Report No. 32714-GLB Sustainable Pest Management: Achievements and Challenges June 2005 Agriculture and Rural Development Department Document of the World Bank WB.IPMcover.pdf 6/23/05 1:04 PM Page 1 Report No. 32714-GLB Sustainable Pest Management: Achievements and Challenges June 2005 The World Bank The World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development Department WB.IPMcover.pdf 6/23/05 1:04 PM Page 2 First printing or web posting: 2005 © The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Agriculture & Rural Development Department 1818 H. Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20433 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page i Sustainable Pest Management: Achievements and Challenges THE WORLD BANK Agriculture and Rural Development i 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page ii 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page iii CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. CHANGING PEST MANAGEMENT POLICY AND TECHNOLOGY WORLD-WIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 POLICY DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Agricultural Subsidies and National Pesticide Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Global Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Pesticide Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Policies Related to Genetically Modified Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 International Conventions and the World Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Biocontrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 New Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Application Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Genetic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Advances in Crop Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3. STEPS TOWARD SOUND PEST MANAGEMENT IN THE WORLD BANK PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 POLICY CONTEXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 World Bank's Pest Management Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 World Bank's Role in the Global Policy Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 National Pesticide and Pest Management Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 OPERATIONAL CONTEXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Staff Recruitment and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Technical Support and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 OTHER POLICIES AND CHANGES IMPACTING PEST MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Changes in World Bank's Lending Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Partnerships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 iii 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page iv Codex Alimentarius and Private Sector Standards Promoting Sound Pest Management . . . 20 New Chemistry and Genetically Modified Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 4. ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE PEST MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMS IN THE DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY--LESSONS LEARNED . . . . 23 DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY INVOLVED IN SOUND PEST MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Regional Development Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 International Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Bilateral Assistance Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Civil Society Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 WORLD BANK'S PERFORMANCE IN SOUND PEST MANAGEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Project Interventions--Lending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Supervision of Project Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Staff Recruitment and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 New Programs and Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 5. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 PROACTIVE AND SELECTIVE APPROACH TO ADVANCING SUSTAINABLE PEST MANAGEMENT. . . . . . . . . . 35 IMPROVING THE WORLD BANK'S PERFORMANCE IN IPM IMPLEMENTATION IN OPERATONS. . . . . . . . . . 35 6. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 ANNEX 1. POTENTIAL SIDE EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 TABLES, BOXES, AND FIGURES Table 1.1. Change in Insecticide Use during 1995­2000 in Selected Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Table 2.1. Percentage Changes in the Export of Selected Commodities and Pesticide Use from 1997 to 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Table 4.1. Pest Management Issues in the World Bank Country Assistance and Poverty Reduction Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Table 4.2. Pest Management-related Topics as Mentioned in the World Bank Project Appraisal Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Table 4.3. Agriculture Project Appraisal Documents (PADs) between 1999 and the First Quarter of 2004 with Pest Management Activities and Pest Management Plans (PMP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Table 4.4. Pest Management Safeguard Rating and Discussion of Pest Management and IPM Issues in Project Status Reports (PSR) of 57 World Bank Agriculture/Rural Projects (1999­2003) Assessed for Having an Impact on Pesticide Consumption at the Project Appraisal Stage (PAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 iv 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page v Table 4.5. The World Bank Agriculture/Rural Projects Flagged for Possible Non-compliance by Internal or External Reviews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Table 4.6. Participation in Training Sessions on Implementation of Pest Management Safeguards Policy OP 4.09 (March 03­March 04) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Table 5.1. Entry Points for Initiating a Policy Dialogue on Pest Management with Borrower Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Box ES1.1. Global and World Bank Trends in Pest Management--General Conclusions . . . . xvi Box 1.1. Examples of Recent World Bank Projects That Support Sustainable Pest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Box 2.1. IFC Guidance Note on Pollution Prevention and Abatement of Hazardous Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Box 2.2. Pest Management-related International Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Box 2.3. An Alternative to Spraying: Bollworm Control in Shandong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Box 2.4. Reduction in Insecticide Use and Insecticide Poisoning Among Farmers in Hebei/Shandong, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Box 2.5. Pesticide Effects on Farm Workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Box 2.6. Human Health, Environmental, and Economic Effects of Pesticide Use in Potato Production in Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Box 4.1. Methodology Used to Review the Integration of Pest Management Issues in the World Bank's Country Strategies and Lending Portfolio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 2.1. Import (Value) of Pesticides by Region 1995­2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 v 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page vi 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was prepared by Riikka Rajalahti (ARD), Abdelaziz Lagnaoui (ESDQC), Tjaart Schillhorn-Van Veen (consultant), and Eija Pehu (Task Team Leader). The authors would like to extend particular thanks to Gershon Feder for his considerable contri- butions during the writing process. The team would also like to thank Agi Kiss, Charles E. Di Leva, Indira J. Ekanayake, Richard H. E. Chisholm, Michael Morris, and Michael Holderness (CABI) for their comments and suggestions during the preparation of this report. The task team thanks Kevin Cleaver (Director, ARD), Sushma Ganguly (Sector Manager, ARD), Stephen Lintner (Sr. Adviser, ESDQC), Nwanze Okidegbe (Adviser, ARD), and the ARD Management Committee for their support and guidance. The team acknowledges Shari Schlesinger for editing and formatting the report, and Arunima Dhar and Melissa Williams for their help with the logistics and production of the report. vii 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page viii 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page ix ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AFD French Development Agency (Agence Française de développement) AfDB African Development Bank AFR Africa Region (WB) AFTES Environment and Sustainable Development Division, Africa Technical Department ARD Agriculture and Rural Development ASP Africa Stockpiles Program ASSP Agricultural Support Services Project AVRDC World Vegetable Center Bt Bacillus thuringiensis CAN Conservation Agriculture Network CAS Country Assistance Strategy (WB) CDD Community Driven Development CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CGIAR SP-IPM CGIAR Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management CIRAD French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement) DECRG Development Research Group (WB) DFID Department for International Development, UK EAP East Asia and Pacific Region (WB) EC European Commission ECA Europe and Central Asia Region (WB) EU European Union EUREGAP Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group--Good Agricultural Practices FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FFS Farmer Field School GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GTZ German Development Agency ICIPE International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology ICM Integrated Crop Management IDB Inter-American Development Bank IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAP International Federation of Agricultural Producers IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labor Organization IPM Integrated Pest Management ISR Implementation Status and Results Report (WB) IVM Integrated Vector Management LCR Latin America and Caribbean Region (WB) MNA Middle East and North Africa Region (WB) ix 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page x MRL Maximum Residue Level NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NEDA Netherlands Development Assistance NEPAD New Partnership for African Development NGO Non-Governmental Organization OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OED Operations Evaluation Department OPN Operational Policy Note (WB) PAD Project Appraisal Document PAN Pesticide Action Network PANNA Pesticide Action Network North America PIC Prior