2021 The Timor-Leste Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) The Timor-Leste Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) 2021 © 2021 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because the World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Attribution Please cite the work as follows: World Bank. (2021). The Timor-Leste - Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP). All queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. The Timor-Leste Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) i Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank ii The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Table of Contents 01 Executive Summary v 02 Introduction 1 03 Background – the World Bank approach to gender 3 04 Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 5 4.1. The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic 5 4.2 Human endowments 6 Health 7 Education 10 4.3 Economic opportunities 12 Labor force participation and employment 13 Agriculture 16 Property rights 17 4.4 Voice and agency 19 Political representation and participation in decisions 19 Gender-based violence 20 05 Government priorities and commitment to gender equality 25 06 WBG engagement and gender priorities in Timor-Leste 29 07 World Bank CGAP 31 7.1. CGAP priority focus areas and actions 31 PFA 1: Improving access to health services, WASH and higher education, as well as improving nutrition of women, children, and adolescents 31 PFA 2: Increasing access to employment and self-employment to improve livelihoods of women 32 PFA 3: Reducing gender-based violence 33 PFA 4: Strengthening gender-responsiveness and implementation capacity of government institutions and mechanisms 34 7.2. Implementation arrangements 34 7.3. Monitoring and reporting 35 Annexes 37 Annex 1. WB ongoing and pipeline programs 37 Annex 2. Country Gender Action Plan Summary 39 Annex 3. M&E Framework 42 Table of Contents iii List of Figures Figure 1. Maternal mortality 8 Figure 2. Timor-Leste: trends in nutritional status of under-5 children, 2009-10 and 2016 9 Figure 3. Timor-Leste: female and male educational attainment 11 Figure 4. Change in male and female wage employment 13 Figure 5. Vulnerable employment by location and sex 14 Figure 6. Number employed in each major occupation group category, by sex (2013) 14 Figure 7. Reasons given for not seeking work, disaggregated by sex 16 Figure 8. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament (2002-2020) (%) 20 Figure 9. Ever-partnered women and girls who experienced intimate-partner violence 21 List of Boxes Box 1. GOTL commitments to gender and inclusion in education and employment 10 Box 2. Women’s empowerment in agriculture and rural development 17 Box 3. Land registration and gender in Timor-Leste 18 Box 4. Risk factors associated with the perpetration of intimate partner violence in Timor-Leste 22 Box 5. History of conflict continues to shape gender relations 23 Box 6. GOTL’s definition of GBV 24 Box 7. GOTL international human rights commitments 25 Box 8. National GOTL gender-responsive commitments 27 List of Tables Table 1. Summary of gender data for human endowments 5 Table 2. Summary of gender data for economic opportunities and labor force participation 12 Table 3. Who Owns the land -survey data from three municipalities 18 Table 4. Summary of gender data for political representation, GBV, status under the Law 19 iv The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Executive Summary The Timor-Leste Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) provides a framework for addressing 01 gender barriers and priorities through the World Bank Timor-Leste portfolio. The CGAP aims to contribute to the Government of Timor-Leste’s (GOTL) development and gender equality goals by reducing gaps between men and women, and promoting human capital development and economic opportunities. It provides a framework to support the World Bank country team in ensuring that barriers to gender equality are effectively assessed, tracked, and targeted through its operations and advisory support. The CGAP’s main objectives are to: (i) update gender diagnostics and improve the understanding of gender issues at the country level; (ii) identify potential priority areas for WBG engagement within Timor-Leste, based on an updated diagnostic of gender equality challenges and constraints; (iii) outline clear roles, responsibilities, and capacity-building and resource needs; and (iv) identify targets and indicators to monitor progress on closing gaps. The CGAP captures the principles of gender equality outlined in the World Bank Group Gender Strategy 2016-2023 and aims to move the World Bank’s support beyond gender mainstreaming to outcomes and results. The CGAP was originally developed in 2018 and updated in 2021. The Timor-Leste CGAP supports implementation of the Country Partnership Framework (CPF) 2020-2024 and will be updated again in line with the next CPF and WBG Gender Strategy. Therefore, this iteration of the CGAP provides an update to an existing portfolio of activities within the 2020-2024 CPF, meaning some of the actions and projects detailed within the CGAP are underway, some have been completed, and others have yet to begin. The CGAP gender assessment shows that Timor-Leste has committed to advancing gender equality and has witnessed steady progress in improving some gender equality outcomes. However, barriers remain. Timor-Leste aspires to become “a gender-fair society where human dignity and women’s rights are valued, protected, and promoted.”1 A series of progressive policies, strategies, and action plans indicate that there is a vision for achieving gender equality. Timor-Leste has also seen advancements in women’s political participation at the national level, promoted gender equality in access to education (up to secondary level), and improved some health outcomes for women. Despite this progress, gaps nevertheless remain between what is envisioned in national-level policies and pronouncements and what happens in practice. The CGAP identified persistent gaps and barriers to gender equality in the following areas: • Human Endowments: Although gender parity in education has been achieved and is now skewing in favor of girls up to the secondary level, at the tertiary level men continue to outnumber women. Girls and women also tend to be channeled into gender-stereotypical subjects of study. Further, despite an expansion in health posts, access to health-related information and services is low for women and girls (particularly in rural areas) in terms of information about reproductive health and nutrition and counseling services for gender-based violence (GBV). This is evident in the high rates of maternal mortality, the low numbers of households using modern contraceptives, and the widespread prevalence of stunting among children. Lack of access to safe and clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities is also interlinked with poor health outcomes, including stunting, malnutrition and infant mortality. The GOTL has been expanding its social assistance programs, but the schemes in operation do not comprehensively target the most vulnerable, thus improvements are needed to ensure future program design and rollout is gender-informed and gender-responsive. • Economic Opportunities: Women are more likely than men to work in unpaid family labor or in the informal sector in Timor-Leste. They are also more likely to be in vulnerable employment and concentrated in low-skilled occupations. Once working or in employment, women tend to earn less than men for similar work. Several factors constrain Timorese women’s work and employment opportunities, including cultural norms that view men as the main income earners and women as 1 GOTL (2011). “Timor-Leste Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030.” Dili, Timor-Leste. Executive Summary v mothers and carers.2 In Timor-Leste, women also tend to own less land than men and have limited access to productive inputs, which reduces their agricultural productivity.3 • Voice and Agency: Although Timor-Leste has prioritized women’s political representation and empowerment at the national level (women hold 38.5% of seats in national parliament), women’s representation remains low at the subnational level (including municipal and Suco councils and Chefe Suco). Despite this, within the household, participation of married women in household decisions is relatively high. Violence against women is prevalent in Timor-Leste with 33% of women (age 15 to 49) reporting that they have experienced physical violence since age 15 and 29% within the last 12 months. Violence against women in Timor-Leste is driven by gender inequality, normalization of violence (including spousal violence), and a model of masculinity that promotes male dominance and sexual entitlement over women. The “normalization” of controlling behavior and use of violence negatively affects intergenerational mental and physical health and overall well-being of men, women, and children.4 While the GOTL has been successful in controlling the COVID-19 outbreak with case numbers relatively low, the pandemic and associated mobility restrictions have had gendered impacts, deepening pre- existing inequalities and exposing social, political and economic vulnerabilities for women and girls. Emerging evidence suggests that the outbreak has negatively impacted women's health, increased risks of violence against women and girls and affected women's livelihoods as well as access to education. To address the identified gender inequalities, the CGAP sets out four priority focus areas (PFAs) that can and are being prioritized and addressed within the World Bank Timor-Leste portfolio. These focus areas align with the CPF and include: 1. PFA 1: Improving access to health services, WASH and higher education, as well as improving nutrition of women, children, and adolescents (CPF focus area 2). The following key actions are being targeted to address this PFA: • Improve understanding of gender issues in the education sector, and improve women’s access to higher education • Expand support for nutrition and stunting reforms • Expand access to health services and family planning, particularly for rural women and adolescent girls • Improve women’s and girls’ access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities 2. PFA 2: Increasing access to employment and self-employment to improve livelihoods of women (CPF focus area 1). To address this PFA, the following key actions are being pursued: • Increase access to employment for women • Reduce the gender gap in farm productivity 3. PFA 3: Reducing gender-based violence (CPF focus area 2). The following key actions are being targeted to address this PFA: • Conduct GBV risk analysis to prevent and mitigate GBV • Ensure all project engagements and workshops promote gender equality messages and raise awareness about GBV 4. PFA 4: Strengthening gender-responsiveness and implementation capacity of government institutions and mechanisms (CPF cross-cutting theme). The key actions identified to pursue this PFA are: • Leverage WB engagement where possible to ensure government have a basic understanding of gender mainstreaming principles As reflected in Chapter 7 of this document on Priority Focus Areas and Actions and in Annex 2 Summary of the Action Plan, these four priority focus areas can and are being addressed through the World Bank's portfolio of existing and upcoming pipeline projects and will be monitored through selected indicators. 2 Asian Development Bank (2014). “Timor-Leste country gender assessment.” Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. 3 UN Women and World Bank EAPGIL (2018). “Women Farmers in Timor-Leste: Bridging the Productivity Gap.” The Asia Foundation and Van Vollenhoven Institute (2016). “Survey on Access to Land, Tenure Security, and Land Conflicts in Timor-Leste.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 4 The Asia Foundation (2016). “Understanding Violence against Women and Children in Timor-Leste: Findings from the Nabilan Baseline Study – Summary Report.” TAF: Dili, Timor-Leste. vi The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Introduction Strengthening the role of women and promoting gender equality are key priorities for the 02 Timor-Leste government and essential for achieving the World Bank’s twin goals of eradicating extreme poverty and sustainably boosting shared prosperity. As noted in the Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD), Timor-Leste has made substantial progress in rebuilding the country’s infrastructure, establishing institutions, and improving human development outcomes since achieving independence in 2002.5 Constitutional and legal provisions provide a strong legal framework for men and women’s equal participation in economic, social, and cultural life, and prohibit all forms of discrimination. National policies, declarations, strategies and action plans also aim to promote gender equality and remove barriers to the advancement of women. However, challenges remain, particularly in implementation, largely due to weak institutional capacity as well as social norms that reinforce rigid distinctions in gender roles and responsibilities,6 which limit human potential and economic growth. The negative impacts of gender inequalities in Timor-Leste are most evident in the prevalence of high maternal mortality rates (MMR); women and girls’ under-representation in higher education; women’s lack of control over and access to assets, resources, and economic opportunities; and the high prevalence of gender-based violence (GBV), including early marriage. The GOTL has been largely successfully in controlling the COVID-19 outbreak; however, the pandemic and associated mobility restrictions have had gendered impacts, deepening pre-existing inequalities and exposing social, political and economic vulnerabilities of women and girls. The World Bank Country Office in Timor-Leste plays an active role in assisting the GOTL to realize its national policy vision and gender equality goals via this Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP). The aim of the CGAP is to support the World Bank Timor-Leste Country Office to accelerate gender mainstreaming objectives through more-targeted interventions. The main objectives are to: (i) update gender diagnostics and improve the understanding of gender issues at the country level; (ii) identify potential priority areas for WBG engagement within Timor-Leste, based on an updated diagnostic of gender equality challenges and constraints; (iii) outline clear roles, responsibilities, and capacity-building and resource needs; and (iv) identify targets and indicators to monitor progress on closing gaps. The CGAP is divided into seven chapters. Following the introduction and background, Chapter 4 provides an updated gender diagnostic to highlight key gender gaps in Timor-Leste across three key domains (endowments, economic opportunities, and voice and agency).7 Chapter 5 and 6 outline the government’s and the World Bank’s priorities and commitments to gender in Timor-Leste. Chapter 7 provides a framework for the CGAP and WBG engagement aimed at strengthening the integration of gender across the Timor-Leste country office’s operational portfolio, analytical products, policy, and advisory work. It also provides institutional and operational targets, with the overall goal of creating an accountable and enabling environment for achieving greater gender equality in outputs and outcomes. The Timor-Leste CGAP – originally developed in 2018 and updated in 2021 – captures the key principles outlined in the World Bank Group Gender Strategy 2016-2023. The CGAP supports implementation of the Country Partnership Framework (CPF) 2020-2024 and will be updated again in line with the CPF and World Bank Group Gender Strategy. This iteration of the CGAP provides an update and overview of a program that has been progressing for a number of years, therefore some of the actions and projects detailed within this document are already underway at varying degrees of completion, and others are still upcoming pipeline projects. 5 World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 6 Carmeneza Dos Santos Monteiro (2021). “The Impact of COVID-19 on Women in Timor-Leste”. Heinrich Boll Foundation. 