Policy Research Working Paper 10686 Little Nomads Economic and Social Impacts of Migration on Children Magdalena Cortina Juan Miguel Jimenez Sandra V. Rozo Development Economics Development Research Group January 2024 Policy Research Working Paper 10686 Abstract This paper reviews the main findings from 110 studies pro- underperform compared to native children in host coun- duced between 1990 and 2023, focusing on the impact tries; and (iii) the impacts of migration on native children of migration on various child groups affected through the is largely dependent on the adjustment of public service migration path, including left-behind, immigrant (includ- supply to the increased demand for public services. In cases ing voluntary and forced), and native children. The findings where education services expand to meet rising demand, the reveal that migration’s influence on children’s outcomes is effect on native children can be minimal or even positive. complex and context- dependent, and it is dramatically The paper emphasizes the need for more experimental or influenced by household demographics and public pol- quasi-experimental research examining the effectiveness icies. Key findings include the following: (i) left-behind of programs supporting migrant and minor host children children benefit from remittances but experience dramatic and calls for longitudinal data collection for better under- declines in their cognitive and non-cognitive development standing the challenges and needs of migrant children, due to parental absence; (ii) immigrant children generally particularly in developing countries. fare better than those in their origin countries but still This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at sandrarozo@worldbank.org. The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. Produced by the Research Support Team Little Nomads: Economic and Social Impacts of Migration on Children* Magdalena Cortina† Juan Miguel Jimenez‡ Sandra V. Rozo§ JEL Classification: F22, O15, R23 Keywords: Children, Migration. * This research project received financial support from the Research Support Budget of the Development Vicepresi- dency of the World Bank. † Robert S. McNamara Fellow, World Bank. E-mail: mcortinatoro@worldbank.org ‡ Vancouver School of Economics. E-mail: jmjimen@student.ubc.ca § World Bank, Development Research Group. Corresponding author, E-mail: sandrarozo@worldbank.org “People made fun of me because I used different words, despite the fact we all spoke Spanish, they could tell something was dif- ferent as soon as I opened my mouth. Hence, I learned to speak Colombian fast, I had to. It was not a choice.” Venezuelan migrant child in Colombia (age 16), Dec 2023 I INTRODUCTION Approximately 3% of the global population are migrants (World Bank, 2023). Of this share, al- most 9% are children under 14 years of age, amounting to about 23.3 million individuals. While significant, these numbers do not account for all the children impacted by migration, including those left behind and native-born children, which highlights the relevance of this issue. Under- standing the effects of migration on children is crucial because migration represents a significant event in childhood that can profoundly shape the life trajectories of individuals. Moreover, specif- ically for children whose origins or destinations are developing countries migration can induce a large impact on their mobility out of or into poverty. Although there is a balanced distribu- tion of migration destinations between the northern and southern hemispheres, only 15% of the world’s migrant children originate from the north, with the remaining 85% migrating from the south (World Bank, 2023). While there is a substantial amount of research on the impacts of mi- gration on adult hosts and migrants, the specific effects of migration on children have been less extensively studied. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of research findings on the impact of migra- tion on children’s development, particularly emphasizing insights from the fields of economics and psychology. It will summarize the effects of migration on various groups of children, catego- rizing them based on their relationship to the migratory journey, including: 1. Left-behind children: Children who remain in their home country while one or more parents migrate, focusing on how the absence of a parent impacts their outcomes. 2. Migrant children: Those who have migrated themselves or in some cases are second-generation migrants, examining how the experience of relocating to a new environment affects their outcomes. 3. Native children: Non-migrant children in the host country who interact with migrant chil- 2 dren, assessing how their exposure to peers from different backgrounds influences their outcomes. 4. Forcibly displaced children: Who migrate due to involuntary conditions such as conflict and natural disasters, exploring the unique challenges they face, including trauma, disruption in education, and adaptation to new environments. The review encompassed papers published in the top five economic journals and specialized jour- nals in migration, education, and early childhood development.1 The search was completed con- sulting Google Scholar to capture any significant articles missed initially. Additionally, references within each selected article’s literature review were examined, focusing on those most relevant to the review’s scope. This approach yielded a robust collection of 110 pertinent scholarly works on the topic. This literature review discusses various methodologies, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and qualitative approaches, among others. Three papers employed experimental methods, specif- ically randomized controlled trials. Quasi-experimental designs were used in 95 papers, indicat- ing causal studies not strictly experimental in nature. Within these, 51 papers used ordinary least squares, 19 used instrumental variables, 13 applied difference-in-differences, 4 implemented re- gression discontinuity design, and 25 incorporated fixed e ffects. O ther m ethodologies covered include the Cox proportional hazard model, the Todd and Wolpin (2023) value-added model, the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition technique, and survival analysis. Notably, only 3 qualitative stud- ies were cited (refer to the appendix for detailed descriptions of each paper). This review is divided into five additional sections. Section II delves into the key findings from research on the effects of migration on migrant children, focusing on education, health, early child- hood development, and the influence of immigration p olicy. Generally, this research shows that migrant children fare better than those in their countries of origin but still fall behind native chil- dren in host countries. This gap often extends to poorer long-term labor outcomes, partly due to lower educational attainment and language barriers. The age at which children migrate signifi- cantly influences the extent of the disparity between native and migrant c hildren. Furthermore, 1 Included journals are the International Migration Review, Journal of Development Economics, Journal of Popula- tion Economics, Economics of Education Review, and Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 3 immigration policies are pivotal in either narrowing or widening this gap. Section III examines the impact of migrant parents on their left-behind children. The evidence re- veals several key points. Firstly, remittances usually benefit the education and physical health of these children by stabilizing income. This stability tends to reduce child labor, bolster school re- tention, and improve nutrition, potentially enhancing long-term economic well-being. Secondly, a parent’s migration often leads to shifts in intra-household dynamics, especially in bargaining, which positively influences girls’ educational achievements. Thirdly, the absence of a parent due to migration severely affects the mental health and socio-emotional development of children. Lastly, young children left behind experience a notable cognitive delay, primarily due to reduced parental involvement. Section IV describes the effects of migration on native children. Most of the evidence for this popu- lation is concentrated on the topics of education outcomes, native flight, and youth employment. The main findings from this body of work suggest that the impact of migration on the educa- tional performance of native children is determined by the ability and willingness of educational institutions to adapt and expand their resources in response to increased demand from migrant populations. Whereby positive effects are observed in cases where resources adjust quickly to the higher demand for education and negative effects are observed when resources remain un- changed. Moreover, studies point to large native flight effects from native students in schools where the share of immigrant students increases. Finally, concerning youth employment, there is some evidence of detrimental effects of youth migration on youth employment for Black Ameri- cans in the U.S. Section V centers on examining the body of work examining the effects of migration on forcibly displaced children. The scope of the section is limited to the case of refugees where the major- ity of work is concentrated. Refugee children are one of the most vulnerable groups of children worldwide. They not only went through the migration experience, but also did so involuntarily and coupled with traumatic events such as conflicts and natural disasters. Moreover, refugee chil- dren, especially adolescents, face a high risk of not returning to school since they often have to work or support household chores. This is explained by the extremely high vulnerability of their households. Existing work generally confirms that forcibly displaced children lag behind native 4 children. Moreover, it confirms that—as for the case of voluntary migration—children’s outcomes are highly dependent on how much public service supply responds to the higher demand for services. Emerging work has also examined the effects of public programs that support refugee populations on children’s outcomes. These studies highlight promising outcomes from cash trans- fer initiatives, teacher training programs, language instruction, and programs that promote social cohesion. Finally, the section VI discusses areas to advance research. A summary table with all the papers reviewed in this study is presented in the appendix. II MIGRANT CHILDREN This section outlines the evidence concerning the impact of migration on immigrant children. It is organized to review the effects of migration in areas such as education, health, and early childhood development. Additionally, it highlights the critical role of immigration policies in mediating these impacts on children. II.A Education outcomes Existing work in this area documents lower educational performance and attainment of migrant children relative to native children. These differences have long-term consequences for migrants’ economic success, including career choices and wages. Documented potential drivers of these dis- parities include higher socioeconomic vulnerability, parental decisions, teacher stereotypes, school sorting, and immigration enforcement. Migrants exhibit lower performance relative to hosts. Studies consistently indicate that immigrant children tend to perform worse than their native counterparts in terms of school GPA and stan- dardized test scores. The performance gap is more pronounced among boys, whereas girls tend ¨ to perform relatively better (Bohlmark, 2008). Early economic research focused on testing whether the age of arrival plays a crucial role in im- migrant children’s educational outcomes. The premise used was that the age of arrival corre- lates with a stage of children’s physical and cognitive development in which younger immigrants adapt and learn faster due to the brain’s plasticity at early ages. These studies showed that there is a noticeable decline in performance for children who arrive after a certain age threshold (typ- 5 ically around 7-9 years old) and this decline is particularly worse in verbal tests (Bleakley and ¨ Chin, 2010). Specifically, Bohlmark (2008) finds that there is a strong negative impact of immi- grating after the age of nine on immigrant children’s GPA in Sweden, and Cahan et al. (2001) show that starting at the arrival age of seven there is a monotonic decrease in performance for immigrant children in Israel between 1952 and 1970, being worse for verbal than for mathemat- ical tests. Similarly, Cortes (2006) shows that the test score gap between immigrant children and second-generation children reduces the longer the former had been residing in the United States. Moreover, research on this topic underscores the importance of the critical period for language acquisition, emphasizing that the timing of arrival can significantly impact the integration of im- migrant children when adults. Both Aslund et al. (2015) and Bleakley and Chin (2010) find in Sweden and the U.S., respectively, that English proficiency (measured indirectly by the age of childhood arrival) increases the probability of marrying a native, having a higher fraction of work colleagues who are natives, and residing outside of an ethnic enclave. Immigrant children also face disparities in terms of school attendance rates and attainment. Cold- ing et al. (2009) find that the dropout rates of children of immigrants in Denmark enrolled in vocational upper secondary school were higher than those of natives. Additionally, McKenzie and Rapoport (2011) show that living in a migrant household decreases children’s likelihood of completing school by 13%-15% in the Mexican context. Similar to performance, the age at which immigrant children arrive can impact their attendance and attainment levels. Lemmermann and Riphahn (2018) show that, in Germany, attainment de- creases for children who arrive after the age of six, suggesting that immigrant children