beating a wife activity restriction (ArmStat 2021).⁷² compared with men aged 65 and older, while men in the households with a female head or children 4.2.3 External shocks have amplified GBV in between 0-5 years old are less likely to justify the country violence. At the same time, women’s education level is inversely correlated to justifying beating (EBRD The conflict has affected the incidence of 2023) (annex K, Table K.1, panel b). Focus groups GBV, especially among women and girls. In conducted by the United Nations Children’s Fund the aftermath of the 2020 conflict, hotlines for showed that there is a common belief both among violence victims registered an unusually high women and men about the ‘deservedness’ of number of calls, suggesting an increase in GBV domestic violence if there is a ‘valid reason’ (UNICEF (GNWP 2021). A survey conducted among focus 2021). Such stereotypes further perpetuate the groups of displaced communities and service cycle of underreporting of GBV. providers in Armenia has revealed that conflict has increased various forms of GBV among which A majority of respondents in Armenia believe physical and psychological intimate partner that the financial dependency of women on violence are the most widespread. Intimate their partners is a major driver of GBV (Figure partner violence among these populations is 4.13). A woman who does not earn money is related to increased stress and depression during 3.5 percentage points more likely to become a blockade and displacement, substance abuse victim of domestic violence, and the share of by men, loss of life of a husband which made unemployed women is the highest (28.6 percent) women more vulnerable to GBV from other family among the victims of physical violence (ArmStat members, overcrowding in their accommodations Figure 4.13. In your opinion, what are the main reasons for domestic violence in our society, in general? 2021, % Material or financial insecurity Low level of education Social deprivation and restrictions or inequality Cultural features, such as the patriarchal structure of the family Low level of awareness Psychological problems (spontaneous) Don’t know 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 % of respondents Source: IRI 2021. ⁷² Types of economic activity restriction: (a) prohibiting to look for a job, go to work, earn money, or engage in profitable activities; (b) taking earnings of a woman against her will; and (c) refusal to give money for household expenses. International studies show that violence by intimate partners is associated with an increased probability of being employed in countries such as Colombia, India, and Türkiye (Gedikli, Popli, and Yilmaz 2023). It appears this type of analysis has not been conducted in Armenia. While promoting women’s employment remains the dominant development policy for enhancing women’s economic and social well-being, these results in other countries suggest that a carefully crafted multidimensional approach may be needed to tackle violence and women’s labor market participation. 57 with lack of adequate living space and bathrooms, awareness regarding available services for GBV as well as economic hardships imposed by survivors (UNFPA 2024). In some cases, by not conflict (UNFPA 2024). These populations have reporting the violence, women try to defend their also experienced sexual violence while fleeing husbands because of the stress they underwent the conflict with registered cases of rape of during conflict, while yet in other scenarios, women with disabilities, adolescent girls, and due to conflict-related shocks, some women pregnant women (UNFPA 2024). Nonpartner still do not realize what happened to them or violence faced by these women included abuse are in denial (UNFPA 2024). More cases of GBV at the workplace in their host communities as are expected to unfold as more women start to they are often forced to engage in vulnerable come forward. ‘black market’ and informal jobs (UNFPA 2024). Adolescent girls and women with disabilities Conclusions: Although Armenia has have been identified as the most vulnerable demonstrated significant progress in developing groups (UNFPA 2024). Economic dependency the institutional policy framework to achieve and cultural norms around marriage and family gender equality, men outperform women in all discourages them from getting a divorce, dimensions of Voice and Agency. The Constitution potentially exacerbating their conditions in the of Armenia guarantees equal rights and freedoms event of intimate partner violence. to women and men, while recent legislative amendments have significantly improved the Underreporting of GBV in Armenia is institutional framework for gender equality. This even more common among the displaced is reflected for instance in a notable improvement population and is likely affected by existing in women’s political representation. Yet, existing social norms. Among the main reported reasons shortcomings and practical impediments for GBV survivors not to report the incident is the challenge the effectiveness of the law. Differences taboo and shame associated with GBV. Women in the agency of women relative to men underlie and girls expect worse treatment and isolation the observed gaps in endowments and in access from the community if they disclose the case to economic opportunity. Gender disparities of violence, and oftentimes are forced to marry are likely associated with entrenched social a perpetrator to avoid shame (UNFPA 2024). norms, and their most extreme expression is the The survey has identified lack of awareness persistence of GBV in the country. Additionally, around what constitutes GBV as the violence conflict bears important impacts for the agency is normalized.⁷³ Additionally, there is a lack of of Armenian women. ⁷³ The methodology for the assessment in Armenia involved a six-week data collection period from November to December 2023, using a feminist grounded theory and rapid qualitative analysis. Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were the primary methods, emphasizing the experiences of women and girls. The study included 142 participants across all Armenian regions and targeted service providers, displaced women, and adolescent girls. Sampling was dynamic, informed by ongoing data analysis and aimed to include vulnerable groups such as women with disabilities, adolescent girls, female- headed households, and economically dependent women, although not all groups were represented in every region due to time constraints (UNFPA 2024). 58 CHAPTER 5 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS The policy recommendations presented in institutional side, society has a key role to play this section aim to help address the main gaps in effecting change, and individual and collective identified in the analysis across the three main agency are key for change. Social norms in thematic areas of accumulation of human particular are an important factor shaping capital, access to economic opportunity and individual- and community behavior in all aspects use of capital (agency). Based on the analysis, of life. According to the existing evidence, the and in order to bridge these gaps, it is critical to main principles for adequately addressing social not only enhance the institutional framework, norms include: (1) focus on awareness raising; but also to address and reshape entrenched (2) intervening early; and (3) involving all key social norms. Indeed, and while the policy stakeholders, including men and boys, as well as recommendations are by default focused on the enlisting the support of role models (Box 5.1). Box 5.1. Principles for successful interventions to changing social norms The report highlights that social norms are one of the key factors underlying many of the gender gaps. Policies aimed at addressing these gaps must therefore be combined with interventions that shift biases and influence behavior. The three common principles for successful interventions to change social norms are as follows: • Invest in awareness raising campaigns and edutainment. Strategically designed media campaigns are often used to emphasize the positive implications of gender equality on society, such as improved human rights, the economic benefits of women’s employment, and positive outcomes in women’s mental health (World Bank 2021c). Media campaigns should be customized for specific target groups while simultaneously reaching a diverse range of populations, appealing to both women and men across different age groups (UNICEF 2021). Ways to accomplish this might include changing advertisements that depict women as the sole household caretakers, promoting the importance of women in public life through series on local television, and incorporating traditional topics, such as culture and patriotism, in TV series aimed at improving gender equality. Spreading awareness about the impacts of GBV through health care facilities, and traditional and social media campaigns involving respectable public figures, can serve as a tool to discourage violence (Maruo et al. 2023). It is especially important to make such efforts at the local level, considering that the communities outside the capital are more conservative. • Start early through education. Education from an early age is one of the most effective means to change attitudes (Stewart et al. 2021). Adjusting school curricula for subjects, such as civics education and history, by making them equity-oriented and free from gender 59 stereotypes, and providing knowledge on gender roles, family planning, and reproductive health can be effective in changing the attitudes of younger generations (Maruo et al. 2023). Incorporating gender equality into education among adolescent boys and girls translates into a higher age at marriage among women, the greater involvement of men in household work, and increased opposition to gender discrimination overall (Syed 2017). It also enables women to prepare for and to take advantage of new job opportunities during the transition from school to work. • Engage role models