7 The CGAP was originally developed in 2018 and updated in 2021. It will be updated again in line with next Country Partnership Framework (CPF). Introduction 1 Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank 2 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Background – the World Bank approach to gender The World Bank Group (WBG) corporate Gender Strategy (2016-2023) identifies gender equality 03 as a key pathway to ensuring poverty reduction and inclusive growth.8 Based on insights from the 2012 World Development Report, this updated Strategy focuses on improving gender diagnostics in key areas that enable or constrain progress on gender equality and development in order to better understand what works (or not) and why. It draws on the Gender Equality Framework, which outlines key domains that portend inequalities in most countries: (i) human endowments, mainly health and education; (ii) economic opportunities, as measured by participation in economic activities and access to and control of key productive assets; and (iii) agency as the ability to exercise control on key decisions free of violence, such as marriage, sexual activity, and child-bearing, and the ability to have voice and influence in governance and political processes.9 These domains and this approach are grounded in evidence from around the world that access to education, health, assets, and resources combined with the ability to use these to pursue economic opportunities and exercise agency in decision- making are central to reducing poverty and improving well-being for individuals and families. The new WBG Gender Strategy commits the Bank to improving the way that gender equality is achieved and measured in policy and programming, emphasizing measurable results based on data and evidence of what works. It shifts the discourse on gender mainstreaming from a broad-based to more of a targeted and strategic approach, focusing on outcomes and impacts through practical solutions and evidence drawn from good practices and global lessons learned.10 Specifically, the process of “gender tagging” is being used to move beyond applying a gender lens as a “box-ticking exercise,” and instead pursue gender-smart solutions that achieve the overall objectives of an intervention while closing relevant gender gaps, given the local context and WBG’s comparative advantages in each country and/or setting.11 The East Asia and the Pacific (EAP) Regional Gender Action Plan (RGAP) and Implementation Sourcebook were finalized in 2017. These documents provide key resources for supporting client countries in East Asia and the Pacific to align with WBG commitments to reduce gender inequality. The gender diagnostic in the RGAP notes that although changes within the region have enabled some gender gaps to decrease, inequalities nevertheless persist and/or are emerging. Despite a generally positive growth outlook and evidence of increasing equality in some economies, challenges persist mainly in terms of inclusion, mobility, and security, with the following five priorities for closing gender gaps in the region identified: (i) improving maternal health; (ii) empowering women in the workplace through appropriate education and labor market policies; (iii) removing barriers to productivity for women entrepreneurs and farmers; (iv) reducing trade-offs between women’s household and market roles; and (v) reducing gender-based violence.12 All of these gender priorities are pertinent in the context of Timor-Leste. 8 World Bank (2015). “World Bank Group Gender Equality, Poverty Reduction and Inclusive Growth: Gender Strategy (2016-2023).” Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. 9 World Bank (2011). “World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. 10 In the beginning of FY17 (July 2016). the Cross-cutting Solutions Area (CCSA) transitioned the monitoring system to track how projects identify gaps and propose interventions and indicators to both address and measure the closing of these gaps. Projects will no longer be tracked as being“ gender informed” in one or more dimension and, instead, be gender-tagged only if all three (analysis, action, and monitoring and evaluation) are included in the project appraisal document. This raises the bar for tackling specific gender gaps in policies and operations, including robust results-oriented commitments under IDA 18. FY17 was considered a transitional year for changes to work through different systems. By FY19, it is expected that 55% of WBG projects will be gender-tagged. 11 World Bank (2015). “World Bank Group Gender Equality, Poverty Reduction and Inclusive Growth: Gender Strategy (2016-2023).” Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. 12 World Bank (2017). “Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: East Asia and Pacific Region Regional Gender Action Plan 2017-2023.” World Bank Group, Washington, D.C. Background – the World Bank approach to gender 3 Country Gender Action Plans (CGAPs) are pivotal to the new WBG Gender Strategy’s strategic approach to gender mainstreaming. CGAPs are country-driven action plans that provide analytical and operational guidance for strengthening gender-related impacts in World Bank operations, policies, and advisory work. As part of CGAP preparation, local consultations and gender analysis are used to generate gender knowledge and identify country-specific factors that foster positive changes as well as the constraints that continue to hamper progress in gender equality for both men and women. This analysis informs WBG activities and monitoring and evaluation, enabling a more strategic and targeted approach to gender mainstreaming. Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank 4 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste Timor-Leste ranked 64th (out of 156 nations) in the 2021 Global Gender Gap Index.13 Although this 04 is a significant improvement from previous years,14 inequalities persist including high rates of maternal mortality and GBV, especially domestic violence, and women’s low levels of economic participation and wage employment. Several opportunities exist to narrow gender gaps and to boost women’s participation in social and economic life. 4.1. The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic The COVID-19 outbreak has further compromised the already stretched national health system. In a global risk analysis, Timor-Leste was ranked as the second most at risk country to COVID-19 in the region with access to healthcare identified as a prominent risk.15 Concerns have also emerged regarding gender gaps in vaccine access. Recent WHO data suggests that as of October 19, 2021, men had received a greater proportion of second vaccine doses than women in almost all municipalities. For example, in the capital Dili, 85,658 males had reportedly received two vaccine doses, but only 67,559 females had received the same two doses. Similarly, in Manufahi 6,040 males had been fully vaccinated, compared to only 3,892 females.16 As the high MMR and child mortality rate demonstrates, women face limited access to healthcare services in Timor-Leste. The COVID-19 pandemic poses significant risks of overwhelming the health system and further limiting women's access to healthcare, including sexual and reproductive health services. Further, women are often engaged as frontline health workers and home-based carers, increasing their risk of exposure to COVID-19 in these roles.17 A survey on women in agriculture in Timor-Leste conducted in the early months of the pandemic showed that 17.3% of respondents — all of whom were vulnerable women— lacked access to water and sanitation, which plays a fundamental role in preventative health measures for COVID-19 mitigation.18 Women and girls also have limited decision-making powers regarding their health-care seeking and limited access to evidence-based information on vaccine safety. Although women are serving in various roles in responding to the pandemic, they are largely underrepresented in leadership and decision-making roles.19 The pandemic and subsequent closure of schools ordered by the Ministry of Education in March 2020 impacted girls' access to education and increased the care burden on families — largely on women — who have increasingly had to spend time looking after children and helping them with distance study arrangements.20 Analysis suggests that girls and young women affected by the closure of schools and universities may have also experienced an increased risk of early marriage or be expected to assume caregiving duties at the expense of participation in remote study, potentially putting them further behind when schools reopen fully21 — a significant issue given Timor-Leste's already high drop out and repetition rate. 13 World Economic Forum (2020). “The Global Gender Gap Report.” Geneva, Switzerland. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf 14 Timor-Leste (72.0%, 64th globally) stands out as one of the three most-improved countries in the global gender gap index in 2021, with a 5.8% improvement in overall score. WEF (2021). 15 Carmeneza Dos Santos Monteiro (2021). “The Impact of COVID-19 on Women in Timor-Leste.” Heinrich Boll Foundation. 16 WHO (2021). “Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report: 122 Timor-Leste.” Timor-Leste. 17 UN Women (2021). “Women's Needs and Gender Equality in Timor-Leste's COVID-19 Response.” UN Women. Available at: https://asiapacific.unwomen. org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/05/in-brief-womens-needs-and-gender-equality-in-timor-lestes-covid-19-response44(0 18 Li Li Chen (2020). “Women in Agriculture in Timor-Leste: State of Emergency and COVID impacts.” OXFAM, Timor-Leste. 19 UN Women (2021). “Women's Needs and Gender Equality in Timor-Leste's COVID-19 Response.” UN Women. Available at: https://asiapacific.unwomen. org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/05/in-brief-womens-needs-and-gender-equality-in-timor-lestes-covid-19-response 20 Carmeneza Dos Santos Monteiro (2021). “The Impact of COVID-19 on Women in Timor-Leste.” Heinrich Boll Foundation. 21 UN Women (2021). “Women's Needs and Gender Equality in Timor-Leste's COVID-19 Response.” UN Women. Available at: https://asiapacific.unwomen. org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/05/in-brief-womens-needs-and-gender-equality-in-timor-lestes-covid-19-responseght Accents Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 5 COVID-19 has also further deepened pre-existing economic gender inequalities in Timor-Leste. The measures introduced to stem the spread of the virus have affected economic activity, heavily impacting the sectors where women tend to be overrepresented, such as hospitality, retail, care and domestic work. The social distancing measures have impacted women's ability to earn a living22, especially as women in Timor-Leste often work in the informal sector in roles that do not allow for 'work from home' arrangements.23 A survey found that 75.2% of informants —all of whom were vulnerable women employed in the agricultural sector — had faced difficulties in accessing markets during the State of Emergency in the early months of the pandemic.24 Women losing work as a result of COVID-19 restrictions could become increasingly financially dependent on abusive partners. According to UN Women, COVID-19 has led to increased VAWG risks with adolescent girls in particular facing increased risks of different forms of sexual exploitation and abuse. Work and study from home measures have also resulted in new risks of cyber-based VAWG. Technology platforms used for working and studying online have become mediums for new patterns of harassment, bullying and abuse. Further, evidence from previous pandemics shows that loss of livelihoods and increased food insecurity during outbreaks can lead to increased intimate partner violence as well as sexual exploitation and abuse.25 Moving forward, as the pandemic continues to progress and the GOTL moves to deal with the after effects of the outbreak, allocating adequate resources for addressing GBV, strengthening the provision of support to women who have suffered health and economic impacts, and putting women at the centre of policy making and recovery initiatives will be crucial. 4.2. Human endowments Table 1. Summary of Gender Data for Human Endowments26 Health and Nutrition: Fertility Total fertility has declined from 6.1 children per woman in 2003 to an average of 3.9 children in 2019 MMR Maternal mortality declined from 745 (2000) to 142 deaths per 100,000 (2017)i Maternal Healthcare 49% of births are delivered in a health facility; 57% of births are assisted by a skilled provider (2016)ii Life Expectancy Female life expectancy is 71.6 years, and male life expectancy is 67.5 years (2018) Family Planning 24% of women ages 15-49 use modern contraceptives for family planning and 2% use a traditional method Nutrition 46% of children under age five are stunted and 24% are wastediii Sanitation 50% of households use improved sanitation facilities and 27% of households have no sanitation facilityiv Note: i World Development Indicators ii General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. iii General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. iv General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 22 Carmeneza Dos Santos Monteiro (2021). “The Impact of COVID-19 on Women in Timor-Leste.” Heinrich Boll Foundation. 23 UN Women (2021). “Women's Needs and Gender Equality in Timor-Leste's COVID-19 Response.” UN Women. Available at:https://asiapacific.unwomen. org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/05/in-brief-womens-needs-and-gender-equality-in-timor-lestes-covid-19-response 24 Li Li Chen (2020). “Women in Agriculture in Timor-Leste: State of Emergency and COVID impacts.” OXFAM, Timor-Leste. 25 UN Women (2021). “Women's Needs and Gender Equality in Timor-Leste's COVID-19 Response”. UN Women. Available at: https://asiapacific.unwomen. org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/05/in-brief-womens-needs-and-gender-equality-in-timor-lestes-covid-19-response 26 Unless otherwise noted, all data in this Table are from: World Bank World Development Indicators. 6 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Education: Adult Literacy 64.2% of female adults and 71.9% of male adults are literate (2018) Parity in Education Primary and secondary school enrolment is higher for girls, but males outnumber females in tertiary education (20.6% and 14.8%, respectively)V Education access 22% of women and 19% of men age 15-49 have had no formal educationvi Note: v World Economic Forum (2021). “The Global Gender Gap Report.” Geneva, Switzerland. vi General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF Health Although an expansion in healthcare services has improved health outcomes, significant gender gaps remain. The number of fixed health posts increased by nearly one-third (from 227 in 2014 to 313 in 2020), replacing the limited number of mobile units that previously provided community health and outreach services. However, professional staffing is limited, particularly in terms of midwife and nurse coverage.27 Supply-side bottlenecks, including facility readiness and functionality, as well as poor service delivery quality, limit the coverage of essential health services. Rates of maternal mortality, fertility, and stunting remain high with urban-rural disparities, especially in access to healthcare and family planning services. Improvements to maternal and child undernutrition are constrained by both demand-side factors related to knowledge, behaviours, and attitudes, as well as supply-side factors related to resource availability and service delivery.28 Since independence, Timor-Leste has made some significant strides in improving maternal care, but the country continues to lag behind its EAP regional peers on several indicators. The country has made gradual improvements in reducing the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) from 745 in 2000 to 142 in 2017.29 While this is good news, Timor-Leste’s MMR remains above rates in East Asia Pacific (EAP) region and far exceeds the 2030 SDG target of less than 70 per 100,000 live births. The percentage of births attended by skilled health staff (doctor, nurse, midwife, or assistant nurse) increased from 24% in 2002 to 57% in 2016.30 However, the Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) (2016) shows that urban-rural variations exist, with skilled assistance during delivery much more common in urban areas (86%) than rural areas (45%). More than three-quarters (77%) of pregnant women receive at least four antenatal care visits, and 35% received postnatal care within two days of giving birth.31 Nevertheless, one in 20 children born in Timor-Leste are not expected to survive past five years old and 42% of all deaths of women aged 15-49 are related to pregnancy.32 A positive development in maternal social protection occurred in 2016 when a social security contributory scheme providing maternity benefits for workers was launched.33 In February 2021, the Council of Ministers approved a reform initiative coined Bolsa da Mãe Jerasaun Foun. Jerasaun Foun is a cash transfer program for pregnant women and children up to primary school. Since independence, Timor-Leste’s fertility rate has dropped, but remains high compared to other EAP and lower-income countries. In 2019, the country’s fertility rate was 3.9 births per woman, which is above the average for the EAP region (1.8) and lower-income countries (2.7).34 Fertility rates are higher in rural areas than in urban areas, and lower among women with higher levels of education and household wealth.35 Timor-Leste’s adolescent fertility rate of 30.9 births per 1,000 women aged 15-19 years is well above the average of EAP (20.7).36 According to DHS (2017), the percentage of women age 15-19 who have begun childbearing in rural areas is twice as high than in urban areas 27 Data indicate, however, that while the number of doctors is sufficient for assigning one to each health post facility there is less than one midwife for every two health posts and just 194 nurses to cover all health posts. World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 28 World Bank (2017). “Malnutrition in Timor-Leste: a review of the burden, drivers, and potential response.” Washington, D.C. World Bank Group. 29 World Development Indicators 30 World Development Indicators 31 UNICEF (2020). Timor-Leste Key demographic indicators. https://data.unicef.org/country/tls/ 32 World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 33 World Bank. “Timor-Leste Social Protection Review.” (Dili: World Bank, December 2020). 