Informed Consent PMP Pest Management Plan POP Persistent Organic Pollutant PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PSR Project Status Report (WB) QACU Quality Assurance Control Unit (WB) SAI Sustainable Agriculture Initiative SAR South Asia Region (WB) SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards SSA Sub-Saharan Africa Region (WB) SWAPS Sector Wide Approaches UNEP United Nations Environment Program UNDP United Nations Development Program UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development WB World Bank WBI World Bank Institute WHO World Health Organization WRI Water Resources Institute WTO World Trade Organization WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Metric system x 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page xi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The management of pests and weeds is an essential sound agricultural practices that help reduce part of agriculture and public health and an impor- farmers' yield losses to pest damage while pro- tant tool in the maintenance of power lines and tecting the health of producers, consumers, and roads. Chemical pest management is a common the environment. However, the uptake of IPM tool and has helped to reduce losses in agriculture globally has been slow due to many factors, and to limit human exposure to disease vectors. including the knowledge intensive nature of However, if mismanaged, most pesticides1 can lead IPM, making it difficult and quite expensive to to crop losses and pose a risk to human health and diffuse among farmers, limited technical capac- the environment. This includes the costs incurred ity to promote IPM technologies in the agencies, due to pesticide clean-up (such as those of obsolete lack of priority among the actors in the sector as stocks), costs related to human health and costs well as low demand by smallholder farmers. But incurred due to increase in pesticide resistance in there are also positive trends strengthening the insects and disease vectors and destruction of nat- enabling environment and technical options for ural enemies of pest species, that may result in lost IPM. New policy tools to reduce reliance on haz- value in agricultural produce. ardous chemicals are emerging, especially the In the past, investments in agricultural inten- phase out of the Persistent Organic Pollutants sification were often associated with increase in under the recently adapted Stockholm Conven- external inputs, such as fertilizers and chemical tion. Stricter food standards and recent techno- pesticides. More recently, new investments are logical breakthroughs in agro-chemical industry more economically, socially, and environmen- producing pesticides of lower toxicity as well tally based. Within this context, the World Bank as some of the transgenic approaches for pest with several other development agencies consid- management is reducing reliance on chemical ers Integrated Pest Management (IPM)2 and pesticides. Integrated Crop Management3 (ICM) to be The objective of the study is to: (a) review World Bank's pest management activities during 1999­2004; (b) assess those in view of the 1 Pesticides = Substances intended to repel, kill, or control any changes in the external and internal contexts; species designated a "pest" including weeds, insects, rodents, fungi, bacteria, or other organisms. The family of pesticides (c) identify appropriate opportunities of engage- includes herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides, and ment on pest and pesticide issues; and (d) sug- bactericides. www.nsc.org/ehc/glossar1.htm gest means to further promote sound pest man- 2 IPM = IPM refers to a mix of farmer-driven, ecologically based agement in the World Bank operations. pest control practices that seek to reduce reliance on synthetic chemical pesticides. It involves (a) managing pests (keeping them National Policies. The importance of sound below economically damaging levels) rather than seeking to erad- pest management for sustainable agricultural icate them; (b) relying, to the extent possible, on non-chemical production is being recognized by many develop- measures to keep pest populations low; and (c) selecting and ing countries. Many countries have adopted applying pesticides, when they have to be used, in a way that min- imizes adverse effects on beneficial organisms, humans, and the sound pest management and IPM policies environment. Source: World Bank Operational Policy OP 4.09. authorizing plant protection services to coordi- 3 An approach to farming which aims to balance production with nate the promotion of good practices. These poli- economic and environmental considerations by means of a com- cies provide the institutional framework for the bination of measures including crop rotation, cultivations, planning and implementation of pest manage- appropriate crop varieties and careful use of inputs. Source: Dataservice. http://dataservice.eea.eu.int ment. However, these local policies often suffer xi 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page xii from lack of enforcement. The development actively involved in promoting sound pest man- community, including the World Bank, has an agement practices through stewardship programs opportunity here to strengthen national capacity for best practice in manufacture, marketing, use on safeguard policies and pesticide production, and disposal of pesticides; farmer training on handling and use. pesticide use and IPM; certification schemes and However, it is important to note that agri- harmonization of standards for IPM and mini- cultural and trade policies may act contrary to mized pesticide use. sustainable pest management. Subsidies in New Chemistry and genetically modified agriculture and health may either encourage pes- crops. Progress in the plant science industry is ticide use (some countries still subsidize agro- providing new approaches towards sustainable chemical use), may fail to promote the develop- pest management. These new tools range from ment of alternatives to pesticide use or shield improved application technologies to chemicals farmers and industry from the full costs of nega- with low mammalian toxicity as well as semio- tive externalities of pesticide use. Agricultural chemicals5 and biopesticides, and lastly to genet- subsidies may also promote mono-cropping and ically modified crops resistant to pests. The ben- reduce mixed farming systems and may thereby efits of these new technologies to improve indirectly increase the reliance on chemical agricultural production have been demonstrated control.4 in many cases, including recent economic and Increased trade can affect pest management environmental impact studies of genetically and pesticide use. International trade carries the modified crops. However, in terms of chemical risk of introducing new pests and diseases, and pesticides one needs to recognize that high toxi- international markets tend to demand standards city, broad spectrum pesticides against several (such as perfect appearance of produce) that pests and longer persistence in the environment often require chemical control. On the other are still attractive in view of short-term eco- hand, consumers in developed markets are nomic goals in some production systems thereby increasingly concerned about food safety issues retaining a demand in the marketplace for the leading to the need of exporters to comply with older, more persistent pesticides. often stringent food safety standards, such as International donor community. Regional maximum residue levels, and labeling require- Development Banks exert considerable leverage ments, both of which promote application of on national policies through their lending pro- sound pest management among other criteria. grams. They have experience in funding projects Awareness of health and food safety issues including pest management and IPM practices, among developing country consumers is also providing policy and strategy support to coun- increasing, resulting in higher demand for tries, as well as carrying out farm level training organic and pesticide free produce. in pest management and IPM. Other interna- Similarly, codex alimentarius and private tional organizations, such as OECD, CGIAR and sector programs can promote sound pest man- FAO, have diverse mandates and different expe- agement and IPM. Many private sector represen- riences ranging from harmonization of the poli- tatives, such as associations concerned with the cies and standards in member countries to gener- interests of the food processing industry, national ation and information sharing on new IPM farmers' associations, representatives of food retail and supply-chain industry, crop protection 5Semiochemicals (Gk. semeon, a signal) are chemicals that medi- companies, and biotechnology companies, are ate interactions between organisms. Semiochemicals are subdi- vided into allelochemicals and pheromones depending on whether the interactions are interspecific or intraspecific, 4 Abate et al. 2000 and FFNZ 2002. respectively. Source: Flint and Doane 1996. xii 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page xiii technologies. FAO has also been instrumental in Bank seeks to enhance agricultural productivity linking different stakeholders to promote sound through efficient application of agricultural tech- pest management policies and practices through nology, to improve the livelihoods of the rural co-founding of the Global IPM Facility in 1997 poor, and to foster an environment conducive to to assist governments and NGOs in developing sustainable rural development (See Reaching the national and local IPM programs. Bilateral assis- Rural Poor: A Renewed Strategy for Rural tance agencies support sound pest management Development and Agriculture Investment mainly through funding research, field project Sourcebook6). The mainstreaming efforts of IPM implementation, guideline development, and through the analytical work on pest management support to regulatory reforms. In 1993 the EU carried out in the Agriculture and Rural facilitated the formation of IPMEurope, a net- Development Department and in the regional work that operates mainly through donor harmo- operations appear to have had a relatively good nization of pesticide policies and IPM among the impact as is evident in the Country Assistance donor agencies of its members and through part- Strategies and especially in the Poverty nerships and policy influence in international Reduction Strategies. Review of 366 World Bank fora. The globally active civil society organiza- projects and other documents revealed that imple- tions working in the field of pest management