and stakeholders, including boys and men, private sector and service providers, and community leaders. Religious and traditional leaders exercise an influence over social norms that enable or hinder progress in addressing GBV, while opinion leaders influence the affirmation of or resistance to positive gender norms in community (Cislaghi 2019; Le Roux and Palm 2021; ODI 2015; Rowley and Diop 2020). Engaging the participation of boys and men is essential to fostering community solidarity on equity, and has a greater impact on the effort to shift attitudes. Engaging the participation of role models in education, training, and mentorship programs can help break down bias and socialize the benefits of women studying and working in man-dominated sectors (Carrell, Page, and West 2010; Jensen 2010; Nguyen 2008; Porter and Serra 2020). The private sector may play a crucial role in establishing the practice of intolerance toward GBV, creating a safe environment for employees and dedicating significant financial and human resources to addressing GBV. Adopting GBV-related performance standards to evaluate a firm’s nondiscriminatory policies, its supply of equal opportunities, and its provision of security, community health care, and safety while doing business can help establish good practice. The International Finance Corporation has developed such a standard that has already been successfully adopted by financial institutions in 39 countries worldwide (Maruo et al. 2023). To further develop evidence-based policies, it disparities in human capital accumulation and is also crucial for the government to collect and economic opportunities. Furthermore, data are ensure the consistency and accuracy of data. crucial in tracking the incidence of domestic Specifically, there is a lack of data concerning: the violence in Armenia (see Policy recommendation economic value of women’s unpaid domestic work 2.1 under Use of Capital (Voice and Agency) for and agricultural labor; gender gap in adaptation more detail). capacity to climate change; gender-based discrimination and harassment in the workplace; 5.1. Accumulation of Human Capital impact of conflict on the displaced people and receiving communities on health including mental Based on the analysis presented in chapter health and employment; and workplace health 2, the main gender gaps in the fields of health and safety risks especially among pregnant and and education in Armenia include: (1) persistent breastfeeding women. Addressing this data gap skewed sex ratios at birth due to son preference is vital for assessing the untapped potential of and sex selective abortion; (2) growing mortality women’s participation in market activities and among both sexes but especially among men in for gaining a deeper understanding of the gender connection with COVID-19, military conflict, and 60 risky behaviors; (3) persistent and relatively high still large incidence of smoking among young maternal mortality despite universal access to men in Armenia will require strengthening the maternal, sexual and reproductive services; (4) ongoing efforts by the government to educate growing gaps in educational attainment to the and inform the population, improving access to detriment of men; (5) growing sex segregation help for quitting, enacting and enforcing smoke- into traditional fields of study despite progress in free legislation, and increasing tobacco taxes.⁷⁴ some STEM fields; and (6) disproportionately large Decreasing the average speed limits, ensuring share of female NEETs. the enforcement of speed limits and improving compliance with United Nations Vehicle Safety OBJECTIVE 1: IMPROVE SPECIFIC HEALTH- Standards is also recommended (World Bank RELATED OUTCOMES OF BOTH WOMEN AND MEN 2021d).⁷⁵ It would also be crucial to encourage men to use routine healthcare services for checkups Policy recommendation 1.1: Continue eradicating to prevent noncommunicable diseases. Adequate nonnatural differences in sex ratio at birth. access to specialized health services needs to be Continue successful public awareness activities, granted for former combatants that have been engaging with medical communities and faith-based injured or disabled as a result of conflict. Physical organizations, which have been instrumental in and psychological rehabilitation services are conducting effective awareness-raising activities in key. Shared wartime experiences have helped Armenia, is important. Changing social norms around decrease stigma and shift explanatory models the value of girls relative to boys continues to be a of mental illness. School-based mental health priority (UNFPA 2018). Regional and local authorities programs to improve teachers’ understanding of should also be involved in the implementation of students’ mental health are also relevant (Shoib actions foreseen under the National Action Plan. et al. 2022). Increasing gender awareness and sensitivity of regional and community leaders and strengthening Policy recommendation 1.3: Reduce maternal their capacity to implement gender sensitive mortality among all women in Armenia by interventions that consider locally preferred ways improving quality of health care services. The of communicating would be required to avoid local efforts made by the government to improve access customs perpetuate biases (UNFPA 2022b). to adequate health services among rural women prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (CEDAW 2021) Policy recommendation 1.2: Address excess and in the last years should be continued.⁷⁶ This mortality among men related to smoking, includes measures to strengthen reproductive traffic accidents and conflict. Addressing the health, such as early detection of somatic diseases ⁷⁴ Evidence from various settings indicates that, rather than increasing smoking in private spaces, smoke-free legislation may stimulate smokers to establish total smoking bans in their homes. Tobacco taxes have proven to be an effective policy to curtail smoking. A tax increase that increases tobacco prices by 10 percent decreases tobacco consumption by about 4 percent in high-income countries and about 5 percent in low- and middle-income countries. The price of a 20-cigarette pack of the best-welling brand in Armenia was US$3.40, less than half the average price of US$7.40 in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia region (adjusted for purchasing power parity) (World Bank 2023b). Moreover, as a result of cheap tobacco, disability- adjusted life years lost to tobacco diseases as a percentage of life expectancy was substantially higher in Armenia, at 14.1 percent, than the average in Eastern Europe and Central Asia or the OECD (11.5 percent and 10.2 percent, respectively). ⁷⁵ The speed limits shown here are 20 km/h higher than recommended. Enforcement is predominantly automated with a self- reported score of 60 percent. ⁷⁶ Maternity and Child State Certificates offered free prenatal and obstetric care to all women. Different information, awareness raising, and capacity building programs were implemented to improve the knowledge of different sectors of the population on harmful practices and reproductive health issues. Medical abortion was introduced in all inpatient medical organizations and curettage was replaced by vacuum aspiration reducing maternal death and complications in recent years. 61 incompatible with pregnancy and prevention of to the global evidence on what works to high-risk pregnancies (NIH 2023).⁷⁷ The capacity increase the participation of girls in STEM of maternal, sexual, and reproductive services fields, effective measures include addressing to conduct prenatal screenings needs to be gender biases in learning materials, engaging strengthened. The existing efforts to decrease the parents, encouraging participation in STEM- rate of c-sections should be continued. Improving related extracurricular activities from an early the general health status of women and especially age, featuring role models, and promoting pregnant women will also be required, for instance partnerships with the private sector (World with regards to nutrition. Special attention should Bank 2021b). Female science and mathematics be paid to women directly and indirectly affected instructors might serve as role models for girls by conflict. interested in STEM. Financial incentives may be another important option for bringing more OBJECTIVE 2: ELIMINATE GENDER GAPS IN women into STEM studies (Hammond et al. 2020). EDUCATION BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN Existing interventions in Armenia, such as the Technovation program, should be continued and, Policy recommendation 2.1: Improve the when successful, be scaled up.⁷⁸ The government educational attainment and opportunities of is providing stipends to men and women who young men. It is important to build networks enroll in STEM pedagogy, which is expected to of key actors in the lives of boys and men that have positive impact. promote norms of educational success, to support the role of teachers as motivational figures Policy recommendation 2.3: Improve the and to improve school and classroom climates. transition of young women from school to work Providing financial incentives or subsidies for through a tailored and integrated approach. lower income students or information on careers Cognitive, socio-emotional, and in-demand and the potential higher returns to furthering technical skills and vocational trainings, as well education could also be helpful (Welmond and as work-study programs targeting youth are key Gregory 2021). Programs that provide men that to improve the effective transition from school have stopped their education in order to complete to work (Kattan, Khan, and Merchant 2023; World the military service with opportunities and Bank 2022d). Offering targeted active labor market incentives to continue studying would contribute policies that are adapted to the needs of young to promoting and facilitating their reintegration women can go a long way in easing their transition into the educational system. For those that into work. The features of effective programs continue serving, alternative career pathways include using recruitment strategies, providing should be offered, for instance, through training the right incentives for participants, conducting a within the army. preliminary labor market assessment, providing supplementary skills, building social and financial Policy recommendation 2.2: Decrease sex- capital and offering safe spaces for young women segregation by field of study. According (World Bank 2015). Improving the quality and ⁷⁷ As highlighted in the consultations conducted in April 2024, the government has prepared a battery of measures to address differences in fertility rates between men and women. ⁷⁸ To promote the participation of girls in the field of information and telecommunications, the National Institute of Education of the ESCS Ministry and Women and Information Society NGO implemented Technovation, the largest global technology entrepreneurship program, for three consecutive years. Technovation is the Program of Iridescent Organization, the aim of which is to inspire and empower girls to become innovators and leaders. During the program, girls identify any social problem in their community and create a mobile application to solve that problem. They use the knowledge and skills in technology entrepreneurship acquired through the program. 