34 World Development Indicators 35 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 36 World Development Indicators Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 7 (8% vs. 4%, respectively) and varies significantly by municipality ranging from 3% in Dili to 10% in Bobonaro and SAR Oecussi.37 Even though fertility rates are declining, several factors continue to undermine progress, such as access to information about reproductive health and family planning, cultural and religious considerations, as well as distance (in rural areas) to health clinics. Only 23% of young women and 20% of young men have received information on reproductive health and just 24% of married women age 15-49 use modern contraceptives for family planning.38 Further, unmarried girls and women under age 20 are denied reproductive health services as service providers sometimes require a husband’s permission before providing reproductive counselling and contraceptives.39 This low level of contraceptive use contributes to the high birth rate and increases the risk of sexually transmitted infections for both men and women. Moreover, there are reports that government clinics lack the capacity and understanding to dispense some contraceptives properly, and that contraceptive stocks are unavailable.40 Figure 1. Maternal Mortality Source: World Development Indicators Maternal health impacts caregiving as well as nutrition and Timor-Leste continues to have one of the highest rates of child stunting: nearly one of every two children under five are stunted. Although stunting declined from 58% in 2009-10 the rate remains unacceptably high at 46%.41 Moreover, there are reports that percentages are higher in rural areas in comparison with urban areas.42 In addition, 24% of children under five are wasted (too thin for their height).43 Stunting reduces physical and mental capabilities, with adverse consequences for health, human capital, and economic development. Timor- Leste’s high levels of malnutrition affect the health of women and children, cognitive development, schooling attainment, lifelong productivity, and wage-earning potential. Recent estimates indicate that malnutrition causes a loss of US$41 million annually in economic activity in Timor-Leste, equivalent to nearly the entire Ministry of Health budget and roughly 2% of the economic activity in the non-oil sector.44 37 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 38 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 39 United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. 40 United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. 41 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 42 United Nations Committee for Development Policy (2018). “Commitment for Development Policy 20th Plenary Session: Vulnerability Profile of Timor- Leste.” United Nations, NY, 12-16 March 2018. 43 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 44 Ministry of Health, Australian Aid, and UNICEF (2014). “The Economic Consequences of Undernutrition in Timor-Leste.” and Provo, Anne, et al. (2017). “Malnutrition in Timor-Leste: A Review of the Burden, Drivers, and Potential Response.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. 8 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Figure 2. Timor-Leste: Trends in Nutritional Status of Under-5 Children, 2009-10 and 2016 Source: Adapted from World Bank. (2019). “Country Partnership Framework for the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste: For the Period FY2020-FY2024”. World Bank. Several factors contribute to Timor-Leste’s high child stunting rate and malnutrition, such as a lack of nutrition knowledge, cultural norms, poverty, food insecurity, and household hygiene. Malnutrition affects people in all income quintiles in Timor-Leste and is heavily influenced by dietary restrictions during pregnancy, suboptimal child feeding practices, levels of education, and access to water and sanitation.45 It is exacerbated by a lack of nutrition knowledge, which prevents households from optimizing their use of food resources, as well as cultural norms by which men often eat first.46 Other factors influencing nutrition include food shortages due to poverty, limited access to markets, volatile farmgate prices, low agricultural productivity, and changing climate patterns. Stunting and malnutrition is also correlated with inadequate access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). In 2016, half (50%) of households used improved sanitation – 75% in urban areas and 42% in rural areas.47 Without proper arrangements for sanitation, open defecation is a common practice, especially in rural areas and among poorer households.48 In 2016, 79% of households had access to an improved source of drinking water, up from 63% in 2009-10. Yet, more than one-quarter (26%) of households in rural areas still lack access to safe drinking water49 and 35% lack improved latrines, compared with 8% and 3% of urban areas, respectively. Children in households with treated drinking water and flush toilets were 10% and 4% less likely, respectively, to be stunted; moreover, children who had a diarrheal illness in the previous month or had not received recommended vaccinations were 4% and 10% more likely, respectively, to be stunted.50 Addressing inequalities and improving gender equality are positively correlated with reductions in stunting and malnutrition. Improved diet diversity, increased calorie consumption, post-natal care, and increased breastfeeding are all important for addressing stunting and malnutrition. Addressing gender inequality and empowering women is also important. Informed women who have greater influence in decision-making and agency in access to and control over information, incomes, and resources are statistically less likely to have malnourished or stunted children.51 Social protection programs that address gendered vulnerabilities can also play a crucial role in protecting women and girls from poverty and poor health outcomes, such as stunting, by boosting purchasing power for nutritious foods.52 45 World Food Program (2018). “Timor-Leste Country Strategic Plan (2018-2020).” 46 CARE (2020). “Rapid Gender Analysis: COVID-19 Timor-Leste.” Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/timor-leste/care-rapid-gender-analysis-covid- 19-timor-leste-27-april-2020 47 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 48 World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 49 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 50 World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 51 GOTL (2015). “2013 Timor-Leste Food and Nutrition Survey.” Ministry of Health, Dili. 52 United Nations Children’s Fund. (UNICEF). Nutrition, for Every Child: UNICEF Nutrition Strategy 2020–2030. UNICEF, New York. Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 9 Education Timor-Leste has made important progress in education in recent years, but challenges persist. Since gaining independence, Timor-Leste has had to completely rebuild its education sector and institutions. In recent years, the government has committed to improving all levels of education and resources for the education sector have grown significantly.53 As a result, the education sector has made significant progress, with secondary gross enrolment ratio (GER) nearly doubling since 2003 (from 47.0% to 86.5%), which is higher than the average GER for lower-middle-income countries (67.5%), and just higher than the average for countries in East Asia and the Pacific (85.7%).54 Issues with absenteeism among students and teachers, high repetition rates, and low absorption of learning remain, which perpetuates “low quality” learning and education. Further, although some gender disparities have decreased, including in early education,55 WEF (2021) ranked Timor-Leste as 123rd (out of 156 countries) in terms of gender equality in educational attainment. Box 1. GOTL commitments to gender and inclusion in education and employment The GOTL’s National Education Strategic Plan (2011-2030) highlights the importance of gender equality in education as well as inclusion of people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, people with a disability and children disadvantaged due to their first language. It outlines a plan for gender equality, which promotes girls participation in secondary and higher education, and postgraduate studies abroad, as well as substantially increasing the number of female teachers. In addition, the National Action Plan for Gender and the Private Sector (2014-2017) emphasized the need to provide adult education and business skills training for women and men. This has been reiterated in the current National Employment Strategy (2017-2030) which identifies strengthening labor market supply as one of its three pillars, with strategies for improving technical and vocational training and higher education. This strategy also highlights the importance of gender equality in education and calls for temporary special measures to ensure inclusive education and training for women and girls with a disability. Although the adult literacy rate has risen in Timor-Leste, a gap between male and female literacy still exists. Adult literacy rates have nearly doubled since 2001, increasing from a low of 37.6% to 68.1% in 2018. However, only 64.2% of women are literate compared to 71.9% of men.56 Literacy is not evenly distributed in Timor-Leste. According to the Timor-Leste DHS (2017), people who live in urban areas are almost twice as likely to be literate in comparison with rural populations (83.2% and 45.9%, respectively). Literacy rates are higher among the younger generation, reflecting the spread of education with time. Nevertheless, among those over 15 years of age, 22% of females and 19% of males have had no education at all.57 In addition, only 15.3% of people with disabilities (PWDs) can read or write in any of the four working languages in the country (i.e., Portuguese, Tetum, Bahasa Indonesia, and English) and disabled females have a much lower rate of literacy than disabled males at 10.5% and 20.5%, respectively.58 Gender gaps in enrollment have closed in both primary and secondary education, but women and girls continue to be under-represented in tertiary education. Timor-Leste has achieved near universal access to primary education with an adjusted net enrollment rate of 95.4% in 2018.59 The number of girls attending primary and secondary school exceeds the number of boys, with a F/M ratio 53 Primary education has been extended to all. Almost 300 new primary schools were constructed between 2006 and 2011, and the number of lower secondary facilities nearly doubled from 150 in 2007 to 283 schools by 2015. There has also been an increase in staffing to keep pace with rising attendance. Student-to-teacher ratios have fallen to 30 for primary and 25 for secondary, which is close to the average for lower middle-income countries. However, in rural areas 57% of poor households live more than 4 km away from the nearest secondary school. World Bank (2018). “Timor- Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 54 World Development Indicators 55 https://borgenproject.org/bridging-the-gap-girls-education-timor-leste/ 56 World Development Indicators: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (last updated September 2020). 57 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 58 General Directorate of Statistics, UNICEF, and UNFPA (2017). “Timor-Leste Population and Housing Census 2015: Analytical Report on Education.” Thematic Report Volume 11, Education Monograph 2017, Dili, Timor-Leste. 59 World Development Indicators (UNESCO Institute for Statistics) 10 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) of 1.01 and 1.14, respectively.60 Despite this progress, women and girls remain outnumbered in higher education. The latest available data from 2010 shows that 20.6% of men compared to 14.8% of women were enrolled in tertiary education, with a F/M ratio of 0.72.61 Figure 3. Timor-Leste: Female and Male Educational Attainment Source: WEF (2021). “The Global Gender Gap Report 2021”. Geneva, Switzerland: WEF. The quality of learning in Timor-Leste is undermined by high repetition and dropout rates. Timor- Leste’s average repetition rate in primary school is 16%, compared to only 2% in other lower middle- income countries. Data reported by UNESCO indicate that 19.3% (2014/15) of primary students are overaged and household survey data from the same period show 66% of primary students as overage for grade level.62 Reasons for absenteeism and dropout include household demands, agricultural work, difficult or long walks to and from school, illnesses and death in the family, and costs. The latest household survey shows households spend an average of US$57 per year on each primary school child (due to costs of school uniforms, supplies and transport). Marriage or engagement and early pregnancy are also common reasons for school dropout rates among girls.63 After becoming pregnant, young women stop their education and are highly unlikely to return to school because of family responsibilities and social stigmatization at the community level.64 At age 19, 64.6% of young mothers have stopped school compared to 21.8% of non-mothers.65 There is also a 75% gap in rates of secondary school completion between girls from the poorest households who were married before turning 18 years old and girls from the richest households who were married after age 18.66 A lack of adequate facilities for menstrual hygiene can further contribute to girls not attending school. In Timor- Leste, many schools – especially in remote areas – remain unconnected to adequate WASH facilities. For girls, this creates challenges regarding hygienically managing their periods without skipping class. Provision of appropriate private WASH facilities encourages girls to attend school even when they are menstruating.67 GOTL reported that the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEJD) conducted analysis that formed the basis of a 2020-2025 WASH Strategy. MEJD estimated that in schools across the country, 9,000 new toilets were needed and 2,700 needed to be refurbished.68 Timor-Leste has low levels of enrolment in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) with only 20% of preschool-aged children nationwide enrolled in education69 (2015 census data suggests that 60 WEF (2021). “The Global Gender Gap Report 2020.” Geneva, Switzerland: WEF. 61 WEF (2021). “The Global Gender Gap Report 2020.” Geneva, Switzerland: WEF. 62 World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 63 World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 64 UNFPA (May 2017). “Teenage Pregnancy and Early Marriage: Research on the Decision-making Pathways of Young Women in the Municipalities of Covalima, Aileu, and Dili.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 65 General Directorate of Statistics, UNICEF, and UNFPA (2017). “Timor-Leste Population and Housing Census 2015: Analytical Report on Education.” Thematic Report Volume 11, Education Monograph 2017, Dili, Timor-Leste. 66 UN Women (2018). “Turning Promises into Action: Gender Equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” Fact Sheet for Eastern and South Eastern Asia. 67 UNICEF (2016). “Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools Guidelines for Timor-Leste.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 68 Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, Strategy for WASH in Pre-Schools and Basic Education Schools, Dili: Timor-Leste, 2018b. 69 UNICEF (2020). “Quality Education: Realising Rights to Quality Education for all Children.” Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 11 there is no significant gender gap in enrolment.)70 Low access to preschool education is linked in part to social norms which hold that women are responsible for domestic work and child-rearing, and men are the primary breadwinners responsible for decision-making. Research conducted by Plan International in 2015 showed that in Timor-Leste, it was widely believed that men and women are naturally better at these respective roles, and that childcare is less important than income generation.71 According to the GOTL, demand for preschool education — particularly in rural areas — is low because parents do not acknowledge the value of ECCE, and parents from poor households cannot afford to enroll their pre-school-aged children in private institutions. In 2010, the National Directorate of Pre- school Education of the Ministry of Education reported that there was only 6% of the total number of required pre-school teachers available to teach the 3–5-year-old population.72 However, the GOTL has committed to boosting ECCE enrolment by raising awareness in the community about the importance of preschool and developing a new curriculum framework based on best practices in child development.73 Breaking down gendered attitudes towards childcare and increasing pre-school enrolment will be crucial to ensure children meet basic learning outcomes. Increased enrolment in ECCE also enables women, who would usually be looking after children, to engage more in income-generating activities.74 4.3. Economic opportunities Table 2. Summary of Gender Data for Economic Opportunities and Labor Force Participation Poverty and Income: Poverty In 2014, national poverty headcount was 41.8%; and the share of people living in extreme poverty ($1.90/day PPP 2011) was 22%i Gender pay gap Women earn 79% of what men earnii Labor and Employment: Labor force LFP remains low for females 62% and males 73% (ages 15-64)iii Youth not in education, 26% of young women and 16% of young men are NEET unemployment, or training (NEET) Youth bulge Approx. 