face more language barriers after this threshold. In fact, Arendt et al. (2021) and Foged et al. (2023) provide evidence that the language training offered by the Danish government to immigrant adults, had significant inter-generational spillovers on their children in terms of higher completion rates from lower secondary school. Finally, there is evidence that a lower educational performance of immigrant children has long- term consequences, particularly in terms of their career choices and wages. Barban and White (2011) find evidence in Italy that immigrant children are more likely to enroll in vocational and 6 polytechnic schools due to inferior outcomes in the middle school exam. Moreover, research on immigrant children’s labor outcomes consistently shows that adults who arrive at an older age ¨ during their immigration process tend to have lower earnings in their host country (Bohlmark, 2009). One critical channel through which age at arrival influences adult earnings is language skills. Bleakley and Chin (2004) suggest that immigrants who arrive later in the U.S. may have lower language proficiency, which can significantly impact their ability to secure higher-paying jobs and integrate into the labor market effectively. Potential driver 1: parental investment decisions. Another group of articles has focused on explaining what are the consequences of migrating on the parental investment decisions of migrants on the human capital of their children. The main finding is that the socioeconomic status of migrant families upon arrival is on average lower than native families, which directly translates into less monetary and time investments in their children. For instance, Rangvid (2007) finds that 50% of the gap between immigrant and native students in Denmark is explained by differences in the family socioeconomic status of each comparison group. Likewise, Schnepf (2007) finds, in a cross-country analysis of the OECD members, that in European countries the socioeconomic background is the main determinant for the immigrant versus native performance gap in tests like PISA, TIMSS, and PIRLS. Furthermore, Dahl et al. (2021) show that in Germany migrant parents from traditional backgrounds, like Muslims, tend to invest less in their daughters’ schooling, and as a consequence, these daughters receive worse grades in school. Potential driver 2: School sorting. Another explanation for the lower performance of immigrant children compared to their native peers is the potential sorting of this population into schools with unfavorable characteristics. Rangvid (2007) finds that even though immigrant students in Denmark have access to school resources comparable to native students, including class size, student-teacher ratio, language lessons per week, and physical and educational infrastructure, other factors contribute to the immigrant students’ low performance on the PISA test. These de- terminants include teachers’ expectations, encouragement, and pressure to achieve, as well as a scarcity of specialized teachers compared to the amount available for native students of the same socioeconomic status. Also, Liu et al. (2010) note that immigrant families often choose to locate in areas where the quality of schools is lower than those attended by their native counterparts. 7 Potential driver 3: Teachers’ stereotypes. Most recent literature has focused on showing how teachers’ perceptions and stereotypes can influence immigrant children’s educational outcomes. Triventi (2020) finds that Italian teachers tended to assign lower grades to students with an immigrant background compared to native students, suggesting that teachers may harbor implicit biases. Alesina et al. (2022) confirmed the previous intuition finding that Italian teachers with stronger stereotypes (higher Implicit Association Test scores - IAT) assign lower grades to immigrant stu- dents compared to their native peers. However, teachers increased grading when they were ran- domly informed about their own stereotypes. Similarly, Carlana et al. (2022) find that Italian teachers give inaccurate recommendations about educational careers to immigrant children and, as a consequence, they enroll disproportionately in vocational high schools, as opposed to natives who go more to technical and academically oriented high schools. The behavior is particularly observed in the case of female immigrant ¸ et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the authors show that when career counseling was students (Aktas randomly provided to highly skilled immigrant students, their likelihood of enrolling in the high track matched that of native students. II.B Health outcomes Evidence in this area indicates that migrant children generally have better health outcomes than children in their origin locations. However, they still lag behind children native to their host re- gions. Additionally, the evidence shows that access to health services is key to enhancing migrant children’s health. This leads to more efficient health care utilization, with an increased use of preventive services and a decreased reliance on emergency services. Health Outcomes. Immigrant children often exhibit better anthropometric measures, such as weight- for-age (WfA) and height-for-age (HfA), compared to children from their places of origin, yet they experience higher mortality rates compared to native children. Cockx (2018) demonstrates that children who relocate from rural to urban areas in Tanzania exhibit higher HfA z-scores and re- duced stunting rates than those from the sending areas. The study suggests that this improvement may be attributed to an increase in maternal income, which, in turn, contributes to improved long-term food security. However, in addition to the income effect hypothesis, there is evidence suggesting that the improvement in HfA and stunting rates might be partly due to changes in 8 parenting nutritional habits. In specific, Stillman et al. (2012) find that dietary change is one of the main determinants of the improvement in anthropometric measures for immigrant children aged 3 to 5 years old in New Zealand. However, the authors also note that these children face a higher risk of obesity compared to their counterparts in their places of origin. Regarding the situation of immigrant children in comparison with natives, interestingly, Thomas (2007) finds that in the lowest quintiles of the socioeconomic distribution in South Africa, immi- grants had a higher likelihood of child mortality compared to native-born individuals. However, in the highest socioeconomic quintiles, child mortality was more prevalent among the native-born population. Health service access. Access to the health care system is crucial for improving immigrant children’s health outcomes. Bronchetti (2014) and Currie (2000) find that changes in health insurance eligibil- ity in the U.S. reduce the likelihood that a child in an immigrant family will go without a doctor’s visit for more than 12 months by 7 to 12 percentage points (pps). It also decreases the likelihood of an emergency room (ER) visit in the past year by 4 to 6 pps. These results collectively suggest that eligibility for public insurance leads to increased utilization of more efficient health care ser- vices, such as preventive and ambulatory care, while reducing the reliance on costly ER visits for children in immigrant families. Furthermore, the findings also indicate that eligibility for public insurance may lead to modest improvements in certain child health outcomes that are expected to respond to ambulatory or preventive care. This include, for example, a lower likelihood of experiencing an asthma attack in the past 12 months (Bronchetti, 2014). II.C Early childhood development While the early development of immigrant children is a crucial subject of inquiry, there is a lim- ited body of literature addressing this topic. Available evidence in the psychology field suggests that immigrant children frequently exhibit disparities compared to their native counterparts, with potential delays in cognitive and language skills (De Feyter and Winsler, 2009). Regarding language proficiency of young children among immigrant children, Palermo and Mikul- ski (2014) show that the acquisition of communication skills is significantly influenced by factors such as preschool attendance. This is due to the fact that positive peer interactions and increased 9 levels of English exposure during the young ages were found to have a positive correlation with the English vocabulary and letter-word skills of Spanish-speaking immigrant children in the U.S. II.D The central role of immigration policy Research often investigates how immigration policies impact migrant children’s outcomes. The findings consistently show that strict enforcement against migrants harms these children’s out- comes. Conversely, policies that improve service access and integration typically lead to positive outcomes for migrant children. Deportation enforcement. The impact of deportation enforcement measures on immigrant chil- dren is a subject of broad interest, especially in the U.S. context. Regarding its effect on early childhood development, the enforcement of immigration laws can lead to a decline in the En- glish language skills of these children (Arenas Arroyo and Schmidpeter, 2022). Moreover, San- tillano et al. (2020) also find that in the U.S. post-raid enrollment in the Head Start program of Hispanic immigrant children—which provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, and nutrition—decreases by 10%. Primarily, this decline is observed because parents are deterred from appearing in public spaces. Concerning the education outcomes of migrant children Amuedo-Dorantes and Lopez (2015) and Amuedo-Dorantes and Lopez (2017) find that areas in the U.S. where immigration law enforce- ment was intensified, the probability of repetition and dropping out for Hispanic children between 14 to 18 years increased by 14% and 18%, respectively. Likewise, Dee and Murphy (2020) find that new ICE partnerships lead to a 10% decrease in the Hispanic immigrant student population within a span of two years. Furthermore, the learning environment plays an important role in the immigrant children’s motivation, focus, and parental involvement. Amuedo-Dorantes et al. (2023) use data from the “Between the Lines” project to show that immigrant students enrolled in U.S. school districts implementing safe-zone policies2 show improvements in several outcomes. For instance, they are 17% less likely to report difficulties in concentrating during school hours, 65% more inclined to express diligence in their studies, and 31% more optimistic about their prospects of achieving higher education, relative to the other students. Additionally, these policies enhance caregiver participation in parent-teacher meetings by 34%. 2 A safe-zone policy within a school district implies that immigration authorities have limited entry or access. 10 Similar results are observed in the health care domain. Particularly, Watson (2014) finds that an increase in federal immigration enforcement acts leads to a decrease in Medicaid enrollment and usage among non-citizen children, even if the children themselves are U.S. citizens. Addition- ally, Amuedo-Dorantes and Juarez (2022) find evidence that intensifying local U.S. immigration enforcement measures, particularly during the third trimester of pregnancy, raises the probability of infants being born with low birth weight (less than 2,500 grams). The main channels driving this effect are argued to be attributed to increased maternal stress and a decrease in prenatal care medical visits. In terms of economic and family impacts, Amuedo-Dorantes et al. (2018) highlight an economic aspect, showing that deportation enforcement raises the likelihood of children living in impover- ished households by 4%, primarily due to reduced working hours among parents. Furthermore, Amuedo-Dorantes and Arenas-Arroyo (2019) show a concerning 19% increase in family sepa- rations, particularly affecting children whose parents are undocumented and sent to live with relatives or friends threatened by deportation. Public service access. Foged et al. (2023) underscore that refugee children in Denmark benefit from higher completion rates when their parents are exposed to language training programs, suggest- ing a positive correlation between language skills acquisition within refugee families and educa- tional success. In a related context, Arendt et al. (2021) indicate lower crime rates among refugee populations, possibly as a consequence of improved access to educational opportunities and inte- gration programs. Furthermore, studies in the U.S. context by Bronchetti (2014) and Currie (2000) emphasize the importance of eligibility for public health insurance, revealing that it increases child preventive care utilization and positively impacts health outcomes, such as the management of conditions like asthma. Moreover, Villarreal and Gonzalez (2016) show that participation in extracurricular activities in U.S. schools predicts positive social behaviors for migrant children. Specifically, participation in sport-related activities was associated with an increase in school membership feelings of Hispanic immigrant children and a higher peer prosocial orientation behavior. Nevertheless, treatments might not induce homogeneous effects across population groups. For instance, Dahl et al. (2021) find that girls from traditional backgrounds are socially isolated and less likely to self-identify as 11 German, which suggest they might need tailored support. Finally, evidence in the economic field shows how targeted interventions can mitigate higher crim- inal propensity of migrant youth as documented in Vazsonyi and Killias (2001). Arendt et al. (2021) and Foged et al. (2023) highlight that language training programs for refugees can lead to a reduc- tion in crime rates among the children of treated parents. Both of the articles argue that equipping parents with language skills contributes to maintaining children in schools and possibly increas- ing the opportunity cost of criminal activities for immigrant children. Citizenship rights. Felfe et al. (2020) find that the introduction of birthright citizenship for immi- grants in Germany is associated with an increase in attendance in non-compulsory educational stages, such as preschool and secondary school. Moreover, it also caused immigrant children to progress faster through primary school, and increased the likelihood of them attending the aca- demic track of secondary school. All these effects underscore the positive impact of citizenship on immigrant children’s educational trajectories and opportunities. Furthermore, Felfe et al. (2021) delve into the social dimension, revealing that complete citizenship rights in Germany can fos- ter pro-social behavior, including out-group cooperation. This finding suggests that individuals who enjoy full citizenship rights may exhibit a higher level of engagement and cooperation with members of different social or cultural groups, potentially facilitating their assimilation into the broader community. Nevertheless, Dahl et al. (2021) highlight that the birthright citizenship policy in Germany can have a differential effect on immigrant girls from traditional cultures, leading to a decrease in their measures of life satisfaction and self-esteem by approximately 0.32 and 0.25 standard deviations, respectively. Furthermore, the study reveals that Muslim girls who acquire birthright citizenship exhibit reduced integration into German society, characterized by both increased social isolation and a decreased tendency to self-identify as German. To understand the mechanisms behind these unintended declines in well-being and assimilation, the authors suggest that immigrant Muslim parents invest less in the education of their daughters, resulting in lower academic performance among girls born after the implementation of the birthright citizenship reform. 