62 relevance of technical and vocational education Policy recommendation 1.2: Improve accessibility and training and higher education could contribute to childcare by expanding coverage of affordable to ensure that the skills of young women respond and quality services and changing social to the labor market demands (World Bank 2019). norms. Making childcare more affordable funded fully or partially by the government 5.2. Access to Economic Opportunity has proved to improve women’s labor market outcomes (Anukriti et al. 2023; World Bank Based on the analysis presented in chapter 3, 2022g). Employer-supported childcare can be the main gender gaps in the field of access to particularly impactful in low-income and post- economic opportunity include: (1) persistently conflict contexts where the fiscal space may lower labor force participation among women; (2) be constricted (IFC 2020). The expansion of higher share of involuntary part-time employment access to early childhood education must be among women; (3) persistent gender wage gap; however balanced with efforts to ensure and (4) gender gaps in entrepreneurship and access to improve quality (Bendini and Devercelli 2022). productive assets; and (5) higher vulnerability of Structural quality—the physical environment women workers to shocks. and infrastructure of the facility, including safety measures and the availability of resources—is a OBJECTIVE 1: INCREASE THE LABOR FORCE critical element of early childcare services (World PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN. Bank 2022f). Interventions to changing social norms around the benefits of formal childcare Policy recommendation 1.1: Provide adequate will also need to be combined with policy parental leaves and incentives for fathers to measures to improve childcare accessibility. partake in childcare and flexibility for working parents. It is important to amend the law in Armenia Policy recommendation 1.3: Alleviate the that requires half of the maternity leave be taken care burden on women related to people before birth, regardless of family preferences. with disabilities by improving existing Ensuring income protection during maternity long-term health care and social services. leave is also critical. Shared parental leaves that Because caregiving responsibilities limit incentivize father’s uptake can lead to a more women’s employment opportunities in Armenia, equitable distribution of responsibilities between accessibility to adequate health and social men and women and reduce discrimination at services for people with disabilities would be hiring (Fluchtmann 2023). Leave policies that important to facilitate women’s participation promote a better balance in the distribution of in the labor force. The adoption of independent responsibilities between men and women can living principles and the establishment of also be effective in preventing discriminatory community-based services are key for the practices at the workplace. Complementary inclusion and empowerment of people with measures aimed at shifting norms and behaviors disabilities.⁷⁹ The government is already moving among employers and employees are equally in that direction. Providing vocational training important. Information campaigns with positive opportunities for people with disabilities, male role models could be effective. strengthening legal protections and fostering ⁷⁹ Independent living principles emphasize the right of individuals with disabilities to live in the community and make their own choices about how they live, with the necessary support to do so. This approach focuses on removing barriers that prevent full participation in society, promoting self-determination, and providing access to the same opportunities as everyone else. 63 workplace accessibility are some of the not only nontraditional but also any sector or measures required to break the barriers that occupation they aspire to as they transition they face to work (World Bank 2023c). from school to work (Datta and Kotikula 2017). Improving occupational safety and working OBJECTIVE 2: LEVEL THE PLAYING FIELD conditions in firms by creating women-friendly IN EMPLOYMENT labor conditions is also likely to yield positive results, especially in nontraditional sectors Policy recommendation 2.1: Ensure equal (IFC 2013). Considering the effectiveness of the pay and prevent discriminatory practice. vocational training program for uncompetitive Eliminating legal differences between men and unskilled mothers under 30 supported by and women is a pre-requisite for equality in the government, scaling up the program could employment in Armenia. The legal provision on be effective. Promoting awareness to overcome equal pay needs to be enforced but also improved cultural gender biases and stereotypes among to mandate equal remuneration for work of equal educators, policymakers, the media, and the value. In addition, the labor code should prohibit public at large will be key in changing choices. employers from asking personal questions to Encouraging the visibility of women with STEM identify—and potentially discriminate against— qualifications and careers, especially in leadership mothers who have children or women planning positions in government, business enterprises, on having children (UN Women 2021). Concealing universities and research organizations will likely gender information during hiring and establishing contribute to shifting mindsets. Partnering with credible signaling of competences are some of the companies in the private sector to support the promising interventions in this area (Sahay 2023). inclusion of women in STEM occupations is also Beyond improving legislation and protecting important (UN Women 2021). women’s rights, addressing traditional social norms and stereotypes will be required. Exposure Policy recommendation 2.3: Strengthen to women in senior positions can act as positive entrepreneurship and support services. role models and instill more confidence among Enhancing access to finance for women can be younger women (Datta and Kotikula 2017). In achieved by improving legislation to prevent addition, it is necessary to target families and gender-based credit discrimination (World Bank communities to positively impact attitudes and 2024c). Expanding the services and capacity of behaviors relating to women’s work (Sahay 2023). existing business associations and CSOs, such as SME National Development Center Armenia and Policy recommendation 2.2: Promote equality SME Development in Armenia, to offer financial in occupational/sectoral choices. Developing instruments that assess risks and secure loans skills and challenging gender stereotypes from through nontraditional means would benefit a young age would empower both women and women entrepreneurs. Additionally, providing men to pursue new job opportunities beyond targeted business training and consulting to micro traditional gender-specific occupations and and small enterprises owned by women could be sectors. Alongside the shift in social norms, effective. When women are paired with mentors technical and vocational education and training and coaches or given access to other women programs serve as an effective avenue to equip entrepreneurs with similar experiences, they girls and boys with the skills needed to pursue benefit from exposure to useful public, private 64 and peer resources.⁸⁰ Networking within clusters Policy recommendation 1.2: Support women’s helps women gain multiple advantages and grow leadership and political participation within their businesses faster. political parties as well as through activism. Strategies for working with political parties 5.3. Use of Capital (Voice and Agency) should focus on building the skills and capacity of women party activists and potential candidates, Based on the analysis presented in chapter 4, as well as on reinforcing among party leaders the main gender gaps that underlie women’s the value of women as voters, political leaders, limited voice and agency in Armenia are: (1) and candidates (Markham 2013). It is essential women’s lower representation in the leadership to continue efforts that attempt to empower roles both at the national and local levels; (2) women politicians through, among others, women’s limited agency in the public and private equipping them with access to resources and spheres; and (3) persistence and underreporting information, mentorship programs, networking, of GBV. and skills building training (IRI 2024). CSOs can also play a key role in increasing women’s political OBJECTIVE 1: IMPROVE THE DECISION-MAKING participation by supporting women candidates CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE and those that support women’s rights (World SPHERES Bank 2014). Local NGOs, such as the Institute of Liberal Politics, provide theoretical and Policy recommendation 1.1: Increase the practical trainings for new generations of women presence of women in democratic institutions nationwide to help them become future leaders through affirmative action. Armenia’s concerted in the public sphere.