mentation of the World Bank's own pest manage- include the Pesticide Action Network and the ment policy and safeguards is good, but has been Water Resources Institute that advocate for somewhat slow to adapt to internal changes, reduction in pesticide use and increase in the use whether in new lending modalities (Development of sustainable and ecological alternatives to Policy Based lending, Community Driven chemical pest control. Development projects, etc.) or in internal World Status of sustainable pest management in Bank management (i.e., erosion of technical the World Bank. Since the early 1980s, the skills, limited attention in project supervision). World Bank has been one of the pioneers in Some erosion in agricultural technical know-how developing pest management policies to address and skills of the staff during the past decade has the ever-increasing pest management needs in its taken place, mainly due to retirement of skilled rural development and health projects. However, staff and tendency to hire generalists. the implementation efficiency of these policies Pest management integrated in the project has occasionally been questioned internally components. There are very few World Bank (Schillhorn Van Veen et al. 1997) and externally projects dealing exclusively with pest manage- (Tozun, 2001; Pincus, 2002; Hamburger and ment. Interventions in pest management are Ishii-Eitemann, 2003a, b). Recognizing the always treated as good agricultural practice importance of promoting economically sound within larger projects--addressing capacity to pest management practices and of managing meet client needs on certification and regulatory health and environmental risks associated with frameworks, introduction of sound pest manage- the use of agricultural chemicals, the World ment and IPM technologies, research, extension, Bank instituted an Operational Policy Note on and training, and elimination and prevention of pesticides in 1985 (OPN 11.01) and a safeguard obsolete stockpiles. Overall project compliance, policy for pest management in 1998 (OP 4.09, and particularly that of rural/agriculture projects, 1998). The purpose of the safeguard policy on with the World Bank's safeguard OP 4.09 pest management is to ensure good practice in improved during the review period (1999­March World Bank financed projects. The World Bank promotes a holistic approach in rural development. The World 6World Bank 2004a. http://www-esd.worldbank.org/ais/ xiii 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page xiv 2004). About one-third of all agriculture projects Technical support and training. To improve during the review period 1999­2004 included a compliance with the pest management policy pest management plan, and compliance (across and to assure quality, greater financial and tech- the regions) was 58­100% by the end of the nical resources are needed to help identify, review period. In short, monitoring of pest man- design and supervise the projects requiring pest agement activities and compliance with safe- management assistance. Technical specialists guard 4.09 has improved since 1999, but chal- and timely training would greatly improve pest lenges remain in the capacity and resources to management practice in World Bank funded monitor and supervise the field level activities projects. Similarly, specific manuals for Bank (See chapter 4). and project staff on pest management that relate Conclusions. In order to allocate resources to specific and pertinent issues (i.e., pest man- efficiently, and to enhance the impact of policy agement in non-agricultural sectors such as dialogue and investments in sound pest health, energy, and transport or related to spe- management/IPM, a more targeted strategy may cific lending instruments) and simplification of be considered by development agencies, such as the pesticide procurement process would be use- the World Bank. The World Bank could further ful. More attention should be paid to training, improve its performance both in the arena of especially "do no harm" (i.e., environmental safeguards) a. Training of concerned task team mem- and in "do good" (i.e., policy advice and lend- bers and special training in pest manage- ing). However, the World Bank may have to be ment for World Bank staff in country more selective by focusing on a few specific offices; issues using measurable outcome (e.g., b. Training of borrower staff in pest man- pesticide use; adoption of IPM) and impact agement and the preparation of pest (health, environment) indicators. The use of management plans; and simple indicators should help to draw the atten- tion of policy makers (including World Bank c. Training of safeguard reviewers includ- country directors) to the importance of pest ing a mechanism for periodic retraining/ management issues. Such indicators will also skill updating of staff. be useful to task teams during project design The World Bank's Role in the global policy and subsequently in monitoring impact during dialogue. The World Bank continues to engage supervision. various pest management/IPM interest groups in Such selective, targeted approach may con- the development community in a dialogue to pro- centrate on those areas where either the risk from mote a favorable policy environment for expedi- pesticides is high or where the opportunity for tion in IPM adoption. It uses all opportunities to IPM adoption is high, such as in: create a platform to contribute to the develop- a. Countries with high use of the most ment of the global policy framework. As in- risky pesticides; or house expertise in the World Bank in pest b. Systems or conditions where the risk of management is very limited, there is a need to human and/or environmental exposure is further enhance partnerships with expert organi- high (i.e., removal of obsolete pesticide zations in IPM (e.g., System-wide Program on stock); or Integrated Pest management, the Global IPM c. Countries where the likelihood of IPM Facility, the Plant Protection Service of the Food adoption is high (e.g., strong regulatory and Agriculture Organization, the CABI enforcement or special markets for pes- Biosciences, the International Center for Insect ticide free products). Physiology and Ecology and the World Vegetable xiv 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page xv Center). These partnerships can create a stronger addition to cooperation with public sector organ- platform to facilitate exchange of mutual inter- izations, cooperation in pest management with est, and particularly enhance technical expertise, civil society organizations, and private industry local buy-in and balanced view of the dynamic would also be beneficial. This could include pest management field. Strengthening the part- developing IPM approaches to improve food nership between the CGIAR and the World safety as well as to monitor pest management Bank, for example, can effectively link the World practices and pesticide residues in food products. Bank's leverage on national policies and the See box ES1.1 for a summary of global and wealth of technical expertise of the CGIAR. In World Bank trends in Pest Management. xv 3535-FM.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page xvi BOX ES1.1. GLOBAL AND WORLD BANK TRENDS IN PEST MANAGEMENT--GENERAL CONCLUSIONS Global trends: agement policies. The creation of the safeguard compli- Policy--Despite the debate on the impact of agricultural ance unit had the objective to improve the oversight of subsidies and the nearly universal understanding of the and compliance with the World Bank safeguard policies. fact that direct donor subsidization of pesticides is World Bank's pest management policy in lending is morally and economically unacceptable, indirect subsi- guided directly by the pest management safeguard dization of pesticides by developing country governments O.P 4.09 and related policy and implementation docu- is still prevalent. However, a positive change is brought ments. A substantial number of papers on agricultural by the recently adopted Stockholm convention that bans pest management issues and IPM have been published by the use of the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP). But ARD and the discussion is gradually being integrated there are also other trends. International trade in agricul- into the regional policy documents. ture has expanded to high value products that may also World Bank lending in pest management--The carry the risk of introducing exotic pests and increased World Bank implements its pest management policy dependence on chemical pest control. On the other hand, through various instruments, ranging from national pesti- compliance with international food safety standards pro- cide policy support to implementing IPM at the project vides incentives for adopting sound pest management level. The review of the lending portfolio revealed that practices and requires that many developing countries about one-third of all projects in the rural, health, energy have to upgrade their policies, regulations, enforcement and transport sectors include activities or issues related to and infrastructure. Similarly, authorities and consumers in pest management. Of the projects with pest management the developing countries have become more aware of the activities or involving pesticide use, 30 and 46%, respec- pesticide residue levels in their food and pesticide- and tively, included a pest management plan. Supervision of other food-related- poisonings, indicating a need for vigi- the projects, in terms of pest management activities lance by exporters in developing countries. Requirements remains a challenge. Options, such as decentralizing the of the food industry regarding pesticide residues have safeguard compliance to regions, and partnering with become a major force that encourages developing country local and international expert organizations, could be fur- governments' to support banning the use of the POPs and ther explored. These two options as well as the lack of the adoption of sustainable practices. In some industrial- capacity (within the Bank and within partners) for proper ized countries both commercial and non-commercial pes- supervision is a concern that needs to be addressed. Often ticide users need to obtain a license after being trained and country systems have the needed policy environment (i.e. accredited in pesticide use and IPM. signatory to the international conventions and agree- Technical--A variety of new developments are ments) but do not have the capacity nor personnel changing the outlook in pest management and associated assigned to implement the regulations. risk assessments. Considerable research