12 III LEFT-BEHIND CHILDREN The term children left-behind refers to minors remaining in their places of origin or permanent res- idence while one or both parents migrate to another country, typically for employment purposes. This circumstance often arises due to factors such as financial constraints, legal impediments, or concerns regarding the children’s welfare, preventing the parents from bringing them along. Ad- ditionally, it encompasses situations wherein parents relocate to urban areas while their children remain in rural residences. These children are typically cared for by a lone parent, other family members, acquaintances, community members, childcare institutions, or independently. In many instances, parents provide financial support through remittances while experiencing prolonged physical separation. This scenario elicits a range of consequential impacts, both positive and neg- ative, encompassing cognitive, emotional, psychological, physical, and social aspects. This section summarizes the existing evidence on the effects of having a migrant parent on left-behind children in terms of their education, health outcomes, and early childhood development. III.A Education outcomes The current evidence highlights two main findings. Firstly, remittances generally have a posi- tive impact on the educational outcomes of children left behind by stabilizing household income, which, in turn, reduces child labor and improves school retention. However, in households where remittances fail to stabilize income, child labor tends to increase, leading to lower educational attainment for left-behind children. These effects have significant consequences and have been shown to extend into long-term changes in economic well-being. Secondly, when a parent mi- grates, it often leads to changes in intra-household bargaining dynamics for the remaining house- hold members. Typically, these changes have a positive influence on girls’ educational achieve- ment. Remittances. Remittances are the most prevalent determinant of improvements in educational out- comes. The most common documented channels include increased household income and higher financial stability, which in turn, leads to a reduction in child labor and an increase in school reten- tion (Amuedo Dorantes et al., 2010). Edwards and Ureta (2003), for instance, find that remittances sent to El Salvador have a significant effect in lowering the risk of dropping out of school in rural 13 areas. Kandel (2003) finds that sibling internal migration in Mexico was associated positively with the educational attainment of left-behind children. Furthermore, Wassink and Viera (2021) show that Mexican left-behind children with a migrant parent show an increased likelihood of complet- ing lower-secondary school, entering upper-secondary school, and completing upper-secondary school. Notably, these associations are most pronounced among children whose parents did not themselves complete primary school and those residing in rural areas. Evidence on this front also shows that when remittances are not enough to increase substantially the household’s financial stability, in the short run, boys left-behind increase their working hours and reduce their educational attainment. Antman (2011) finds that in Mexico, the most affected group is boys aged 12 to 15 years old. This highlights the immediate impact of parental migra- tion on the educational and labor trajectories of these children. Moreover, the reduction in human capital accumulation resulting from these adjustments can lead to lower income levels in adult- hood, as observed in the Chinese context (Feng et al., 2022). This suggests that the consequences of parental migration during childhood can extend into the individual’s later years, potentially affecting their economic well-being in the long run. Changes in intra-household bargaining. Another important channel studied in the literature relates to intra-household bargaining after one of the parents migrates. Antman (2012) finds that there is a reallocation of resources within siblings when the male head of the household migrates. Thus, the female allocates more resources to girls and a lower fraction to boys, increasing the educa- tional attainment of the former group by up to one year. These results underscore a significant connection between international migration and gender-based discrimination within the house- hold, empowering spouses to exert greater control over the allocation of resources within the household, thereby favoring investment in girls’ education. Similarly, Saleemi (2023) finds that in Pakistan when the father is absent there is a greater participation of women in the resource alloca- tion decision, and thus, the expenditures on girls increase by 31%. Lee and Park (2010) document similar results for the Chinese context. III.B Health outcomes Research on the effects of children having a migrant parent generally indicates positive outcomes for physical growth—which are associated with the positive income effect caused by remittances 14 and better nutritional practices. In contrast, the parental absence caused by having a migrant parent is highly detrimental to children’s mental health and socio-emotional skill development. Anthropometrics. Overall, the evidence shows that parental migration has positive effects on an- thropometric measures of left-behind children. Hildebrandt et al. (2005) shows that in the Mex- ican context, this is due to two factors. First, remittances allow households to spend additional resources on food and health services. Second, the authors argue that migrants learn better care and nutritional practices in the U.S. that later transfer to their children in Mexico. Despite, these positive effects, they are less likely to be breastfed or fully vaccinated, or taken to the doctor in the first year of life. Likewise, Mu and De Brauw (2015) find that in China parental migration improves the WfA z-score because an increase in income translates into better access to tap water for the left-behind children. Nonetheless, there is evidence that the income effect has a differential impact by gender. For instance, Vikram (2023) observes that in India the effect of parental migra- tion is greater for boys than for girls, as father’s migration is associated with higher HfA z-scores only for boys. In terms of measures at the time of birth, Khan et al. (2023) find that women in Bangladesh with a migrant spouse have a higher likelihood of having had antenatal care, but this is not linked to delivering at a professional health care facility, or the presence of a qualified attendant for birth labor. Nevertheless, there is also evidence that remittances alone are not sufficient to increase left-behind children’s utilization of qualified health care. In fact, some evidence is puzzling when observing that households in Cambodia that receive remittances actually show a lower likelihood of utilizing qualified health care providers, among children that report a recent illness (Treleaven, 2019). Mental health. Most research on this topic provides evidence that left-behind children exhibit poorer measures related to mental health outcomes compared to other groups of children. Lee and Park (2010) show that left-behind children in China have negative effects on their psychoso- cial well-being, while Zheng et al. (2022) find significantly higher levels of depression compared to migrant children, with this difference being more prominent for boys than for girls. Many of the articles attribute these results to the deterioration of the parent-child relationship that occurs when families are separated. For instance, Amuedo-Dorantes et al. (2023) find that immigrant 15 children in the U.S. whose parents have been deported have a higher likelihood of suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, as well as higher levels of internalizing (anxiety and depression) and externalizing problems (aggression), relative to children with legal resident parents or, even, children of undocumented parents that have not encountered immigration en- forcement. Moreover, Wang and Liu (2021) and Wang and Zhu (2021) demonstrate that there are adverse spillover effects on the mental health of classmates when there is a higher proportion of left-behind children in the class. This is primarily attributed to a deterioration in the learning environment within Chinese schools. In fact, the authors observe a greater occurrence of peer victimization (bullying) and even a rise in cases of self-injury. Evidence on this front also shows that parents’ absence can lead to severe psychological develop- ment issues, an increase in risk-loving behavior, and lower career aspirations. Lee and Park (2010) find that Chinese left-behind children tend more to experience drastic changes in behavior, mak- ing them more anxious and depressed and becoming more prone to be impulsive and aggressive. In addition, Kandel and Kao (2001) find that left-behind children tend to have lower career aspira- tions, which are associated with a reduced desire to pursue university degrees. Moreover, Adunts (2021) observes that in Ukraine, children with a father abroad exhibit lower levels of perseverance compared to non-left-behind children. This is evident in their tendency to avoid choosing chal- lenging tasks with potentially high rewards. Liu et al. (2021) show that, in the long run, Chinese left-behind children with migrant mothers tend to exhibit reduced levels of conscientiousness and grit, along with higher levels of neuroticism (or lower emotional stability). In the short term, when mothers migrate, children typically display decreased levels of conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness. Furthermore, Luo and Wang (2023) also observe that Chinese left-behind children show less prosocial behavior, encompassing attributes such as fairness, trust, trustworthiness, and cooperation.3 Finally, Su et al. (2013) find that a low frequency of parent-child communication cor- relates with higher feelings of loneliness in Chinese left-behind children. The limited available evidence also indicates a correlation between parental absence due to mi- 3 Notwithstanding the preceding point, the paper underscores the positive impact associated with having access to one parent. 16 gration and an increased probability of adults participating in criminal behavior. According to Cameron et al. (2022), this association is observed among Chinese adult males. The authors sug- gest that childhood experiences of being left behind contribute to diminished educational achieve- ments and a tendency toward risk-taking behavior, both of which are considered factors contribut- ing to heightened inclinations toward criminal activities. III.C Early childhood development The general consensus and evidence is that parental migration causes a cognitive delay in left- behind children. For instance, Bai et al. (2022) show that maternal migration in the Chinese context leads to a six-percentage-point reduction in children’s cognitive skills compared to children in the same village without a migrant parent, and Yue et al. (2016) also find negative effects on cognitive development and in dietary quality. This is important because even when the rural-to-urban mi- gration in China has been key to economic growth, it might entail a significant human capital cost for the next generations.4 In both studies, the primary determinant of this decline is a decrease in parental time and the quality of investment in stimulating activities, along with a reduction in dietary diversity. Similarly, in Mexico, Powers (2011) estimates a structural model to argue that the reduction in cognitive skills for left-behind children can be attributed to a shift in their allo- cation of time towards activities unrelated to cognitive development. Furthermore, Zheng et al. (2023) find that left-behind children in China are not only at a disadvantagecompared with other children in the same village, but also with migrant children, arguing that parental supervision and closeness are a vital part of children’s cognitive development. Contrary to the psychological evidence presented earlier, the limited economic evidence offers a different perspective. Specifically, in Nicaragua, Macours and Vakis (2010) find that having a migrant father in the household had no significant impact on cognitive skills, whereas a positive effect was observed when the migrant was the mother. The authors suggest that female empow- erment enables a higher proportion of remittances to be allocated to children’s development. 