⁸¹ Continuing investing in efforts to reach gender parity at the institutional such efforts will be essential to empower women level can be further achieved with a continued in Armenia and encourage their participation in investment in increasing women’s political public spheres, thereby increasing their decision- representation. Global evidence suggests that making power in the private spheres as well. well-designed quotas demonstrate the ability to reach gender parity (IPU 2019). Women will OBJECTIVE 2: ADDRESS GENDER-BASED benefit from a quota only if they are placed VIOLENCE THROUGH ADEQUATE PREVENTION among positions in the list that stand a chance of AND RESPONSE being elected, that is, every second or third place on the list. This is referred to as a zipper or zebra Policy recommendation 2.1: Assess limitations system (Markham 2013). Although this system in the existing institutional framework and exists in Armenia, the self-withdrawal among ensure consistent data collection on various women candidates appears to be widespread forms of GBV. Understanding gaps in the existing and operates as a key barrier for women to be legislation and enforcement can ensure a more represented in all levels of decision-making complete protection of human rights. Evaluating (Shahnazaryan 2015). Legislated candidate the practical limitations of the law can help quotas are also more effective when they to identify ways to complement the law with carry with them sanctions for noncompliance necessary implementation cues. It is also crucial (Markham 2013). that the justice system investigates GBV cases ⁸⁰ Female Entrepreneurship Resource Point, Module 2: How to Make Change (dashboard), World Bank, Washington, DC, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/gender/publication/female-entrepreneurship-resourcepoint-module-2-how-to- make-change. ⁸¹ For instance, see Institute of Liberal Politics (homepage), Yerevan, Armenia, https://liberalinstitute.am/en/. 65 thoroughly to avoid creating the sense of impunity to respond to violence, and are designated to around GBV and impeding reporting of violence receive exclusively victims of violence and their based on fear. Ratification of the Convention children (Scientia 2022). Multi-disciplinary on Preventing and Combating Violence Against teams working in the women’s police stations Women and Domestic Violence (known as the that collaborate with local agencies, can be Istanbul Convention),⁸² would further solidify effective in providing emergency support, the country’s legal commitment to adhere to psychological assistance, and childcare support the principles and obligations outlined in the to the survivors (Scientia 2022). convention. Collecting reliable data is one of the important steps in overcoming legislative Policy recommendation 2.3: Invest in high- and practical limitations. Aside from measuring quality support services to survivors by domestic violence, collecting data on nonpartner increasing accessibility to relevant care violence and workplace harassment can widen facilities. Health care facilities that have the scope of GBV and allow to identify more mechanisms (such as screening) to identify holistic approaches to address it. Moreover, victims of GBV, can provide higher-quality primary identifying the impact of childhood exposure health care through treatment of sexually to violence, gender socialization, masculine transmitted infections and injuries. Targeted identity issues, peer influence, and parenting assistance to adolescents, pregnant women, and impact on various forms of GBV could help victims of different types of GBV will ensure that determine drivers of GBV and find methods to victims get care tailored to their needs (World induce attitudinal changes (Maruo et al. 2023). Bank 2021c). For a holistic approach, integrated However, due to its sensitivity, data collection services should be provided at entry points in approaches merit careful consideration health care, emergency housing, and police (Schmied and Cappellazzi 2022). stations (OECD 2023). Many countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, such as Kosovo and Policy recommendation 2.2: De-stigmatize Austria, are investing in enhancement of health and strengthen protection mechanisms to care system’s capacity to address GBV (Bjerde encourage reporting of GBV. Well-designed, 2022). Separately, providing well-designed targeted protection services that are supported facilities with the necessary infrastructure, by law and are focused on the survivor, are psychological assistance to survivors and their more likely to gain trust and encourage women children, transitional housing programs, child to turn for help. Law-enforcement agents and family services, and capacity building skills who deal with GBV cases should be equipped for survivors, can ensure their fast reintegration with relevant knowledge and skills to ensure into society (Maruo et al. 2023). Increasing trust and safety of the victims. Specialized spending on establishing quality care in multiple women’s police stations can have a key role locations in the country will help accommodate in preventing and addressing GBV more more survivors. Partnerships with NGOs and the effectively. 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Key gap. connection with the combined effect of COVID-19 and the conflict. Strong sex-segregation by field of education. Key gap. Improving but persistent. Growing reverse gender gaps in enrollment and attainment at higher levels. Not discussed. Key gap. Comparatively large share of female NEETs. Not discussed. Key gap. Access to opportunity Gender disparities in labor market participation. Key gap. Key gap. Higher vulnerability of women workers to shocks. Not discussed. Key gap. Lower share of female managers and entrepreneurs. Key gap. Key gap. Occupational segregation with women’s higher representation in Key gap Key gap. lower paid activities. Wage gender gap. Key gap. Key gap. Women’s more limited access to finance and productive assets. Not extensively Key gap. discussed. Use of capital (voice and agency) Women’s low representation at the National Assembly and Key gap. Improving but persistent. higher levels of civil service. Gender gaps in political awareness. Key gap. Not extensively discussed. Women’s underrepresentation in the leadership roles at all Key gap. Key gap. levels of public service Women’s limited decision-making agency in the private sphere. Not extensively Key gap. discussed. Gender disparities in time allocation to household chores Key gap. Key gap. and childcare. Prevalence and underreporting of gender-based violence (GBV) Not extensively Key gap. both in urban and rural areas. discussed. Social perceptions on women’s larger role as a care taker Not extensively Key gap. regardless of educational attainment. discussed. 82 ANNEX B. ALIGNMENT OF ARMENIA COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT WITH ARMENIA GENDER STRATEGY 2024-2028 AND THE WORLD BANK GENDER STRATEGY 2024-2030 Armenia Country Gender Assessment (CGA) aims Gender stereotypes in the fields of education to present findings on major gender gaps in the represents one of the most pronounced gender directions of human endowments, economic gaps in the direction of human endowments in opportunities, and voice and agency, while Armenia, with women’s underrepresentation in uncovering main drivers behind these gaps. the fields of science and technology. World Bank Issues emphasized in the CGA reflect the priorities and Armenia gender strategies set forth the set forth in the Armenia Gender Strategy 2024- objective to provide more opportunities for girls’ 2028, as well as with major strategic objectives engagement in the fields of science at all levels of of the World -Bank’s Gender Strategy 2024-2030 education. On the other hand, the analysis in CGA to (i) end GBV to elevate human capital through emphasizes a reversed gap of underachievement building resilience in health, education, and social in boys’ education requiring a policy solution, protection, (ii) expand and enable economic which is in alignment with the World Bank’s new opportunities, and (iii) engage women as leaders. gender strategy. Human Endowments Economic Opportunities Analysis presented in the CGA demonstrates that Low female labor force participation is a sex-selection at birth favoring boys, is a persistent persistent issue according to the Armenia issue in Armenia. Recognizing this gap, Armenia’s CGA. The rate is 48.2 percent among women new gender strategy aims to further strengthen compared with 71.2 percent among men. The legislation to restrict discriminatory choices based World Bank’s new gender strategy points out that on gender, especially where there are no medical the resolution of this gap is crucial and requires reasons for such choices. The importance of tackling multiple constraints including legal, sexual and reproductive health services, especially government and employer policies and practices, availability of modern contraception and family as well as services and social norms. On its part, planning services is discussed in the CGA, in Armenia Gender Strategy presents an objective to alignment with the new gender strategies of the raise employability of marginalized women and World Bank and the government of Armenia. Gender to create support structure to women who are strategies place the importance on access for incoming labor force. vulnerable women, such as rural residents, ethnic minorities, and women with disabilities. At the On top of this, World Bank’s new gender strategy same time, the aim is to decrease discrimination discusses the importance of addressing gender and stigma against women with