60% of the population are under age 25iv Secure wage employment Only 28% of employed women were in secure wage jobs (as compared with 49% of employed men)v Vulnerable employment 69% of women and 47% of men are in vulnerable employment (own- account workers or contributing family workers)vi Management Only 0.37% of firms have top female managersvii Note: i World Development Indicators ii Mehran, F. (2019). Timor-Leste labor force surveys 2010-2013-2016: Main trends based on harmonized data. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-jakarta/documents/publication/wcms_720151.pdf iii World Development Indicators iv World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. v GOTL, ILO, and UN WOMEN (2017). “Gender Analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey: A Statistical Summary of Women and Men at Work in Timor-Leste.” UN WOMEN, Dili. vi GOTL, ILO, and UN WOMEN (2017). “Gender Analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey: A Statistical Summary of Women and Men at Work in Timor-Leste.” UN WOMEN, Dili. vii WEF (2021). The Global Gender Gap Report 2021. Geneva, Switzerland: WEF. 70 UNICEF (2017). “Timor-Leste Population and Housing Census 2015. Analytical Report on Education.” 71 Plan International. (2015). “Timor-Leste Fathers Get Involved with Childcare.” Timor-Leste. 72 GOTL (2017). “The National Action Plan for Children (NAPC) in Timor-Leste (2016-2020).” Timor-Leste, Dili. 73 GOTL (2017). “The National Action Plan for Children (NAPC) in Timor-Leste (2016-2020).” Timor-Leste, Dili. 74 Plan International. (2015). “Timor-Leste Fathers Get Involved with Childcare.” Timor-Leste. 12 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Agriculture: Farmers 57.5% of women and 60% of men are engaged in the agriculture sectorviii Farming networks 2% of female managers participate in farming groups, compared to 7% of male managersix Female farm Managers Female managers belong to smaller households as they are more likely to be widowed or unmarried and tend to lack access to farm laborx Productivity Female farmers produce up to 31% less per hectare than male counterparts due to differences in resources and inputsxi Note: viii GOTL, ILO, and UN WOMEN (2017). “Gender Analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey: A Statistical Summary of Women and Men at Work in Timor-Leste.” UN WOMEN, Dili. ix UN Women and World Bank EAPGIL (2018). “Women Farmers in Timor-Leste: Bridging the Productivity Gap.” x UN Women and World Bank EAPGIL (2018). “Women Farmers in Timor-Leste: Bridging the Productivity Gap.” xi UN Women and World Bank EAPGIL (2018). “Women Farmers in Timor-Leste: Bridging the Productivity Gap.” Labor Force Participation and Employment75 Timor-Leste’s labor market is characterized by inactivity, underemployment and weak private- sector job creation for both men and women, although men are twice as likely to have productive employment than women. In 2021, WEF ranked Timor-Leste as 49th (out of 156 countries) in terms of gender equality in economic participation and opportunity.76 This is a significant increase from previous years, which was largely driven by improvements in female labor participation, and women’s command of economic resources.77 Despite this, labor force participation rates remain lower for women (61.9%) than for men (72.7%). Although this is higher than both the average female labor force participation in the EAP region (58.8%) and in lower-middle-income countries (of which Timor-Leste is one) (33.6%) opportunities for improvements exist. Women are much more likely than men to be in vulnerable employment and concentrated in low-skilled occupations. Just over half (58%) of Timorese in the labor force are in vulnerable employment (own-account workers or contributing family workers),78 with the rate being significantly higher among women (69%) compared to men (47%). Further, nearly half (49%) of employed Timorese men were in more-secure wage jobs by 2013 compared to about a quarter (28%) of employed women. Figure 4. Change in Male and Female Wage Employment 75 This section largely draws on data from the UN Women’s 2017 gender analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste labor force survey. However, where possible this is supplemented with sex-disaggregated findings from the 2016 Timor-Leste mini labor force survey. 76 World Economic Forum (2021). “The Global Gender Gap Report.” Geneva, Switzerland. 77 In 2020, WEF ranked Timor-Leste 136th out of 153 countries. Source: World Economic Forum (2020). “The Global Gender Gap Report.” Geneva, Switzerland. 78 Mehran, F. (2019). Timor-Leste labor force surveys 2010-2013-2016: Main trends based on harmonized data. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-jakarta/documents/publication/wcms_720151.pdf Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 1 3 Figure 5. Vulnerable Employment by Location and Sex Source: UN Women (2017), “Gender Analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey: A Statistical Summary of Women and Men at Work in Timor-Leste.” Occupational gender segregation is prevalent in Timor-Leste, with women concentrated in lower-skilled sectors. All occupation groups are male-dominated, with women holding less than 50% share in each category. The most male-dominated occupations are machine operators. Meanwhile, women are better represented among low-skilled elementary occupations,79 clerical workers, and skilled agricultural workers. There is also evidence of industry gender segregation.80 Figure 6. Number employed in each major occupation group category, by sex (2013) Female share (%) of each occupation group 33% 34% 23% 42% 38% 40% 19% 11% 46% Source: UN Women (2017), “Gender Analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey: A Statistical Summary of Women and Men at Work in Timor-Leste.” 79 Elementary occupations include cleaners, laborers, food preparation assistants, and street vendors. 80 Based on the International Standard Industry Classification. 14 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) A gender pay gap exists in Timor-Leste. The Labor Code explicitly provides for equality in working conditions, including equal pay and non-discrimination in hiring based on gender. However, on average, male workers earn US$236 per month while female workers earn US$184.81 This represents a gender pay gap of 21%, with women earning 79% of what men earn. Analysis of the 2013 Labor Force Survey indicated that a wage gap exists in almost all occupational categories except for technicians and associate professionals where woman received, on average, more than twice the wages and salaries of men.82 Different factors can influence this gap, including the over-representation of women in typically lower paying industries, such as hospitality, and lower paying occupations, such as administration. Further analysis is needed to determine whether the wage gap is attributed to observable or unexplained differences. Several factors constrain Timorese women’s work and employment opportunities. In Timor-Leste men are traditionally seen as the main income earner, whereas women are often required women to play the traditional role of mother and homemaker.83 These expectations constraints women’s ability to complete higher education and training, partake in full-time employment, and get a better paid job. Two-thirds (66.3%) of people not seeking work because of “family responsibilities” are women. Of the women outside the labor force, half (50%) are engaged in family duties as compared to only a third of men (32%). Men outside the labor force are more likely to be studying or in training (33%) as opposed to women (24%). More employed women tend to work part-time (29%) compared to employed men 13%),84 which reflects the expectation that women need to manage both household and economic responsibilities. One such domestic responsibility is childcare and feeding. Women workers are legally entitled to two 'nursing breaks' per day to breastfeed or bottle feed children up to the age of six months without loss of remuneration85. In addition to the positive step of providing for nursing breaks, further encouraging workplaces to establish lactation rooms onsite could promote breastfeeding and the associated positive maternal health outcomes while supporting further women's economic participation. More paid parental leave could improve outcomes for female workers and families. Under Article 59 of the 2012 Labor Law, women workers are entitled to a minimum period of 12 weeks paid materni- ty leave86 which is a positive development that supports women in work. Extending the paid maternity leave period to a minimum 14 weeks is a further potential area for improvement that would capitalize on the significant positive relationship between the length of paid maternity leave and the proportion of women workers in the private sector. World Bank research shows that an increase of one week of paid maternity leave is associated with a 2.6 percentage point increase in the share of female workers in a typical firm.87 Furthermore, Article 64 of the same law provides that workers who have children under 10 years are entitled to take up to 5 days off work per year to provide essential emergency care to their children. However, there are no clauses that provide for paid parental leave. Making paid car- er's leave available for mothers, and fathers, is an attainable area for improvement that would help to support working mothers and encourage a more equal division of unpaid care work. 81 Mehran, F. (2019). Timor-Leste labor force surveys 2010-2013-2016: Main trends based on harmonized data. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-jakarta/documents/publication/wcms_720151.pdf 82 Secretariat of State for Vocational Training and Employment, Ministry of Finance, and Director General of Statistics Timor-Leste (2013). “Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey 2013”. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-jakarta/documents/publication/wcms_417168.pdf 83 General Directorate of Statistics, UNICEF, and UNFPA (2017). “Timor-Leste Population and Housing Census 2015: Analytical Report on Education.” Thematic Report Volume 11, Education Monograph 2017, Dili, Timor-Leste. 84 UN Women (2017). “Gender Analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey: A Statistical Summary of Women and Men at Work in Timor-Leste.” 85 Under Article 62 of Law No. 4/2012 on Labor. 86 According to Article 59 of Law No. 4/2012 on Labor. 87 Amin, Mohammad; Islam, Asif (2019). “Paid Maternity Leave and Female Employment: Evidence Using Firm-Level Survey Data for Developing Countries.” Policy Research Working Paper; No. 8715. World Bank, Washington, DC. Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 1 5 Figure 7. Reasons given for not being in the labor force Share of male population not in labor force (%) Share of female population not in the labor force (%) 23.8% 32.3% 32.3% 50.3% Not known Pregnancy, illness,disabillity No desire to work In school/training Retired or to old to work Family duties Too young to work Other reason Source: UN Women (2017), “Gender Analysis of the 2013 Timor-Leste Labor Force Survey: A Statistical Summary of Women and Men at Work in Timor-Leste.” Agriculture Agriculture is critical to rural livelihoods and incomes in Timor-Leste, including for women. About one-third of Timor-Leste’s non-petroleum economy is generated by agriculture, with a large number of households depending on farming for subsistence. Overall, 63% of households are engaged in crop production, with the most common being maize, cassava, and vegetables farmed mainly by women.88 Men tend to grow cash crops, such as coffee and rice, while women grow less valuable crops that are consumed by family members and/or sold at local markets. Although women are heavily engaged in farming and as traders, control over agricultural produce and income from agriculture activities is dominated by men. A recent report notes that even though majority of marketplace traders are female and women dominate the informal economy for food and agriculture products, “…women do not benefit or participate equitably in agriculture and market institutions, programs, technology, leadership, and governance…leaving lots of room for improvement in securing women’s leadership and representation in these areas.”89 Different factors shape women’s access to and control over productive assets and resources in the agricultural sector, including gendered constraints that undermine or otherwise create disincentives for women to expand production. This affects profits and price points, access to information and new technologies, and control over incomes and decision-making. It also has a negative impact on food security, nutrition, and well-being. For example, a recent study concluded that female farmers produce about 30% less per hectare than their male counterparts, largely due to differences in access to resources and inputs.90 Introducing different measures to address this gender gap in agricultural production could lead to significant gains in productivity for Timor-Leste. Women’s ability to have agency over time, labor, and decisions as well as to actively participate in farmers’ groups and/or cooperatives and credit groups would enable women to better access to resources, information, and inputs and to make choices that could positively affect household income as well as nutritional status. 88 GOTL (2014). “Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Strategic Plan 2014-2020.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 89 TOMAK (2016). “Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Analysis.” Technical Report 8. 90 UN Women and World Bank EAPGIL (2018). “Women Farmers in Timor-Leste: Bridging the Productivity Gap.” 16 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Box 2. Women’s empowerment in agriculture and rural development The Maubisse Declaration brings together key ministries and the National Commercial Bank of Timor- Leste to collectively promote rural development and strengthen the capacity of women and youth, based on principles of inclusion, tolerance, and gender equality. Signed in October 2015 by six ministries and the National Commercial Bank of Timor-Leste, the Declaration commits each signatory to achieving specific targets and gender-sensitive approaches tailored to their respective mandates.i These include implementation of gender-responsive policies and data collection, increasing access to agricultural inputs and credit for women, and a 30% quota for female beneficiaries in training programs. The emphasis on increasing the productivity of women and youth in agriculture is important as 71% of the Timorese population lives in rural areas, nearly two-thirds of whom are women and youth under age 25. Moreover, women remain the backbone of the agricultural sector and, although rarely identified as such, they are the majority of farmers and traders. Note: The following are ministries are signatories: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries; Secretary of State for Support and Socio-economic Promotion i of Women; Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and Environment; Ministry of Public Works, Transport, and Communication; Ministry of Tourism, Arts, and Culture; Ministry of Health; Ministry of State Administration; Secretary of State for Vocational Training and Employment Policy. Sources: GOTL (2015) Declaration of Maubisse, 6th Constitutional Government, Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste; TOMAK (2016), “Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Analysis,” Technical Report 8. Property Rights Women and men have the same right to own and inherit property, however customary systems and processes tend to limit women’s access to land and other assets. The Timor-Leste Constitution guarantees all citizens the right to own property and enshrines non-discrimination on the basis of gender. This is reinforced and echoed in the 2011 Civil Code, which outlines equal property rights, including inheritance rights, between men and women.91 Similarly, the recently enacted Land Law, which is intended to provide security of land ownership, declares equality of rights of ownership between women and men and the prohibition of discrimination on the basis of gender in any aspect of land administration (Box 3). Although the Timorese Constitution notes that when there is a conflict between constitutional provisions and customary law, international norms should prevail, most property rights and decision-making about inheritance is determined by traditional leaders and authorities who adhere to local customs and customary laws.92 Four-fifths of land in Timor-Leste is acquired by inheritance under customary law. Under customary law, land-use rights are generally passed through male family members, although there are a few places with matrilineal traditions. This limits women’s access to and control over land. Most women have access to land only through their association with males and tend to be disadvantaged in the division of property in the event of a divorce. Only a small proportion of land claims (customary or formal) are made by women. In most areas women generally do not have exclusive control over land, but they do manage to negotiate use and this access is highly significant for womenzs income-generating activities in rural areas.93 Given that land disputes are often resolved through local leaders and village-level processes, there is a need to increase the representation of women in local decision-making bodies and dispute resolution mechanisms. There is also a need to increase awareness among local leaders about the benefits of joint titling (for both men and women) in order to mitigate outcomes that are unfairly biased in favor of male inheritance and land ownership. 