on IPM and bio- World Bank skills and training--The World Bank logical control, availability of non-toxic and biodegrad- has improved its staffing to oversee the pest management able agro-chemicals and biocontrol agents, and develop- policy compliance, as well as the implementation of IPM ments in biotechnology have greatly increased the options in general by acquiring a full-time technical specialist, farmers have, in concordance with the fact that "popular" starting staff training on safeguards (an average of about but very toxic agrochemicals are being removed from the 5% of staff trained each year), and out-sourcing expertise market. from the IPM facility and the CGIAR. Currently some Institutional--The international donor community regions employ technical staff familiar with pest man- has also exerted considerable leverage on national poli- agement issues whereas others rely on the specialist in cies through their lending programs, research, policy and the Safeguard Unit. Some erosion in agricultural techni- strategy support to client countries. A clear trend is to cal know-how and skills of the staff during the past facilitate donor harmonization of pesticide policies, stan- decade has taken place, mainly due to retirement of dards and regulatory reform and frameworks among the skilled staff and tendency to hire generalists. donor agencies and client countries through partnerships Source: Authors. and policy influence in international fora. Trends in the World Bank: World Bank policies--The World Bank has played an important role in focusing attention on proper pest man- xvi 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION The management of pests and weeds is an essen- Before examining the World Bank's perform- tial part of agriculture and public health and an ance it is important to understand the recent important tool in the maintenance of power lines trends in pesticide use. Parallel with the policy and roads. Chemical pest management is a com- debate in the development community, use of mon tool and indeed has helped to reduce losses in pesticides has increased in some developing agriculture and to limit human exposure to disease countries and decreased in others during the last vectors. However, most pesticides can be harmful decade. For example, countries in South and and their uncontrolled use can threaten the sus- Central America showed significant increase in tainability of agricultural production and pose a the use of pesticides, including the use of insec- risk to human health and the environment (e.g., ticides, considered to pose the greatest risk to destruction of natural enemies of pests and con- human health and environment (See table 1.1). tamination of soil and water). Sustainable pest Decreases were seen in countries such as management has been part of the World Bank's Romania, Jordan, and India. These changes in rural development agenda since well before the developing world occurred at a time when Integrated Pest Management (IPM) obtained a prominent place in international policy debate, as defined by the Agenda 21 in the 1992 Rio Earth Table 1.1. Change in Insecticide Use Summit. Sustainable pest management practices during 1995­2000 in Selected Countries in World Bank's rural portfolio have been imple- Average Average ann. use; mented to varying extent, as pointed out by vari- Average ann. use kg per ous evaluations of the World Bank investments, annual use Change (kg per rural whether by the World Bank and its affiliates7 or by (MT) (%) ha) inhabitant outside agencies.8 A number of recent develop- Brazil 18,159 34% 0.07 0.56 ments (e.g., the IPM extension methodology Colombia 7,306 201% 0.16 0.69 debate, Stockholm Convention, development of Costa Rica 3,191 50% 0.61 1.75 pest management policies internationally as well Ecuador 1,187 268% 0.15 0.25 as in the World Bank) have drawn a renewed inter- Honduras 1,019 296% 0.31 0.30 est in IPM in the World Bank. India 32,456 ­32% 0.18 0.04 The objective of the study is to: (a) review Bangladesh 1,466 65% 0.16 0.01 World Bank's pest management activities during Pakistan 9,670 106% 0.36 0.11 1999­2004; (b) assess those in view of the Thailand 6,785 ­24% 0.14 0.14 changes in the external and internal contexts; Korea 8,896 ­3% 4.54 1.04 (c) identify appropriate opportunities of engage- Jordan 184 ­56% 0.16 0.14 ment on pest and pesticide issues; and suggest Turkey 14,464 ­7% 0.37 0.89 means to further promote sound pest manage- Romania 2,260 ­66% 0.15 0.23 ment in the World Bank operations. Greece 2,520 ­47% 0.28 0.59 Germany 1,369 ­66% 0.08 0.13 France 5,506 ­24% 0.18 0.39 7 See Farah 1994; Lele 2003; Scheriff and Fleischer 2005; US (1995­1998) 114,123 -- 0.27 1.13 Schillhorn van Veen et al. 1997; Sorby et al. 2003. 8 See Hamburger and Ishii-Eitemann, 2003a, 2000b; Pincus, Source: FAOSTAT; World Bank Rural Development indicators 2002; Tozun, 2001; Yudelman et al. 1998. 2002 (selection largely based on availability of complete data). 1 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 2 pesticide use in the developed countries declined, on yield11 and that IPM has played a role in agri- either in absolute terms or because of the use of cultural productivity increase as well as in more concentrated products and more precise improving public health among farm workers.12 application. The decline in the use of pesticides, Hans Herren, in his foreword in the book especially the more toxic insecticides in Europe "Integrated Pest Management in the Global and other developed countries, has been driven Arena" (Maredia et al. 2003) argues that mainly by consumer awareness and concerns although considerable advances have been made about the environmental effects. in research, IPM has not been well evaluated and Heightened environmental awareness has, in documented for its role among disciplines that turn, resulted in tighter regulation (such as EU contributed to the Green Revolution and to agri- rules on application and on-farm storage of pes- cultural productivity in general. ticides) and efforts to include negative externali- Despite the potential benefits associated with ties in pesticide prices (See Sheriff and Fleischer IPM, adoption of IPM has remained low in most 2005). There have also been a few cases of of the developing world.13,14 Although success farmer licensing and compulsory training in pes- has been demonstrated in selected areas in ticide use in the developed world. For example, Asia,15 35 years after the introduction of IPM, no some states in Australia have implemented com- convincing evidence can be found for large scale pulsory licensing and safe pesticide use training changes in pesticide use in Asian farmers' rice16 for both commercial and some non-commercial or cotton17 fields. Adoption is limited due to var- entities.9 Examples of government initiated ious reasons including technical, institutional, licensing systems of pesticide users can also be social, cultural, economic, educational, informa- found in Denmark and Norway. At the same tional, and policy constraints.18 Morse and time, research and commercial development of Buhler (1997) argued that implementation of non-chemical control methods, and in some IPM among resource poor farmers is problem- countries the availability of insect-resistant trans- atic, as they may not be able to grasp the exten- genic crops (See section on Technical Develop- sive ecological knowledge of pests and often ments in chapter 2), have provided farmers with site-specific factors that influence pest popula- alternative choices in pest management. Al- tions. Dedicated applied ecologists have often though most of the commercial production of been frustrated in their attempts to translate transgenic crops takes place in a few developed experimental results into farm practice. For countries, the production in developing countries example, with irrigated tropical rice it has taken is expanding rapidly--in 2004, about 7.4 million about twenty years for proven IPM practices to small producers in developing countries were reach about 1% of Asia's 300 million rice farm- growing transgenic crops, covering about 34% of the total land area under transgenic crops.10 During the past decades, many organizations have promoted alternative pest management 11 methods, especially IPM. Many examples have See for example Pincus 2002 (rice); NRI 2000 (cotton). 12 clearly demonstrated that reduced use of chemi- Maredia et al. 2003. 13 cal pesticides does not have a detrimental effect Norton et al. 2005. 14Gutierrez and Waibel 2001. 15 Dasgupta et al. 2004; Kenmore 1991; Pincus 1996; van de Fliert 1993. 9Licensing systems are typically administered by the individual 16 states' departments of primary industries (e.g., www.dpi.vic. Waibel and Pemsl 2000. gov.au). 17Way and Emden 2000. 10 ISAAA 2004; FAO 2004. 18Norton et al. 2005. 2 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 3 ers.19 Integrated pest management is considered ply with the Codex Alimentarius22 that defines to be labor intensive, rather costly and difficult to maximum residue levels (MRL) in a variety of diffuse and sustain.20 Moreover, the impact commonly traded agricultural products. assessment methods nor the impact indicators Currently, many countries aim to develop both are not yet widely agreed on. Orr (2003) argues nationally and internationally accepted set of that the problem lies less with the supply side Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards (SPS). factors, such as lack of appropriate extension, However, these standards have proven costly for training, or technology, but with the demand for those (developing) countries experiencing IPM in smallholder farming systems under cur- refusal of their products and produce in lucrative rent conditions, where the main production prob- international markets, often because of excessive lem facing smallholders is not crop losses from pesticide residues. Hence, there is considerable pests but from low average yields. interest, especially among middle-income coun- The objective of sustainable pest manage- tries exporting niche products, to invest in better ment is to enhance pest management systems detection capacity and surveillance to assure that that do not threaten the sustainability of agricul- pesticide residue levels of exported products do tural production and farmers' incomes nor pose not exceed acceptable standards. At the same danger to human health or the environment. time large food retailers via coordinated supply However, as evident from the discussion above chains and contract farming compete for both this cannot solely be achieved by promoting global and national market shares by trying to sound pest management/IPM technologies, but meet suppliers' and consumers' preferences by requires other supportive policies, such as the product certification schemes. Often the private- Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions, that deal sector specifications are more demanding than with transport of chemicals and phase-out of public-sector requirements of food safety and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP), respectively quality.23 In part because of these new develop- and sound national pesticide policies and their ments, there is a renewed interest in sustainable effective enforcement. pest management. In addition to growing awareness on environ- At the same time the World Bank has gained mental issues and food safety in general as dis- further experience with the implementation of its cussed earlier the issue of sustainable pest man- pest management policies, adopted in the later agement has also received increased attention nineties. Currently, the World Bank promotes with the increase in global trade.21 The increas- sound pest management in various ways, ranging ing numbers of countries that join the World from policy dialogue to investments in IPM (See Trade Organization (WTO) are striving to com- box 1.1 for a summary and chapter 4 for further details). 