4 In the Chinese context, the reallocation of labor from rural to urban areas has been a key driver of China’s prosperity in recent decades, it may entail a significant human capital cost for the next generation. Because of hukou reforms, migrants face limitations in accessing fundamental public services like public education for their children. As a result, migrant parents are compelled to leave their children in their hometowns, leading to the emergence of tens of millions of ”split families” and ”left-behind children.” 17 IV NATIVE CHILDREN IV.A Education outcomes The existing body of evidence indicates that the impact of migration on the educational perfor- mance of native children is varied. Negative effects are generally seen in situations where the increased demand for educational services, driven by the influx of migrants, is not met with a corresponding increase in supply. This discrepancy often results in overcrowding and strain on educational resources, adversely affecting native students. On the other hand, in regions where resources are augmented in tandem with the arrival of migrants, the effects on native children’s educational outcomes are either negligible or positive. This suggests that the key factor influenc- ing the impact of migration on native students’ education is the ability and willingness of edu- cational institutions to adapt and expand their resources in response to increased demand from migrant populations. Negative effects. Studies exploring the adverse effects of migration on native children’s educational outcomes identify two primary factors: increased classroom overcrowding and a decline in the quality of the learning environment. The degradation of the learning environment is evident in several cases. For example, Imberman et al. (2012) study on Hurricane Katrina evacuees reveals that their arrival in Houston led to higher absenteeism and more disciplinary issues in secondary schools. Ohinata and Van Ours (2013) research suggests that Dutch schools face more incidents ¨ of bullying when the share of immigrants per classroom is higher. Similarly, Figlio and Ozek (2019) find that after the influx of Haitian migrants to Florida, there was an increase in disciplinary incidents and school suspensions. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the last two articles do not find strong evidence of negative spillover effects on the academic performance of native children. Concerning the overcrowding channel, studies suggest that an excessive number of students per classroom is associated with a decline in the performance of native students, particularly when there is no compensatory investment to address new educational demand in schools that receive a substantial influx of immigrants. Brunello and Rocco (2013), for example, study the case of nine- teen countries where immigration waves doubled the number of public students in secondary 18 school between 2000 and 2009. This shock led to a decrease in PISA scores for natives. Further- more, these negative effects are shown to be concentrated in male students, children with dis- advantaged backgrounds, or underperforming students. Similarly, Green and Iversen (2020) ob- serve that the negative effects are concentrated in students at the most risk of underperformance in Norwegian schools. Finally, Contreras and Gallardo (2022) provide evidence that Venezuelan migration led to a decrease in math and reading standardized test scores for male native students in Chile, and as a consequence, there has been an increase in native flight to private schools from high-skilled students. Positive effects. In the set of studies identifying the positive impacts of migration on native chil- dren’s educational outcomes, two key mechanisms are documented. The first is the beneficial spillover from having high-achieving immigrant peers, contingent on the availability of compen- satory school funding (Imberman et al., 2012). For instance, Morales (2022) research in Georgia illustrates this, showing that a 1 percent increase in refugee students boosts native math scores by 0.01 standard deviation, an effect amplified by increased funding for schools. In the U.S. context, these positive spillovers predominantly benefit students from disadvantaged backgrounds. This improvement is attributed to exposure to immigrant children who are less disruptive and exhibit ¨ better behavior, as noted by Figlio et al. (2021). Similarly, in the case of Turkiye, Tumen (2021) finds that the positive impacts on native students stem from competitive incentives. This compe- tition seems to particularly motivate underperforming native students, driving them to improve their performance. The second significant factor contributing to positive educational outcomes for native students due to migration involves increased perceived returns to education following a rise in immigrant student populations. Hunt (2017) highlights this in the U.S. context, where white students showed a higher likelihood of staying in high school and completing twelve years of education in response ¨ to increased immigrant presence. This trend was also observed in Turkiye, where there was a no- ticeable shift among native youth from balancing work and school to focusing solely on education. However, the specific socio-demographic group most influenced by this shift in educational values is still uncertain. Cakir et al. (2023) present evidence that the most benefited group comprises native students with more educated parents, while Tumen (2019) argues that it is male students 19 with lower parental backgrounds. Neutral effects. A set of articles documents the negligible effects of migration on the educational outcomes of native children, particularly when adequate compensatory funding and appropriate ¨ selection mechanisms are in place. For example, Figlio and Ozek (2019) research on the arrival of Haitian refugees in the U.S. exemplifies this. The study suggests that schools effectively accom- modated the influx of students without detriment to natives, partly due to preemptive measures like employing Haitian-Creole-speaking counselors. Similarly, findings by Van der Werf (2021) further support this argument, for the case study of the resettlement of Vietnamese students in the U.S. The study finds that schools, when provided with additional resources for each Vietnamese student, could prevent the diversion of funds from native students, thus avoiding the negative effects of overcrowding. Lastly, Assaad et al. (2023) research on Jordanian schools during the Syr- ian refugee crisis reveals effective governmental strategies. The opening of new school shifts and the establishment of schools in refugee camps were key measures that successfully mitigated the potential adverse effects of overcrowding. These studies collectively suggest that with thought- ful planning and sufficient resources, schools can manage the challenges of increased student populations due to migration, ensuring that the educational outcomes of native students remain unaffected. Moreover, the negative correlation observed in raw data between an increase in immigrant stu- dents and the academic performance of native students can often be attributed to selection issues. Immigrants tend to be placed in areas with schools possessing less desirable characteristics, as documented in Van der Werf (2021). Geay et al. (2013) work in England corroborates this argu- ment, finding that immigrant students are typically located in schools with a higher proportion of underperforming native students and a higher teacher-student ratio. By accounting for these fac- tors, the apparent negative impact of immigration on the educational outcomes of native students becomes negligible. These results suggest that the initial perceived detrimental effects are more a result of the characteristics of the schools where immigrants are enrolled, rather than the presence of immigrant students per se. 20 IV.B Native flight from schools In the context of education, native flight occurs when native parents respond to immigrant inflows by switching their children from public to private schools or even schools with a lower share of immigrant children. This phenomenon often leads to residential and educational isolation of immigrants by reducing native demand for public schools (Cascio and Lewis, 2012). In the case of the U.S., results from various studies suggest native flight is significant. For instance, Betts and Fairlie (2003) estimate that for every new four immigrants in a public school, one U.S.- born student switches to a private school. Similarly, Cascio and Lewis (2012) calculate that a 10 percent increase in immigrant children leads to a 7.8 percent decrease in native students’ enroll- ment in Californian public schools. These effects seem to be driven by white children and worsen when immigrants are not English speakers at home. These findings align with the strong selec- tion of U.S.-born students out of schools with higher proportions of immigrants. This highlights why these compositional effects can obscure the interpretation of regression analyses that do not consider this sorting mechanism (Figlio et al., 2021). This phenomenon is not unique to the U.S. context, in the case of Denmark, Gerdes (2010) shows how in small municipalities an increase in the share of immigrants increases the propensity of Danish parents to enroll children in private schools.5 The author suggests that segregating is easier in small municipalities than in large ones where enrolling a child in a private school can ´ Mart´ be more difficult. Similarly, in the case of Peru, ınez (2022) finds that native flight has been employed as a mitigation strategy by parents to counteract the negative effects of immigration on incumbent students. Specifically, they discovered that students who switch to private schools tend to be male students with low academic achievement in primary school or female students with high academic achievement in secondary school. Furthermore, cream-skimming effects are also observed in Spain, where more educated native households with higher-achieving children are more likely to switch them to private schools in response to immigration (Farre et al., 2018). 5 The article refers to private schools as free schools. 21 IV.C Youth employment In addition to the studies focusing on the impact of immigration on youth employment rates through changes in the returns to education, as documented by Cakir et al. (2023), Hunt (2017), and Tumen (2021), there are some articles that specifically investigate the effects of immigration on labor markets independent of educational outcomes. In the U.S. context, for example, Smith (2012) documents that one of the primary factors contributing to the youth employment rate de- cline for Black teenagers was the increase in immigration between 1990 and 2005. Specifically, the author estimates that a 10 percent increase in the share of low-skill immigrant workers led to a 5 percentage point decrease in the employment rate of Black teenagers. Nevertheless, Winegarden and Khor (1991) argue that this decline in youth employment rates was not driven by an increase in undocumented immigrants, suggesting that undocumented migrants are not a labor substitute for the native youth population since the former usually rely on labor markets most favorable to the undocumented population to find a job. V FORCIBLY DISPLACED CHILDREN At the end of 2022, there were more than 108 million forcibly displaced individuals in the world, with 20% being children below 17 years of age (UNHCR, 2023). This section reviews the evidence around the impacts of forced migration on children. The distinction between forced and voluntary migrants hinges on the reasons for relocation. While voluntary migrants relocate by choice, forced migrants are compelled to move due to involuntary factors such as conflicts, natural disasters, or other compelling circumstances. Children who are forcibly displaced merit specific attention due to their heightened vulnerability. They frequently endure conflicts and disasters, experience traumatic and abrupt migration, leaving everything behind, and often arrive in environments characterized by uncertainty about their rights and potential discrimination. Recent evidence on the effects of forced migration largely focuses on child refugees and inter- national forced migrants.6 Therefore, our review will be confined to this group. This section is structured into three parts. The first part examines the impacts of international forced migration on children. The body of evidence suggests that refugee children are extremely vulnerable, and 6 A notable exception is Chiovelli et al. (2021) who examine the effects of conflict-driven displacement in human capital for Internally Displaced Individuals in Mozambique. The authors find that displaced children register higher investments in education. 