Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was led by a World Bank team comprised of Sarah Moyer and Noor Mohammed and a project team from Zutari comprised of James Cullis, Anya Eilers, Mookho Monnapula, Jaco Bruwer and Mpho Khashole. We gratefully acknowledge the numerous experts and stakeholders from government and civil society who participated in the workshops, field visits, and/or provided written inputs during the course of this work. Special thanks go to Diego Rodriguez, Pratap Tvgssshrk, and Juanita Whitfield for providing peer review. This work was possible because of strong commitment and support from Kikine Khasapane of the Roads Directorate, Ministry of Public Work of Lesotho; Makamoreng Fanana, Matsolo Migwi, Nthatuoa Kuleile of the Integrated Catchment Management Unit, Ministry of Water of Lesotho; and Phomolo Khonthu, catchment manager for Hlotse sub- catchment and Motlalepula Rasekoele, catchment manager for Makhaleng sub-catchment. Our thanks to them for fostering multi-sectoral approach to integrated catchment management in Lesotho. This work was supported with funding from PROGREEN (https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/progreen), an umbrella multi-donor trust fund housed at the World Bank that supports the sustainable and integrated development of land resources. © 2023 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be construed or considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e- mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover image credit: Anya Eilers Other Image credits: Anya Eilers and Mookho Monnapula Executive Summary Climate change risk studies are often addressed through top-down approaches using climate projections and modelled impacts. However, a bottom-up approach is also required to focus on the recent past and present vulnerability. Whilst top-down and bottom-up approaches generate complementary insights into who and what is at risk, integrating their results is a much-needed step towards developing relevant information to address the needs of immediate adaptation decisions. The local-level risk assessment presented in this Report is an example of a bottom-up approach to climate risk analysis that helps identify specific risks and opportunities for adaptation. The national level climate risk and vulnerability assessment presented in the national level risk assessment Report complements the local-level climate risk and vulnerability assessment. As part of the local-level risk assessment, the Study Team consisting of a roads engineer, a climate change expert and a water resources expert, and the local catchment representative, visited the key catchments and their associated priority sub-catchments between 1 and 9 November 2022, namely:  Makhaleng catchment and the Makhalaneng priority sub-catchment  Northern Mohokare catchment and the Hlotse priotity sub-catchment Representatives of the Lesotho Roads Directorate (RD) accompanied the Study Team. The Study Team convened meetings with four Community Watershed Teams across the two catchments to identify several issues or hazards impacting the road networks. The identified issues or hazards were grouped into key themes, as shown in the table below. The number of sites documented is shown below and presented in this Report: Issue No. of sites Issue themes Issue description no. documented 1 Unprotected side drains or riverbanks 7 2 Damage to bridge embankments 7 Limited protection works 3 Eroding of the shoulder of the road 2 4 Slope instability 3 Lack of downstream erosion protection 5 6 for culverts, bridges and drifts Sediment deposition or slope instability Inadequate rehabilitation 6 3 from unrehabilitated borrow pits 7 Blocked/damaged culverts 9 Poor 8 Blocked/insufficient side drains 5 maintenance/condition 9 Insufficient drainage of unpaved roads 5 Lack of connection to main drainage 10 3 channels Damage to formal roads from rural 11 2 access roads Informal roads Inadequate infrastructure for river 12 1 crossings Unsustainable farming practices 13 1 Catchments impacting roads 14 Meandering Rivers 2 The site assessments and discussions with the communities in each of the two catchments present a compelling argument for the importance of improving the climate resilience of critical infrastructures such as roads and Integrated Catchment Management (ICM). Roads and their associated infrastructure cannot be considered in isolation but must also consider upstream and downstream activities. Many of the sites visited had multiple issues, which shows the integrated link between road-related hazards. For example, poor slope rehabilitation could result in the blockage of culverts, increasing the risk of overtopping, erosion of the pavement, and increasing danger for road users. Climate change will significantly impact the Lesotho road network. However, climate change will likely not cause many additional issues but rather accelerate the current issues caused by limited protection works during the construction phase, inadequate rehabilitation of slopes, inadequate regular maintenance, poorly constructed informal roads, and poor catchment management. Increased land degradation and erosion levels will also amplify the increasing risks posed by climate change. In terms of the way forward, the Report makes the following recommendations:  Include identified issues and priority road rehabilitation projects for rural access roads into the catchment management plans for the priority catchments.  Engage with national RD and local council to identify priority interventions and requirements.  Provide technical support (and incentives) for community-based road rehabilitation projects. For example, using the UNCDF Local Climate Adaptive Living Facility (LoCAL) funding model that is being trialled in Lesotho.  Identify priority interventions for possible funding support from the global adaptiaton funds.  Clarification on who is responsible for providing technical support for community-built roads.  Establishment of road engineering extension officers for each district, similar to agriculture extension officers, to support communities with road building.  Motivate for increased investments in improved catchment management upstream of critical/high-risk roads.  Raise awareness with local communities about the importance of clearing culverts and drainage channels.  Increase investments in climate-proofing national and local government roads – pavement upgrades, improved drainage, paved shoulders, culvert replacement, protection of bridge embankments, paving connections to minor roads, etc.  RD and MoLG to engage with ReNOKA on incorporating road projects into the CMPs for priority sub-catchments (Hlotse and Makhalaneng) and identify a technical person at the district level that will provide local assistance and be the key contact in the priority catchments (i.e. “roads extension office”).  RD to engage with ReNOKA on identifying priority catchments for developing CMPs, based on critical roads infrastructure, e.g. new bridge that RD is building. Table of Contents Executive Summary ...............................................................................................................................ii 1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Background and Context ................................................................................................1 1.2 Study Aim and Objectives ..............................................................................................3 1.3 Purpose of this Report ....................................................................................................5 2 Catchment Level Climate Risk Assessment ...................................................................................7 2.1 Overview of the Approach and Methodology .................................................................7 2.2 Overview of the Catchments ..........................................................................................7 2.3 Meeting with Community Watershed Teams (CWTs). ................................................ 12 2.4 Site Visits and Identification of Critical Issues ............................................................. 14 2.4.1 Issue 1: Unprotected side drains or riverbanks ............................................ 15 2.4.2 Issue 2: Damage to river crossings .............................................................. 17 2.4.3 Issue 3: Eroding of the Shoulder of the Road .............................................. 19 2.4.4 Issue 4: Slope Instability, Erosion, and Landslide Risk ................................ 20 2.4.5 Issue 5: Lack of Downstream Erosion Protection ........................................ 21 2.4.6 Issue 6: Unrehabilitated borrow pits ............................................................. 22 2.4.7 Issue 7: Blocked and/or Damaged Culverts ................................................. 23 2.4.8 Issue 8: Blocked and/or Insufficient Side Drains .......................................... 26 2.4.9 Issue 9: Insufficient Drainage of Unpaved Roads ........................................ 28 2.4.10 Issue 10: Lack of Connection to Main Drainage Channels .......................... 30 2.4.11 Issue 11: Damage to Formal Roads from Rural Access Roads .................. 31 2.4.12 Issue 12: Inadequate Infrastructure for River Crossings .............................. 33 2.4.13 Issue 13: Unsustainable Land Management ................................................ 34 2.4.14 Issue 14: Lack of Planning for Meandering Rivers ....................................... 34 3 Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................................................... 36 4 References ...................................................................................................................................... 38 Appendices A. Summary of Critical Issues Identified During the Catchment Visits ......................................... 40 B. Sustainable Catchment Management Interventions for Roads in Lesotho (from Braid, 2019). .................................................................................................................................................. 