22 The Codex Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by FAO and WHO to develop food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. The main purposes of this Programme are protecting health of the consumers and ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by interna- 19 Way and Emden 2000. tional governmental and non-governmental organizations. 20 An extensive debate includes Feder et al. 2004; Pincus 2002. Source: http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/index_en.jsp 21 World Bank 2004b. 23van der Meer 2004. 3 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 4 BOX 1.1. EXAMPLES OF RECENT WORLD BANK PROJECTS THAT SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE PEST MANAGEMENT The Bank has used a variety of approaches to promote Uganda: National Agricultural Advisory Services; sustainable pest management. Recent approaches Peru: Agricultural Research and Extension include: Project; Madagascar: Rural development Project; (i) Policy dialogue (for example in Mali) and help in and Tunisia: ASSP; drafting of the policy or plant protection laws. For (iv) Support for biological control--Uzbekistan: example in the Kyrgyz Republic: Agricultural Cotton Sector Improvement Project; pilot of Services Project (ASSP), Tunisia: ASSP and Turkmenistan CPAH. Turkmenistan during preparation of Crop (v) Investment in safe handling of pesticides-- Protection and Animal Health Project (CPAH); Uganda: NAAS; and Uzbekistan: CSIP; (ii) Improvement in diagnostics, such as investment in (vi) Investment in IPM implementation through detection of pesticide residues--Ghana: ASSP; farmer training--see list and summaries in Sorby Tunisia: ASSP; also the Colombia: Agricultural et al. 2003; and Transition Project; (vii) Investment in clean-up of obsolete pesticide (iii) Investment in IPM research--India: Karnataka stock--Yemen: Surdud cleanup pilot; and Africa Watershed Development Project; India: National region: Africa stockpiles program. Agricultural Technology Project; Turkey: Agricultural Research Project; Romania: ASSP; Source: Authors. 4 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 5 CHAPTER 2. CHANGING PEST MANAGEMENT POLICY AND TECHNOLOGY WORLD-WIDE Since the mid nineties a number of important from pesticide use. Such policies include prefer- developments, especially in agriculture, have ential exchange rates, explicit price interventions, emerged that have or can have an impact on pest sales tax exemptions, agricultural credit, low management policies and tools. These develop- import duties, and foreign aid donations. In addi- ments are diverse and cover a variety of sectors tion, actions that do not directly impact prices but and issues. Broadly, they can be divided into pol- result in lower costs associated with pesticide use, icy issues and technical developments. Some of such as chemical-oriented research and exten- these new developments provide new opportuni- sion, reforms of other market distortions without ties but also generate new concerns. due consideration for other sectors, and ineffec- tive regulation, can be as harmful. A rational pes- POLICY DEVELOPMENTS ticide policy would include prices for pesticide inputs that reflect their true social cost coupled At the policy level the four main issues that seri- with sufficient regulatory system and education ously impact agriculture and consequently pest and research efforts on alternatives to chemical management are: (a) changing views on agricul- pest control. tural subsidies; (b) global trade; (c) new develop- With respect to developing countries these ments in the pesticide industry; (d) national poli- views on subsidies have led to a nearly universal cies for the promotion of exports and emerging understanding of the fact that direct donor subsi- dominance of supermarket chains in food retail- dization of pesticides is morally and economi- ing globally; (e) policies regarding the use of cally unacceptable. Most donors have now genetically modified organisms; and (f) the refrained from their earlier donations of pesti- recently ratified Stockholm convention. cides, or from promoting subsidized use. Implementation, however, is complicated by AGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIES AND requests from developing countries for emer- NATIONAL PESTICIDE POLICIES gency assistance, such as outbreaks of vector The impact of agricultural subsidies on farming, borne diseases in the human or animal popula- environment and human health has been widely tion, locust swarms or other vermin control. It debated. Sheriff and Fleischer (2005) state that a has been observed that pesticides intended for free market may make farmers less inclined to emergency assistance are often diverted and used adopt management practices with reduced pesti- inappropriately for regular pest control. cide use. Farmers often bear only the direct costs, Although farmers worldwide have proven to (i.e., the purchase of pesticide and labor costs), make rational decisions in managing their crops, whereas the hidden costs, such as damage to farm indirect subsidization by developing countries' workers' health and productivity and the sustain- governments is still prevalent and promotes pes- ability of the farm ecosystem are borne by soci- ticide use. In only a few countries, whether ety. Government policies that are aimed at raising developed or developing, are the full negative farm incomes distort relative prices and lead to externalities included in the price. As demon- excessive use of pesticides. These policies must strated by Sheriff and Fleischer (2005), price be eliminated in order to change the bias away subsidies of pesticides may be the result of 5 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 6 macro-economic policies, (i.e., distorted foreign tems. When farmers move to monocultures, there exchange rates, tariffs and duties, taxation as well is a risk of increased pesticide use,24 leading to as direct subsidization). Costa Rica and Ecuador, serious negative impacts on the environment. for example, which are high users (See table 2.1), Such impacts led the EU to bring new reforms to supported pesticide use through credit subsidies, the Common Agricultural Policy in the nineties. favorable import duty, and favorable sales tax. A major reform, known as the McSharry reform, In many developing countries farming is acknowledged the environmental damage caused often mixed (crop-livestock-fish, agro-forestry, by the chemical inputs in intensive agriculture and inter-cropping). Such systems may require and compensated farmers engaged in environ- different labor, equipment and other inputs, and mentally friendly agriculture as part of the move have different pest management needs. Most away from price support to direct income pay- developed countries have a 50-year history of ments. One of the spillovers of this policy is a chemical pest control, and their farming systems have adapted and evolved into a predominantly monoculture-type of agricultural production sys- 24See Faeth et al. 1991; Pingali, 1998; Reardon et al. 1999. Table 2.1. Percentage Changes in the Export of Selected Commodities and Pesticide Use from 1997 to 2002 Soybean Potato Fruit Vegetable Insecticide Herbicide Fungicide export export export export use use use Argentina 298% ­62% neg neg nd nd nd Brazil 357% >1000% n/a 50% 34% 55% 31% Chile neg 136% 55% 111% ­38% ­41% 33% Colombia neg ­15% 161% 38% 201% 226% 393% Ecuador >1000% ­97% ­80% >1000% 268% 362% 184% Paraguay 85% n/a neg neg 0% 0% 0% Peru neg 1212% neg neg 38% 86% nd Uruguay >1000% nd neg neg 90% 143% ­39% C. Rica neg 34% ­72% 39% 50% 179% 293% Dominican Republic neg nd ­7% 70% ­55% 25% ­9% Guatemala 114% 26% >1000% 215% nd nd nd Honduras neg 42% >1000% >1000% nd ­77% nd Germany 223% ­38% 137% 46% ­15% 3% ­3% Greece >1000% ­90% >1000% >1000% 69% 24% 83% Hungary 633% nd 706% 19% 0% 0% 0% China ­26% 316% 456% 32% nd nd nd Malaysia 110% 48% ­64% ­19% nd nd nd Thailand 199% 913% 64% 186% ­23% ­8% ­35% Vietnam ­36% nd >1000% >1000% 0% 0% 0% Korea 855% ­16% ­58% ­54% ­3% 0% 10% Egypt neg ­45% >1000% 82% nd nd nd Jordan neg 35% ­49% 55% nd nd nd Kenya neg ­42% ­17% 34% nd nd nd Senegal neg neg ­99% neg 11% 15% 55% S. Africa >1000% 93% 370% ­54% ­100% 30% nd Source: FAOSTAT. Neg= negligible(less than 1000 MT); nd = no data. 6 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 7 slow shift in production systems (from large their demand for esthetically attractive produce as commodity production to more mixed produc- well as the regulations under (a) have led farmers tion systems) and a re-evaluation of the costs and to increase dependence in chemical pest control. benefits of reliance on chemical pest control.25 Dramatic increases in pesticide use have been observed in South and Central America where GLOBAL TRADE pesticide use increased more than 100% associ- With increasing adoption of international trade ated with increased exports of soybean, flowers, agreements, such as the General Agreement on bananas and other fruits and vegetables, and coin- Tariffs and Trade (GATT), North American Free cided with the NAFTA and Mercosur agreements Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and Lome/Cotonou (See table 2.1). This increase has already had a agreements, international trade in agricultural detrimental effect on farm workers' health.27 products has changed. Earlier