22 lagged behind native children in terms of education and health outcomes (at least in the short- term). Moreover, refugee children are at a high risk of school dropouts, especially adolescents, as their time could be used to generate income, support household chores, or the prospect of mar- riage. The second part investigates how refugee children affect native populations. Results suggest that, as for the case of voluntary migration, the impact of refugee migration on natives is largely depen- dent on policy responses related to compensating the higher migration flows with higher supply of public services. Yet, underperforming native students are at a higher risk of being negatively affected by the potential overcrowding effect caused by the arrival of new refugee students in host- ing communities. The last part examines research findings on interventions designed to enhance outcomes for both refugee and native children. V.A Impacts of forced migration for refugee children This section describes the evidence around the disparities between refugee and native children in outcomes such as education, health, and child labor. Native children are the most common comparison group for refugees as obtaining data on non-refugee children in their places of origin is a challenging endeavor. The broad body of evidence suggests that refugee children are lagged behind native children. Education. Krafft et al. (2022) present evidence on the educational outcomes of Syrian refugee children in Jordan. The study reveals that these children are less likely to enroll in Jordanian schools compared to native children of similar socioeconomic status. Additionally, Syrian refugee children have a higher propensity to drop out once enrolled. This trend is more pronounced among boys, primarily because they often seek employment to alleviate their families’ financial burdens. However, older girls also face significant disadvantages. They are incentivized to leave school due to increased household responsibilities or the prospect of marriage. When it comes to comparing educational disparities among refugee children, Ginn (2020) com- pares the educational gaps between Syrian refugees located in camps and those outside. The author documents that enrollment and attendance rates for children in camps are higher. These results are partly attributed to the direct establishment of new schools within the camps, coupled 23 with the higher transportation costs and enrollment fees at schools located outside the camps. Interestingly, the increased school attendance in camps does not necessarily equate to better aca- demic achievement. This could be explained by the higher repetition rates in schools within the camps, indicating a possible concentration of underperforming students in these schools com- pared to those outside; and the challenges in hiring and training teachers for the new schools in the camps, as highlighted by Salemi et al. (2018). Health. Demirci et al. (2022) study the disparities in health and nutrition among native and Syr- ¨ ian refugee children in Turkiye. Although the authors document no differences in infant or child ¨ mortality between refugee children born in Turkiye and native children, they also find that refugee ¨ infants born in Turkiye have lower birth weight, age-adjusted weight and height than native in- fants. When decomposing the effects of weight at birth before and after migration, the study finds that the difference before relocation is greater, suggesting the persistent adverse effect of being born in a crisis outweighs the possible lack of health supply in the destination country. Other research has studied the impacts of refugee camps on health outcomes. Rashad et al. (2018) find that in Jordan Palestinian children living in refugee camps have lower age-adjusted height score, relative to refugee children located outside camps. The study attributes this difference pri- marily to the lower asset levels of families within the camps. This economic disadvantage, in turn, leads to reduced investment in the developmental needs of their children. anchez-Ariza et al. (2023), children in households internally displaced by the Lastly, according to S´ Colombian conflict exhibit lower mental health levels compared to other children. This assess- ment is based on measurements using the Symptom Checklist-90 and the Child Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children scales. Interestingly, the authors suggest that this phenomenon also extends to children who were not directly affected by the conflict but whose caregivers experi- enced its consequences. This implies the possibility of an intergenerational transmission of the adverse effects of displacement on children, highlighting the need for intervention. Child labor. The issue of child labor among refugee children, particularly its extent and impact, remains under researched due to challenges in gathering reliable data. However, it is evident that refugee children are more susceptible to entering the child labor market, although the magni- 24 tude of this phenomenon varies according to the methodologies employed to measure child labor. ¨ Sieverding et al. (2018) note that in Turkiye, Syrian refugee boys aged 10 to 14 are 2% more likely ˘ et al. (2021) find to engage in paid work compared to their peers. On the other hand, Dayioglu a significantly higher incidence of child labor among Syrian refugee boys in Jordan. The study reports that refugee boys aged 12 to 14 are 17% more likely to be involved in child labor than na- tive boys. This discrepancy becomes even more pronounced in the 15 to 17 age group, where the likelihood increases to 45% compared to their native counterparts, highlighting a grave concern regarding the involvement of older refugee boys in the labor market. Child marriage. Forced displacement and conflict often lead to a rise in child marriages, where in some cases parents decide to marry off their daughters for reasons such as family insurance, protection, increased freedom, and adherence to cultural norms. However, existing research on this issue is quite limited, mostly emerging from development contexts and relying heavily on anecdotal or one-time assessments (Mazurana and Marshak, 2019). Hunersen et al. (2020) sug- gest a potential uptick in early marriage rates among refugees following displacement. They also highlight that education acts as a protective factor. V.B Effects on native children The majority of existing research focuses on evaluating the impact of refugee children on host communities, yielding mixed outcomes. However, it becomes evident that negative consequences are more likely to occur in the absence of adequate measures to mitigate the challenges associated with increased demand for public services, especially for the education sector. This is primar- ily due to the “overcrowding effect” resulting from the influx of refugee children, which strains existing educational resources and infrastructure. Studies documenting null effects. Van der Werf (2021) reports that the presence of refugee students in educational settings does not lead to adverse effects on the educational outcomes of native children. The result is particularly noticeable when compensatory measures, such as increased funding, additional counselors, and the provision of night shifts, are implemented. This observa- ¨ tion is supported by Figlio and Ozek (2019) and Assaad et al. (2023) who note that these measures act as safeguards, mitigating potential negative consequences for native children. 25 Studies documenting positive effects. Some studies find positive outcomes associated with the pres- ence of refugee students. Morales (2022) emphasizes the beneficial impact on educational perfor- mance, largely due to the spillover effects of compensatory funding. This suggests that resources allocated to support students from forced migrant backgrounds can also positively influence na- tive students. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, Tumen (2021) suggests that the increased pres- ence of Syrian refugee students can lead to higher motivation among native children, likely driven by heightened competition in the academic context. Furthermore, studies by Cakir et al. (2023) and Tumen (2021) highlight changes in parental decision-making about their children’s education. These changes include higher enrollment rates, influenced by shifts in labor market dynamics and the perceived value of education. Studies documenting negative effects. The research also uncovers several negative aspects associated with forced migration, similar to those observed in voluntary migration scenarios. Gerdes (2010) ınez (2022), for example, document the phenomenon of ”Native Flight”, which is also and Mart´ common in the context of forced migration. Furthermore, Green and Iversen (2020) point out negative spillover effects on educational performance, with a particular impact on low-achieving students. These findings underscore the necessity for well-thought-out policies and strategies that cater to the diverse needs of different student groups within the educational system, ensuring that all students are adequately supported and none are disproportionately disadvantaged. V.C Evidence on the effectiveness of interventions to support refugee children This section outlines the effects of interventions aimed at supporting refugee children. Most of the research in this area, with a few exceptions, has been focused on examining the effects of programs on the refugee population in general without a specific focus on children. In doing so, however, authors often also examine the effects of those programs on a number of children’s outcomes as secondary or exploratory analyses. Results from this work, suggest positive effects of cash transfers, programs facilitating integration such as language courses, and programs that promote social cohesion and diversity awareness. Evidence on the impacts of cash transfers. De Hoop et al. (2019) examine the impacts of the ”No Lost Generation” cash transfer program on the educational outcomes of Syrian refugees in Lebanon. This program was designed to provide cash assistance to families, enabling them to cover the 26 commuting costs to school and compensate households for the potential income their children could have earned if they were working instead. The authors took advantage of the program’s random allocation to treated and control schools and found that the cash transfer resulted in a 20% increase in school attendance in treated schools when compared to the control group. These findings are significant, particularly because the cash transfer was not contingent on children’s attendance and was therefore not monitored by the Lebanese government. ¨ Moreover, Ozler et al. (2021) use a regression discontinuity design to examine the effects of the ¨ ”Emergency Social Safety Net” in Turkiye, a cash transfer program for Syrian refugees. The au- thors show that the program caused changes in household composition, with a movement of pri- marily school-aged children from ineligible to eligible households. This was ultimately reflected in a reduction in poverty and inequality for the overall refugee population. Similar effects on housing recomposition are documented by Miguel et al. (2023) when examining the effects of the Norwegian Refugee Council’s Urban Shelter Program in Jordan through a randomized control trial. The program supports Syrian refugees by granting them housing subsidies. In this case, treated households experienced an increment in the number of boys ages 13 to 17 in the short run. These effects dissipate in the medium to long-run. Programs facilitating integration. Evidence suggests that facilitating migrant integration, even if it is focused on the adult member of the household, can have positive effects on children’s outcomes. Rude (2023), for example, finds that the introduction of birthright citizenship for Venezuelan chil- dren in Colombia has positively impacted their educational prospects. The study reveals that the enrollment rates in public institutions for Venezuelan children under six years old improved by 50%. Similarly, Arendt et al. (2021) and Foged et al. (2023) provide compelling evidence of pos- itive intergenerational benefits resulting from language training programs offered by the Danish government to immigrant adults after they were granted refugee status in 1999. These programs led to higher completion rates among their children in lower secondary school. Programs promoting social cohesion between students. Alan et al. (2021) evaluate an educational pro- ¨ gram implemented in Turkiye specifically designed to foster perspective-taking skills among stu- dents with the aim of enhancing social cohesion among peers. Perspective-taking, in this context, refers to a cognitive skill that enables individuals to comprehend the goals and intentions of oth- 27 ers. In practice, this skill empowers students to consider the perspectives and opinions of their peers, ultimately promoting greater tolerance and acceptance of differences, particularly with re- spect to refugee students. The findings of the study revealed that the program had a dual impact: it reduced incidents of violence, peer victimization, and exclusion in schools with a higher pro- portion of Syrian refugee children while also demonstrating significant improvements in prosocial behavior and altruism. Moreover, Tumen et al. (2023) evaluate a teacher training program implemented in Turkish schools. This program aimed to enhance teachers’ diversity awareness by creating more knowledge of the immediate needs of Syrian refugee students, enabling them to provide mentoring and create a more conducive learning environment in the classroom. The authors employ a regression discon- tinuity design, as assignment into the treatment group depended on the proportion of refugee students in the school. Their findings indicate that the program effectively halved absenteeism among refugee children during the year of implementation and continued to have a positive im- pact in the subsequent year. This work is a prime example highlighting the importance of social inclusion in diverse populations. Programs improving mental health and early childhood development. Moya et al. (2022) implemented a randomized trial intervention in Colombia that offers Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) to chil- dren and caregivers affected by conflict and forced displacement. The goal of CPP is to restore the mental health of patients and strengthen the child-parent relationship to enhance care and child development. The authors observe positive effects of CPP on maternal mental health, as moth- ers appeared to be less anxious and depressed, among other conditions. More importantly, CPP was found to enhance child-mother