91 In the absence of a will, inheritance provisions for legitimate heirs are determined based on their relationship to the deceased, irrespective of their gender. Inheritance law allocates in equal portions the estate between the spouse and children. If the deceased was married but had no children, two- thirds of the estate is passed to the spouse and one-third to the ascendants (e.g., parents). 92 The Asia Foundation and Van Vollenhoven Institute (2016). “Survey on Access to Land, Tenure Security, and Land Conflicts in Timor-Leste.” Dili, Timor- Leste. 93 TOMAK (2016). “Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Analysis.” Technical Report 8. Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 1 7 Box 3. Land registration and gender in Timor-Leste An estimated 10% of Timor-Leste’s land remains disputed.i A new Land Law was approved by the National Parliament and enacted by the President in 2017. The law guarantees access to land with the creation of a National Land Registry and provides criteria for the resolution of disputes and compensation where there is “duplicity of rights.”ii The Land Law is an important piece of legislation which, if effectively implemented, will help to assure equality in property rights. However, there are concerns that under the new law a large percentage of households will not have any land rights by law and will not be entitled to any compensation as a majority do not have land title (or the “right” title).iii Moreover, as a recent report by The Asia Foundation and Van Vollenhoven Institute notes, “Any process of land registration or titling that does not incorporate clear measures to mitigate gender discrimination will most likely reinforce these inequalities and create another structural barrier for women to gain equal access to, and control of, land.” As land registration proceeds, it will be important to ensure that all legislation and cadastral surveys include approaches and specific measures to reduce gender discrimination. This should include the promotion of joint titling through legal mechanisms and incentives (e.g., tax breaks) and addressing administrative barriers (e.g., difficulties in registering marriages which makes it difficult for couples to claim joint ownership). Note: i The Asia Foundation and Van Vollenhoven Institute (2016). “Survey on Access to Land, Tenure Security, and Land Conflicts in Timor-Leste.” Dili, Timor-Leste. ii GOTL (2017). “Enactment of Land Law Major Step for Development.” Minister of State and of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers and Official Spokesperson for the Government of Timor-Leste: Media Release 14 June 2017. http://timor-leste.gov.tl/?p=18216&lang=en iii The Asia Foundation and Van Vollenhoven Institute (2016). “Survey on Access to Land, Tenure Security, and Land Conflicts in Timor-Leste.” Dili, Timor-Leste. Table 3. Who Owns the Land -Survey data from Three Municipalities Municipality Men Women Jointly by Couples Dili 33% 15% 16% Ainaro 18% 7% 52% Ermera 37% 9% 35% Source: The Asia Foundation and Van Vollenhoven Institute (2016). “Survey on Access to Land, Tenure Security, and Land Conflicts in Timor- Leste.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 18 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) 4.4 Voice and agency Table 4. Summary of gender data for political representation, GBV, status under the law Politics: MPs 38.5% of parliamentary seats are held by female Members of Parliamenti Chefe Suco 21 Chefe Suco are women; 4.7% of the total (in 2016) (Village Chiefs) Budgeting Gender-responsive budget and criteria reported since 2009 Human Rights and GBV: Gender-based 58.8% of ever-married girls and women age 15-49 have experienced physical, Violence sexual, or emotional violence by their current or most recent husband or partnerii Early Marriage 14.9% of women (aged 20-24) married before the age 18iii Sexual orientation and Same-sex sexual activity is legal. However, the constitution and laws does gender identity not recognize same-sex union or provide legal protection based on sexual orientation and gender identityiv Disability 2015 Census classified 3.2% of the population as disabledv Trafficking No trafficking victims and cases were reported or investigated by government in 2020vi Note: i World Economic Forum (2020). “The Global Gender Gap Report 2020.” Geneva, Switzerland. ii Nabilan, Asia Foundation and Australian Aid. The Nabilan Health and Life Experiences Survey. 2015. iii General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. iv United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. v GDS and UNFPA. (2018). “Timor-Leste Population and Housing Census 2015 Thematic Report Volume 13 Analytical Report on Gender Dimensions.” https://timor-leste.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/2015%20Census%20Gender%20Dimensions%20Analytical%20Report.pdf. However, global averages are 15%. vi This is a significant decrease from previous years. The Timor-Leste government investigated 65 cases in 2018, 267 in 2017, and 176 in 2016. United States Department of State (2020). “2020 Tracking in Persons Report: Timor-Leste.” https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-trafficking-in-persons-report/ timor-leste/. Political representation and participation in decisions Globally, Timor-Leste ranks 62nd (out of 156 countries) in terms of gender equality in political empowerment.94 The government has prioritized women’s political participation since independence, resulting in women holding high numbers of parliamentary seats in multiple elections. Women hold 38.5% of seats in the national parliament. Although there has been a steady increase in women’s representation in parliament since 2002, progress has stagnated in recent years. Increases in female representation have been aided by the 2006 Electoral Law which established quotas for women’s political representation. The Parliament modified the Electoral Law to require 33% of candidates from each party to be female (previously the quota was 25%) and representation of at least three women on every village council (which generally contains 10 to 20 representatives). However, higher levels of women’s representation have not reached local elections for municipal and Suco councils and Chefe Suco (equivalent to village chief/head or mayor), which are held every five years. In 2016, a total of 319 female candidates competed for Chefe Suco leadership positions in the election. However, only 21 females were elected. While this is only 4.7% of the total number of available positions, proportionally it is nearly double the 2.5% in 2009 and nearly triple the 1.6% in 2004. Meaningful participation by elected women (both at national and local levels) remains constrained by discriminatory gender 94 World Economic Forum (2021). “The Global Gender Gap Report 2021.” Geneva, Switzerland. Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 1 9 norms that view women mainly as wives and/or mothers.95 This undermines women’s electability and confidence, restricting opportunities for them to assume leadership roles. Figure 8. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament (2002-2020) (%) Source: World Development Indicators Investment in women’s leadership at the local level is very important because of contradictions in the administration of justice. Timor-Leste has a dual judicial system, based on national legislation and local interpretations of customary law. Personal and community issues, such as rights to land and property as well as domestic violence and child abuse, are often decided at the local level. Patriarchal traditions influence local decisions, with dispute-resolution mechanisms tending to disadvantage and, sometimes, endanger women. Cases of domestic violence tend to be solved as matters of honor between families, rather than addressing the needs of the victim/survivor and her preferences for recovery and safety.96 Similarly, land disputes tend to be settled without consideration of the impact on women’s access to land and resources.97 At the household level, the Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey (2016) identifies high levels of participation by married women in decision-making. The vast majority of women report that they were involved (solely or jointly) in making decisions about their own health care (93%), major household purchases (94%), visits to family or friends (94%), with 87% of women participating in all three decisions and only 2% not participating in any of the decisions.98 While this data is highly encouraging, there may be less empowering reasons underpinning marital cooperation. A report focused on drivers of malnutrition in Timor-Leste notes that jointly-made decisions are often dominated by men and, in essence, may be a means for women to mitigate the risk of domestic violence rather than an indicator of empowerment.99 Gender-based violence Violence against women is prevalent in Timor-Leste. The most common victims/survivors of gender- based violence (GBV) in Timor-Leste are women and children. The 2016 TL DHS provides some of the most up-to-date and comprehensive data on GBV in Timor-Leste. The report notes that 33% of women (age 15 to 49) have experienced physical violence since age 15 and 29% within the last 12 95 Asian Development Bank (2014). “Timor-Leste country gender assessment”. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. 96 GOTL and UN Women (2016). “National Action Plan on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace, and Security (2016- 2020).” Ministry of Interior, Dili, Timor-Leste. 97 GOTL and UN Women (2016). “National Action Plan on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace, and Security (2016- 2020).” Ministry of Interior, Dili, Timor-Leste. 98 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 99 Provo, Anne, et al. (2017). “Malnutrition in Timor-Leste: A Review of the Burden, Drivers, and Potential Response.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. 20 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) months. The experience of physical violence within the last 12 months varies significantly between municipalities, from 17% in Dili to 47% in Liquica. 5% of women have experienced sexual violence, 4% within the last 12 months. Again, this varies by municipality, with the highest rates within the last 12 months in Manufahi (12%), Ainaro (8%), and SAR of Oecussi (7%). 40% of ever-married women have experienced spousal violence, whether physical, sexual, or emotional, with 37% experiencing it in the last 12 months. This suggests that domestic violence remains an ongoing and recurrent behavior. Again, incidences vary by municipality, with the highest rates in SAR of Oecussi (65%), Ermera (58%), Manufahi (52%), Liquica and Covalima (both 51%), and Ainaro (46%).100 The primary perpetrator of physical violence on ever-married women is their current husband or partner. Among never-married women, the main perpetrators of physical violence are parents or stepparents. While these data are sobering, findings from another recent study suggest that the prevalence and frequency may even be higher than what is reported in the TLDHS. The 2016 Nabilan Study, undertaken by The Asia Foundation, produced a nationally-representative survey with randomly selected women and men as part of a baseline study on health and life experiences.101 The study found that 59% of girls and women between 15 to 49 years old had experienced sexual or physical violence at the hands of an intimate partner, and 47% had experienced at least one of these forms of violence by a husband or boyfriend in the previous 12 months. This is well above the global average of 20%. In addition, 14% of girls and women had been raped by someone other than a partner at least once in their lifetime and 10% had experienced this in the last 12 months. Most rape, however, is perpetrated by male intimate partners, with 34% of women surveyed having experienced rape (either from a partner or non-partner) in their lifetime and 27% within the last 12 months.102 Figure 9. Ever-partnered women and girls who experienced intimate-partner violence Physical violence Sexual violence Emotional violence Economic violence (last 12 months) (last 12 months) (last 12 months) (last 12 months) 36% 31% 44% 37% Source: The Asia Foundation (2016). “Understanding Violence against Women and Children in Timor-Leste: Findings from the Nabilan Baseline Study – Summary Report.” TAF: Dili, Timor-Leste. Very few women report violent behavior. The Nabilan Study notes that 66% of women who had experienced physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence had never before told anyone about the violence, and that the first reaction of the vast majority (86%) was not to seek assistance from any formal agencies, services, or other authorities. Only 3% sought assistance from the police and 2% approached a customary leader or other community members. Further, although rape (including marital rape) is a crime punishable by up to 20 years in prison, failures to investigate or prosecute cases of alleged rape and sexual abuse are common.103 The hesitancy to open up about experiences of violence may be the main reason for the difference in findings between the TL DHS and the Nabilan Study. It also helps to underscore the importance of and need for support. Health, safe havens, counseling and legal services need to be more accessible to women and combined with interventions that target the wider population, including the sensitization of service providers to indications of violence and women-centered response protocols. Violence against women in Timor-Leste is driven by gender inequality, normalization of violence (including spousal violence), and a model of masculinity that promotes male dominance and sexual 100 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 101 This fieldwork was undertaken in 2015 by enumerators trained in asking sensitive questions without comprising or endangering respondents. The Asia Foundation (2016). “Understanding Violence against Women and Children in Timor-Leste: Findings from the Nabilan Baseline Study – Summary Report.” TAF: Dili, Timor-Leste. 102 The Nabilan Study provided the following definition for partner rape: “means that the woman was forced by her male partner to have sexual intercourse or had sexual intercourse because she was afraid of what her partner might do.” 103 United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 21 entitlement over women. The Nabilan study identified critical risk factors for both men and women and health consequences. Risk factors are outlined in Box 4 and include experience of trauma or abuse as a child and the acceptance of controlling behavior and violence as justified. For example, the TLDHS revealed nearly three-quarters of women (74%) and over half of men (53%) agree that a husband is justified in beating his wife for at least one of the following reasons: if she burns the food, argues with him, goes out without telling him, neglects the children, or refuses to have sex with him.104 The associated health consequences include negative immediate and intergenerational consequences for women’s physical, mental, and reproductive health, men’s mental health, and children’s health and well-being. In terms of impacts on children, the data indicate that children of women who had experienced intimate partner violence were nearly twice as likely to have emotional and behavioral problems (such as nightmares, wetting the bed, and being timid or aggressive) and more likely to drop out of school. Violence against people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and/or intersex (LGBTI) also undermines welfare, increases healthcare and access to justice needs, as well as social and economic costs.105 Box 4. Risk Factors Associated with the Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence in Timor- Leste Factors that increased the likelihood that a woman experienced intimate partner violence • Witnessing the physical abuse of her mother during childhood • Experiencing physical, sexual, or emotional abuse during childhood • Agreeing with at least one justification for a husband to hit his wife • Polygamy • Her partner having physical fights with other men • Her partner’s suspected infidelity • Her partner exhibiting controlling behaviors Factors that increased the likelihood that a man had perpetrated intimate partner violence • Having engaged in transactional and/or commercial sex • Having had four or more lifetime sexual partners • Having experienced physical or sexual abuse during childhood • Agreeing with at least one justification for a husband to hit his wife • Having been in a fight with a weapon • Showing symptoms of trauma in the week before the interview Adapted from: The Asia Foundation (2016). “Understanding Violence against Women and Children in Timor-Leste: Findings from the Nabilan Baseline Study – Summary Report.” TAF: Dili, Timor-Leste. Inequitable and harmful beliefs about gender relations and violence against women are also manifest in traditional practices, such as bride price (barlaque), polygamy, and child marriage. Bride price undermines women’s position within the household by encouraging husbands to think of wives as “property”. The practice has been linked to domestic violence and it places additional constraints on women who wish to leave an abusive relationship.106 Moreover, in some communities, widows may be forced to marry one of their husband’s family members and women may be forced to leave their husband’s home if they do not become pregnant and have children. Polygamy tends to also undermine the position of women within the family. Reportedly, 4% of women and 1% of men age 15 to 49 are in polygynous unions, with polygyny most common among women in Bobonaro (11%) and among men in SAR of Oecussi (4%).107 Early marriage also has detrimental lifelong and intergenerational consequences for health, nutrition, fertility rates, education, employment, and domestic violence. An estimated 19% of girls in Timor-Leste marry prior to age 18.108 Married girls are 104 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 105 World Bank (2018). “Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic: Pathways for a New Economy and Sustainable Livelihoods.