disabilities, wage gap - a persistent constraint in Armenia women with HIV/AIDS, and other marginalized according to the CGA analysis. Women in Armenia groups in the delivery of health services. Separately, earned only around 71 percent of men’s hourly CGA focuses on the issue of maternal mortality in wages in 2022. The gap in hourly wages persists Armenia, which is emphasized in the World Bank’s even when controlling for the employment type new gender strategy. and educational levels but seems to be related 83 to occupational choice. psychometric to replace collateral requirements preventing women’s access to credit. Moreover, To that end, CGA finds that even when women CGA suggests that women’s lack of asset work, they are constrained to low-paid sectors ownership due to inheritance practices, is one of of the economy due to the perceptions around the important factors for limited entrepreneurship ‘female’ and ‘male’ economic activities. New opportunities, which according to the World Bank strategies of the World Bank and the government Gender Strategy requires shift in mindset, as well of Armenia emphasize the importance of as legal and policy actions. eliminating gender stereotypes in labor market to give men and women equal opportunities to Voice and Agency access more and better jobs, including the jobs of the future. In line with Armenia Gender Strategy 2024–2028 and World Bank Gender Strategy regarding Findings also demonstrate that social norms women’s advancement and representation, CGA contribute to perceiving women’s role as focuses on of women’s engagement in leadership caretakers, which increases their childcare roles in the national and local governments, as and domestic responsibilities and limits their well as in the judiciary. In terms of addressing economic opportunities. Lack of access to the issue of women’s representation through affordable elderly- and childcare exacerbates informal institutions, new gender strategies of the this limitation further. As one of its objectives to World Bank and the government of Armenia also provide equal working opportunities to mothers emphasize the importance of using community- and fathers, Armenia’s new gender strategy based awareness raising and enhancing media aims to improve the availability of childcare coverage of gender sensitive topics (MoLSA 2024; services and preschool education, while new World Bank 2024b). gender strategy of the World Bank points to the importance of expanding the access to- and use Ending all forms of GBV is one of the key objectives of services that enable economic participation. of the World Bank’s new gender strategy. Along the same lines, Armenia Gender Strategy Findings suggest that the GBV is a persistent highlights a high number of unpaid family workers, issue in Armenia, with a recorded prevalence of especially among women, and emphasizes the 17.2 percent in 2021. Armenia Gender Strategy importance to expand sectoral programs and recognizes the importance of improving services related to care. institutional frameworks and coordination to fight GBV, by addressing gaps in the legislation and There is low level of entrepreneurship among enforcement, and adopting survivor-centered both sexes in Armenia, but especially among approaches, as suggested in the CGA. The need women. Armenia Gender Strategy aims to create to provide accessible and confidential health more favorable environment for advancing care services for survivors of sexual violence, entrepreneurship in the country. CGA finds that the including comprehensive and compassionate constraint for women to become entrepreneurs care are some of the effective ways to address and to grow their businesses could be connected GBV, according to the CGA analysis, as well as to their more limited access to finance compared the objectives presented in the WB and Armenia with men. In this regard, World Bank Gender gender strategies. Strategy also emphasizes the importance of financial inclusion, and using credit scoring Both CGA and new gender strategy of Armenia 84 find data protection and uniform system of data remains most susceptible to climate change. collection essential ways to address GBV. Armenia Armenia Gender Strategy draws the attention Gender Strategy aims to improve regulations to increasing the adaptability of agriculture to ensure transfer of information between the to climate change and ensuring women’s institutions to address the issue effectively. participation in creating the agenda. At the same time, new gender strategy of Armenia Climate Change and the World Bank, highlight the importance of involving women in climate mitigation decision- CGA finds that a high share of women in Armenia making, as well as women’s specialization in the are employed in the agricultural sector, which areas of energy. 85 ANNEX C. THE CONSULTATION PROCESS FOR THE REPORT Two rounds of face-to-face consultations with approximately 60 participants, while the second external stakeholders were conducted in Yerevan involved around 30 participants from two as part of the Armenia Gender Assessment sessions to have more focused discussion on preparation. The first found took place in policies. Participants from both rounds included December 2023, where the team shared the initial gender focal points and/or other designated storyline and findings from the existing data and staff of government counterparts, development solicited feedback on key gender gaps related to partners, private sector, NGOs, academia, and endowments, economic opportunities, and voice research firms. Feedback from these consultation and agency. A second round of consultations meetings was incorporated into the report, was held in April 2024 to present updated setting the stage for further dialogue with a findings and gather feedback on thematic policy diverse set of stakeholders. recommendations. The first consultation had 86 ANNEX D. SELECTION OF PEER COUNTRIES Armenia’s performance was benchmarked • FDI, net inflows (percent of GDP) relative to peer countries, including structural, • Human capital index regional, and aspirational peers. The • International tourism, receipts (percent of identification of peers was conducted using the total exports) CEM 2.0 Data Generator tool developed by the Ex post checks verified two variables absent from Macroeconomics, Trade, and Investment Team the tool: landlocked and remittances inflows at the World Bank. The group of structural peers (percent of GDP). comprises six countries that are considered most similar to Armenia in terms of structural Regional peers. Most of the structural peers economic indicators, such as GDP per capita, happened to be countries in the region. Georgia human capital, age dependency ratio, inflows is the only country in the region with distinct of foreign direct investment, value added of structural features. Therefore, the neighboring the services sector, and international tourism. country was added to the list. Using the same tool, the aspirational peers were selected from a shortlist using GDP per capita, Aspirational peers. After selecting the structural poverty headcount, and Gini index as aspirational indicators, the tool allowed for the selection of variables. The final selection was made during an aspirational peers based on one outcome variable internal consultation with the country team and of interest (and not the intersection of more Country Management Unit. than one as was done with the structural peers). Four indicators benchmarked the aspirations of Structural peers. The structural peer group Armenia to improve its performance: consisted of several countries considered similar to Armenia in terms of selected indicators. The • GDP per capita, constant 2011 international similarity was measured by distance—that is, purchasing power parity US dollars how close the country was to all other countries • GDP per capita (constant 2010 US dollars) based on each country’s relative global ranking • Poverty headcount at US$1.90-a-day on a selected indicator. The period considered constant 2011 international purchasing for the values of the indicators was 2017–19. Six power parity US dollars indicators were used to identify regional and • Gini index (World Bank estimate) global structural peers: • Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Baltic countries represent an aspiration in • GDP per capita, constant 2011 international the region. Specifically, Armenia observes purchasing power parity US dollars Estonia with considerable attention. The final • Age dependency ratio (percent of the working list of peer countries was Albania, Bosnia and population) Herzegovina, Estonia, Georgia, Kosovo, and • Services, value added (percent) Moldova. 87 ANNEX E. THE EFFECT OF MANDATORY MILITARY SERVICE ON PURSUIT OF TERTIARY EDUCATION There is a growing interest in understanding the of two) after obtaining their bachelor’s degree.⁸⁴ effects of mandatory military service on education outcomes and further, on earnings in the labor The analysis used the 2022 round of the Integrated market. In theory, mandatory military service Living Conditions Survey, the most recent data. entails both costs and benefits. The costs include This dataset includes information on the state of depreciation of human capital, forgone labor economic activity, employment status, employment market experience, and forgone earnings. These characteristics, work hours, earnings, education, costs can increase with an extended duration of age range, and other demographic characteristics.