interactions, resulting in a 0.17 standard deviation improve- ment in child mental health and a 0.21 standard deviation improvement on the early childhood development index. Similarly, Annan et al. (2017) implemented a related intervention for the Burmese displaced popu- lation in Thailand. The intervention was designed after the Strengthening Families Program (SFP) and aimed to provide Burmese parents with training in caregiving skills while teaching refugee children social skills. The primary objective was to enhance children’s psychological outcomes by improving the quality of parental care and communication. The authors found that the pro- 28 gram reduced the likelihood of externalizing problems (such as aggression) and child attention problems. Compared to the control group, the reductions were 0.22 standard deviations and 0.11 standard deviations, respectively. VI DISCUSSION This paper examines the impact of migration on children, providing a comprehensive analysis of its effects throughout the migration journey. This includes children left behind, migrant children (including those forcibly displaced), and native children. The findings reveal that migration’s impact on children’s outcomes is complex and context-dependent, influenced by household de- mographics and particularly by policies aimed at supporting migrant populations and their host communities. Policies that facilitate service adjustments in response to migrant arrivals and pro- mote integration are highly beneficial for all children involved. Conversely, enforcement-oriented policies tend to hinder children’s development, particularly among migrant children, by reducing service uptake and adversely affecting the mental health of children and their parents. The review also calls attention to the vulnerability of left-behind children, who despite observing positive income shocks might still be negatively affected by their parent’s absence. Particularly, the evidence highlighted the large negative effects of parental absence on cognitive outcomes, mental health, and socioemotional behaviors. Important avenues for research and programming should study effective ways of supporting these children. Specifically, the Chinese case raises a crucial question regarding the trade-off between strict relocation policies aimed at spurring growth and the future human capital costs associated with such policies. Forcibly displaced children continue to be one of the most vulnerable groups since they not only experience migration but do so unexpectedly and often after traumatic events including conflict or natural disasters. Yet, the absence of representative and longitudinal data that examines chil- dren’s outcomes comprehensively complicates a serious diagnosis of the main issues they face. This includes an effective evaluation of their cognitive and non-cognitive development relative to native children and its impact on future outcomes, such as adult income. These issues are par- ticularly important in developing countries, presenting a significant opportunity to expand our knowledge in the future. 29 Finally, more evidence analyzing the effects of programs that effectively target migrant or forced migrant children’s outcomes will be extremely valuable to inform policy on what programs are more effective in supporting these populations and their hosts. This is particularly crucial for long-term outcomes, as the majority of existing evidence concentrates on the immediate impact of such programs, owing to various constraints. 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They are more likely to be formally advised by their teach- Analysis and Policy transition between lower-secondary school and ers to choose vocational or technical high schools rather than aca- high school. demic tracks, especially in the case of female students. Math teachers with stronger stereotypes give lower grades to im- Is there a teachers’ bias in grading immigrants migrants compared to natives with the same performance. Liter- Alesina et al. (2022) NBER Working Paper. RCT. and native children in middle schools? ature teachers do not differentially grade immigrants based on their own stereotypes. The average increase in immigration enforcement during the pe- Amuedo-Dorantes Studies the immigration enforcement impact on Journal of Policy Analysis riod raised by 19 percent the likelihood that Hispanic U.S.-born and Arenas-Arroyo the structure of families to which many of the de- Pooled OLS. and Management. children might live without their parents in households headed (2019) ported fathers of U.S.-born children belonged. by naturalized relatives or friends unthreatened by deportation. Pooled OLS Relative to children born in Mexico, immigrant U.S.-born chil- Amuedo-Dorantes Effects of family deportation on children’s edu- Demography. with municipal- dren are at a considerable disadvantage in terms of health care and Juarez (2022) cational and health outcomes. ity FE. access, but less so in terms of education. ”How intensified interior immigration enforce- American Economic Re- Intensification of interior immigration enforcement raises young Amuedo-Dorantes ment impacts the likelihood that children of OLS with inter- view: Papers & Proceed- children’s probability of repeating a grade and their likelihood of and Lopez (2015) unauthorized immigrants will repeat a grade or action. ings. dropping out of school. drop out of school.” Studies the effect of of immigration enforcement Pooled OLS The average yearly increase in interior mmigration enforcement Amuedo-Dorantes et Journal of Public Eco- policies on the household income of unautho- with county over that period raised the likelihood of living in poverty of al. (2018) nomics. rized parents. and time FE. households with U.S. born children by 4%. Restricting immigration authorities’ access to schools and pro- Documents the detrimental effect of stricter im- Amuedo-Dorantes et viding counseling on immigration-related issues are crucial pol- Migration Studies. migration enforcement on children’s educational OLS. al. (2023) icy components in strengthening children’s focus, effort, expec- outcomes and the benefits of safe-zone policies. tations, parental involvement, and relationships. Comparison of health outcomes of infants with Amuedo-Dorantes, American Journal of likely undocumented mothers before and after Intensified enforcement, especially during the third trimester, in- DiD et al. (2022) Health Economics. the intensification of immigration enforcement creases the likelihood of low birth weight (¡2,500 grams). within US counties. English language skills of US-born children with at least one un- Arenas Arroyo and IZA Discussion paper se- Studies the spillover effects of immigration en- DiD and event documented parent are negatively affected by the introduction of Schmidpeter (2022) ries. forcement policies on children’s human capital. study. immigration enforcement policies. Evaluates a reform focused on improving local Evidence of higher completion rates of lower secondary school Arendt et al. (2021) Working Paper. language training for those granted refugee sta- RDD. and lower probability of crime for male children with both par- tus on or after January 1, 1999. ents exposed to the reform. How does age at migration affects social integra- Migrants who were older when they arrived are less likely to live Aslund et al. (2015) Labour Economics. FE. tion in adulthood? close to, work with, and marry natives. Effect of generational status and length of res- Children of immigrants are more likely to have inferior outcomes Barban and White International Migration idence on the transition to secondary school MPL. on the middle school exam and to enroll in vocational and poly- (2018) Review. among immigrants. technic schools. English proficiency raises the probabilities of being divorced, Does English proficiency (given by time of ar- Bleakley and Chin Journal of Applied Eco- marrying a US native, having a more educated and higher earn- rival) affects social assimilation outcomes of im- IV. (2010) nomics. ing spouse, having fewer children, and, for some groups, living migrants? outside of ethnic enclaves. OLS compar- What is the role of age at immigtation for school isopn of sibling- The critical age of arrival is nine, above which there is a strong Bohlmark (2008) Labour Economics. performance gap between native and immigrant difference and negative impact on performance. Girls outperform boys. pupils in Sweden? cross-sectional estimates. Track childhood immigrants born between 1972 Age has a strong negative impact on school performance at the and 1976 over time from adolescence (at 16) to International Migration age of 16, but disadvantaged childhood immigrants (lack of na- Bohlmark (2009) adulthood (at 30), and study the role of age at im- Pooled OLS. Review. tive language skills) recover strongly in terms of educational migration for educational and labor market out- achievement. comes. Elegibility expansions increase immigrant children’s use of pre- Studies the changes in public health insurance Journal of Public Eco- ventive and ambulatory care and decreased emergency care in Bronchetti (2014) eligibility for immigrant and native children LPM. nomics. hospitals, while estimated effects for children of natives are neg- from 1998 and 2009. ligible. What is the relationship between age at immi- Monotonic decrease in achievement as a function of immigration International Migration Cahan et al., 2001. gration and educational achievement at age 14 OLS. age starting at the age of 7, which is considerably stronger for the Review in Israel between 1952 and 1970? Verbal subtest than for the Mathematical subtest. ”Teachers with negative stereotypes toward immigrants are more ”Role of teachers’ implicit stereotypes toward likely to recommend low-quality high schools to immigrant stu- AEA Papers and Proceed- Carlana et al. (2022) immigrants in explaining their high- school track OLS. dents and less likely to encourage them to attend top-tier tracks, ings. recommendation to students.” compared to natives with similar ability and background charac- teristics. ” Heterogeneous Immigrants in Italy enroll disproportionately into vocational Study of the educational choices of children of treatment ef- Carlana et al. (2022) Econometrica. high schools, as opposed to technical and academically-oriented immigrants in a tracked school system. fects using a ones, compared to natives of similar ability. causal forest. Pooled OLS Maternal migration is associated with improved weight-for-age Cockx (2018) Agricultural Economics. How maternal migration affects child nutrition with individual and lower rates of underweight. FE. Explains the gap in educational attainment be- Dropout rates from vocational upper secondary education are Economics of Education Dynamic dis- Colding et al. (2009) tween immigrant children and natives, by deter- much higher among children of immigrants and strengthening Review. crete model. mining barriers in each educational stage. family characteristics reduces the dropout rates. What is the relationship between age at ar- Test score gap between first- and second-generation immigrant Economics of Education rival and immigrant-receiving high schools on es (2006) Cort´ Pooled OLS. children decreases the longer first-generation immigrant children Review. the academic performance of first- and second- reside in the US. generation immigrant children? 42 Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results What are the effects on Medicaid eligibility on University of Chicago coverage and utilization is that those children Children of immigrants are more likely than other children to be Currie (2000) OLS. Press that are most likely to be eligible are less likely eligible for medicaid. to take up coverage. What happens when immigrant girls are given The introduction of birthright citizenship lowers measures of life increased opportunities to integrate into the satisfaction and self-esteem for immigrant girls, especially for Dahl et al. (2021) Working Paper. DiD and RDD. workplace and society, but their parents value Muslims, where parents are likely to prefer more traditional cul- more traditional cultural outcomes? tural outcomes than their daughters. There is variation in school readiness according to nativity-based Examines multiple indicators of young immi- factors. First- and second-generation immigrants lagged behind De Feyter and Early Childhood Research grant children’s school readiness during their OLS. children in non-immigrant families in cognitive and language Winsler, 2009. Quarterly. prekindergarten year. skills but excelled by comparison in socio-emotional skills and behavior. Local ICE partnerships reduce the number of Hispanic students Dee and Murphy American Educational Re- Effects of local immigration enforcement on DiD. by 10% within 2 years. Partnerships enacted before 2012 dis- (2020) search Journal. school enrollment. placed more than 300,000 Hispanic students. Increase in immigrant children’s participation in noncompulsory Examines whether the introduction of birthright Journal of Labor Eco- preschool education, positive effects on key developmental out- Felfe et al. (2020) citizenship in Germany affected immigrant chil- DiD. nomics. comes and increase in the likelihood of them attending the aca- dren’s educational outcomes. demic track of secondary school. Being ten years old instead of two years old at the time of migra- What is the role played by age at migration tion increases the fraction of immigrants among colleagues and Felfe et al. (2021) Labour Economics. among migrants and on parental time in the host OLS. neighbors. The probability to marry another immigrant increases country for 2nd generation migrants. by almost two thirds of the average homogamy rate in the sam- ple if arriving at age ten instead of age two. Evaluates if a reform focused on improving local Improvement in earnings and job market outcomes permanently, Journal of Public Eco- language training for those granted refugee sta- Foged et al. (2023) RDD. lower