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 106 United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. 107 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 108 General Directorate of Statistics and ICF (2018). “2016 Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings.” Rockville, Maryland: GDS and ICF. 22 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) more vulnerable to domestic violence and often unable to effectively negotiate safer sex. They are also less able to escape poverty and more likely to pass on similar circumstances to future generations. Delaying marriage tends to increase women’s socioeconomic status, position within the household, and level of education. Cultural pressure to marry is strong, especially if a girl or woman becomes pregnant. Although underage couples cannot officially marry until the age of 16, they become de facto married when they have children together. Forced marriage rarely occurs, however there are cases where social pressure encourages victims of rape to marry their attacker or to enter into an arranged marriage with a paid bride price.109 Fostering gender-equitable norms among youth can contribute to reductions in early marriages as well as more productive marriages later in life. When youth, especially girls, are empowered and educated they are better able to delay marriage, nourish and care for their children after marriage, and have better opportunities for productive employment or self-employment. The Law Against Domestic Violence (Law No. 7/2010) augments the 2009 Penal Code and criminalizes all forms of domestic violence, human trafficking, and physical and psychological sexual aggression and exploitation. The Law covers physical, psychological, sexual, and economic violence, including marital rape, and provides a wide range of services for survivors of violence. Since its enactment, the Law has encouraged victims of domestic violence to report their cases to the police and to recognize domestic violence as a crime. However, challenges with implementation remain. NGOs that monitor court cases and those providing services to victims have criticized the failure to issue protection orders and the over-reliance on suspended sentences, even in cases involving significant bodily harm. Prosecutors routinely charged cases involving aggravated injury and use of deadly weapons as simple assaults. In addition, fines paid to the court often came from shared family resources, further hurting the victim.110 Several barriers to reporting also persist, including fear, pressure to resolve the incident within the family/village and a lack of trust in the police and the formal justice system.111 Nonetheless, the formal justice system is beginning to more effectively address the increasing number of reported domestic and sexual abuse cases, reflecting greater knowledge by community leaders and police officers that GBV is a public crime that may not be adequately dealt with through traditional justice mechanisms.112 Between January and August, 2016, judges sentenced defendants convicted of domestic violence offenses to incarceration in at least 9 cases, which was a significant increase over the previous year.113 Box 5. History of conflict continues to shape gender relations After 400 years of Portuguese colonization and 24 years of Indonesian occupation, Timor-Leste regained its independence in May of 2002. Like many post-conflict societies, the prevalence of GBV remains high. The long history of conflict in the country influenced gender roles and relations. Violence and aggression are expected masculine traits, reinforced by a focus on martial arts in youth and sports programs. Large numbers of disaffected youth and a lack of gender awareness and sensitivity in security sector reform hamper attempts to address GBV. Violence has been viewed as a socially acceptable way to resolve disputes, including domestic violence. This highlights the need to focus on changing social norms to reset perceptions of acceptable masculine and feminine behavior. Source: Adapted from ADB (2014), “Timor-Leste Country Gender Assessment,” Manila, Philippines. 109 United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. 110 United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor”. Washington, D.C. 111 GOTL and UN Women (2016). “National Action Plan on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace, and Security (2016- 2020).” Ministry of Interior, Dili, Timor-Leste. 112 The National Police (PNTL) Vulnerable Persons Units (VPUs) handle cases of domestic violence and sexual crimes. However, but there is insufficient staff to cover all areas throughout country. This necessitates the involvement of other police units, especially community police, who are present at the village level. Women’s organizations report that VPU performance is variable but improving. United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. 113 United States Department of State (2017). “Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2016.” US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Washington, D.C. Key gender inequalities in Timor-Leste 23 In June 2017, the government launched a National Action Plan against Gender-based Violence 2017-2021. This is the second National Action Plan and the most comprehensive to date. It updates, extends, and enhances the previous plan produced in 2012, based on an evaluation of lessons learned. The new Plan identifies responsibilities within government, indicators, budgets and specific actions to be undertaken over the next five years in four “pillars” or areas of work (i.e., prevention of GBV; provision of services for victims; access to justice for victims; and coordination, monitoring and evaluation). Through the Action Plan, the GOTL is aiming to extend the reach of the national social protection programme (Bolsa da Mae) to vulnerable women – including victims of GBV and social exclusion – to ensure they receive adequate economic support.114 In 2021, the GOTL reported to the CEDAW Committee that the SEII was overseeing the monitoring of the GBV National Action Plan and developing a monitoring matrix tool to encourage ministries to report on the outcomes of their activities under the Plan. In 2017, the National Police (PNTL) issued Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) that integrated a gender perspective, emphasizing the role of the PNTL in preventing and responding to GBV. The PNTL has also developed a Gender Strategy 2018-2022 to ensure gender sensitive service delivery to GBV victims.115 Box 6. GOTL’s definition of GBV The National Action Plan on Gender-based Violence (2017-2021) offers the following comprehensive definition and explanation of GBV: Gender-based is violence that targets individuals or groups on the basis of their gender. This includes (but is not limited to) any act whether occurring in public or in private or perpetrated or condoned by the State that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological, emotional, psychosocial or economic harm or suffering to someone based on gender discrimination, gender role expectations, and gender stereotypes. These acts may include but are not limited to: domestic violence, sexual abuse, dowry-related violence, rape (including marital rape), gender- specific traditional or cultural practices that cause harm, non-spousal violence, sexual violence related to exploitation, sexual harassment and street harassment, intimidation and bullying at work, school-related violence and bullying whether between students or from teach or school staff to students or from students towards teachers or school staff, human trafficking, forced prostitution, economic violence and any violence that is acted upon a person because of or pertaining to their gender or perceived gender role-model or stereotype. Gender-based violence is a human rights violation that reflects and reinforces gender inequities and gender inequality and compromises the health, dignity, security, agency, autonomy, and respect of both the victims or targets and the perpetrators. In Timor-Leste women and girls are disproportionately affected; however, men and boys can also be victims of GBV and people within the LGBTI community are also frequently affected by GBV. Source: GOTL (2017). National Action Plan on GBV (2017-2021), Secretariat of State for the Support and Socio-economic Promotion of Women (SEM). Dili, Timor-Leste. 114 GOTL (2017). “National Action Plan on GBV (2017-2021)”. Secretariat of State for the Support and Socio-economic Promotion of Women (SEM), Dili, Timor-Leste. 115 GOTL (2021). “State report on implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Fourth periodic report submitted by Timor-Leste under article 18 of the Convention.” CEDAW. 24 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Government priorities and commitment to gender equality 05 The GOTL ’s commitment to gender equality and reducing barriers to women’s advancement Box 7. are evident both nationally and internationally. GOTL international human rights Timor-Leste’s Constitution explicitly guarantees commitments gender equality and prohibits discrimination, • Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development including on the basis of sex. The government Goals (SDGs). has sought to address inequalities through the • Convention for the Elimination of all ratification of international treaties as well as Forms of Discrimination against Women passage of national laws, policy mandates, and (CEDAW). strategic action plans. The government also • International Convention on the adopted gender-responsive budget planning, a Elimination of all Forms of Racial one-third quota for female political representation Discrimination (ICERD). and established different agencies or oversight • International Covenant on Civil and bodies to coordinate within and between Political Rights (ICCPR). ministries in order to support gender equality • International Covenant on Economic, and women’s empowerment. Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). • United Nations Security Council At the international level, the GOTL has Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and ratified most of the international human Security. rights treaties that promote gender equality • Convention on the Rights of the Child and prohibit discrimination. These include (CRC). the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms • International Labor Organization (ILO) of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) Conventions on Equal Remuneration and Optional Protocol and the United Nations and Discrimination (employment and Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, occupation). Peace, and Security, among others (see Box • 2010 Dili Declaration ”A New Vision for 7). However, the government has not ratified Peacebuilding and Statebuilding.” the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), which provides concrete guidelines as well as support mechanisms for states to monitor progress in fulfilling the rights of people with disabilities (PWDs). Women account for 49% of the PWD population.116 Reports indicate that women with disabilities face double discrimination (as a female and having a disability) and are particularly vulnerable to GBV, including sexual violence.117 The GOTL has been a strong advocate of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 Agenda and participates in the High-Level Group on SDG implementation. The Prime Minister’s Office has developed a roadmap for implementing the 2030 Agenda in alignment with the national Strategic Development Plan (SDP) 2011–2030.118 Key principles of both the SDP and the 2030 agenda are “leaving no one behind” and “reaching the furthest behind first.” The Roadmap prioritizes different 116 GOTL (2015). “Population and Housing Census 2015.” Ministry of Finance, Dili. 117 Association for Disability Timor-Leste (ADTL) (2016). “Submission from Member Organizations of the ADTL to the 26th Session of the Human Rights Council Universal Periodic Review Working Group: Recommendations for Timor-Leste.”; National Action Plan on Disabilities, cited in TOMAK (2016). “Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Analysis.” Technical Report 8. 118 GOTL and UNDP (2017). “Timor-Leste’s Roadmap for the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs.” Dili, Timor-Leste. http://timor-leste.gov. tl/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/UNDP-Timor-Leste_SDP-Roadmap_doc_v2_English_220717.pdf Government priorities and commitment to gender equality 25 SDGs in three sequenced phases (people, prosperity, and planet) with the aim of eradicating poverty by 2030 (SDG 1). The SDGs on Gender equality (SDG 5), effective institutions (SDG 16), and partnerships (SDG 17) underpin all three phases as cross-cutting goals. The Roadmap notes that achievements on gender equality under SDG 5 will have an “acceleration effect” on other SDGs. This is based on clear evidence from around the world that creating opportunities for women to achieve their potential leads to greater poverty reduction and overall improvement in health, education, livelihoods, and well-being. At the national level, GOTL ’s commitment to gender equality is also expressed through the country’s national development plan, as well as a series of action plans. Timor-Leste’s current strategic development plan (2011-2030) is a comprehensive “living document” that government ministries use to guide their own strategies and action plans. It articulates Timor-Leste’s development goals and priorities with the aim of achieving upper middle-income status by 2030, focusing on social capital, infrastructure, and economic development. One of the key priorities is the consolidation of human resources development. The SDP highlights that gender equality is integral to achieving the overall goal and vision for a gender-fair society, and requires government departments to mainstream gender across all policies, programs, processes, and budgets. It also establishes priorities for addressing inequalities, including: (i) combating domestic violence through partnerships between the government and civil society aimed at implementing the National Action Plan on Gender-based Violence and monitoring for effectiveness and a zero-tolerance policy for violence in schools and homes; (ii) establishing gender-responsive policies and laws at national and local levels, with more resources and capacity development to achieve sustainable improvements in gender-sensitive policies and programs; (iii) increasing women’s economic empowerment and influence, through better education and employment, and gender equality in the civil service; (iv) policies, training, and leadership programs to support women in decision-making roles in the public and private sectors; (v) scaling-up of reproductive health programs; and (vi) raising public awareness and changing behaviors and attitudes for a more gender-equitable society.119 The GOTL’s commitment to gender equality is also well-expressed in a recent national declaration and a series of action plans, including, for example, the 2015 Maubisse Declaration, and the National Action Plan on Gender-based Violence 2017-2021. In addition, the Constitution emphasizes equality by providing all citizens the right to social assistance and GOTL social protection programs include a cash transfer scheme that assists GBV victims to access support services.120 Recently, the GOTL also highlighted its commitment to gender equality and tackling gender gaps in its 2021 report to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank 119 GOTL (2011). “Timor-Leste Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030.” Dili, Timor-Leste. 120 World Bank. “Timor-Leste Social Protection Review.” (Dili: World Bank, December 2020). 