60 Figures Figure 1-1: Population density of Lesotho (data taken from WorldPop) Figure 1-2: Rainfall in Lesotho Figure 1-3: Map of Priority Catchment Areas in Lesotho. Figure 1-4: Eroded side drain (left) which has resulted in further degradation downstream (right) (Makhaleng catchment #1.5) Figure 1-5: Small check dams used to prevent erosion of side drains in the Makhaleng catchment Figure 2-1: The three sites visited in the Makhaleng and Nothern Mohokare catchments Figure 2-2: Documented issues in Site A, Northern Mohokare catchment Figure 2-3: Documented issues in Site B, Makhaleng catchment Figure 2-4: Documented issues in Site C, Makhaleng catchment Figure 2-5: Meetings with CWTs in the northern Mohokare and Makhaleng catchments. Figure 2-6: Highly eroded side drains that has formed a gully, resulting in damage to the road infrastructure and catchment degradation further downstream (Makhaleng catchment #1.6) Figure 2-7: Ha-Mpalipali, erosion of a natural stream has been intensified by minimal protection of roads infrastructure. Gabion boxes have been used to stabilise the river bank slopes and protect the road from erosion, but have not been sufficient (Makhaleng catchment #1.4) Figure 2-8: Blocked culverts and inadequate scour protection at Maphutseng River Crossing resulting in overtopping and damage to the embankments (Makhaleng catchment #2.6). Figure 2-9: Culvert inlets blocked by debris at Mamaebana River crossing. This has increased the risk of overtopping and erosion of the embankment (Makhaleng catchment #2.3). Figure 2-10: Sedimentation has increased the risk of overtopping and damaged the stone-pitching scour protection at the bridge embankments (Makhaleng catchment #2.7). Figure 2-11: Eroding of the shoulder of the road (Northern Mohokare catchment #3.2) Figure 2-12: Flooding of the shoulder of a road with insufficient drainage capacity along a paved road (Northern Mohokare catchment #3.1) Figure 2-13: The Raboletsi CWT identified this roadside cutting near Ha Matsaba village that is prone to rockfalls (Makhaleng catchment #4.1) Figure 2-14: Unprotected roadside cutting (Makhaleng catchment #4.2) Figure 2-15: Severe scouring of a drift that is damaging the road infrastructure and increasing erosion in the downstream catchment. The drift will soon need to be replaced, which could prove to be more expensive than the cost of adequate scour protection (Makhaleng catchment #5.3) Figure 2-16: The Raboletsi CWT identified this culvert in Ha Potiane. Due to heavy floods a few years ago, the apron of the culvert has washed away and the fill embankment slope and stone pitched outlet wall have eroded, resulting in increased scouring (Makhaleng catchment #5.4) Figure 2-17: An old borrow pit in Ha Potiane that is now being used by the community as a source of gravel for road construction. The unrehabilitated slopes have increased erosion, blocking the side drains (see Section 2.4.8) (Makhaleng catchment #8.1) Figure 2-18: The excavator marks of an unrehabilitated slope are clearly seen (Makhaleng catchment #6.3) Figure 2-19: Blocked culvert due to plant debris (left) that is causing increased overtopping during flooding and eroding the pavement (middle). Due to the blockage, the river course is changing and beginning to erode an adjacent field (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #7.7) Figure 2-20: Inlet to a culvert completely blocked by sediment (left) due to severe erosion upstream (middle). The culvert is in good condition, as can be seen by the outlet (right), and only requires regular desiltation (Makhaleng catchment #7.9). Figure 2-21: IAPs growing in the riparian area of a river in the Northern Mohokare catchment. Well intended catchment interventions to remove IAPs could become a form of maladaptation and result in damage to roads infrastructure further downstream if not managed correctly. Figure 2-22: Culvert blocked by community (left) and field immediately downstream of the culvert outlet (right) (Mohokare catchment #7.1). Figure 2-23: Blocked side drains at Ha Potiane due to sedimentation from an unrehabilitated quarry. Flooding of the road and aquaplaning could be the cause of the high accidents in this area (Makhaleng catchment #8.1) Figure 2-24: Insufficient side drains causing flooding of the road (Northern Mohokare catchment #8.5) Figure 2-25: Blocked and insufficient side drains causing erosion of an unpaved road (Makhaleng catchment #8.4) Figure 2-26: Earth Road with inadequate surface drainage (Northern Mohokare catchment #9.4) Figure 2-27: Example of a handmade concrete tamper Figure 2-28: Community built road near Ha Potiane that the Raboletsi CWT said is prone to regular erosion (Makhaleng catchment #9.2) Figure 2-29: An important earth road in poor condition. It is the only access road for a local clinic and the area of Menkhoaneng, a historically important site for the start of the Basotho kingdom. Basic drainage and erosion control could divert runoff to the fill side of the road, so it drains into the existing culvert and not directly onto the paved road (left). Regular maintenance of the culvert would also be required (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #10.1) Figure 2-30: A natural drainage channel crossing a gravel road. If the channel was diverted slightly to the right, it would flow into a culvert and be discharged into the main drainage channel (Northern Mohokare catchment #10.3) Figure 2-31: A poorly built rural access road with limited protection works has resulted in erosion and sediment deposition onto the primary road (Northern Mohokare catchment #11.2) Figure 2-32: An intersection between a paved and gravel road. The asphalt has been extended onto the gravel road to lower the risks of erosion and damage to the paved road (Northern Mohokare catchment) Figure 2-33: A community-built road linking Ha Potiane Village with an important burial site (Makhaleng catchment #9.1) Figure 2-34: Earth road to Kotanyane Village can only be accessed during low flow periods (left). During high flow periods the community must rely on a footbridge to access clinics, schools etc. (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #12.1) Figure 2-35: An agricultural field depositing sediment on a RD road (Makhaleng catchment #13.1) Figure 2-36: The third bridge that has been built over the Hlotse River at Kota since 1992 (left) and the site of the old bridge over a tributary of the Hlotse River (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #14.1). Figure 2-37: The newly built bridge over the Hlotse River is shown in yellow, and the old bridge is shown in green (taken from Google Earth). Tables Table 1-1: NSDP Strategic objectives and interventions with regard to sustainable transport network Table 2-1: Key issues identified across the catchments and their associated issue themes. List of Acronyms CMP Catchment Management Plan CRVA Climate Risk and Vulnerability Assessment CWT Community Watershed Team EIA Environmental Impact Assessments GoL Government of Lesotho IAP Invasive Alien Plant ICM Integrated Catchment Management ICU Integrated Catchment Management Unit IMT Intermediate Means of Transport LoCAL Local Climate Adaptive Living Facility LRMS Lesotho’s Road Management Information System MoLG Ministry of Local Government and Chieftainship NbS Nature-based solution NCCP National Climate Change Policy NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NSDP National Strategic Development Plan RD Roads Directorate SADC Southern African Development Community SANRAL South African Roads Agency Limited UNCDF United Nations Capital Development Fund 1 Introduction 1.1 Background and Context The Kingdom of Lesotho is a landlocked country in southern Africa. The country covers an area of approximately 30,000 km² and supports a Basotho population of about 1.8 million. A high percentage of the population is settled along the lowlands from Botha Bothe and Leribe in the north-east through the Berea District and the capital district of Maseru to the southwestern region via Mafeteng to Mohales’ Hoek Districts, where there is a developed road network. Large pockets of the population reside along the Senqu River Valley in the south-eastern reaches of the country, and some of the roads traverse this river to connect to the mountainous areas. Subsistence agriculture is the mainstay of the country’s economy, with more than 60% of the population dependent on it. The rest of the country is made up of rolling to highly mountainous sections from Mokhotlong and Thaba-Tseka Districts in the east to Qacha’s Nek and Quthing in the south, where accessibility remains a challenge. Figure 1-1: Population density of Lesotho (data taken from WorldPop) Icreasing temperatures and changing rainfall patterns due to climate change negatively impacts Lesotho’s road network. Sustained land degradation, soil erosion, and increased demand on ecosystem services threatens infrastructure and the health of Lesotho’s natural ecosystems, including wetlands. These threats cost the country an estimated 3.6 percent of GDP per year. Increased temperatures and flooding contributes to issues such as asphalt pavement deformation, slope instabilities, landslides, gulley formation, sedimentation of rivers, unexpected washouts, material losses from gravel roads and erosion and scour of bridge foundations and abutments, all of which contribute to increasing the risk of road and bridge failures. Temporary road closures due to washouts have caused extensive disruption to key transport routes in recent years. Road closures due to washouts places excessive burden on the Government of Lesotho’s infrastructure budgets, in particular financing of road maintenance and repairs. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 1 Figure 1-2: Rainfall in Lesotho The Government of Lesotho (GoL) recognizes the need to reverse environmental degradation and adapt to climate change. As described in the National Strategic Development Plan II (NSDP) 2018/19- 2022/23 — with the theme, “In pursuit of economic and institutional transformation for private sector - led job creation and inclusive growth”, the government of Lesotho intends to pursue a development path that is more resilient to climate-related shocks. The plan stresses on reviving infrastructure assets, including roads, through climate-resilient methods. The strategic framework defines the key objectives and strategies for the four key strategic goals that will support the realization of greater employment creation and inclusive growth. The key priority area aligned to sustainable infrastructure development is to “Build enabling infrastructure” and includes several strategic objectives shown in Table 1-1. The NSDP II mainstreams climate change, environment protection, gender, and social inclusion across all sectors. It notes that climate change has implication for employment creation and economic growth since it impacts all sectors of the economy. Therefore, NSDP II strategy recognises the importance of climate change adaptation and mitigation. A key part of implementing the objectives of the NSDP II for a sustainable transport network is to: 1. Update the current design standards for roads, brigese and culverts; 2. Account for the expected impact of climate change; and 3. Apply this in rehabilitating exsiting roads and developing new roads and bridges to these updated climate-proof standards. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 2 Table 1-1: NSDP Strategic objectives and interventions with regard to sustainable transport network Strategic Objectives Interventions Enhance Enabling  Review Roads Act of 1969 and subsidiary laws. Environment for Road  Develop Road Infrastructure Asset Management Policy. Infrastructure  Develop Road Infrastructure Master Plan and Financing Development Policy and Strategy.  Review and update Lesotho Design Standards.  Formulate Construction Industry Development Policy, enact Construction Bill, and develop Axle  Load Control Policy  Harmonise land allocating legislation to observe road reserves  Develop early warning system to provide reliable detection and response plan.  