⁸⁵ service. It also has potential benefits. Some argue In the data, one cannot observe information on that military service offers distinctive opportunities military service – so whether the individual has to impact individuals with valuable technical skills deferred the military service or not is unobserved to and discipline, potentially resulting in enhanced the econometrician. Instead, we observe the age of productivity in civilian life. the survey respondents so that we can distinguish between men who were allowed to defer the The analysis was conducted to analyze the impact military service without penalty and those who had of mandatory military services on the educational to commit to serving an additional year if chose to attainment by comparing the years of education postpone the military service. between the two cohorts: (a) an older group with the option to postpone mandatory military service until The sample for the analysis includes all individuals completing tertiary education, and (b) a younger aged 19 and older, as those below 18 will not be cohort impacted by the new Law of the Republic of affected by the mandatory military service.⁸⁶ The Armenia on Military Service and the Status of the cutoff age is 23, given that the 2017 Law started Army Serviceman.⁸³ This law, adopted in November impacting men who were between 19 and 23 2017 and become effective in December 2017 in 2022. The analysis will compare the years of (referred to as the 2017 Law hereafter), requires education and the gender gap in years of education a signed agreement from men who choose to between the cohorts 19 – 23 (who were affected by defer the two-year service based on education, the 2017 Law) (i.e., treatment group) and those older mandating a three-year service in the army (instead than 23 (who were able to defer their mandatory ⁸³ ԶԻՆՎՈՐԱԿԱՆ ԾԱՌԱՅՈՒԹՅԱՆ ԵՎ ԶԻՆԾԱՌԱՅՈՂԻ ԿԱՐԳԱՎԻՃԱԿԻ ՄԱՍԻՆ (Military Service and the Military Status of the Army Serviceman) [In Armenian], Legislation (November 15, 2017), National Assembly, Yerevan, Armenia, http://parliament.am/ legislation.php?sel=show&ID=5937#3. It should be noted, though, that parts 3, 5, and 7 of Article 22 of the Law on Military Service and the Status of Servicemen, and the RA government decisions N430 and N451 of April 12, 2018, and N383 of March 23, 2023, define the cases and order by which citizens of Armenia are granted deferment from military service for educational purposes. According to the information provided during the April 2024 consultation, government’s 383N decision of March 23, 2023, defines the priority areas by the government to defer military service. These priority fields are mainly in STEM disciplines. Further research is needed to assess the impact of these additional changes in the law. ⁸⁴ This new 2017 Law only applies to men. Women who have reached age 20–25 can continue to enter military service in the Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia on a contractual basis. ⁸⁵ The Labor Force Survey does not provide specific birth dates or actual ages; it only provides age ranges, while the Integrated Living Conditions Survey provides birth dates, which enable the calculation of the exact age. Calculations using the 2022 round of ILCS (Integrated Living Conditions Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=205; LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. ⁸⁶ In the dataset, few individuals mentioned having attained tertiary or higher vocational education by age 18. Therefore, individuals ages 18 are not included in the target population. 88 military service without facing the penalty of an of the 2017 Law, the cost of seeking higher additional year in service) in 2022 (control group). education had increased. The impact of the 2017 Law on women is insignificant. More time is Simple probit regression results confirm the required to assess the potential positive impact negative impact of the 2017 Law on the likelihood of of the mandatory military service on earnings, as pursing higher education in tertiary for men. This it is expected to take more time for the impact to indicates that, as expected, with the enactment become evident in the dataset. Table E.1. Results from probit regression for men ages 19–53 Men Dependent variable: Dummy=1 if pursued tertiary education (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Sociodemographic characteristic Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Treatment (Reference: Not treated) Treated (Dummy=1 if born between 2000-04, or ages 19-23 in 2022 or -1.028*** -1.160*** -0.695*** -0.707*** -0.701*** ages 15-19 in 2018) (0.113) (0.141) (0.206) (0.212) (0.215) Age of individual -0.0121* 0.323*** 0.345*** 0.348*** Age (continuous) (0.00726) (0.0975) (0.0987) (0.0993) Age squared -0.00524*** -0.00564*** -0.00569*** (0.00152) (0.00154) (0.00155) Type of place of residence (Reference: Urban) Rural -0.627*** -0.412*** (0.0681) (0.0741) Regional dummies (Reference: Yerevan) Aragatsotn -0.196 (0.145) Ararat -0.460*** (0.137) Armavir -0.652*** (0.126) Gegharkunik -0.471*** (0.152) Lori -0.354*** (0.124) Kotayk -0.306** (0.120) Shirak -0.296** (0.129) Vayoc Dzor -0.324** (0.135) Tavush -0.228 (0.139) Constant -0.480*** -0.0877 -5.337*** -5.386*** -5.282*** (0.0345) (0.236) (1.542) (1.562) (1.571) Observations 2,190 2,190 2,190 2,190 2,190 Robust standard errors in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 89 Table E.2. Results from probit regression for women ages 19–53 Women Dependent variable: Dummy=1 if pursued tertiary education (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Sociodemographic characteristic Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Treatment (Reference: Not treated) Treated (Dummy=1 if born between 2000-04, or ages 19-23 in 2022 or -0.565*** -0.822*** -0.219 -0.260 -0.266 ages 15-19 in 2018) (0.0815) (0.112) (0.171) (0.173) (0.175) Age of individual Age (continuous) -0.0232*** 0.394*** 0.397*** 0.406*** (0.00645) (0.0824) (0.0833) (0.0836) Age squared -0.00654*** -0.00666*** -0.00679*** (0.00129) (0.00131) (0.00131) Type of place of residence (Reference: Urban) Rural -0.528*** -0.283*** (0.0605) (0.0655) Regional dummies (Reference: Yerevan) Aragatsotn -0.391*** (0.130) Ararat -0.423*** (0.109) Armavir -0.743*** (0.115) Gegharkunik -0.609*** (0.133) Lori -0.499*** (0.107) Kotayk -0.450*** (0.109) Shirak -0.298*** (0.107) Vayoc Dzor -0.266** (0.125) Tavush -0.323** (0.126) Constant -0.365*** 0.384* -6.124*** -5.919*** -5.853*** (0.0313) (0.210) (1.293) (1.308) (1.316) Observations 2,553 2,553 2,553 2,553 2,553 Robust standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 90 % of individuals 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Social sciences Women Education and pedagogy Geodesy and land amelioration Men Humanities Natural science Source: ArmStat and UNFPA 2011. Culture and art SPECIALIZATION (2010) Public health Services Food goods and products technology Economics and management Physical-mathematical science Chemical technologies and biotechnology 91 Information technologies and informational security of higher education, by sex and specialization, 2010, % Reproduction and manufacturing of forest resources Agro food sphere Informatics and computer engineering Machine tool construction and biomedical techniques Polygraphy Security of bioactivity, nature protection, and environment protection Construction and architecture Electronic and radio engineering and communication Geology, manufacturing and prospecting of minerals Metallurgy, mechanical engineering, material working Energy, power machine building, electronic engineering ANNEX F. STUDENTS OF STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS CONDUCTING Automation and management Figure F.1. Students of state educational institutions conducting first degree educational programs Transportation system FIRST DEGREE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY SEX AND ANNEX G. MEAN HOURLY WAGE BY OCCUPATION AND SEX Figure G.1. Mean hourly wage by occupation and sex – among full-time workers 1,600 1,200 AMD 800 400 0 Legislators, senior Professionals officials, managers Technicians professionals Clerks Service & sales workers Agricultural workers Craft workers Operators & assemblers Elementary occupations Total Women Men Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Note: The estimates include all workers ages 15–74. Table G.1. Mean hourly wage by occupation, 2022 Occupation Mean hourly wage (AMD) Legislators, senior officials, managers 1308.511 Professionals 1080.786 Operators & assemblers 986.7423 Craft workers 877.2427 Service & sales 827.1929 Technicians professionals 792.4507 Clerks 760.9897 Elementary occupations 686.8727 Agriculture 614.7845 Total 871.3929 Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. 92 ANNEX H. ORDINARY LEAST SQUARES RESULTS, ANALYSIS OF SEX ON HOURLY WAGES, WORKERS AGES 15–74 Table H.1. Ordinary least squares results, analysis of sex on hourly wages, workers ages 15–74 Dependent variable: Log of Hourly Wage (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Sociodemographic characteristic Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 -0.410*** -0.314*** (0.0202) (0.0201) 0.0161*** 0.0146*** (0.00507) (0.00469) -0.000252*** -0.000199*** (5.42e-05) (4.99e-05) 93 -0.286 -0.346 (0.202) (0.214) -0.123 -0.240 (0.195) (0.208) -0.189 -0.298 (0.199) (0.211) -0.0441 -0.202 (0.195) (0.208) 0.241 0.101 (0.195) (0.209) 0.0598** 0.0122 (0.0284) (0.0259) 0.0365 0.00459 (0.0340) (0.0306) 0.0711 0.0159 (0.0441) (0.0403) Dependent variable: Log of Hourly Wage (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Sociodemographic characteristic Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 94 Dependent variable: Log of Hourly Wage (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Sociodemographic characteristic Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Craft workers 0.0750*** 0.0755*** 0.0971*** (0.0261) (0.0261) (0.0258) Operators & assemblers 0.190*** 0.190*** 0.199*** (0.0316) (0.0317) (0.0327) Type of place of residence (Reference: Urban) Rural -0.0667*** -0.0178 (0.0145) (0.0153) Region (Reference: Yerevan) Aragatsotn 0.181*** (0.0296) Ararat -0.0772*** (0.0236) Armavir -0.0390 (0.0267) Gegharkunik -0.568*** (0.0391) 95 Lori 0.0550** (0.0252) Kotayk -0.0300 (0.0214) Shirak -0.134*** (0.0382) Syunik -0.117*** (0.0273) Vayoc Dzor -0.151*** (0.0287) Tavush -0.205*** (0.0255) Constant 6.682*** 6.655*** 6.531*** 6.213*** 6.485*** 6.706*** 6.756*** 6.647*** (0.101) (0.218) (0.227) (0.234) (0.197) (0.199) (0.203) (0.194) Observations 7,547 7,547 7,547 7,547 7,547 7,547 7,547 7,547 R-squared 