26 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Box 8. National GOTL Gender-responsive Commitments • Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030: Outlines a plan for Timor-Leste to become an upper middle-income country with a diversified economy by 2030 and highlights the importance of gender equality with the aim of becoming a “gender-fair society where human dignity and women’s rights are valued, protected, and promoted.” • Gender-responsive budgeting (National Parliament Resolution No. 12/2010): Gender- responsive budgeting (GRB) aims to integrate gender equality into the budget process, ensuring gender equality commitments are translated into action in the annual plans and budgets of the government and state-funded institutions. • New law against domestic violence (Law No. 7/2010): Criminalizes sexual, physical, psychological, and economic abuse within the home and provides a basis for protection, prosecution, and rehabilitation, especially for women and children who are most often the victims of domestic violence. • Maubisse Declaration 2015: Commits the Timorese government to strengthening the capacity of women and youth by improving their access to productive inputs and supporting a conducive environment for gender equality in all development sectors, including implementation of gender-responsive policies and data collection, increasing access to agricultural inputs and credit for women, and quotas for females in training programs. • National Action Plan on Gender-based Violence 2017-2021: Promotes a multi-sectoral approach centered on survivors and the prevention of all forms of GBV, particularly domestic violence. Outlines provisions for services to victims, access to justice, and coordination, monitoring, and evaluation with the ultimate aim of eliminating GBV. Also aims to extend the reach of the national social protection program to vulnerable women, including victims of GBV. • National Employment Strategy (2017-2030): Outlines a broad direction of actions for creating new and more-productive jobs and reducing unemployment, particularly among youth, women, and the working poor, aimed at guiding action plans. The Secretary of State for Equality and Inclusion (SEII) is the government’s main institutional mechanism for gender equality planning, promotion, coordination, and monitoring and evaluation.121 The SEII is primarily responsible for designing laws, policies, and programs to promote gender equality and women’s rights, and coordinating work on eliminating GBV. In November 2017, a government decree outlined implementation responsibilities for SEII in sectoral policy support, combating domestic violence, and enforcing international conventions, agreements, and protocols and international guidelines on gender equality at the national level.122 It is too early to tell whether this represents a significant shift. However, given issues with coordination failures and the lack of gender integration capacity in sectors and ministries, this increased authority for implementation is notable and could be used to leverage improved gender responsiveness of government institutions. Gender-related coordination mechanisms have been established in every government ministry and agency. Gender working groups replaced gender focal points in 2011, following criticism that focal points lacked authority, resources, and expertise. The Inter-Ministerial Gender Working Group combines senior representatives from each agency to coordinate work on gender mainstreaming and shared concerns or issues. The aim is to achieve intersectoral cooperation and coordination, and to “ensure concerted action on the promotion of gender equality and affirmation of women’s role in Timor- Leste society.”123 In June 2017, the Council of Ministers approved the creation of the Inter-ministerial 121 The SEII was formerly known as the Secretary of State for the Promotion of Equality (SEPI), which was established in 2008 as a legal agency and central government body. It has been also called Secretary of State for the Support and Socio-Economic Promotion of Women (SEM) and “Secretariat of State for the Promotion of Equality” (SoSPE). GOTL (2008), Decree Law No. 16/2008. “Organic Law of the Secretary of State for the Promotion of Equality,” Dili, Timor-Leste. 122 GOTL (2017). Decree-Law No. 35/2017, Organic Law of the VII Constitutional Government, Official Gazette, Series 1, No. 43A (Tuesday, November 21, 2017). 123 GOTL (2011). Government Resolution No. 27/2011, cited in ADB (2014). “Timor-Leste Country Gender Assessment.” Manila, Philippines. Government priorities and commitment to gender equality 27 Working Group for Gender, the National Gender Working Groups and the Municipal Gender Working Groups. This adapted the previous gender working groups created in 2011.124 Despite the available institutional mechanisms, action plans, and policies, translating legal frameworks and policies into practice has proven difficult. Action plans, policies, and institutional mechanisms have helped to set goals, establish a strategic vision, and raise public awareness. However, weaknesses remain in implementation, and capacity and resources are limited. An analysis of the 2017 Budget by UN Women notes a 41% reduction in the budget for SEII/SEIGIS/SEM since 2014.125 This raises questions about the disconnect between budget allocations and the commitments made by the government to achieve gender equality. Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank 124 GOTL (2017). “Council of Ministers’ meeting (6th June 2017),” Press Release by the Sixth Constitutional Government, Dili, Timor-Leste. 125 UNWOMEN (November 2016). “2017 State Budget Analysis.” 28 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) WBG engagement and gender priorities in Timor-Leste 06 The Strategic Country Diagnostic (SCD) for Timor-Leste, completed in 2018, prioritized a set of reform areas along three pathways. The SCD identified 12 priorities around three pathways: (i) continuing to invest in human capital and improve service delivery; (ii) sustained economic growth and private sector job creation; and (iii) sustainable management, of both the natural environment and public finances. Each pathway is underpinned by a common theme of strengthening institutional frameworks. Based on the findings from the SCD, the Country Partnership Framework (CPF) sets out the core framework for engagement by the World Bank during FY20-FY24. The three CPF focus areas and cross-cutting theme include: (i) Area 1: Strengthen the foundation for private sector-led growth and economic stability; (ii) Area 2: Invest in human capital and service delivery; (iii) Area 3: Raise productivity through investment in connective infrastructure; and (iv) Cross-cutting theme: Strengthening governance, institutional and implementation capacity in government. The CGAP aligns with the CPF and sets out priority focus areas (PFAs) to reduce gender inequalities that could be prioritized and addressed within the World Bank portfolio: (i) PFA 1: Improving access to health services, WASH and higher education, as well as improving nutrition of women, children, and adolescents (CPF focus area 2); (ii) PFA 2: Increasing access to employment and self-employment to improve livelihoods of women (CPF focus area 1); (iii) PFA 3: Reducing gender-based violence (CPF focus area 2); and (iv) PFA 4: Strengthening gender-responsiveness and implementation capacity of government institutions and mechanisms (cross-cutting theme). The current World Bank Timor-Leste portfolio already seeks to address some of the gender issues described in the gender analysis and prioritized under the priority focus areas. For example, the World Bank’s ongoing projects on roads, WASH, and education aim to improve women’s economic opportunities, and improve understanding of gender issues within the education sector. See Annex 1 for further details. WBG engagement and gender priorities in Timor-Leste 29 Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank 30 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) World Bank CGAP 07 7.1. CGAP Priority focus areas and actions Drawing on the gender diagnostic and previous consultations with the GOTL, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and Development Partners, four priority focus areas (PFAs) have been identified where the Bank could invest in to improve gender equality in Timor-Leste. These include: (i) PFA 1: Improving access to health services, WASH and higher education, as well as improving nutrition of women, children, and adolescents; (ii) PFA 2: Increasing access to employment or self-employment to improve the livelihoods of women; (iii) PFA 3: Reducing gender-based violence; and (iv) PFA 4: Strengthening gender-responsiveness and implementation capacity of government institutions and mechanisms. The PFAs cut across issues, sectors, and institutions, targeting key gender gaps and/or constraints in the context of Timor-Leste. They align with the gender equality priorities as identified in GOTL policies and commitments as well as different constraints identified in the World Bank’s 2018 Timor-Leste Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD), which identified the need to address malnutrition, support frontline services with adequate, timely, and appropriate resourcing, and end GBV. They also reflect strategic objectives and priorities outlined in the WBG’s Gender Strategy and RGAP (FY18-23). Each PFA and potential priority actions are detailed below. Annex 2—CGAP Summary Table—summarizes how each PFA links to the SCD and CPF, and will be implemented and monitored through selected World Bank interventions and projects. PFA 1: Improving access to health services, WASH and higher education, as well as improving nutrition of women, children, and adolescents In Timor-Leste, gaps remain in nutrition knowledge and reproductive health services as evident in the prevalence of stunting and high MMR. Further, although gender parity in education has been achieved up to secondary level, at the tertiary level men continue to outnumber women. Scaling up the provi- sion and quality of reproductive, maternal, neonatal, child, and adolescent health and nutrition ser- vices is needed. Supporting more girls and women to pursue and transition higher education will also be important given the potential positive flow on effects. More empowered and educated women are more likely to delay marriage, nourish and care for their children after marriage, and have better opportunities for productive work. Improving women's and girls' access to safe WASH facilities also has clear benefits as WASH helps to mitigate negative health outcomes such as infant mortality and stunting. Further, promoting the gender-responsive design and rollout of social protection programs and the collection of comprehensive sex-disaggregated data would help to ensure assistance reaches the most vulnerable groups, including poor women and girls. The World Bank supports improved outcomes in human endowments through investments in health and education, including via the Basic Education Strengthening and Transformation Project, the Timor- Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project and the pipeline Dili Water Project. Priority areas for action are outlined below. World Bank CGAP 31 PFA1: Priority Areas for Action Improve understanding of gender issues within the education sector, and improve girls and women’s access and transitions to higher education. Provide targeted support for nutrition and stunting reforms, including those that target men, adolescent girls, and pregnant and lactating women. Expand access to health services and family planning, particularly for rural women and adolescent girls. Improve women’s and girls’ access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities. The World Bank is actively working towards the above priorities through its portfolio of current and pipeline projects. The Basic Education Strengthening and Transformation Project (2020-2025), for example, is promoting gender-sensitive curriculum materials and teaching practices, including through prioritized support and training for female teachers. It is also ensuring learning spaces developed under the program incorporate adequate and separate WASH facilities for girls and boys.126 The Timor- Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2020-2026) is also working to improve access to WASH facilities and reduce women and girls – especially women household heads' – time spent collecting water by establishing household water connections.127 Similarly, the pipeline Dili Water Project (2021-) plans to facilitate women's increased access to quality WASH facilities in the capital. Key gender issues to be addressed under the project will be determined based on detailed gender analysis during the preparation phase. To improve health and nutrition outcomes, the World Bank – through the Timor-Leste Human Capital PASA – is providing multisectoral technical assistance to the GOTL. These analytical and advisory services are working to combat stunting, reduce bottlenecks in health service delivery and improve nutritional outcomes and access to health services, including for women and children.128 The program's focus on highlighting the importance of investments in malnutrition will also enhance human capital accumulation in Timor-Leste. PFA 2: Increasing access to employment and self-employment to improve livelihoods of women Women are more likely than men to work in unpaid family labor or in the informal sector in Timor-Leste. They are also more likely to be in vulnerable employment and concentrated in low-skilled occupations. Once working or in employment, women tend to earn less than men for similar work. Women also tend to own less land than men and have limited access to productive inputs, which reduces their agricultural productivity.129 The World Bank’s support for increasing economic opportunities to employment and self-employment and removing constraints for more and better jobs is implemented through multiples investments in different sectors. This includes the Branch Roads Project, Timor-Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project, and the Sustainable Agriculture Productivity Improvement Project (SAPIP), and potentially the upcoming Dili Water Project, and Timor-Leste Tourism Development pipeline projects. Priority areas for action are outlined below. 126 World Bank (2020). “Timor-Leste Basic Education Strengthening and Transformation Project, Project Appraisal Document (PAD)”. Timor-Leste, World Bank. 127 World Bank (2020). “Timor-Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Project Appraisal Document (PAD).” Timor-Leste, World Bank. 128 Ministry of Finance (2020). “State Budget 2020: Development Partners. Timor-Leste, GOTL.” Available at: https://www.mof.gov.tl/wp-content/ uploads/2020/09/BB5_Eng.pdf 129 UN Women and World Bank EAPGIL. (2018). “Women Farmers in Timor-Leste: Bridging the Productivity Gap.” The Asia Foundation and Van Vollenhoven Institute (2016). “Survey on Access to Land, Tenure Security, and Land Conflicts in Timor-Leste,” Dili, Timor-Leste. 32 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) PFA2: Priority Areas for Action Incorporate targeted initiatives to increase women’s access to employment and management in male-dominated sectors (e.g., transport, WASH, aviation, etc.). Reduce the gender gap in farm productivity by supporting female-friendly and labor- reducing appropriate technologies, and targeted training and mentoring. World Bank projects are actively contributing to increasing women's employment and representation in sectors usually dominated by men. The Branch Roads Project (2019-2025) has been supporting women to access employment by ensuring that women account for 30% of workers employed in road maintenance through the project. The project has also facilitated gender trainings and capacity building exercises, while ensuring equal pay for equal work between male and female workers. Further, improvements in women's mobility achieved through the program will contribute to women's empowerment by increasing access to markets and social services while reducing time spent travelling and increasing road-user safety. 