secondary school completion rates and a decrease in juve- nomics. tus has an impact on schooling and crime out- nile crime rates for their children. comes of their children. Significant effects of age at migration on educational attainment Lemmermann and Economics of Education Effect of age at migration on subsequent educa- OLS with fam- and a critical age of migration not above age 6. The educational Riphahn (2018) Review. tional attainment in the destination country. ily FE. attainment of female immigrants responds more strongly to a high age at immigration than that of males. Structural mod- The impact of school quality measures diminishes by factors of 2 elling following Interrelationships among school inputs and to 4 after accounting for the fact that families may choose where Liu et al. (2010) Journal of Econometrics. the Todd and parental inputs in affecting child development. to live based on school characteristics and labor market opportu- Wolpin (2003) nities. article. Focuses on identifying the overall impact of mi- Living in a migrant household is estimated to lower the proba- McKenzie and Journal of Population Eco- gration on educational attainment, estimating Probit IV bility of completing high school by 13% for males and 14% for Rapoport (2011) nomics. the net impact of these various effects. females. How peer effect and the amount of English ex- Positive peer interactions and English exposure levels were pos- Palermo and Mikul- Early Childhood Research posure received from them during contributes to OLS. itively correlated with children’s English vocabulary, letter-word ski (2014) Quarterly. low-income Spanish-speaking children’s English skills, learning behaviors and English oral pro-ficiency. vocabulary and letter-word skills in the spring. Examines potential sources of the immigrant- Differences in socioeconomic status account for only 50% of the OLS with Rangvid (2007) Education Economics. native test score gap focusing on school charac- ethnic test score gap and immigrant students attend schools with school FE. teristics that lead to it. at least as favourable conditions as natives. Santillano et al. AEA papers and proceed- Do immigration raids lead to a decrease in His- Post-raid Head Start enrollment for Hispanic children decreased DiD. (2020) ings. panic Head Start enrollment? by over 10 percent. Examines differences in educational achieve- In English-speaking countries, immigrants fare best, while in Journal of Population Eco- Schnepf, (2007) ment between immigrants and natives across ten OLS. Continental European countries they fare worse compared to na- nomics. OECD countries. tives. Comparison of antropometric measures of mi- Migration increases height and reduces stunting of infants and grant children who enter New Zealand through toddlers, and BMI and obesity among 3- to 5-yr-olds. These im- Stillman et al. (2012) Economic Inquiry. OLS. a random ballot with children in the home coun- pacts occur because of dietary change rather than direct income try of Tonga who didn’t participate. effects. Negative bino- International Migration Child mortality and socioeconomic status Among migrants, child mortality decreased faster as socioeco- Thomas (2007) mial regression Review. among migrants and nonmigrants. nomic status increased than among nonmigrants. model. SMBs were graded less generously by teachers than were na- Do teachers grade students with a migration tives with comparable ability. Most relevant factors are language International Migration Blinder-Oaxaca Triventi (2020) background (SMBs) less generously than native spoken at home and family socio-economic resources, but that Review. method. students with comparable academic skills? some students’ attitudes towards school also matter, especially in lower secondary school. Vazsonyi and Killias Criminal justice and be- Participation of first and second generation mi- First generation adolescents migrants are more likely than na- OLS. (2001) havior. grant youth in crime. tives to participate in crime activities. Whether participation in school-based extracur- International Journal of Participation in sports-related activities was associated with in- Villarreal and Gonza- ricular activities would predict social and behav- Hierarchical lin- School and Educational creased feelings of school membership and peer prosocial orien- lez (2016) ioral outcomes asociated with school social capi- ear regressions. Psychology. tation. tal. Heightened federal immigration enforcement reduces Medicaid American Economic Jour- Effects of local immigration enforcement on Watson (2014) DiD. participation among children of noncitizens, even when children nal: Economic Policy. health system take-up. are themselves citizens. Table A2. Evidence on the Effects of Migration on Children Left Behind. Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Children whose fathers are still working abroad are approxi- Explors the short-run effect of current paternal OLS with class- mately seven percentage points less likely to choose challeng- Adunts (2021) Working paper. absence due to circular migration on the perse- room FE. ing high-reward tasks after receiving negative performance feed- verance skills of their children left behind. back. ANNALS of the American Amuedo-Dorantes et Finds that remittances raise school attendance for all children re- Academy of Political and Impact of remittances on schooling. IV. al. (2010) gardless of whether they have household members abroad. Social Science. 43 Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Surge facilities created capacity in traditional shelters, enabling Amuedo-Dorantes et AEA Papers & Proceed- The effect of the Biden Administration surge fa- Multinomial them to accommodate tender-age children and reducing the al. (2023) ings. cilities for unaccompanied migrant children. logit. number of children in foster care. American Economic Re- Impact of international migration on children Households which still have a head in the United States devote a Antman (2011) view: Papers & Proceed- outcomes through the increase in female spousal DiD. lower fraction of resources to boys. ings. control.. Explores the short-run effects of a father’s U.S. In the short-run, children reduce study hours and increase work Journal of Development IV with individ- Antman (2011) migration on his children’s schooling and work hours in response to a father’s U.S. migration. The effect is driven Economics. ual FE. outcomes in Mexico. by boys of 12-15 years old. Estimation of the causal effect of parental migra- Antman (2012) IZA Discussion Papers. FE. Positive effect of paternal U.S. migration on education for girls. tion on children’s educational attainment. Effect of maternal migration on cognitive devel- Pooled OLS Maternal migration increases the probability of cognitive delay Bai et al. (2022) World Development. opment of preschool aged children. with child FE. by six percentage points. Examines whether parental absence in child- OLS with con- Journal of Economic Be- Parental absence due to migration is found to increase the Cameron et al. (2022) hood as a result of migration is associated with trol functions havior & Organization. propensity of adult males to commit crimes. increased criminality in adulthood. and region FE. The effect of remittances from abroad on house- Cox propor- Edwards and Ureta Journal of Development holds’ schooling decisions using data for El Sal- tional hazard Remittances have a large, significant effect on school retention. (2003) Economics. vador. model. Explores the long-term effect of childhood leftbe- Left-behind childfren have a significantly lower income in adult- Feng et al. (2022) Applied Economics. hind experience due to parental rural-to-urban IV. hood. migration. Hildebrandt et al. Impact of migration on human capital accumu- Economia. IV. Migration has positive effects on children health outcomes. (2005) lation, focusing on child health outcomes. Examines how children’s grades and educa- U.S. migration from Mexico by family members is negatively as- Kandel and Kao International Migration tional aspirations correspond to the international OLS. sociated with university aspirations for children growing up in (2001) Review. migration experience oftheir families. Mexico. Does international migration improve the wel- Education, Family and Remittances had no apparent impact on children’s likelihood of Kandel (2003) fare of migrants’ children who grow up in OLS and Logit. Population Dynamics. leaving school. migrant-sending countries? BMC Pregnancy and Effect on partner migration on use of antenatal Odds of receiving antenatal care were significantly higher for Khan et al. (2023) OLS. Childbirth. care and delivery at a healthcare facility. births occurring to women with a migrant spouse. Fathers’ migration reduces enrollment by sons, has significant Gansu Survey of Children Impact of migration by fathers on the develop- positive effects on the academic outcomes of daughters, but has Lee and Park (2010) IV. and Families Papers. ment of children left behind in rural villages. negative effects on the psychosocial well-being of both boys and girls. Journal of Asian Eco- Effects of parental migration on children’s non- Mother’s migration is particularly harmful to the development Liu et al. (2021) OLS with PSM. nomics. cognitive abilities. of non-cognitive abilities. Effect of parental migration on pro-social be- Both being left behind and migrating had a negative effect on the Luo and Wang (2023) China Economic Review. OLS. haviour. children’s prosocial behaviour. Seasonal migration of fathers is uncorrelated with ECD, but sea- Macours and Vakis, Effects of seasonal migration for investments in World Development IV. sonal migrant mothers in the data tend to bring a large share of 2010. early childhood development. income. Impact of parental migration on the nutritional Mu and De Brauw Journal of Population Eco- Parental migration has no significant effect on the height of chil- status of young children left behind in rural ar- Individual FE. (2015) nomics. dren, but it improves their weight. eas. Structural esti- Impact of the migration of a household member mation: Todd Powers (2011) IDB paper. to the U.S. on the cognitive development of chil- and Wolpin Negative effecct on cognitive skills when a parent migrates. dren left behind in Mexico. (2003) value- added model. Investigates the impact of men’s migration on In households from which men migrate for periods longer than Pooled OLS Saleemi (2023) Feminist Economics. expenditure by left-behind households on chil- six months, the share of education expenditures spent on girls is with FE. dren’s education. up to 31 percent higher than that of the average. Compared with children with one parent migrating, children Differences in psychological adjustment by pat- Child: Care, Health and with two parents migrating were separated from their parents Su et al. (2013) terns of parental migration and the level of par- OLS. Development. at younger ages, for longer periods, and saw their migrant par- ent–child communication. ents less frequently. Are children under age five whose household Pooled OLS Treatment expenditures are lower among households with re- Health Policy and Plan- Treleaven (2019) receives remittances are more likely to utilize with individual mittances, while transportation expenditures do not vary signif- ning. higher quality healthcare providers? FE. icantly by remittance status. Pooled OLS Population Research and Association between fathers’ migration and chil- Fathers’ migration is associated with higher height-for-age z- Vikram (2023) with commu- Policy Review. dren’s nutritional outcomes. scores for boysm but is disadvantageous for girls. nity FE. Examines the effect of subjective socioeconomic Journal of Interpersonal status (SES) on the relationship between peer Peer victimization was positively related to NSSI among left- Wang and Liu (2021) OLS. Violence. victimization and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) behind children, but not among non-left-behind children. among left-behind children. Examines the causal spillover effects of left- OLS with The proportion of left-behind children in class has a significant Wang and Zhu (2021) Labour Economics. behind children on their classmates living with grade-by- negative impact on the mental health of their classmates. parents in rural China. school FE. Wassink and Viera Effect of parental migration during childhood ef- Parental migration during childhood is associated with increased Demography. OLS with PSM. (2021) fect children’s lifetime educational attainment. years of schooling and higher probabilities of school. Pooled OLS with individual Effects of maternal migration on development, FE and lagged Significant negative effects on cognitive development and indi- Yue et al. (2016) Working Paper. health, and nutritional outcomes in early child- dependend cators of dietary quality. hood. variables as controls. Examines the association of internal migration Migrant children had a significantly lower level of depression Zheng et al. (2022) Frontiers in Psychology. with depression among migrant and left-behind OLS. than left-behind children. children. 44 Table A3. Evidence on the Effects of Migration on Native Children. Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Journal of Development Impact of Syrian refugees on the educational No evidence that Syrians significantly affected the educational Assaad et al. (2023) DiD. Economics. outcomes of Jordanians. outcomes of Jordanians. Do native-born American families respond to in- Instrumental Betts and Fairlie Journal of Public Eco- For every four immigrants who arrive in public high schools, it flows of immigrants by sending their children to variable probit (2003) nomics. is estimated that one native student switches to a private school. private school? regression. Does the increased share of immigrants in The size of the estimated effect is small: doubling the share of im- Brunello and Rocco Economics of Education schools and classes affect the performance of na- Weighted OLS migrant pupils in secondary schools would reduce the test score (2013) Review. tives? of natives by 1–3.4 percent. Examines how the arrival of Syrian refugees Finds a significant drop in employment, largely due to children Cakir et al. (2023) Journal of Human Capital. affects school enrollment and employment of DiD and IV. shifting from work-school balance to education only. School en- working-age native children rollment rises for boys, especially those with educated parents. The teenage summer labor force participation rate declined from Camerota and Jense- Center for Immigration Impact of migration on the decline in teen labor 64 percent in 1994 to 48 percent by 2007. The number of U.S.