Improve monitoring and evaluation systems for infrastructure development Maintain Existing Roads  Rehabilitate and maintain existing transport and Access Routes infrastructure (main arterial roads) as asset recovery to climate-proof standards.  Construct new infrastructure conforming to environmental, clean mobility, and climate-proof standards.  Introduce performance and output-based maintenance contracting system for all primary roads Improve Access to Main  Design, upgrade, and construct main corridors conforming Towns, Key Border to environmental, clean mobility, and climate-proof Posts, and Productive standards to key productive sectors Sectors  Build or upgrade new roads to connect main towns, border posts, and communities Improve Urban and  Design major intersections along main arterial roads Rural Transportation  Construct climate-proof footbridges and rural roads Systems from earth to gravel. Note: Strategic policy objectives related to road infrastructure only included in table above. The NSDP also recognises the importance of sustainable catchment management and the need to consider climate-proofing roads to reduce the impacts of poorly designed and maintained roads on natural and human resources, paricularly in the rural areas. 1.2 Study Aim and Objectives To support the Government of Lesotho in addressing these challenges, the World Bank is conducting Analytical and Advisory Services to provide support to three areas: 1. Improving governance and aligning incentives related to integrated catchment management (ICM); 2. Operationalising ICM and climate change considerations into transport investments (to maintain and manage hydrological ecosystem services); and 3. Improving data collection and management to improve collaboration, knowledge sharing and decision making. This Study relates to component 2 of the Program. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 3 The primary aim of this study was to undertake a review of existing frameworks for climate and environment vulnerability assessments for roads and to adapt these to the Lesotho context in line with Southern African Development Community (SADC) protocol on transport, the National Strategic Development Plan of Lesotho, and the South African National Roads Agency (SANRAL) Design Guidelines. The adapted climate and environmental risk framework then formed the basis for developing a climate change risk and vulnerability and assessment methodology/tool. This tool was applied at a national level and tested in two priroity catchment areas: the Makhaleng and Upper Mohokare catchments, shown in Figure 1-3. Figure 1-3: Map of Priority Catchment Areas in Lesotho. The specific objectives of this study are as follows:  Review and adapt existing relevant climate and environmental risk and vulnerability assessment frameworks for roads, bridges and culverts to the Lesotho context.  Review current design standards for roads in the context of climate change.  Undertake a national climate risk and vulnerability assessment for roads in Lesotho.  Undertake a climate risk and vulnerability assessment for roads in two priority catchment areas and preliminary recommendations on potential adaption options.  Provide recommendations for improving the climate resilience of roads in Lesotho and the development of sustainable roads to reduce the risk to catchments. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 4 1.3 Purpose of this Report Climate change studies are often addressed through top-down approaches using climate projections and modelled impacts. However, a bottom-up approach is also required to focus on the recent past and present vulnerability. Whilst top-down and bottom-up approaches generate complementary insights into who and what is at risk, integrating their results is a much-needed step towards developing relevant information to address the needs of immediate adaptation decisions (Conway et al., 2019). The local-level risk assessment presented in this Report uses a bottom-up approach to climate risk analysis. In contrast, the national climate risk and vulnerability assessment follows a top-down approach. Below are the primary deliverables from this study. This Report contains the results of the Catchment level climate risk and vulnerability assessment (CRVA) for roads in two priority sub-catchments in the Lesotho study. National climate risk and Review of Frameworks Report vulnerability assessment (CRVA) for Lesotho roads. Catchment level climate risk and National level climate risk and vulnerability assessment vulnerability data for roads (CRVA) for roads in two priority provided to Lesotho Roads sub-catchments in Lesotho. Management System (LRMS). The report covers the following sections  Chapter 1: Introduction and Background to the Study  Chapter 2: An overview of the causes of erosion and land degradation and the impact that this can have on roads and transport infrastructure.  Chapter 3: Overview of the catchments assessed during the field visits, including detailed maps of all the 58 sites visited and their Corresponding issues, also detailed in Appendix B.  Chapter 4: Summary of the key issues identified by the Community Watershed Teams (CWT).  Chapter 5: An overview of the 14 road-related hazards or issues identified during the site visits in the two catchments with examples from the field. This section includes the impact of climate change and catchment degradation on roads and recommended climate-resilient interventions.  Appendix A: A list of specific issues and locations identified in each catchment  Appendix B: Summary of potential catchment management interventions to reduce the climate- related risks and vulnerability of roads in each catchment. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 5 Box 1: The interconnectedness of roads and catchments Catchment degradation increases erosion which has a significant impact on roads. Many of the issues and examples presented in this report show the impact of catchment degradation on roads. However, one of the areas most prone to erosion and gully formation is along the side of roads, especially dirt roads. Correct roadside erosion management is important for the whole catchment, as roads and tracks are major contributors to erosion and sedimentation. Gullies, once formed, provide a channel for runoff and sediment movement, typically increasing with severity down the catchment (Figure 1-4). Correctly managing roadsides, as shown in Section B.1 and Figure 1-5, will have multiple benefits for both the roads and catchments (Braid, 2019), including:  reduced erosion  damage prevention of roads  improved road usage in wet conditions  reduced maintenance costs  reduced sedimentation deposited by runoff Figure 1-4: Eroded side drain (left) which has resulted in further degradation downstream (right) (Makhaleng catchment #1.5) Figure 1-5: Small check dams used to prevent erosion of side drains in the Makhaleng catchment Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 6 2 Catchment Level Climate Risk Assessment 2.1 Overview of the Approach and Methodology The local-level catchment assessment uses the bottom-up approach presented in the ReCAP framework. As per the ReCAP framework, the purpose of local/project-level assessment is to identify specific hazards that currently affect particular road segments and to assess how likely it is that such hazards will intensify in the future. Therefore, the framework places significant importance on engagement with local communities. Lesotho can use the local-level climate vulnerability assessment for roads in the following ways (le Roux et al, 2019):  To inform engineering design decisions from the road segment level up to the catchment level of a road network.  To identify and include additional data in the road asset management systems for monitoring climate and environmental risks. To adapt this approach to the Lesotho context, the study team followed the following methodology:  With the support of the ReNOKA catchment managers, the study team met with the Community Watershed Teams (CWT) in the Makhalaneng and Hlotse sub-priority catchments. The aim was to identify the key climate hazards impacting the roads in their community.  A representative from the CWT then took the study team to a few key sites the community had identified as critical road hazards in formal and informal roads.  After this, the study team conducted a visual assessment to identify any additional road and climate-related hazards and put together a dataset of issues in the catchment (see Appendix A). 2.2 Overview of the Catchments The three site areas visited are shown in Figure 2-1. Figure 2-2 to Figure 2-4 shows the specific sites with issues as documented in this Reportt and correlate with the Issue ID # in Appendix A. The Report divides sites into five (5) issue themes described further in Section 2.4. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 7 Figure 2-1: The three sites visited in the Makhaleng and Nothern Mohokare catchments Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 8 Site A: Northern Mohokare catchment Figure 2-2: Documented issues in Site A, Northern Mohokare catchment Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 9 Site B: Makhaleng catchment Figure 2-3: Documented issues in Site B, Makhaleng catchment Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 10 Site C: Makhaleng catchment Figure 2-4: Documented issues in Site C, Makhaleng catchment Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 11 2.3 Meeting with Community Watershed Teams (CWTs). Between 1 and 9 November 2022, the Study Team visited the key catchments and their associated priority sub-catchments to conduct a catchment-level risk assessment. The two priority sub- catchments were:  Makhaleng catchment and the Makhalaleng priority sub-catchment  Northern Mohokare catchment and the Hlotse priority sub-catchment Raboletsi CWT (Makhaleng Catchment) Ha Khabo CWT (Northern Mohokare Catchment) Mate Ha Selebalo CWT (Northern Mohokare Catchment) Kota and Kotanyane CWT (Northern Mohokare Catchment) Figure 2-5: Meetings with CWTs in the northern Mohokare and Makhaleng catchments. The aim of this mission was two-fold. Firstly, the study team met with four CWTs from the two catchments part of the ReNOKA catchment management programme. The CWTs represented a diverse group of individuals from the community involved in sustainable farming practices and catchment restoration. These engagements aimed to identify the key climate drivers impacting roads and livelihoods in the local communities. A proper understanding of the local nuances is necessary to develop actions and policies that will have the greatest impact. The community also provided significant insight into other drivers negatively impacting the road network, such as poor land management, unstainable road-building practices etc. The second objective of the local-level risk assessment was to visually and spatially document specific road network risks based on sites identified by the community and the technical specialists. To support the visual assessment of current and potential future risks, the field team included a roads engineer, a climate change specialist and a catchment/water resource management specialist to address the range of road network risks. During the visits to the two catchments, in addition to meeting with the CWTs, 57 sites were visited and identified as key areas of concern by the CWTs or identified by the project team while travelling through the relevant catchments. In addition, the study team visually assessed and spatially recorded each site, including relevant technical insights, actions and initial recommendations. Below are the general issues and observations from the CWTs. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 12  Heavy rainfall and flooding were highlighted as the number one hazard impacting the roads by all the CWTs. They all presented examples of flooding and associated damage to the road infrastructure (including bridges, roads and footbridges) and how these hazards have impacted their ability to access important sites, such as burial grounds, schools, clinics and neighbouring villages. In addition, some villages have been left virtually inaccessible due to infrastructure damaged by flooding.  Landslides and rockfalls were identified as the second key road network hazards, especially during heavy rain and hailstorm events.  Hail storms and frost was identified as a third key hazard for the communities, although the impact of this hazard on the roads is limited. Ha Khabo CWT in the Hlotse catchment said that they can see the impacts of climate change over the past 5 to 10 years. The planting season used to be August but has shifted to October/November due to frost, and the planting season has shortened overall.  Heavy rains and poorly maintained side drainage channels ultimately result in erosion and dongas that damage the roads and encroach on neighbouring fields. Therefore, increasing rainfall and climate change impact the communities’ infrastructure and livelihoods.  Community-built rural access roads using soil from adjacent quarries and hand-made soil compaction equipment, often with no engineering or technical support. During heavy rains, water washes away these roads, and the sediment is deposited in streams, houses, and fields, impacting the major roads at intersections. The cycle re-occurs on an annual basis after the heavy rains.  Some community road management interventions end up causing greater erosion problems and damage to the road infrastructure. For example, communities dig their own side drains for rural access roads without implementing correct erosion control and requesting technical and engineering support to guide them in building and maintaining their infrastructure.  Alien vegetation is a massive concern in the catchments, particularly the Upper Mohokare. The community notes that the concentration of alien vegetation growth is in the dongas and riparian areas. During heavy rains, alien vegetation is deposited in the rivers, blocking culverts and damaging infrastructure downstream. The CWTs were very knowledgeable about the importance of Nature Based Solutions (NbS) and proper catchment management regarding roads. Some of the interventions they are involved with through ReNOKA include the following:  Reclamation of dongas  Removal of alien vegetation and brush control. The communities did note that minimal revegetation does result in further increased erosion. The debris from clearing alien vegetation could also contribute to blocked culverts downstream.  Construction of silt traps and other catchment management initiatives Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 13 2.4 Site Visits and Identification of Critical Issues The catchment level risk assessment identified14 key issues impacting the road network due to the site visits to the two priority sub-catchments. The study team grouped the issues into four (4) themes (Table 2-1). Appendix A provides additional information of the locations visited to identify the critical issues. Table 2-1: Key issues identified across the catchments and their associated issue themes. Issue No. sites Issue themes Issue description no. documented 1 Unprotected side drains or riverbanks 7 2 Damage to bridge embankments 7 3 Eroding of the shoulder of the road 2 Limited protection works 4 Slope instability 3 Lack of downstream erosion protection for 5 6 culverts, bridges and drifts Sediment deposition or slope instability from 6 3 unrehabilitated borrow pits 7 Blocked/damaged culverts 9 Poor 8 Blocked/insufficient side drains 5 maintenance/condition 9 Insufficient drainage of unpaved roads 5 Lack of connection to main drainage 10 3 channels Damage to formal roads from rural access 11 2 Informal roads roads 12 Inadequate infrastructure for river crossings 1 13 Unsustainable land management practices 1 Catchments 14 Meandering Rivers 2 Each of the 14 key issues will be discussed in the next section and will include the following:  How climate change will affect the issues  How catchment degradation and increased erosion will amplify the issues.  Climate-smart interventions that local communities can apply. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 14 2.4.1 Issue 1: Unprotected side drains or riverbanks Many unpaved roads in Lesotho (both formal and informal) have side drains with limited protection making them prone to erosion. The lack of side drain protection was particularly prevalent in the southern part of the Makhaleng catchment in Mohale’s Hoek, which has experienced significant land degradation and erosion due to overgrazing and decreased vegetation cover. In addition, many roads only had side drains, with limited mitre drains to direct the flow of water away from the road and side drains. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increasing rainfall intensity and runoff will Degraded catchments are more prone to soil accelerate the rate of erosion and gully formation, erosion, which will amplify the impacts of damaging the roads and increasing maintenance increased runoff, accelerating the rate of gully costs. formation. Climate smart interventions For gully prevention, mitre drains with stone, brushwood or vegetation barriers can be used in addition to side drains (App. B.1). Communities can introduce gully reshaping (App. B.2), gabion boxes (App. B.3), stone/brushwood check dams (App. B.4 and B.5) and sand dams for large gullies or rivers (App. B.6) for gully or stream rehabilitation. Figure 2-6: Highly eroded side drains that has formed a gully, resulting in damage to the road infrastructure and catchment degradation further downstream (Makhaleng catchment #1.6) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 15 Figure 2-7: Ha-Mpalipali, erosion of a natural stream has been intensified by minimal protection of roads infrastructure. Gabion boxes have been used to stabilise the river bank slopes and protect the road from erosion, but have not been sufficient (Makhaleng catchment #1.4) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 16 2.4.2 Issue 2: Damage to river crossings Most of the river crossings which showed some level of damage were causeways or drifts. It was noted that the embankments and parts of the approaches to the causeways had been the most impacted. Causeways and their embankments are damaged when inadequate scour protection is implemented downstream of the causeway (Figure 2-8). The scouring downstream of causeways is exacerbated through excessive river overtopping, which is caused by inadequate or blocked culverts (Figure 2-9), or sedimentation causing rivers to change course (Figure 2-10). Less resilient materials used for the embankments, such as compacted earth or stone pitching (Figure 2-10), are more prone to erosion than more resilient materials such as concrete, rip rap or gabion baskets. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increased flooding with insufficient drainage capacity Catchment degradation will increase the will increase the risk of overtopping. In addition, bridge sediment load in rivers, accelerating the embankments of less resilient material, such as stone rate at which culverts get blocked, pitching, will erode faster. Increasing temperatures will resulting in more frequent overtopping also influence the structural strength of bridge of bridge embankments. embankments. Climate-smart interventions In many cases documented (such as Figure 2-8 and Figure 2-9), regular clearing of the culverts will significantly minimise the damage to causeway embankments by reducing the occurrence of overtopping. In other cases (such as Figure 2-10), increasing the length of the causeway structure, implementing scour protection with a more resilient material, and including additional culverts will help support climate resilience. Figure 2-8: Blocked culverts and inadequate scour protection at Maphutseng River Crossing resulting in overtopping and damage to the embankments (Makhaleng catchment #2.6). Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 17 Figure 2-9: Culvert inlets blocked by debris at Mamaebana River crossing. This has increased the risk of overtopping and erosion of the embankment (Makhaleng catchment #2.3). Figure 2-10: Sedimentation has increased the risk of overtopping and damaged the stone-pitching scour protection at the bridge embankments (Makhaleng catchment #2.7). Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 18 2.4.3 Issue 3: Eroding of the Shoulder of the Road Eroding of the shoulder of the road is a common issue across most of Lesotho and can be seen on most paved roads outside of the cities due to the pavement not extending adequately onto the shoulder of the road. Lack of this pavement extension is often done to save costs during construction but could result in significantly higher maintenance costs in the long term. Insufficient connection of the drainage from the road with the side drains, resulting in runoff flowing along the shoulder as opposed to the side drains, compounds this issue (Figure 2-11 and Figure 2-12). Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Pavement and asphalt heat deformation will increase Catchment degradation will have with increasing temperatures, and increasing rainfall minimal impacts. intensity will accelerate the rate of shoulder erosion. Climate-smart interventions Extending the pavement along the shoulder of the road to the side drain will result in higher investment during construction. However, it will decrease the maintenance costs in the longer term, particularly considering climate change impacts. Figure 2-11: Eroding of the shoulder of the road Figure 2-12: Flooding of the shoulder of a (Northern Mohokare catchment #3.2) road with insufficient drainage capacity along a paved road (Northern Mohokare catchment #3.1) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 19 2.4.4 Issue 4: Slope Instability, Erosion, and Landslide Risk Figure 2-13 shows a road cutting in the Makhaleng catchment that the CWT addressed as a landslide- prone area. The community said that rockfalls happen four or five times a year during winter and summer, blocking the road and impacting traffic flow. Examples like this are seen in other parts of the catchment and are at risk of future increased rainfall and greater freeze/thaw impact. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation The following climate change-induced phenomenon will Catchment degradation and erosion cause slope instability and geotechnical risks to increase: will decrease the stability of the surrounding land, increasing the  Changes in in-situ water levels, rise in groundwater risks of slope instability and failure. levels, saturated in-situ materials  Higher precipitation and increase in surface flows  Temperature changes and freeze-thaw cycles Climate-smart interventions For rock cuttings, community involvement is an effective way to manage frequent rockfalls. Figure 2-13, for example, shows that the construction of roadside cutting followed the design guidelines, but lack of regular removal of loose rocks. In this case, the community could be trained and incentivised to support the regular maintenance of these structures. The increased use of gabion nets, blankets, shotcrete, rock anchors, and other stabilisation devices could improve the climate resilience of roadside cuttings with loose stone or soil. Figure 2-13: The Raboletsi CWT identified this Figure 2-14: Unprotected roadside cutting roadside cutting near Ha Matsaba village that is (Makhaleng catchment #4.2) prone to rockfalls (Makhaleng catchment #4.1) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 20 2.4.5 Issue 5: Lack of Downstream Erosion Protection Poor downstream erosion protection of drifts (Figure 2-15), culverts (Figure 2-16), and bridges results in an increased risk of scouring that can damage the drainage structures and roads resulting in enhanced catchment erosion. These can ultimately lead to undermining and failure of the road or drainage structure. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increasing rainfall intensity and flooding will increase the Catchment degradation will amplify the risk of erosion scour if the bridges, culverts, and drifts impacts of flooding, increasing the risk are not adequately protected. Higher flood peaks and of erosion and scour. higher sediment loads will also increase the sour risk. Climate-smart interventions  Constructing the culvert at the natural bed level of the stream, increasing the length of the apron downstream of the culvert and the use of energy dissipators.  Ensure adequate scour protection devices (such as gabion baskets and riprap) downstream of the bridge, drift or culvert. Adequate scour protection devices will require more upfront investment but will decrease the costs needed for maintenance or reconstruction (in the case of infrastructure failure).  Invest in catchment rehabilitation to reduce the maximum flood peaks and sediment loads. Figure 2-15: Severe scouring of a drift that is damaging the road infrastructure and increasing erosion in the downstream catchment. The drift will soon need to be replaced, which could prove to be more expensive than the cost of adequate scour protection (Makhaleng catchment #5.3) Figure 2-16: The Raboletsi CWT identified this culvert in Ha Potiane. Due to heavy floods a few years ago, the apron of the culvert has washed away and the fill embankment slope and stone pitched outlet wall have eroded, resulting in increased scouring (Makhaleng catchment #5.4) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 21 2.4.6 Issue 6: Unrehabilitated borrow pits Unrehabilitated borrow pits or quarries are visible along some roadsides in Lesotho. These quarries could have been used during road construction but not adequately rehabilitated. All road construction should have an accompanying Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIAs go through the Department of Environment in the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Culture for recommendations, but the guideline enforcement, regulation and implementation is poor. There is also an inadequately enforced environmental act that requries rehabilitation. In some instances, these quarries continue to be used by the communities for road construction material, which compounds the problem (Figure 2-17). In addition, the CWTs raised concerns about the lack of adequate rehabilitation after road construction completion. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increasing rainfall intensity and flooding will increase the Catchment degradation will amplify the rate of erosion of unrehabilitated slopes blocking impacts of flooding, particularly on culverts and side drains and increasing the risk of more slopes without rehabilitation. slope instability and severe landslides. Climate-smart interventions The use of swales (i.e. contour infiltration ditch or graded diversion ditch) (App. B.7) or contour bunds (earth or stone) (App. B.8) for steep slopes. The communities can use contour ridging (App. B.9) or contour vegetation rows (App. B.10) for shallow slopes. Figure 2-17: An old borrow pit in Ha Figure 2-18: The excavator marks of an Potiane that is now being used by the unrehabilitated slope are clearly seen (Makhaleng community as a source of gravel for road catchment #6.3) construction. The unrehabilitated slopes have increased erosion, blocking the side drains (see Section 2.4.8) (Makhaleng catchment #8.1) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 22 2.4.7 Issue 7: Blocked and/or Damaged Culverts Blocked or damaged culverts were one of the key issues identified across the catchments. Blocked culverts increase the risk of overtopping, which can cause damage to embankments (see Section 2.4.2) and erosion of the pavement (Figure 2-19). In many cases, there is a lack of maintenance and regular clearing. However, upstream activities can also have an impact, such as clearing alien vegetation activities that can block culverts (discussed further in Box 2: Maladaptation and invasive alien plants) or poor catchment management and high erosion rates (Figure 2-20). Some community members also purposefully block culverts (see Box 3: The importance of community engagement). Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increasing rainfall intensity and Catchment degradation and increased erosion rates were noted flooding will increase the by the study team as one of the most significant contributors to amount of sediment and blocked culverts (Figure 2-20), resulting in damage to road vegetation in rivers, damaging infrastructure. As a result, the culvert clearing will increase with or blocking the culverts. more significant degradation and impose higher maintenance costs. Climate-smart interventions  Regular maintenance and clearing of culverts supported through a community initiative coupled with incentivising community members to unblock culverts themselves. Often, this will require minimal effort with significant gains (such as in Figure 2-19).  The RD has already increased the minimum culvert size to 900mm. The RD must re- evaluate the minimum culvert size, considering the probable impacts of climate change.  Communities can use contour ridging (App. B.9), contour bunds (App. B.8) and contour vegetation rows (App. B.10) can be used to control erosion and runoff in the catchments upstream of culverts. Correct rangeland management and conservation agriculture techniques will promote healthy catchments and decrease erosion.  During vegetation clearing and brush control (typically done by the communities), plant debris should be properly removed or burnt. Culvert Culvert Figure 2-19: Blocked culvert due to plant debris (left) that is causing increased overtopping during flooding and eroding the pavement (middle). Due to the blockage, the river course is changing and beginning to erode an adjacent field (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #7.7) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 23 Figure 2-20: Inlet to a culvert completely blocked by sediment (left) due to severe erosion upstream (middle). The culvert is in good condition, as can be seen by the outlet (right), and only requires regular desiltation (Makhaleng catchment #7.9). Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 24 Box 2: Maladaptation and invasive alien plants As part of the catchment management initiatives, many communities are practising brush control and removing Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs), such as the Sehalahala plant (Chrysocoma spp), a common IAP in Lesotho. While this is a good adaptation measure, it could result in further issues downstream (such as damaged or blocked culverts) if not managed carefully. This situation highlights the importance of practicing holistic catchment management, considering the impacts on people, infrastructure, biodiversity, water and land both upstream and downstream. Figure 2-21: IAPs growing in the riparian area of a river in the Northern Mohokare catchment. Well intended catchment interventions to remove IAPs could become a form of maladaptation and result in damage to roads infrastructure further downstream if not managed correctly. Box 3: The importance of community engagement Several CWTs raised the issue of community members purposefully blocking culverts to prevent outflow into agricultural fields (Figure 2-22). This situation highlights the importance of engineers engaging with the community to identify sites from technical and community perspectives. For instance, the community can construct contour bunds (App. B.8), half-moon pits (App. B.11) and infiltration trenches (App. B.12) downstream of the culvert to redirect flow away from the field whilst encouraging groundwater infiltration and recharge. Figure 2-22: Culvert blocked by community (left) and field immediately downstream of the culvert outlet (right) (Mohokare catchment #7.1). Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 25 2.4.8 Issue 8: Blocked and/or Insufficient Side Drains In addition to blocked culverts, blocked or insufficient side drains were among the key issues identified across the catchments. Blocked or insufficient side drains prevent runoff from draining away from the road surface, thus flooding the carriageway, eroding the pavement and creating hazardous driving conditions for motorists (Figure 2-23). Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation The current capacity of the side Similar to culverts, catchment degradation and increased drains may not be sufficient to erosion rates will increase the risk of side drain becoming accommodate the increasing blocked due to sedimentation. The frequency at which side rainfall intensity and flooding risks drains need to be cleared will increase with more significant associated with climate change. degradation, and impose higher maintenance costs. Climate-smart interventions  Increase in side drainage capacities to accommodate for climate change. Side drainage capacities increase would need to be investigated in an additional study and assessed on a site-specific basis.  