trade was limited On the other hand, increased trade can also to major commodities, such as grain, oilseed, and improve farmers' pest management practices. cotton, whereas now trade has greatly expanded to The participation of developing countries in various niche products, including fruits, vegeta- international trade requires adherence to food bles, and cut flowers partly due to greater demand safety (as well as quality) rules in the recipient and availability of air freight. For example, cut country, many of which have fairly strict stan- flower imports from Latin America into the US dards on chemical residue levels in food. doubled between 1990 and 1999; flower importa- Excessive pesticide residues are among the tion into the EU from Kenya, Zimbabwe, Uganda major reasons for rejection of shipments of agri- and Zambia increased five fold between 1990 and cultural products. In order to be able to comply 2000. On the positive side, new livelihood oppor- with international food safety standards (public tunities for farmers and rural workers have been and particularly private standards), many devel- created, however, a negative outcome is that cut oping countries have to, or are in the process of, flowers and many other high-value crops have upgrading their policies, regulations, enforce- increased demand for pesticides.26 Similar trends ment and infrastructure on pest management. are observed with respect to vegetable exports According to a recent World Bank study on food from developing countries, largely fueled by sea- safety and agricultural health standards,28 evi- sonal demand and increasing sophistication in the dence indicates that in many instances the bene- market place requiring perfect external quality of fits of compliance with standards exceed the the produce. costs. Although the increased trade in cash crops PESTICIDE TRADE has considerable economic benefits, it also car- ries a number of risks that include: (a) the risk of One of the major developments in the last decade introducing exotic pests. Developed countries are is the increase in pesticide production and trade increasing their vigilance and often require chem- in developing countries with the associated ical control to keep such introduction to a mini- insufficient regulation of the negative externali- mum. Although such protection is legitimate ties of pesticide use. Especially India and China under WTO rules, exporting countries find it more difficult and expensive to comply with the 27 See Penagos 2002 on health effects among banana workers, and increasing protective regulations; and (b) the de London et al. 2002 on the health and other effects on increase in export to developed countries, and women. One of the high priority issues of women farm workers in CDD projects in Latin America is to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides (Matthew McMahon, World Bank, per- 25 See Altieri and Nicholls 1999; FFNZ 2002. sonal communication). 26 Palán & Palán 1999. 28World Bank 2004b. 7 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 8 that have well developed chemical industry have the rules, the skilled staff nor the infrastruc- depend less on imports and in fact have become ture to provide for adequate oversight over local major exporters of pesticides. Figure 2.1 indi- pesticide trade and use. Therefore, special attention cates that imports of pesticides grew in many should be paid to enhance information services, developing countries from 1995 to 1999, and improve access to quality inputs, and support pes- subsequently eased off. In China and India this ticide packaging and application methods designed decline was mainly a result of increased local in such a way that the exposure of consumers and production capacity. The export (in dollar terms) farmers and their families is minimized. Recently, of pesticides from China, India and Thailand The International Finance Corporation (IFC) of the increased 52, 64, and 68%, respectively, from World Bank Group developed a set of performance 1997 to 2002.29 At the same time, exports from standards related to the production and use of POPs Europe and North America remained the same. (See box 2.1 for details). Much of these exports from the developing POLICIES RELATED TO GENETICALLY countries comprise of older pesticides and/or MODIFIED ORGANISMS reformulations, some of which are banned in many developed countries.30 Pesticide trade from Technical advances in biotechnology (see below large developing countries31 has raised concerns under technical developments) have led to exten- about the quality of their products, the steward- sive public discussion about the ethics, use and ship level by the manufacturing or formulating commercialization of bioengineered agricultural agro-chemical companies and about a further products.32 Supporters hail such products as risk of accumulating stockpiles. Liberalized trade may have serious negative implications if effective regulatory measures are not in place. Most developing counties do neither 32Plant Biotechnology is defined as the application of knowledge of biological process and technologies to develop plants with special traits or for specific use. This broad definition includes also plant tissue culture and molecular tools used in plant breeding. These are generally accepted techniques. The focus 29 Source FAOSTAT. of societal interest is in transgenic crops, which have been 30 APO 2002. developed by inserting foreign DNA into the plant genome 31 Feder et al. 2004. using advanced molecular techniques. 1,800,000 1995 1,600,000 1996 1,400,000 1997 1,200,000 1998 1,000,000 1000) 800,000 1999 ($x 600,000 2000 400,000 2001 200,000 2002 0 ica rica CIS Afr China Asia East dev'ed dev-ing America Near E.Europe C.Ame S. Asia Asia South Figure 2.1. Import (Value) of Pesticides by Region 1995­2002. 8 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 9 BOX 2.1. IFC GUIDANCE NOTE ON POLLUTION PREVENTION AND ABATEMENT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS The IFC Performance Standard on hazardous chemicals and 1b (extremely and highly hazardous) or formulations takes a clear stand against the manufacture, trade and use of products in class II (moderately hazardous) if the of active ingredients included in Annex A and B of the Client lacks restriction on their distribution and use and Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants if they are likely to be accessible to lay personnel or oth- and in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention on the ers without proper training, equipment, and facilities to Prior Informed Consent. Given the hazardous nature of handle, store and apply these products properly. The these chemicals, these provisions apply irrespectively of standard refers to the Food and Agriculture whether the project is located in a country that is party to Organization's (FAO) International Code of Conduct on the above-mentioned conventions. The Performance the Distribution and Use of Pesticides (FAO, 2003) for Standard also requires that the Client not manufacture, proper management of pesticides. trade, or utilize products that fall in World Health Source: IFC Performance Standards and Guidance Notes (in Organization Recommended Classification Classes 1a preparation). essential in addressing food security and malnu- have a significant impact on pest management in trition in developing countries as well as to developing countries has been the Stockholm reduce the environmental impact of selective Convention. The convention went into force in pesticides. Opponents warn that lessons should May 2004 and aims to phase out the POPs, be learned from earlier promised "silver bullets" including some of the most hazardous pesticides (often using the example of DDT) and that unbri- (often referred to as the "dirty dozen"). It is dled release of engineered crops and animals can likely to change the behavior of some donor have adverse effects on the environment, change countries that until recently considered donation power relations within the industrial sector and of pesticides an appropriate tool in poverty reduce small farmers' choice of inputs. The full reduction. It may also provide an opportunity for debate is beyond the context of this paper but a policy debate and investments. A number of number of aspects are relevant: World Bank policy and project interventions a) Some genetic modifications offer the have been developed in support of this conven- possibility of reducing the use of certain tion, including the Africa Stockpiles Program agricultural pesticides, and may also and the Demonstration of alternatives to improve the efficiency of the use of fer- Chlordane and Mirex in Termite Control Project tilizers and other soil improvement in China. methods; and The World Bank refers to the list of active ingredients included in Annex A and B of the b) The scientific assessment of the environ- Stockholm Convention on the POPs to ensure mental and health impacts of the release that no chemical formulations are manufactured, of genetically engineered plants and ani- sold or used in the World Bank-financed proj- mals is still at an early stage. Decisions ects, unless an exception is granted as noted in about such use should be made on a Annexes A and B of the Stockholm Convention. case-by-case basis. The World Bank refers to the lists included in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention on the INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS Prior Informed Consent to ensure that the appro- AND THE WORLD BANK priate procedure is followed in disclosing infor- Although much attention has been given to mation about the hazards of these chemicals to IPM--including in the World Bank's safeguard the host governments and obtaining the required policy--a major policy development likely to consent. Given the hazardous nature of these 9 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 10 chemicals, these provisions should apply irre- research on IPM and biological control, avail- spectively of whether the project is located in a ability of non-toxic and biodegradable agro- country that is Party to the above-mentioned chemicals and biocontrol agents, and develop- conventions. Earlier, the World Bank initiated a ments in biotechnology have greatly increased number of technical assistance and project inter- the options farmers have, compatible with the ventions to phase out methyl bromide in support fact that "popular" but very hazardous agro- of the Montreal Protocol. See box 2.2 for further chemicals are being removed from the market (in details on the relevant protocols. order to comply with the Stockholm conven- tions) (See