-born Pooled OLS nius (2010) Studies. force participation. teenagers not in the labor force during the summer increased by 3.4 million from 1994 to 2007. Between 1970 and 2000, the average California school district lost Does low-skilled immigration to the US has con- Cascio and Lewis American Economic Jour- more than 14 non-Hispanic households with children to other tributed to immigrants’ residential isolation by IV. (2012) nal. districts in its metropolitan area for every 10 additional house- reducing native demand for public schools? holds enrolling low-English Hispanics in its public schools. Examines how the mass inflow of Venezuelan It shows a decrease on standardized test scores, especially for Contreras and Gal- Economics of Education and non-Spanish-speaking migrants to Chile has DiD. male students. Said effects are considerably greater in Reading lardo (2022) Review. influenced the learning outcomes of native stu- when examining the migration of non-Spanish speakers. dents. The effects of immigration on the education sys- Increases in immigrant density at the school level triggered an tem of the receiving country, with an empha- Farre et al. (2018) Labour Economics. IV. important native flight from tuition-free, public schools toward sis on the consequences for the public–private private ones. school choice of natives. Figlio and ¨ Ozek Journal of Labor Eco- Effects of a large influx of Hatian refugees on the Zero estimated effects of refugees on the educational outcomes OLS and IV. (2019) nomics. educational outcomes of incumbent students. of incumbent students. Finds that the presence of immigrant students has a positive ef- Effect of the exposure to immigrants on the edu- Pooled OLS Figlio et al. (2021) NBER Working Paper. fect on the academic achievement of US-born students, especially cational outcomes of US-born students. with FE and IV. for students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Non-native speakers are more likely to attend school with disad- Impact on the educational outcomes of native Pooled OLS Geay et al. (2013) The Economic Journal. vantaged native speakers and sorting of non-native speakers into English speakers at the end of primary school with school FE. schools with less desirable characteristics. Pooled OLS Increase in native Danes propensity to enroll their children in free Explores changes in the immigrant population in Gerdes (2010) SSRN Electronic Journal. with municipal- schools (private schools) as the share of children with immigrant Danish municipalities between 1992-2004. ity FE. background becomes larger in their municipality of residence. Examine the impact of immigrant concentra- Presence of immigrants in a grade had an adverse effect on the tion during elementary school on the long-term Gould et al. (2009) The Economic Journal. IV. chances of passing the high school matriculation exam, which is academic outcomes of native students in high necessary to attend college. school. Green and Iversen Investigates the impact of immigrants on native Pooled OLS Finds marked negative effects of refugee children on the test SSRN Electronic Journal. (2020) test score performance. with FE. score performance of their native school children classmates. Natives’ probability of completing 12 years of education or of The Journal of Human Re- Impact of immigration on the high school com- IV probit re- Hunt (2017) being enrolled is increased by a greater presence of adult immi- sources. pletion of natives in the United States. gression. grants with less than 12 years of education. Student achievement improves with high achieving peers and American Economic Re- Impact of enrolled evacuees on incumbent stu- Pooled OLS worsens with low achieving peers. An increase in the inflow of Imberan et al. (2012) view. dents’ educational performance and attendance. with FE. evacuees raised incumbent absenteeism and disciplinary prob- lems in Houston’s secondary schools. Incumbents’ parents respond by transferring their children to Effect of the sudden influx of Venezuelan mi- Pooled OLS higher-quality schools with fewer migrants. A ten percentage ınez (2022) Mart´ Job Market Paper. grant children on natives’ performance and na- with fixed ef- point increase in exposure to migrants increases the probability tive flight. fects. of switching by 1.5 percentage points in primary and 1.1 percent- age points in secondary. Economics of Education Whether attending school with refugees affects Pooled OLS 1 percentage point increase in the share of refugees raises math Morales (2022) Review. the academic outcomes of nonrefugee students with FE. test scores of non-refugee students by 0.01 standard deviations. ”Dutch students face a worse learning environment when they Analysis of the share of immigrant children in Ohinata and Van Pooled OLS are studying with more immigrant students in the classroom (in- The Economic Journal. the classroom affects the educational attainment Ours (2023) with FE. creased incidents of bullying with more immigrant students in of native Dutch children. the classroom). ” The increase in the population of less educated immigrants has Journal of Labor Eco- Explores the explanations of the falling employ- Smith (2012) IV. had a considerably more negative effect on employment out- nomics. ment to population ratio of high-school youth. comes for native youth than for native adults. Finds that high-school enrollment rates increased 2.7-3.6 per- centage points among native youth in refugee-receiving regions. IZA Discussion Paper Se- Impact of Syrian refugees on high school enroll- Most of the increase in high school enrollment comes from young Tumen (2019) DiD and IV. ries. ment rates of native youth in Turkey males with lower parental backgrounds, which is consistent with the hypothesis that the main mechanism operates through the low-skill labor market. Does refugee influx can also increase the inten- Journal of Development Show that the Math, Science, and Reading scores of Turkish ado- Tumen (2021) sity of human capital accumulation among na- DiD and IV. Economics. lescents increased following the Syrian refugee influx. tive adolescents who are enrolled in school? Studies how the inflow of refugees at the end of the Vietnam War affected native children’s aca- Difference Precise zero or small positive effects on native children’s test Van der Werf (2021) Working Paper demic achievement and post-secondary educa- model. scores and educational attainment. tional attainment. Analysis of the relationship between Simultaneous Winegarden and The Review of Economics Undocumented immigrants tend to concentrate in states where undocumented-alien population and unem- equation Khor (1991) and Statistics. labor markets for these marginal groups are most favorable. ployment among youth and minority workers. model. 45 Table A4. Evidence on the Effects of Migration on Forcibly Displaced Children. Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Evaluation of the effect of an educational pro- Finds that the program significantly lowers peer violence and Quarterly Journal of Eco- gram that aims to build social cohesion in ethni- victimization on school grounds. The program also reduces the Alan et al. (2021) RCT nomics. cally mixed schools by developing perspective- likelihood of social exclusion and increases interethnic social ties taking ability in children. in the classroom. The incidence of paid work is remarkably high among boys. IZA Discussion Paper Se- While 17.4% of 12-14 year-olds are in paid employment, a stag- Daioglu et al. (2021) Effect of refuggee status on child labor. OLS ries. gering 45.1% of 15-17 year-olds receive payment. Girls’ employ- ment rates are 4.7% and 8.1%, respectively, for the same groups. Documents the impact of a cash transfer pro- gramme – known as the No Lost Generation Pro- ”Substantive impacts on school attendance among enrolled chil- The Journal of Develop- De Hoop, et al. (2019) gramme (NLG) and locally as Min Ila (‘from to’) RCT- RDD dren, which increased by 0.5 days to 0.7 days per week, an im- ment Studies. – on the school participation of displaced Syrian provement of about 20 per cent relative to the control group.” children in Lebanon. Refugee infants born in Turkey have lower birthweight and Examines disparities in health and nutrition IZA Discussion Paper Se- ageadjusted weight and height than native infants. Results Demirci et al. (2022) among native and Syrian-refugee children in OLS ries. mainly driven for less prenatal care and worst for children Turkey. borned in the sending country. Linear and The role of immigrant parents’ educational selec- There is a health advantage for children of immigrants compared Florian et al. (2021) Social science & Medicine. logistic regres- tivity in shaping birth outcomes. to native despite lower socioeconomic status. sion. OLS with Propensity For primary school-age children, camps have a positive effect on Center for Global Develop- Ginn (2020) Effects of camp refugee residence. Score built with school attendance. However, show that additional attendance ment. a Generalized has not yet led to additional attainment. Random Forest This paper examines how educational outcomes While during the 2011–2013 conflict and initial displacement pe- Journal of Development Discrete time Krafft et al. (2022) of Syrian refugees in Jordan have evolved from riod school dropout increased, enrollment rates and school pro- Studies. hazard models pre-conflict to during conflict and displacement. gression in Jordan subsequently recovered to pre-conflict levels. Explores the drivers of the height gap, measured Blinder-Oaxaca University of Alberta by the height for age z-score, among children re- Low asset-based economic status, among refugees is the main Rashad et al. (2018) decomposition Working Paper. siding in refugee camps and the non-camp resi- driver of the height disadvantage among refugee children. technique dents. Analyzes how the introduction of birthright citi- The World Bank Economic zenship for venezuelan children in colombia af- Differences in The reform has positive effects on the participation rates of chil- Rude (2023) Review. fects stateleness and educational participation discontinuity. dren below six years old. during early childhood. There are persistent barriers to services for Syrian young people Economic Research Forum Overview of the current services available for Multi-method Salemi et al. (2018) in education, cash assistance, nutrition, health, livelihoods, wa- Working Paper. Syrian refugee youth and children in Jordan. strategy. ter, among others. Assesses how educational enrollment, attain- ment, and dropout of Syrian refugees in Jordan Logit regression Enrollment rates, at least through 2016, have recovered to pre- Sieverding et al Economic Research Forum have been affected by conflict, displacement, and and survival conflict levels for basic education among the group of Syrians in (2018) Working Paper. educational opportunities and experiences after analysis. Jordan in 2016. arrival to Jordan. Evaluates whether a teacher training program designed to raise awareness among primary and Finds that the program almost halves the absenteeism gap be- Journal of Human Re- Tumen et al. (2023) secondary school teachers in Turkiye based on RDD. tween native and refugee students, and its effect persists into the sources. a cascade-training approach - is effective in im- next academic year, albeit fading in size. proving school outcomes of refugee students. Studies how the inflow of refugees at the end of the Vietnam War affected native children’s aca- Difference Precise zero or small positive effects on native children’s test Van der Werf (2021) Working Paper. demic achievement and post-secondary educa- model. scores and educational attainment. tional attainment. Survey data The program quickly caused substantial changes in household ¨ Journal of Development Evaluates the impact of the Emergency Social collection and size and composition, with a net movement of primarily school- Ozler et al., 2021 Economics Safety Net (ESSN) in Turkey. ‘value of treat- aged children from ineligible to eligible households, and a sharp ment´ decline in poverty and inequality in the entire study population. One month after the program, children in the treatment condition Examines the effectiveness of a parenting skills Annan et al. (2017) Prevention Science RCT showed significant reductions in externalizing problems but no intervention on mental health outcomes significant treatment effect on children’s internalizing problems. Randomized trial of a community-based psy- chosocial program that promotes maternal men- Finds positive effects of 0.15 standard deviations (sd) on a ma- tal health as an outcome and as a pathway to ternal mental health index; 0.23 sd on an index of child-mother Moya et al. (2022) Working Paper RCT foster the nurturing child-mother relationships interactions; 0.17 sd on early childhood mental health; and of 0.21 that can protect young children from the effects sd on a early-childhood development index. of conflict and forced displacement. Note: OLS: Ordinary least squares IV: Instrumental variables RCT: Randomized control trials LPM : Linear probability model FE: Fixed effects DiD: Difference-in-difference RDD: Regression discontinuity design PSM: Propensity score matching; 46