Communities’ regular maintenance and clearing of side drains to adapt to the impacts of climate change, supported through a community initiative coupled with incentivising community members to clear side drains in their vicinity.  Communities can use contour ridging, contour bunds and contour vegetation rows (App. B.8 to B.10) to control erosion and runoff in the catchments. Correct rangeland management and conservation agriculture techniques will promote healthy catchments and decrease erosion. Figure 2-23: Blocked side drains at Ha Figure 2-24: Insufficient side drains causing Potiane due to sedimentation from an flooding of the road (Northern Mohokare catchment unrehabilitated quarry. Flooding of the road #8.5) and aquaplaning could be the cause of the high accidents in this area (Makhaleng catchment #8.1) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 26 Figure 2-25: Blocked and insufficient side drains causing erosion of an unpaved road (Makhaleng catchment #8.4) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 27 2.4.9 Issue 9: Insufficient Drainage of Unpaved Roads Unpaved roads often have both insufficient side drainage and surface drainage, resulting in water pooling in the road and not rediverting to the side drains (if indeed these have been constructed). Water pooling is particularly noticeable during heavy rainfall events (Figure 2-26). Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increasing rainfall intensity and flooding will increase Catchment degradation will increase the the risk of water pooling on unpaved roads and runoff velocity along unpaved roads, thus increase the risk of erosion, particularly for earth increasing the risk of erosion during heavy roads. rainfall events. Climate smart interventions Projects should consider sufficient surface, side and cross drainage1 during the construction phase. As community members with limited technical knowledge construct many roads, it is important to foster strong community partnerships and training programmes (see Box 4: Technical support for community-built roads). Figure 2-26: Earth Road with inadequate surface drainage (Northern Mohokare catchment #9.4) 1 https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/212269/road-drainage.pdf Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 28 Box 4: Technical support for community-built roads The CWTs all requested technical and engineering support to guide them in building and maintaining their road infrastructure. They listed three ways in which community-driven road interventions cause further damage to downstream roads and catchments:  Community members build many of the earth rural access roads using gravel from adjacent quarries and handmade soil compaction equipment (see example in Figure 2-27). There is often no engineering or technical support. During heavy rains, water washes away these poorly compacted roads leading to sediment deposition into streams, houses, fields and the intersections with major roads. This cycle is repeated on an annual basis after heavy rains (Figure 2-28).  The CWTs said they have an idea of the culverts they need, but it is not necessarily the best culvert for the area. They typically can only build drifts from earth materials, which also get washed away and deposit sediment in rivers.  The third area of support that the CWTs requestsed is the construction of side drains. Many communities dig their own side drains for rural access roads. Without implementing proper erosion control (such as Figure 1-5 in Box 1: The interconnectedness of roads and catchments), these community interventions end up causing greater erosion problems and damage to the road infrastructure. Figure 2-27: Example of a handmade Figure 2-28: Community built road near Ha Potiane concrete tamper2 that the Raboletsi CWT said is prone to regular erosion (Makhaleng catchment #9.2) 2 https://insteading.com/blog/how-to-make-your-own-concrete-tamper/ Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 29 2.4.10 Issue 10: Lack of Connection to Main Drainage Channels Side drains (Figure 2-29) or natural drainage channels (Figure 2-30) are sometimes not connected to main drainage channels and rivers due to blocked culverts, insufficient cross drainage etc. Simple interventions could help to divert this water to the main drainage channels, thus decreasing the risks of erosion and sediment deposition on the roads. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation If not diverted correctly through proper drainage, Catchment degradation will increase the runoff an increased runoff will increase the risk of velocity, thus increasing the risk of erosion erosion and sediment deposition on roads. during heavy rainfall events. Climate-smart interventions Cross drains, water bars, or mitre drains could be used to redivert runoff into the main drainage channel. Scour checks would be required for larger roads at regular intervals to prevent excessive erosion. Side drain Culvert inlet Blocked culvert outlet Figure 2-29: An important earth road in poor condition. It is the only access road for a local clinic and the area of Menkhoaneng, a historically important site for the start of the Basotho kingdom. Basic drainage and erosion control could divert runoff to the fill side of the road, so it drains into the existing culvert and not directly onto the paved road (left). Regular maintenance of the culvert would also be required (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #10.1) Natural Natural drainage channel drainage channel Culvert Natural drainage channel Culvert Figure 2-30: A natural drainage channel crossing a gravel road. If the channel was diverted slightly to the right, it would flow into a culvert and be discharged into the main drainage channel (Northern Mohokare catchment #10.3) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 30 2.4.11 Issue 11: Damage to Formal Roads from Rural Access Roads In rural Lesotho, Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs) consist of a network of footpaths, an estimated 221 footbridges, a network of about 44 river ferry crossing sites, and some bridle paths. Access roads and rural tracks are also important elements of the rural IMTs infrastructure. In addition, they provide opportunities for isolated rural communities to access socio-economic services and other modes of transport. It was evident from the field assessment and conversations with the CWTs that the key issues lie between the IMTs and rural access roads. The community members typically build these roads and tracks with limited technical and engineering support (see Box 4: Technical support for community- built roads). Since no institution has the mandate to provide the legal and regulatory framework to plan, implement and monitor IMT projects, the Environment Act 2001 that requires EIAs to be conducted is often not adhered to (Ministry of Public Works and Transport, 2012). As such, rural access roads are particularly prone to the impacts of climate change. They are prone to increased erosion, impacting the condition of the rural access road, formal roads downslope and the catchment (due to increased sediment loads) (Figure 2-31). Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Heavy rainfall events impact community-built Community-built access roads have a detrimental informal roads due to their poor technical impact on catchments, but catchment degradation standards and conditions (see Box 4: can also exacerbate the risks to the roads. For Technical support for community-built roads). example, catchment degradation will increase the The associated risks will increase with runoff velocity along unpaved roads, thus increasing rainfall intensity due to climate increasing the risk of erosion during heavy rainfall change. events. Climate-smart interventions Adequate technical support for communities in building their road infrastructure is paramount and a key intervention for climate-resilient roads. However, other simple interventions can also decrease the damage to formal roads from unpaved roads (gravel or earth). For example, extending the asphalt onto the unpaved road at the intersection will decrease erosion risks and damage to formal paved roads (Figure 2-32). Figure 2-31: A poorly built rural access road Figure 2-32: An intersection between a paved with limited protection works has resulted in and gravel road. The asphalt has been extended erosion and sediment deposition onto the onto the gravel road to lower the risks of erosion primary road (Northern Mohokare catchment and damage to the paved road (Northern Mohokare #11.2) catchment) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 31 Box 5: Example of the impacts of a community-built road Figure 2-33 presents an interesting example of a rural access road in the Makhaleng Catchment, highlighted as a key site by the CWT. A small tributary that connects with the Makhaleng River acts as the divider between Ha Potiane Village and an important burial site. The community had built a road on the opposite side of the river to the burial site. Heavy rainfall has washed this road away and the route is no longer accessible to vehicles. Due to a lack of technical know-how and design supervision, the road has a steep gradient with no drainage or protection works. The poor protection of the slopes results in increased erosion and sedimentation of the river. The contractor building the main road had agreed to support the community by building this road. However, the design was impossible, and two concrete pipes intended for culverts was abandoned. Additionally, the community did not follow proper rehabilitation and protection works after excavation, and an adjacent field is starting to erode. Cemetery Poor rehabilitation causing a field to erode Community- built Road Figure 2-33: A community-built road linking Ha Potiane Village with an important burial site (Makhaleng catchment #9.1) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 32 2.4.12 Issue 12: Inadequate Infrastructure for River Crossings Figure 2-34 is an example of an inaccessible road during summer. It is the only access road to Kotanyane Village, and community members can only use it during low-flow periods. During high-flow periods, the Kotanyane community must rely on a footbridge to access clinics, schools, shops etc. Other examples of river crossings with no bridges exist in Lesotho. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation With no formal bridge, Kotanyane village will remain Catchment degradation results in inaccessible for much of the year. Increased rainfall and higher flood peaks and debris, flooding may also damage the infrastructure of the increasing the risk of flooding. footbridge, leaving the village stranded. Climate-smart interventions There is a need for a bridge, but the design process should consider the whole catchment, discussed further in Box 6: Holistic resilience planning and design thinking. Figure 2-34: Earth road to Kotanyane Village can only be accessed during low flow periods (left). During high flow periods the community must rely on a footbridge to access clinics, schools etc. (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #12.1) Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 33 2.4.13 Issue 13: Unsustainable Land Management Unsustainable land management can impact roads. Figure 2-35 shows an example of how runoff and erosion from a poorly managed agricultural field impacts an earth road under the jurisdiction of the RD. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increased erosion during heavy rainfall Catchment degradation will act as a risk amplifier for events. natural erosion. Climate-smart interventions Communities can use climate-smart agricultural practices, such as contour ridging (App B.9) and conservation tillage (App B.13), to effectively manage runoff and erosion of agricultural land, benefiting both the farmer and road infrastructure custodians. Figure 2-35: An agricultural field depositing sediment on a RD road (Makhaleng catchment #13.1) 2.4.14 Issue 14: Lack of Planning for Meandering Rivers Rivers naturally change course and meander due to both erosional and depositional processes. River floodplains are particularly prone to changing watercourses. Bridge and road infrastructure built along natural floodplains must consider the impact of meandering rivers. Impacts of climate change Impacts of catchment degradation Increased rainfall and flooding events will Catchment degradation and high sedimentation accelerate the rate at which rivers meander impact depositional processes and will also and change course. accelerate the rate at which rivers meander. Climate-smart interventions For road infrastructure built along floodplains, communities and contractors must follow holistic resilience planning and design thinking. A case study example is presented in Box 6: Holistic resilience planning and design thinking. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 34 Box 6: Holistic resilience planning and design thinking The Kota and Kotanyane CWT identified a bridge over the Hlotse River that has been rebuilt three times since 1992 due to the meandering of the Hlotse River (Figure 2-36). The most recent bridge construction was completed in mid-2022. Figure 2-36: The third bridge that has been built over the Hlotse River at Kota since 1992 (left) and the site of the old bridge over a tributary of the Hlotse River (right) (Northern Mohokare catchment #14.1). Figure 2-37 shows an aerial photograph of the locations of the old bridge (green) and new bridge (yellow). These bridges are on a natural floodplain and the current channel for the Hlotse River is already eroding the sediment bank south of the new bridge. The study team did not observe any erosion protection of the sediment bank during the site investigation. Channel migration will likely occur again in the near future, and the channel will break through the sand bank and rejoin the old Hlotse River channel. Climate change and catchment degradation will accelerate this process. For this particular site, the report makes the following recommendations:  Extending the easterly portion of the current bridge structure across the floodplain.  Reinforcing the sand bank south of the bridge with bank erosion protection (such as gabion baskets, rip rap, stone pitching etc.).  If the bridge does fail, the community must select a new site that does not lie on the natural floodplain. This is an example of the importance of adopting holistic resilience planning and design thinking. All infrastructure planning should be approached through the lens of resilience and consider the whole system from a catchment perspective. It is recommended that the current bridge be extended across the floodplain The river is eroding the sediment bank. No erosion protection is in place Figure 2-37: The newly built bridge over the Hlotse River is shown in yellow, and the old bridge is shown in green (taken from Google Earth). Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 35 3 Conclusions and Recommendations Many risks facing the paved and unpaved road networks in the catchment are not directly due to climate change. However, the impacts of climate change and increased rainfall and temperatures will exacerbate these risks. Poor maintenance, catchment degradation, erosion, and community interventions (such as clearing of alien vegetation that blocks culverts) pose significant risks to the roads and associated infrastructure, which will only worsen with climate change. Many of the sites visited had multiple issues, which shows the integrated link between road-related hazards. For example, poor slope rehabilitation could result in the blockage of culverts, increasing the risk of overtopping, erosion of the pavement, and increasing danger for road users. The site assessment and discussions with the communities in this report present a compelling argument for ICM. However, th GoL cannot consider roads and their associated infrastructure in isolation but must take all upstream and downstream activities into account. Based on the hazards identified during the site assessments, the report makes the following general recommendations regarding road infrastructure and maintenance in Lesotho:  Add paved shoulders to all major roads (A and B roads) to protect the main section of the road and improve connectivity with drainage structures and include rivers, etc.  Increase design flood requirements for all new drainage structures by a minimum of 15%.  Apply a minimum of 900mm culverts to make it easier for maintenance and clearing.  Include considerations for climate change in all new road design and rehabilitation projects.  Reduce the threat posed by minor connecting roads by paving at least the first 25 m of a connection with a major road (A and B) and ensure the provision of adequate drainage.  Undertake a review of the conditions of all major bridges to determine their ability to manage increased flood frequencies, including a review of the approaches and embankments, as these are particularly vulnerable.  Engage with local communities to support the clearing of culverts and identify priority interventions to reduce road risk as part of a catchment management plan (CMP). The study includes below the next steps and recommendations identified:  Include identified issues and priority road rehabilitation projects for rural access roads into the catchment management plans for the priority catchments.  Engage with national RD and local council to identify priority interventions and requirements.  Provide technical support (and incentives) for community-based road rehabilitation projects. For example, using the UNCDF Local Climate Adaptive Living Facility 3 (LoCAL) funding model trialled in Lesotho.  Identify priority interventions for funding support from the global adaptation fund.  Clarification on who is responsible for providing technical support for community-built roads.  Establishment of road engineering extension officers for each district, similar to agriculture extension officers, to support communities with their roads building.  Motivate for increased investments in improved catchment management upstream of critical/high-risk roads.  Raise awareness with local communities about the importance of clearing culverts and drainage channels.  Increase investments in climate-proofing national and local government roads – pavement upgrades, improved drainage, paved shoulders, culvert replacement, protection of bridge embankments, paving connections to minor roads, etc. 3 LoCAL is promoting climate change–resilient communities and economies via increasing financing for and investment in climate change adaptation at the local level. LoCAL in Lesotho will directly contribute to one of the country’s development plan pillars – reversing environmental degradation and adapting to climate change. The objectives for LoCAL-Lesotho include: increased transfer of climate finance to local governments through national institutions and systems for building verifiable climate change adaptation and resilience; a standard and recognized country-based mechanism which supports direct access to international climate finance Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 36  RD and Ministry of Local Government (MoLG) to engage with ReNOKA on incorporating roads projects into the CMPs for priority sub-catchments (Hlotse and Makhalaleng) and identify a technical person at the district level that will provide local assistance and be the key contact in the priority catchments (i.e. “roads extension office”) .  RD to engage with ReNOKA on identifying priority catchments for developing CMPs, based on critical roads infrastructure, e.g. new bridge that RD is building. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 37 4 References Department of Transport (1994a). Technical Recommendations for Highways. Guidelines for the Hydraulic Design and Maintenance for River Crossings (TRH 25:1994). Department of Transport (DoT). Pretoria, South Africa. September 1994. Department of Transport (1996). Technical Recommendations for Highways. Structural Design of Flexible Pavements for Interurban and Rural Roads (TRH 4:1996). Department of Transport (DoT). Pretoria, South Africa. September 1994 Department of Transport (1994b). Technical Recommendations for Highways. Subsurface Drainage for Roads (TRH 15:1994). Department of Transport (DoT). Pretoria, South Africa. September 1994 Conway, D., Nicholls, R.J., Brown, S. et al. The need for bottom-up assessments of climate risks and adaptation in climate-sensitive regions. Nat. Clim. Chang. 9, 503–511 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0502-0 Ray, Patrick A., and Brown, Casey M.. 2015. Confronting Climate Uncertainty in Water Resources Planning and Project Design: The Decision Tree Framework. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0477-9. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO Roads Directorate. August 2022. LESOTHO ROADS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (LRMS). Visual Road Condition Surveys 2021: Survey Results Report WFP (World Food Programme). 2015. Lesotho Integrated Context Analysis (ICA). Ministry of Public Works and Transport. 2012. Integrated Transport and Policies Development Study. Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 38 Appendices Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 39 A. Summary of Critical Issues Identified During the Catchment Visits Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Unprotected side Limited protection 1.1 drains or river 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.57753944 27.729206 works banks Unprotected side Limited protection 1.2 drains or river 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.59838278 27.721519 works banks Unprotected side Limited protection 1.3 drains or river 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.69858139 27.698356 works banks Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 40 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Unprotected side Limited protection 1.4 drains or river 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.734981 27.61637 works banks Unprotected side Limited protection 1.5 drains or river 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.20199282 27.480879 works banks Unprotected side Limited protection 1.6 drains or river 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.02045154 27.377332 works banks Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 41 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Unprotected side Limited protection 1.7 drains or river 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.02138217 27.390528 works banks Damage to bridge Limited protection 2.1 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.57499333 27.738182 embankments works Damage to bridge Limited protection 2.2 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.62283333 27.699956 embankments works Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 42 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Damage to bridge Limited protection 2.3 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.720754 27.634667 embankments works Damage to bridge Limited protection 2.4 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.73506583 27.589955 embankments works Damage to bridge Limited protection 2.5 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.19830527 27.468596 embankments works Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 43 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Damage to bridge Limited protection 2.6 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.20188262 27.502217 embankments works Damage to bridge Limited protection 2.7 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.01962723 27.394278 embankments works Eroding of the Northern 3.1 shoulder of the Maintenance/condition 2022/11/08 -28.82485122 28.077405 Mohokare road Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 44 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Eroding of the Limited protection Northern 3.2 shoulder of the 2022/11/08 -28.888422 27.980198 works Mohokare road Limited protection 4.1 Slope instability 2022/11/01 Makhaleng -29.65445584 27.766952 works Limited protection 4.2 Slope instability 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.69875 27.694016 works Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 45 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Limited protection 4.3 Slope instability 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.72226694 27.642921 works Lack of downstream Limited protection 5.1 erosion protection 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.19791141 27.470347 works for culverts, bridges and drifts Lack of downstream Limited protection 5.2 erosion protection 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.20175337 27.497416 works for culverts, bridges and drifts Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 46 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Lack of downstream Limited protection 5.3 erosion protection 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.19092166 27.551874 works for culverts, bridges and drifts Lack of downstream 5.4 erosion protection Maintenance/condition 2022/11/01 Makhaleng -29.61229923 27.760731 for culverts, bridges and drifts Lack of downstream Limited protection Northern 5.5 erosion protection 2022/11/08 -28.79104035 28.127285 works Mohokare for culverts, bridges and drifts Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 47 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Lack of downstream Limited protection Northern 5.6 erosion protection 2022/11/08 -28.79403652 28.137843 works Mohokare for culverts, bridges and drifts Sediment deposition or slope Inadequate 6.1 instability from 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.61808778 27.710734 rehabilitation unrehabilitated borrow pits Sediment deposition or slope Inadequate 6.2 instability from 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.19671501 27.450077 rehabilitation unrehabilitated borrow pits Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 48 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Sediment deposition or slope Inadequate 6.3 instability from 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.67156222 27.705083 rehabilitation unrehabilitated borrow pits Blocked/damaged Poor 7.1 2022/11/01 Makhaleng -29.58371123 27.74849 culverts maintenance/condition Blocked/damaged Poor 7.2 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.61678583 27.712694 culverts maintenance/condition Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 49 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Blocked/damaged Poor 7.3 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.18980385 27.436467 culverts maintenance/condition Blocked/damaged Poor Northern 7.4 2022/11/08 -28.85055909 28.240441 culverts maintenance/condition Mohokare Blocked/damaged Poor Northern 7.5 2022/11/08 -28.8606249 28.216438 culverts maintenance/condition Mohokare Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 50 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Blocked/damaged Poor Northern 7.6 2022/11/08 -28.85863525 28.218682 culverts maintenance/condition Mohokare Blocked/damaged Poor Northern 7.7 2022/11/07 -28.85346887 28.257625 culverts maintenance/condition Mohokare Blocked/damaged Poor Northern 7.8 2022/11/08 -28.79613491 28.102346 culverts maintenance/condition Mohokare Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 51 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Blocked/damaged Poor 7.9 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.18885022 27.445179 culverts maintenance/condition Blocked/insufficient Poor 8.1 2022/11/01 Makhaleng -29.60383479 27.752543 side drains maintenance/condition Blocked/insufficient Poor 8.3 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.72142556 27.660718 side drains maintenance/condition Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 52 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Blocked/insufficient Poor 8.4 2022/11/04 Makhaleng -30.02298401 27.386768 side drains maintenance/condition Blocked/insufficient Poor Northern 8.5 2022/11/08 -28.80609365 28.158766 side drains maintenance/condition Mohokare Insufficient Poor 9.1 drainage of 2022/11/01 Makhaleng -29.61388504 27.763863 maintenance/condition unpaved roads Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 53 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Insufficient Poor 9.2 drainage of 2022/11/01 Makhaleng -29.59123353 27.753679 maintenance/condition unpaved roads Insufficient Poor 9.3 drainage of 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.58957222 27.726341 maintenance/condition unpaved roads Insufficient Poor Northern 9.4 drainage of 2022/11/08 -28.82009511 28.084637 maintenance/condition Mohokare unpaved roads Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 54 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Insufficient Poor Northern 9.5 drainage of 2022/11/08 -28.866629 28.212904 maintenance/condition Mohokare unpaved roads Lack of connection Poor Northern 10.1 to main drainage 2022/11/07 -28.84874036 28.251917 maintenance/condition Mohokare channels Lack of connection Poor Northern 10.2 to main drainage 2022/11/08 -28.816745 28.094703 maintenance/condition Mohokare channels Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 55 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Lack of connection Poor Northern 10.3 to main drainage 2022/11/08 -28.864203 28.215833 maintenance/condition Mohokare channels Damage to formal 11.1 roads from rural Informal roads 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.68328611 27.699333 access roads Damage to formal Northern 11.2 roads from rural Informal roads 2022/11/08 -28.803406 28.178883 Mohokare access roads Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 56 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo 12.1 Inadequate Northern infrastructure for Informal roads 2022/11/08 -28.84743285 28.285629 Mohokare river crossings Unsustainable 13.1 farming practices Catchments 2022/11/03 Makhaleng -29.60270944 27.721215 impacting roads Northern 14.1 Meandering rivers Catchments 2022/11/08 -28.85026726 28.291618 Mohokare Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 57 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Northern 14.2 Meandering rivers Catchments 2022/11/08 -28.853705 28.295776 Mohokare Meeting with 2022/11/01 Makhaleng -29.60722203 27.759395 Raboletsi CWT Meeting with Ha Northern 2022/11/07 -28.85779375 28.263917 Khabo CWT Mohokare Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 58 Issue ID # Issue description Issue theme Date Catchment Latitude Longitude Photo Meeting with Mate Northern 2022/11/08 -28.87009997 28.211483 Ha Selebalo CWT Mohokare Meeting with Kota Northern and Kotanyane 2022/11/08 -28.8490307 28.299869 Mohokare CWT Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 59 B. Sustainable Catchment Management Interventions for Roads in Lesotho (from Braid, 2019). B.1 Erosion management along roadsides Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 60 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 61 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 62 B.2 Gully reshaping Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 63 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 64 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 65 B.3 Gabion baskets Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 66 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 67 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 68 B.4 Stone check dams Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 69 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 70 B.5 Brushwood check dams Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 71 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 72 B.6 Sand dams Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 73 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 74 B.7 Swales Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 75 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 76 B.8 Contour bunds Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 77 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 78 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 79 B.9 Contour ridging Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 80 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 81 B.10 Contour vegetation rows Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 82 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 83 B.11 Half-moon pits Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 84 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 85 B.12 Infiltration trenches Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 86 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 87 B.13 Conservation tillage Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 88 Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 89 In diversity there is beauty and there is strength. MAYA ANGELOU Document prepared by: Zutari (Pty) Ltd Reg No 1977/003711/07 1 Century City Drive Waterford Precinct Century City Cape Town South Africa PO Box 494 Cape Town 8000 Docex: DX 204 T +27 21 526 9400 E capetown@zutari.com Document number 1002246-0000-REP-NS-00004, Revision Draft, Date 2023/02/28 90