0.107 0.175 0.176 0.282 0.353 0.381 0.382 0.436 Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Note: The estimates include all workers ages 15–74. ANNEX I. PROBIT ESTIMATION ON LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION AMONG WOMEN AGES 15–74 Table I.1. Probit estimation on labor force participation among women ages 15–74 Dependent variable: Labor Force Participation (women 15-74, not in education) Variables Coefficient Age 0.1459 (0.0083) Age 2 -0.0017 (0.0001) Educational attainment (reference=lower than basic) Basic 1.2603*** (0.2764) Secondary 1.3185*** (0.2656) Preliminary vocational 1.6264*** (0.2974) Higher vocational 1.479*** (2672) Tertiary or more 1.7178*** (0.2679) Dummy=1 child (0-5 years old) in the HH -0.4570*** (0.0432) Dummy=1 if there is a disabled person in the HH -0.3253*** (0.0554) Dummy=1 if there is elderly in the HH 0.0458 (0.4124) Location (reference=Yerevan) Other Urban 0.4416*** (0.0872) Rural 1.1142*** (0.0870) Region (reference=Yerevan) Aragatsotn -0.3079*** (0.1071) Ararat -0.4222*** (0.0986) 96 Variables Coefficient Armavir -0.6450*** (0.0954) Gegharkunik -0.4099*** (0.0989) Lori -0.2519 (0.0930) Kotayk -0.2361** (0.1001) Shirak -0.3433 (0.0954) Sjunik -0.1932* (0.1039) VayotsDzor -0.451 (0.1056) Tavush Omitted Constant -4.0269 (0.3261) Observations 6727 Robust standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 97 ANNEX J. ÑOPO DECOMPOSITION TO DECOMPOSE GENDER WAGE GAPS Decomposition studies are regularly published DX: The wage difference attributed to the by statistical offices, for example, on the gender differences in observed characteristics of wage gap in Germany and the European Union, and matched women and men. It is calculated as they inform policy-making targeted at reducing the difference between the average wage of compositional disadvantages of certain groups. men if they had the same characteristics as On the premise that comparable characteristics the matched women and the average wage of should generate the same outcome across matched men. groups, the unexplained component is often DA: The wage gap between matched and interpreted as an indicator of discrimination, unmatched men scaled by the share of which is an important policy concern (Hamjediers unmatched among men. and Sprengholz 2023). Other factors include DB: The wage gap between unmatched and unobserved behavioral differences between matched women scaled by the share of women and men, such as risk-taking behavior unmatched among women. and preference for bargaining (Maitra et al. 2021). Ñopo decomposition model allows us to better The analysis relies on the 2022 Armenia Labor understand the drivers of the gender wage Force Survey. The results show the following: gap. The method decomposes the gap into an explained component that is based on the • On average, working women ages 15–74 earn differences between women and men in the AMD 333 less per hour than men (annex J, characteristics that predict the hourly wage, such Table J.1, row D). as education, age, and experience, and a remaining • There is a reasonable level of overlap “unexplained” component. This is an extension of in common support (or, observed the Blinder-Oaxaca (BO) decomposition which characteristics), with almost 100 percent recognizes the gender differences in the supports of women and men being matched under – that is, the distribution of the observed models 1 and 2, but also over 50 percent characteristics of women and men. Ñopo method controlling for job characteristics such as is also a nonparametric alternative to BO (which occupation, part/full time, and sector of relies on regression-based techniques) and uses employment (models 3–5). a matching technique to explain the gaps. • The magnitude of the wage gap between matched and the unmatched is relatively In the model, every woman is matched with small for both men and women (rows DA all potential men based on a defined set of and DB). However, negative and significant observed characteristics. This matching process gaps among women (DB) under models 4–7 decomposes the observed wage gap into four indicate that unmatched women earn lower additive elements: wages than matched women. Even after matching on part/full time (model 4) and DO: The wage gap that cannot be explained by sector of employment (model 5), around the set of observable characteristics between 67 – 85 percent of the wage gap among matched women and men. This is the residual of women and men cannot be explained by the the components DX, DA, and DB. observable characteristics (D0). 98 Table J.1. Unexplained gender wage gap following the Ñopo decomposition Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 D -333.6*** -333.6*** -333.6*** -333.6*** -333.6*** -333.6*** -333.6*** (Raw wage gap) [13.93] [13.19] [12.26] [16.13] [14.24] [11.33] [12.03] D0 -359.9*** -351.4*** -360.2*** -283.9*** -222.6*** -223.0*** -211.9*** (Unexplained component) [15.86] [16.05] [15.63] [21.75] [16.05] [17.14] [35.72] DX 26.28*** 17.1 22.66 -43.29** -93.69*** -97.68*** -84.20** (Explained component) [6.387] [8.731] [12.22] [15.2] [17.07] [18.19] [31.25] DA 0.221 1.155 8.68 14.72* 7.431 16.97 48.89 (Gap between matched and unmatched men) [0.662] [1.804] [6.51] [7.257] [10.79] [15.36] [30.13] DB -0.181 -0.399 -4.731 -21.09* -24.74** -29.86** -86.34*** (Gap between unmatched and matched women) [0.238] [2.29] [4.908] [9.814] [8.42] [10.62] [24.35] Control variables (in addition to sex, age, and age square) Education attainment Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 99 Marital status Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Occupation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Part/full time Yes Yes Yes Yes Sector of employment Yes Yes Yes Rural Yes Yes Region Yes N(men) 4263 4263 4263 4263 4263 4263 4263 % matched men 99.6 99.1 81.6 77.6 52.8 46.2 21.8 N(women) 3354 3354 3354 3354 3354 3354 3354 % matched women 99.9 95.9 82.6 75.8 58.1 51.3 23.6 Standard errors in parentheses * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001 Source: Calculations using 2022 data of LFS (Labour Force Survey, Armenia) (anonymized microdata database), Statistical Committee of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, https://armstat.am/en/?nid=212. Note: Includes all individuals ages 15–74. DA>0 means that wages are lower among the unmatched men. DB<0 means that the wages are higher among the matched. DA: Among men, matched men earn on average higher than unmatched DX: Average hourly wage of men if it had the same characteristics as women; or, hourly wage of women if it had the same returns to characteristics as men. DB: Among women, the matched earn, on average, AMD 21 more than the unmatched. ANNEX K. PROBIT ANALYSIS RESULTS OF FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH GENDER ROLE PERCEPTIONS Table K.1. Probit analysis results of factors associated with gender role perceptions — Marginal effects a) Dependent variable: “Men should take as much responsibility as women for the home and children” Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 1 Age range (Reference = 18-24) 25-39 -0.00337 -0.0828** (0.0608) (0.0313) 40-64 -0.0391 -0.0587* (0.0786) (0.0305) 65+ 0.0743 -0.0282 (0.0713) (0.0304) Marital status (Reference = Single) Married 0.0653 0.0310 (0.0672) (0.0520) Divorced/Widowed -0.0736 0.0368 (0.153) (0.0499) Educational attainment (Reference = Secondary or less) Post-secondary & tertiary 0.0227 -0.000575 (0.0431) (0.0268) Higher -0.0260 -0.0437 (0.0591) (0.0334) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban 0.0172 -0.0107 (0.0542) (0.0253) Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes 0.0587 -0.0171 (0.0598) (0.0289) Dummy=1 if female-headship -0.134* 0.0102 (0.0681) (0.0651) Dummy =1 if respondent has difficulties* -0.0621 -0.0310 (0.0553) (0.0230) 100 Dependent variable: “Men should take as much responsibility as women for the home and children” Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 1 Dummy=1 if elderly family members in HH who require care 0.0787* -0.122* (0.0437) (0.0655) Place on 10 step wealth ladder -0.00826 -0.0139 (0.0163) (0.00881) Observations 303 663 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Note: Dependent variable is coded as 1 for agree/strongly agree and 0 for disagree/strongly disagree. 101 b) Dependent variable: “Always/sometimes justified for a man to beat his wife” Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 1 Age range (Reference = 18-24) 25-39 0.265*** -0.0678 (0.0849) (0.0649) 40-64 0.0957** -0.0719 (0.0405) (0.0600) 65+ 0.0364 -0.0863 (0.0418) (0.0599) Marital status (Reference = Single) Married 0.0967* 0.0442* (0.0564) (0.0238) Divorced/Widowed 0.0122 0.0557* (0.0555) (0.0289) Educational attainment (Reference = Secondary or less) Post-secondary & tertiary -0.000820 -0.0472 (0.0768) (0.0340) Higher -0.0341 -0.0587* (0.0524) (0.0310) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban 0.0523 0.00712 (0.0480) (0.0222) Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes -0.136** -0.0311 (0.0518) (0.0246) Dummy=1 if female-headship -0.103** -0.0631 (0.0461) (0.0631) Dummy =1 if respondent has difficulties* -0.0220 -0.0249 (0.0425) (0.0360) Dummy=1 if elderly family members in HH who require care 0.0420 -0.0169 (0.0811) (0.0250) Place on 10 step wealth ladder 0.0298* 0.00100 (0.0148) (0.00589) Observations 310 676 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Note: Dependent variable is coded as 1 for agree/strongly agree and 0 for disagree/strongly disagree. 