box 2.3 for an example on biocon- trol). With respect to IPM great strides have been TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS made in better understanding pest behavior, con- trol options and risk. In their recent summary, BIOCONTROL Maredia et al. (2003) describe the current under- At the technical level, a variety of new develop- standing of the pest ecology and control options ments are changing the outlook in pest manage- as well as the development and implementation ment and risk assessments. Considerable of IPM in different regions and countries of the BOX 2.2. PEST MANAGEMENT-RELATED INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic informed consent of importers before proceeding with Pollutants (POP) is a global treaty to protect human the trade. As of 24 February 2004, the Rotterdam health and the environment from the chemicals that per- Convention entered into force after the 50th ratification. sist in the environment for extended periods of time and The World Bank refers to the list of active ingredi- tend to accumulate in living tissues of various organisms. ents included in Annex A and B of the Stockholm Being at the top of the food chain, humans tend to absorb Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants to ensure the greatest concentrations of these POPs, resulting in that no chemical formulations are manufactured, sold or serious disruptions of the endocrine system, suppression used in the Bank-financed projects, unless an exception of the immune system, disruption of reproductive func- is granted as noted in Annexes A and B of the Stockholm tion, and various developmental abnormalities. In its ini- Convention. The Bank refers to the lists included in tial phase, the Convention lists twelve chemicals to be Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior phased out from production and use, among which nine Informed Consent to ensure that the appropriate proce- are pesticides (aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, dure is followed in disclosing information about the haz- heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex and toxaphene) ards of these chemicals to the host governments and and three non-pesticides (dioxins, furans and polychlori- obtaining the required consent. Given the hazardous nated biphenyls). The Convention came into force in nature of these chemicals, these provisions should apply May 2004 upon the 50th ratification. irrespectively of whether the project is located in a coun- The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior try that is Party to the above-mentioned conventions. Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade is a is an international treaty, adopted in 1987, to eliminate global treaty adopted in 1998 to limit the potential risks the production and consumption of chemicals that posed by the production and trade in hazardous chemi- deplete the ozone layer. Principal among these chemicals cals and pesticides. Countries lacking adequate infra- is Methyl Bromide, widely used in agriculture as a fumi- structure to monitor the import and use of such sub- gant for soil-borne pests and diseases, stored grains pests, stances were particularly vulnerable. In the 1980s, UNEP and quarantine pests in fresh produce (fruits and vegeta- and FAO developed voluntary codes of conduct and bles, flowers). The World Bank as an implementing information exchange systems, culminating in the Prior agency helps client countries in planning, policy formu- Informed Consent (PIC) procedure introduced in 1989. lation and implementation of projects to meet their objec- The new Convention replaces this arrangement with a tives within the framework of this treaty. mandatory PIC procedure. PIC requires exporters trading in a list of hazardous substances to obtain the prior Source: Buccini 2004. 10 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 11 BOX 2.3. AN ALTERNATIVE TO SPRAYING: BOLLWORM CONTROL IN SHANDONG Farmers in Shandong (China) have been using "innova- field (to protect natural enemies of the bollworm). tive" methods to control bollworm infestation in cotton These and some additional biological control tools when this insect became resistant to most pesticides. have proved to be effective in controlling insect pop- Among the control measures implemented were: ulations and insect resistance, protecting surround- 1. The use of pest resistant cultivars and interplanting ings and lowering costs. of cotton with wheat or maize. 2. Use of lamps and poplar twigs to trap and kill adults to lessen the number of adults. 3. If pesticides were used, they were applied on parts of cotton plant's stem rather than by spraying the whole Source: Bin Xiao Kefu Xue, 1998. world. There is an inevitable trade-off between consistent supply of production.33 Another rea- the ecological benefits of narrow spectrum (short son for low availability of biopesticides on the persistence/lower toxicity) pesticides and the market is the registration process that tends to short-term economic benefits of broader spec- favour companies registering high-volume trum (longer persistence/higher toxicity) pesti- products, and thereby indirectly discourages cides. The latter is often the focus of pesticide applications of small and medium-sized biopes- users while government regulations tend to press ticide producers.34 for the former. NEW PESTICIDES There has been a substantial increase in commercialization of biocontrol products, such There has also been a continuing development of as beneficial insects, cultivated predators and newer pesticides (sulfonylureas, methoxyacry- natural or non-toxic pest control products. lates, napthoquinones, nereistoxin analogues, Biocontrol, which was initially used for niche Pyridine azomethine, pyridine azomethine and products, is now being mainstreamed to major pyridinamines and the biorationals (microbial agricultural commodities, such as cotton, corn pesticides and semiochemicals) that require less and most commonly vegetable crops. volume when applied, are more potent against Biocontrol is also slowly emerging in vector target pests, and may be less toxic to mammals control in public health and in areas that for a than the older and voluminous organophosphates long time mainly focused on chemical vector and chlorinated hydrocarbons. However, the control in mosquito/malaria--and black development, especially registration and com- fly/onchocerciasis--control programs. The mercialization process (the "bringing to mar- number and size of commercial companies mar- ket"), of the new pesticides has been slower and keting these biocontrol products has expanded more costly, as fulfilling the technical and envi- rapidly over the last decade in developed coun- ronmental sustainability criteria have become tries. It also offers considerable benefits to developing countries, in terms of a user friendly, employment creating technology. 33Harris (2000) lists the main challenges in biocontrol delivery as However, as the products of biocontrol (often (a) developing products to meet high performance standards; living organisms such as beneficial insects, (b) achieving good product quality with inherent safety and effi- entomopathogenic nematodes fungi, bacteria or cacy implications; (c) achieving adequate market penetration and product distribution; (d) competing effectively with agro- viruses) are perishable, production facilities chemicals; and (e) operating within an unfavorable regulatory tend to be dispersed and as observed in India, it environment. is often difficult to get a sufficient volume and 34Anon 1997. 11 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 12 more complex and expensive. The compatibility GENETIC ENGINEERING of some of these newer pesticides, such as To reduce human and environmental exposure to Pyrethroids, with IPM should be assessed, as persistent and broad spectrum pesticides, and to they can be highly toxic to other organisms (e.g., prepare for the envisioned future limitations on crustaceans) and to beneficial insects.35 pest control by spraying of chemicals, the agro- Furthermore, the uptake of these newer products chemical companies invested heavily in the bio- in the developing country markets is limited by sciences since late 1980s. Advances in plant the availability of older, less expensive, generic biotechnology during the past decades have pesticide products (that are often already banned introduced major changes in the development of in developed countries).36 new plant varieties, including new approaches APPLICATION TECHNOLOGY for improved disease and insect resistance. A known example of an insect resistant transgenic More efficient application of pesticides has crop is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton devel- received considerable attention; however, the oped through insertion of an insecticidal protein technologies are mainly used in the developed gene in the cotton variety. Another biotechnolog- countries. Broadcast spraying (or blanket spray- ical innovation in crops is herbicide resistance, ing) is still the main application method of whereby the crop is made resistant to an herbi- choice, although the timing and implementation cide, which can then be used to control weeds in of such spraying is increasingly regulated, and to the field where the transgenic crop is grown such an extent that in some parts of the world (e.g., "Round-up ready soybean"). Recent evi- farmers leave the spraying (and the increasingly dence shows that some transgenic crops, espe- tightening rules on storage, etc) to specialized cially insect-resistant cotton, are yielding signif- pesticide application companies. Western spray- icant economic gains to small farmers as well as ing equipment has become more sophisticated important social, health and environmental bene- (computer control, and precision control/site- fits through the reduced use of agricultural specific application, and gradual-release gran- chemicals. See box 2.4 for further details. ules) and more expensive and employs technolo- Despite positive impacts in the case of Bt- gies that are often ill-suited to mixed farming cotton, the economical, environmental, and and or small holder farming. Some other applica- social impacts of transgenic crops overall are still tions, such as improved nozzle selection for widely debated. Especially the question on knapsack sprayers and improved temporal target- whether herbicide resistant crops increase or ing of applications, may offer opportunities for reduce the use of herbicides is unresolved.37 small farmers in developing countries. Due to price and availability issues, the application in ADVANCES IN CROP MANAGEMENT developing countries is largely based on simple Other "new" agricultural practices, such as no- sprayers and hand mixing of chemicals. Better till agriculture, urban agriculture and bio-control adapted packaging and more innovative applica- of pests, offer exciting new opportunities but are tion methods could reduce unnecessary human not without risks. exposure to pesticides. a. The no-till technology has generally been promoted with chemical weed con- trol, rather than with non-chemical weed 35 A DANIDA study in Vietnam. In: Insecticides disrupt IPM. Pesticides News No. 39 (March 1998): 12­13. 