130 The Sustainable Agriculture Productivity Improvement Project (2017-2024) is making concerted efforts to reduce the gender gap in farm productivity by helping women identify investments to boost their income and reduce time for crop production and processing. The program's aims include ensuring that at least 30% of farmer group project beneficiaries are women.131 The Timor-Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2020-2026) recognizes that women are an untapped pool of talent for the water sector, thus the project is working to increase women's representation, including in management, in this crucial sector. The project is working to ensure that at least 35% of the staff of the service provider in Baucau Municipality are women.132 In the future, gender analysis incorporated in upcoming projects can help to ensure these programs also contribute to increased women's employment and management. PFA 3: Reducing gender-based violence Gender-based violence is prevalent in Timor-Leste. Gender disparities are exacerbated by high levels of GBV as GBV cuts across all sectors and activities reducing economic potential and creating debilitative physical and psychological trauma. GBV reduces work capacity and income-earning potential, increases household expenditures, and restricts access to community support and social services, including health care and agricultural extension. Given the prevalence of GBV in Timor-Leste, effective response and prevention activities are essential, particularly targeting violence against women and children. All World Bank projects and activities will address GBV as part of the Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) requirements. GBV risk analyses should be linked to social and economic outcomes and tracked as part of GBV prevention and/or response. PFA3: Priority Areas for Action Conduct GBV risk analysis, especially for domestic violence, to mitigate unintended exposure to violence triggered by participation in activities and to increase focus on prevention of GBV. Ensure all project engagements and workshops promote gender equality messages and raise awareness about GBV. 130 World Bank (2019). “Timor-Leste Branch Roads Project, Project Appraisal Document (PAD).” Timor-Leste, World Bank. 131 World Bank (2016). “Sustainable Agriculture Productivity Improvement Project, Project Appraisal Document (PAD).” Timor-Leste, World Bank. 132 World Bank (2020). “Timor-Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Project Appraisal Document (PAD).” Timor-Leste, World Bank. World Bank CGAP 33 The World Bank is committed to ensuring that GBV risk analysis is conducted in all pipeline projects and similarly committed to raising awareness about GBV risk and ensuring mitigation strategies are in place in all Project designs and implementing arrangements. In addition, World Bank projects are actively working to reduce women's and girls' vulnerability to experiencing GBV. The Timor-Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2020-2026), for example, has identified that open defecation practices in remote areas – especially at night – are linked to risks of GBV. Responding to this risk, the project’s construction of community-based decentralized sewerage networks and treatment systems will contribute to reducing open defecation and therefore minimize women and girls’ exposure to potential GBV. 133 PFA 4: Strengthening gender-responsiveness and implementation capacity of government institutions and mechanisms Formal policies and laws provide for gender equality, but these are weakly enforced. Despite strong legal frameworks and genuine attempts to enforce laws, systems for implementation and decision- making based on the sharing and analysis of robust data remain weak. While progress is being made and significant effort has gone into developing action plans and strategies, there is now a need to focus on strengthening implementation and improved monitoring and reporting of impacts. Priority areas for action are outlined below. Where possible, all World Bank projects should be leveraged to strengthen the gender knowledge and implementation capacity of clients and government institutions. PFA4: Priority Areas for Action Leverage World Bank engagement where possible to ensure that government staff have a basic understanding of gender and gender mainstreaming principles. The World Bank is striving to increase gender-responsiveness and implementation capacity by engaging government counterparts and supporting the development and effective utilization of integrated, sex-disaggregated data platforms that enable evidence-based policymaking. The Basic Education Strengthening and Transformation Project (2020-2025) is increasing the collection of sex-disaggregated data by supporting the development of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports' (MOEYS) Education Management Information System (EMIS). The project is contributing to establishing gender-responsive data collection systems and processes that will enable policymakers to create interventions to address gender gaps through effective resource allocations and gender-responsive policy decisions. Further, the World Bank Gender Focal Point will work to ensure engagements with government counterparts aim to increase their understanding of gender mainstreaming policies.134 7.2. Implementation arrangements The CGAP is implemented collaboratively with involvement from the Country Management Unit (CMU), all Global Practices (GPs), and the Country Gender Focal Point. The Country Manager (CM), Practice Manager, Program Leaders, and Task Team Leaders are also jointly responsible for implementation and monitoring the impacts of operations on reducing gender gaps and promoting greater gender equality. The Country Gender Focal Point will monitor CGAP implementation and systematically provide upstream technical comments during reviews at key stages of project preparation, including Project Concept Note (PCN), Quality Enhancement Review (QER) and Decision Meeting. World Bank (2020). “Timor-Leste Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Project Appraisal Document (PAD).” Timor-Leste, World Bank. 133 World Bank (2020). “Timor-Leste Basic Education Strengthening and Transformation Project, Project Appraisal Document (PAD).” Timor-Leste, World 134 Bank. 34 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) 7.3.Monitoring and reporting The Country Team will monitor the implementation of the CGAP in line with the CGAP Monitoring Framework as presented in Annex 3. The framework includes baseline and targets and aims to assist the Country Team to track its commitments to gender and alignment with corporate goals. The country Gender Focal Point is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the CGAP and sharing progress updates with the CMU. Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank World Bank CGAP 35 Barbara Ratusznik/World Bank 36 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Annexes Annex 1. WB ongoing and pipeline programs In the World Bank Timor-Leste portfolio, ongoing activities focus largely on roads, WASH, and education. These projects, as well as the ways they do or will address gender is summarized below. Project ID Project name GP Key gender issues addressed ACTIVE P155203 Timor-Leste Transport Gender tagged. The project improves road access, Branch Roads safety, and climate resilience on the Gleno–Maubisse Project Corridor and increases the percentage of women working on road maintenance activities through gender trainings, capacity building to DRBFC including women staff, and equal pay for equal work between male and female workers. The project will increase the percentage of women working on maintenance activities supported by the project to 30%. P166744 Basic Education Education Gender tagged. The project will improve the learning Strengthening and environment of basic education schools and increase Transformation the efficiency and equity of basic education programs. Project The current data collection system for education is not adequate for properly tracking gender differences in access, outcomes, and participation. A data platform will be developed to collect these data (i.e., strengthen the EMIS platform to collect enrollment, access, outcomes and participation data, including verification). This will help ensure that gender disparities in access, participation and outcomes can be scrutinized more closely and support the development of appropriate measures to address them. This data will also contribute to ensuring that a gender policy dialogue is conducted specifically with school principals, teachers and communities on closing the gap for boys in enrollment, access, outcomes and participation. Progress will be measured by a decrease in the female-male difference in primary net enrollment rate from 5.97% to 3%. P167901 Timor-Leste Water Gender tagged. The project is increasing access to Water Supply and safely managed drinking water and sanitation services Sanitation Project in the municipality of Baucau. The project target is that at least 35% of the staff of the service provider in the municipality of Baucau are women (from a baseline of 30%), thereby directly improving women’s access to wage jobs and potentially managerial positions. To achieve this target, it will be particularly important to ensure that women are among the new staff hired by the service provider. Furthermore, the project will provide support to DGAS to prepare job descriptions conducive for women to apply and training on GAP implementation and gender awareness for the DGAS, PMU, and service provider staff and support the development of human resources policies to increase women recruitment Annexes 37 P252338 Road Climate Transport Not gender tagged. Resilience Project Second Additional Financing P155541 Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable Agriculture Productivity Improvement Project Agriculture (2017-2024) is making concerted efforts to reduce the Productivity gender gap in farm productivity by helping women Improvement identify investments to boost their income and reduce Project time for crop production and processing. Gender- specific targets include: (i) at least 25 percent female recipients for capacity building efforts; (ii) at least 30 percent of the farmer group project beneficiaries will be women (including the formation of women-only farmer groups where appropriate); and (iii) at least 25 percent of committee member and other decision making positions in groups/associations formed under the project will be for women. PIPELINE P173305 Dili Water Supply Water Project aims to increase access and quality of water and Sanitation supply and sanitation services in the Dili Metropolitan Project Area and to improve the operational performance of the water supply services provider. Key gender issues to be addressed are to be determined based on gender analysis in preparation; however, potential results indicators related to gender include women’s representation in utilities, and/or water user groups; women’s participation in community groups; women’s roles as facilitators and in behavioral change campaigns; gender representation in institutional bodies created by the project if any, and gender focal points in PMUs. P173305 Timor-Leste Finance, Opportunities for the participation of women in the Tourism Competitiveness tourism sector (increased employment opportunities), Development and Innovation including increased representation in the Tourism Board Project (management positions). 38 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Annex 2. Country Gender Action Plan Summary The following table lays out the CGAP priorities in addressing key issues of gender inequality in Timor-Leste and how WBG programs and actions can support improvements in these areas. The CGAP priorities and accompanying proposed WBG actions and sample measurements are linked to the corresponding SCD Pathways and CPF Focus Areas to situate the CGAP within the broader framework of WBG support to the country. Priority Area for WBG WBG Group Sample CGAP Output/ Link to SCD Link to CPF Focus CGAP Priorities Key Issues Action Program Outcome Indicator Pathways Areas Human • Inadequate access • Improve Financing • Coverage of Continuing to Area 2: Invest in Endowments: to health services, understanding of micronutrients for invest in human human capital and particularly in rural gender issues in the • Basic Education pregnant women capital and service delivery Improving areas education sector, and Strengthening and (iron folic acid improved service access to health improve women’s Transformation supplementation) delivery (Pathway I) • Poor maternal and services, WASH access to higher Project (FY20) • Exclusive breastfeeding child nutrition and higher education • Education/Human coverage education, • High maternal and • Expand support for Capital Quality • Female-male difference as well as infant mortality rates nutrition and stunting and Governance in primary net improving • Lack of access to (pipeline) reforms enrollment rate (p.p.) nutrition of WASH facilities • Expand access to • Dili Water Supply • Share of basic education women, children, • Underrepresentation health services, family and Sanitation schools completing and adolescents of women in higher planning and WASH Project (pipeline) electronic data entry in education facilities, particularly Knowledge and EMIS through the Gestão for rural women Advisory Services Escolar platform by March of the current academic • PASA Improving year Quality of Education in TL (ongoing) • Multisectoral ASA on Health, Nutrition and Stunting Annexes 39 Priority Area for WBG WBG Group Sample CGAP Output/ Link to SCD Link to CPF Focus CGAP Priorities Key Issues Action Program Outcome Indicator Pathways Areas Access to • Limited • Increase access to Financing • Women working on • Sustaining • Area 1: Strengthen Economic opportunities for employment for routine maintenance economic growth the foundation Opportunities: formal work women • TL Branch Roads activities of multi-year and private sector for private sector- Project (FY20) maintenance contracts job creation led growth and • Culture, gender • Reduce the gender Increasing • TL Water Supply in Branch Roads project (Pathway II) economic stability norms, and social gap in farm access to and Sanitation (%) attitudes productivity employment or Project (FY20) • Limited access to • Gender-gap in farm self-employment training • Sustainable productivity (% lower for to improve Agriculture women) livelihoods of • Limited access to Productivity • Number of female women land and credit Improvement teachers recruited or Project (FY17) trained (#) • Dili Water Supply • Share of females among and Sanitation those completing the Project (pipeline) new leadership training • TL Tourism program during the Development current fiscal year Project (pipeline) • Gender balance in staff for the Service Provider in Baucau Voice and Culture, gender • Conduct GBV risk Financing • GBV risk analysis Continuing to Area 2: Invest in Agency: norms, and social analysis to prevent conducted for WBG invest in human human capital and attitudes and mitigate GBV • Dili Water Supply projects (%) capital and service delivery Reducing and Sanitation improved service • Ensure all project • PIUs trained on GBV (#) gender-based Project (pipeline) delivery (Pathway I) engagements/ violence (GBV) • TL Tourism workshops promote gender equality Development messages and raise Project (pipeline) awareness about GBV 40 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Priority Area for WBG WBG Group Sample CGAP Output/ Link to SCD Link to CPF Focus CGAP Priorities Key Issues Action Program Outcome Indicator Pathways Areas Implementation • Limited coordination • Leverage WB • Strengthening • Cross-cutting Theme: capacity: and weak enforcement engagement where institutional Strengthening possible to ensure frameworks (Cross governance, • Limited monitoring Strengthening government have a cutting theme) institutional and and reporting gender- basic understanding of implementation responsiveness • Lack of comprehensive gender mainstreaming capacity in and sex-disaggregated principles government implementation data capacity of government institutions and mechanisms Annexes 41 Annex 3. M&E Framework The below M&E framework cuts across the country program (rather than focusing on individual projects) to strengthen the gender equality focus of the Bank’s portfolio in Timor-Leste. Baseline Target Comments Responsible Result Indicator (FY21) (FY24) and Party Tier I – Global Development Results (indicating the long-term development outcomes that countries are achieving to measure country-level progress) Part 1: National level targets and strategies 1.1. Country 1.1.1. CPIA rating: Promote 3.5 Country Policy and equal access for men/ Economist and Institutional women to human capital Country Gender Assessment development Focal Point (CPIA) indicates (CGFP) 1.1.2. CPIA rating: Promote 3.0 progress on key equal access for men/women gender issues to productive and economic resources 1.1.3. CPIA rating: Given 3.5 men and women equal status and protection under the law 1.1.4. CPIA rating: Gender 3.5 equality rating Tier II – Outcomes and outputs supported by Bank operations (aggregate data collected by World Bank operations and reports upon through Country Assistance strategies, progress reports, project implementation reports, core sector indicators, and/or implementation completion reports) Part 2: Operational work 2.1 Projects are 2.1.1 Total number of active 100% Task teams, gender informed IDA projects in country CGFP and tagged portfolio and percentage that is gender informed (old methodology) 2.1.2. Total number of active 55% 60% Task teams, IDA projects in country CGFP portfolio and percentage that is gender tagged (new methodology) Tier III – Operational and organizational effectiveness (focuses upon the effectiveness of the Bank’s products and services, the Bank’s organization) Part 3: Gender-related organizations within the country team 3.1. Country 3.1.1. Appointment of Yes Yes Country Gender Focal gender focal point (yes/no) Manager, Point appointed Practice Manager 3.2. Collaboration 3.1.2. Participation in a multi- Yes Yes CGFP with other donors donor forum on gender at on gender-related least once per year issues 3.3. Resources 3.2.3. Amount (US$) US$ XX US$ XX Practice are available allocation to gender tagging Manager/ through the WPA Regional Gender Coordinator 42 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP) Baseline Target Comments Responsible Result Indicator (FY21) (FY24) and Party Part 4: CPF and country gender plan (CGAP) 4.1. CPF is 4.1.1. CPF specifies priority Yes Yes Country gender informed gender gaps to be addressed Manager and and responsive and includes at least one CGFP indicator in the Results Framework related to gender 4.2. CGAP is 4.2.1. CGAP is endorsed No Yes Country completed (yes/no) Manager and and endorsed CGFP by country management Part 5: Non-lending tasks, including analytic and diagnostic work 5.1. Country 5.1.1. Year of latest gender 2021 2023 CGFP gender profile is assessment current 5.2. Economic 5.2.1. Number of ASA 0 xx CGFP and GP and Sector Work reviewed for gender issues Focal Points (ESW) and AAA are gender responsive 5.3. Gender- 5.3.1. Number of gender- 0 2 CGFP, Country related capacity focused capacity-building Management, among Bank initiatives completed during Regional staff and its FY for country-team staff Gender Team institutional and/or counterparts counterparts is strengthened Annexes 43 44 The Timor-Leste | Country Gender Action Plan (CGAP)