102 c) Dependent variable: Ever worked or currently working among women aged 15-74 Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 1 age 0.00137 0.00456 (0.00920) (0.0121) age2 8.19E-06 3.69E-05 (9.32e-05) (0.000127) Both the man and woman should contribute to household income = -0.0459 0.339*** 1, agree/strongly agree (0.0625) (0.0719) Dummy = 1, if married 0.0847 -0.171*** (0.0817) (0.0511) Edicational attainment (Reference = Secondary or less) Post-secondary & tertiary 0.0174 0.0418 (0.0674) (0.0659) Higher 0.0875 0.235*** (0.0598) (0.0632) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban -0.0497 -0.0400 (0.0705) (0.0575) Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes 0.127*** -0.0601 (0.0462) (0.0563) Dummy = 1, if respondent has difficulties* -0.0834 -0.00649 (0.0518) (0.0528) Dummy = 1, if elderly family members in HH who require care 0.0744 -0.0249 (0.0444) (0.0718) Place on 10 step wealth ladder -0.0254 0.00694 (0.0165) (0.0170) Observations 290 605 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 103 d) Dependent variable: “Have tertiary education or higher” Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 2 Age range (Reference = 65+) 18-24 -0.184 -0.0853 (0.135) (0.103) 25-39 -0.000848 0.0237 (0.0928) (0.0763) 40-64 -0.0393 0.0359 (0.0588) (0.0483) Women are as competent as men to be business executives = 1, 0.0312 0.138** agree/strongly agree (0.0582) (0.0675) Marital status (Reference = Single) Married 0.179** -0.0365 (0.0837) (0.0995) Divorced/Widowed 0.104 -0.0330 (0.135) (0.100) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban 0.224*** 0.239*** (0.0696) (0.0594) Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes -0.0262 -0.00706 (0.0700) (0.0611) Dummy = 1, if female-headship 0.0817 -0.0789 (0.0932) (0.110) Dummy = 1, if respondent has difficulties* 0.117* -0.0556 (0.0638) (0.0723) Dummy = 1, if elderly family members in HH who require care -0.0681 -0.170* (0.0799) (0.0862) Place on 10 step wealth ladder 0.0197 0.0142 (0.0214) (0.0139) Observations 301 650 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 104 Dependent variable: “Have tertiary education or higher” Male Female Variables Model 3 Model 4 Age range (Reference = 65+) 18-24 -0.177 -0.100 (0.139) (0.102) 25-39 0.0191 0.0265 (0.0948) (0.0836) 40-64 -0.0444 0.0479 (0.0564) (0.0471) A woman should do most of the household chores even if the -0.126* -0.208*** husband is not working = 1, agree/strongly agree (0.0652) (0.0528) Marital status (Reference = Single) Married 0.181** 0.00727 (0.0814) (0.0983) Divorced/Widowed 0.0974 -0.00174 (0.141) (0.0977) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban 0.206*** 0.260*** (0.0730) (0.0586) Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes -0.0216 0.0188 (0.0640) (0.0583) Dummy = 1, if female-headship 0.0393 -0.0776 (0.0986) (0.107) Dummy = 1, if respondent has difficulties* 0.110* -0.0575 (0.0636) (0.0701) Dummy = 1, if elderly family members in HH who require care -0.0567 -0.142* (0.0787) (0.0779) Place on 10 step wealth ladder 0.0187 0.0138 (0.0210) (0.0134) Observations 300 660 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 105 Dependent variable: “Have tertiary education or higher” Male Female Variables Model 5 Model 6 Age range (Reference = 65+) 18-24 -0.244* -0.130 (0.127) (0.102) 25-39 -0.0311 -0.0140 (0.0830) (0.0734) 40-64 -0.0641 0.0437 (0.0615) (0.0454) It is better for everyone involved if the man earns the money and the -0.366*** -0.215*** woman takes care of the home and children = 1, agree/strongly agree (0.0796) (0.0408) Marital status (Reference = Single) Married 0.183** -0.0189 (0.0753) (0.0954) Divorced/Widowed 0.0556 -0.0530 (0.147) (0.0977) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban 0.211*** 0.267*** (0.0669) (0.0577) Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes -0.0222 0.0128 (0.0643) (0.0596) Dummy = 1, if female-headship 0.0153 -0.0309 (0.0880) (0.0997) Dummy = 1, if respondent has difficulties* 0.109* -0.0575 (0.0574) (0.0679) Dummy = 1, if elderly family members in HH who require care -0.0728 -0.159** (0.0599) (0.0766) Place on 10 step wealth ladder 0.0152 0.00777 (0.0193) (0.0128) Observations 304 666 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 106 e) Dependent variable: Respondent voted in the most recent local/national-level elections Local Parliamentary Presidential Male Female Male Female Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Age range (Reference = 65+) 18-24 -0.150 -0.0416 -0.159 -0.392*** -0.0569 -0.230* (0.142) (0.116) (0.181) (0.129) (0.184) (0.133) 25-39 -0.219* -0.202** -0.211* -0.291*** -0.156 -0.293*** (0.115) (0.0762) (0.115) (0.0725) (0.113) (0.0700) 40-64 -0.124*** 0.0405 -0.0520 -0.0210 -0.0836 0.0140 (0.0438) (0.0590) (0.0615) (0.0596) (0.0660) (0.0476) A woman should do most of the household chores even if the -0.0677 -0.0510 -0.0666 -0.138*** -0.00527 -0.0737 husband is not working = 1, agree/strongly agree 107 (0.0609) (0.0422) (0.0747) (0.0411) (0.0644) (0.0525) Marital status (Reference = Single) Married 0.0635 0.0775 0.107 0.0430 0.0720 0.180* (0.0884) (0.0881) (0.104) (0.0933) (0.122) (0.0941) Divorced/Widowed -0.167 0.00181 -0.169 -0.0880 -0.139 0.116 (0.182) (0.0910) (0.179) (0.0844) (0.195) (0.0883) Educational attainment (Reference = Secondary or less) Post-secondary & tertiary 0.0312 0.0900* -0.0746 0.0932 -0.0414 0.106* (0.0638) (0.0468) (0.0810) (0.0586) (0.0771) (0.0554) Higher -0.0283 -0.108** 0.0901 -0.0584 0.00680 0.0183 (0.0893) (0.0448) (0.0878) (0.0539) (0.0768) (0.0662) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban -0.0599 -0.0154 -0.0186 0.0550 -0.0633 -0.00287 (0.0602) (0.0558) (0.0719) (0.0588) (0.0704) (0.0594) Dependent variable: Respondent voted in the most recent local/national-level elections Local Parliamentary Presidential Male Female Male Female Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes 0.0154 -0.0113 0.0307 -0.00249 0.0946 0.00184 (0.0716) (0.0659) (0.0717) (0.0658) (0.0965) (0.0607) Dummy = 1, if female-headship -0.0125 -0.0423 0.119 -0.0349 0.00891 0.139 (0.0960) (0.104) (0.0952) (0.0976) (0.109) (0.102) Dummy = 1, if respondent has difficulties* 0.0302 0.0576 0.0439 0.0154 0.0226 0.0287 (0.0577) (0.0630) (0.0679) (0.0629) (0.0840) (0.0616) Dummy = 1, if elderly family members in HH who require care -0.0983 0.0725 -0.000418 -0.0496 0.0142 -0.0184 (0.106) (0.0727) (0.125) (0.0665) (0.113) (0.0889) Place on 10 step wealth ladder 0.0121 0.00483 0.0178 0.0153 0.0222 0.0123 108 (0.0195) (0.0121) (0.0239) (0.0129) (0.0233) (0.0122) Observations 271 618 286 643 272 623 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Source: Calculation using EBRD 2023. * Note: Refers to people with some or a lot of difficulty to seeing, even if wearing glasses; hearing, even if using a hearing aid(s); walking or climbing steps; remembering or concentrating; with self-care, such as washing all over or dressing; communicating, for example understanding or being understood, using your usual language. f) Dependent variable: Respondent voted in the most recent local/national-level elections Local Parliamentary Presidential Male Female Male Female Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Age range (Reference = 65+) 18-24 -0.171 -0.0280 -0.209 -0.392*** -0.0786 -0.234* (0.142) (0.118) (0.180) (0.135) (0.188) (0.130) 25-39 -0.241** -0.189** -0.261** -0.281*** -0.171 -0.274*** (0.107) (0.0794) (0.105) (0.0786) (0.108) (0.0701) 40-64 -0.125*** 0.0686 -0.0816 0.0120 -0.0907 0.0419 (0.0409) (0.0598) (0.0551) (0.0674) (0.0660) (0.0516) It is better for everyone involved if the man earns the money -0.0667 -0.110** -0.191*** -0.195*** -0.110 -0.134*** and the woman takes care of the home and children = 1, 109 agree/strongly agree (0.0825) (0.0414) (0.0606) (0.0381) (0.0952) (0.0429) Marital status (Reference = Single) Married 0.0557 0.0633 0.0951 0.0294 0.0616 0.179* (0.0902) (0.0861) (0.102) (0.0853) (0.117) (0.0892) Divorced/Widowed -0.185 0.0187 -0.216 -0.0672 -0.162 0.148* (0.186) (0.0938) (0.164) (0.0798) (0.193) (0.0832) Educational attainment (Reference = Secondary or less) Post-secondary & tertiary 0.0218 0.0764 -0.0852 0.0886 -0.0486 0.0940 (0.0605) (0.0506) (0.0838) (0.0603) (0.0818) (0.0563) Higher -0.0243 -0.138*** 0.0616 -0.0926* -0.0152 -0.00688 (0.0806) (0.0511) (0.0829) (0.0533) (0.0738) (0.0684) Location (Reference = Rural) Urban -0.0569 -0.0194 -0.0106 0.0471 -0.0511 -0.0150 (0.0598) (0.0545) (0.0717) (0.0571) (0.0684) (0.0558) Dependent variable: Respondent voted in the most recent local/national-level elections Local Parliamentary Presidential Male Female Male Female Male Female Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Children under 6 years old in the HH (Reference = No) Yes 0.0165 0.00129 0.0343 0.0129 0.0901 0.0252 (0.0691) (0.0631) (0.0681) (0.0671) (0.0971) (0.0590) Dummy = 1, if female-headship -0.00968 -0.0153 0.116 0.00487 0.0171 0.162 (0.0969) (0.104) (0.0928) (0.0978) (0.107) (0.104) Dummy = 1, if respondent has difficulties* 0.0241 0.0389 0.0360 -0.00771 0.0165 0.0167 (0.0585) (0.0616) (0.0639) (0.0618) (0.0790) (0.0595) Dummy = 1, if elderly family members in HH who require care -0.113 0.0877 -0.0134 -0.0167 0.00311 0.00310 (0.112) (0.0760) (0.128) (0.0599) (0.117) (0.0869) Place on 10 step wealth ladder 0.00945 0.00336 0.0171 0.0136 0.0212 0.0120 110 (0.0190) (0.0120) (0.0233) (0.0126) (0.0234) (0.0122) Observations 275 624 290 649 276 629 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Source: Calculation using EBRD 2023. * Note: Refers to people with some or a lot of difficulty to seeing, even if wearing glasses; hearing, even if using a hearing aid(s); walking or climbing steps; remembering or concentrating; with self-care, such as washing all over or dressing; communicating, for example understanding or being understood, using your usual language. ANNEX L. KNOWLEDGE GAPS Table L.1. Knowledge gaps Link between GBV and women’s overall engagement, e.g., labor market participation and civic engagement. Impact of conflict on women’s health, labor market participation, incidence of GBV. Gender gap in impact of climate change. Drivers of poverty among women in reproductive years. Impact of mandatory military service on men’s earnings Causal impact of traditional perceptions on educational attainment, labor force participation, and civic engagement Impact of various interventions on social norms Reasons behind gender gap in pursuit of tertiary education Impact of parental leave on women’s labor force participation Reasons behind vulnerability of women’s business to shocks Drivers behind increase in sex ratio at birth in 2022 Gender gap in the impacts of remittances 111