37 Eichelbaum et al. 2001; Freckleton et al. 2003; Persley and 36 APO 2002; Harris 2000. Lantin 2000. 12 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 13 BOX 2.4. REDUCTION IN NSECTICIDE I USE AND NSECTICIDE I POISONING AMONG FARMERS INHEBEI/SHANDONG, CHINA A survey of agricultural producers in China demonstrates plants already in the field trials, including rice, wheat, that Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton adoption increased potatoes, and peanuts, is impressive and differs from production efficiency and improved farmer health. After those being worked on in other countries. Poor farmers in adopting Bt-cotton, both insecticide use and poisonings China are cultivating more area of genetically modified among small farmers were reduced five-fold, from 57.8 plants than are small farmers in any other developing to 10.3 kg/ha and 22.2 to 4.7%, respectively. A survey of country. China's plant biotechnologists showed that China is developing the largest plant biotechnology capacity out- side of North America. The list of genetically modified Source: Huang et al. 2002. control methods, such as use of cover SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS crops and mulch technologies. The choice is by no means clear as no-till Consumers in both developed and developing mulch technologies tend to have a vari- countries have become more aware of food and able impact on weed control. In some environmental safety. Highly publicized out- cases they effectively reduce the need breaks of two animal diseases (mad cow disease for herbicide use whereas in other cases and foot and mouth disease) in Europe and an the need for weed control may increase initially poorly managed release (in terms of as the composition of weeds in the field public relations) of transgenic crops resulted in a changes. Many soybean producers in greater consumer awareness of food safety, farm- Brazil, for example, use no-till without ing practices and rural livelihoods in general and herbicide-resistant crops whereas in fueled an intensive and broad debate about Argentina farmers appear to depend biotechnology by consumers. Several complex more on the use of herbicide resistant issues among which poor information provision soybeans.38 and lack of public consultation associated with the first commercial releases of transgenic crops b. Urban/peri-urban agricultural production and overall weak consumer confidence in some in the world is gaining in importance-- European countries in regulatory processes con- in 1993, 15­20% of the world's food tributed to the debate. Consumers are also was estimated to be produced in urban becoming increasingly aware about the risks, areas.39 However, the renewed emphasis both real and perceived, of certain production on urban agriculture is generally not systems and demand that such risks are weighted increasing the risk of unsustainable pes- against the societal including environmental ben- ticide use, as many of the producers are efits. The risks of using pesticides have been part driven by producing "safe or organic" of that debate. food for specialized markets.40 Authorities and consumers also in the devel- oping countries have become more aware of the pesticide residue levels in their food and pesticide- and other food-related- poisonings, indicating a need for vigilance by producers, 38 Schnepf et al. 2001. traders and retailers in developing countries. 39 Mougeout 2002. Requirements of the food industry regarding pes- 40 FAO 1999. ticide residues have become a major force that 13 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 14 encourages developing country governments to adverse effects on human health. There is support the adoption of IPM practices. The rising increasing evidence of the adverse effects of public demand for food safety and quality is cre- exposure to pesticides on overall health, on ating niche market opportunities for certified reproductive health, cancer risks, and prenatal products, such as organic and pesticide-free or and juvenile growth rates in children41 (See "green" food in both developed and developing box 2.5 and box 2.6 for further details). There is countries. This heightened awareness of food- also evidence that these effects may differ in peo- and feed-related risks can create incentives for ple (and pets42) depending on sex, ethnicity, type country level policy changes and practices con- and length of exposure, etc. These differences tributing to sound pest management. The understanding of the specific effects of 41See de London et al. 2002; Murray et al. 2002. pesticides on human and animal health has 42Glickman et al., 2004 provided strong evidence of susceptibil- improved. New epidemiological and biochemical ity of one specific breed of dog to exposure of herbicide (2-4D) studies provide more detailed information on the treated lawns (and leading to bladder cancer). BOX 2.5. PESTICIDE EFFECTS ON FARM WORKERS The number of pesticide poisoning cases reported to the 1999) and in Indonesia, 92% of farmers participating in DPR in California, dropped from 665 in 1991­1996 to the Integrated Swamps Project reported health problems 475 in 1997­2001. California has the strictest rules on after applying pesticides (Ishii-Eiteman and Ardhianie pesticide application worldwide, to such an extent that 2002). The long term effects of these poisoning episodes many farmers leave application to professional compa- are not known, but recent experience seems to indicate nies that know the rules and use up-to-date equipment. that minor exposure may have major effects on child Most farms have reduced their reliance on chemicals and growth and development. use various means of biological control. In contrast to this, over 50% of flower workers in Ecuador showed Source: Ishii-Eiteman and Ardhianie 2002; Pálan and Pálan symptoms of pesticide intoxication (Pálan and Pálan 1999. BOX 2.6. HUMAN HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE USE IN POTATO PRODUCTION IN ECUADOR The International Potato Center (CIP) conducted an have included: farmer field schools, community meetings interdisciplinary and inter-institutional research- analyzing personal and household exposure pathways, intervention project dealing with pesticide impacts on promotion of safety measures, radio announcements, edu- agricultural production, human health, and the environ- cational programs, and stakeholder workshops. ment in Carchi, Ecuador. Carchi is the most important The study found that the health problems caused by potato-growing area in Ecuador, where smallholder farm- pesticides are severe and are affecting a high percentage ers dominate production. They use tremendous amounts of the rural population. Despite the existence of technol- of pesticides for the control of the Andean potato weevil ogy and policy solutions, Government policies continue and the late blight fungus. Virtually all farmers apply to promote the use of pesticides. The study conclusions class 1b highly toxic pesticides using hand pump back- concurred with those by the pesticide industry, "that any pack sprayers. Research concerning pesticides has exam- company that could not ensure the safe use of highly toxic ined: neurological impacts on farmers and their families; pesticides should remove them from the market and that it poisoning incidence; studies of farmers' attitudes, knowl- is almost impossible to achieve safe use of highly toxic edge, and practices; economic impacts; and contamina- pesticides among small farmers in developing countries." tion of ground and surface water, clothing and body sur- faces, food, and farmers' homes. Intervention activities Source: Yanggen et al. 2003. 14 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 15 demonstrate that generalizations are risky, and The internet, world wide web, and other rapid that especially with respect to developing coun- access information exchanges along with mass try populations, often ethnically different and media approaches44 have helped in the dissemi- less studied than Western populations, extrapola- nation of information in a number of countries tions of safety data have to be done on a case-by- and regions where farmers increasingly have bet- case basis.43 ter access to such communication means. 43 Most countries do require local verification of efficacy, but rarely require locally verified safety data. 44Heong et al. 1998; Huan et al. 1999. 15 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 16 CHAPTER 3. STEPS TOWARD SOUND PEST MANAGEMENT IN THE WORLD BANK PROJECTS POLICY CONTEXT Rural: The World Bank's pest management policy in lending is guided directly by the OP WORLD BANK'S PEST MANAGEMENT POLICY 4.09 and implemented through various instru- Overall, the World Bank has played an important ments, ranging from support to country policy role in focusing the attention of the development development to implementing sound pest man- community and client countries on the impor- agement/IPM at the project level. Box 1.1 (chap- tance of pest management policies. Numerous ter Introduction) lists examples of recent World publications generated by the World Bank's Bank projects that support sustainable pest man- Development Research Group (DECRG), agement. Agriculture and Rural Development Department The pest management and IPM issues (ARD), and by the Environment and Sustainable debated in the World Bank in the last decade Development Division in the Africa region have included: (AFTES), discuss various policy aspects of pest (i) The use of Farmer Field Schools to pro- management and IPM.45 The main tool for main- mote IPM; while recognizing the merit streaming the implementation of sound pest of intensive training for participating management in the World Bank since 1998 has farmers, the World Bank questioned the been the OP 4.09 safeguard policy on pest man- extent of farmer-to-farmer diffusion, and agement and related policy and implementation raised the issue of fiscal sustainability documents. This policy is part of the related to this knowledge intensive edu- Environmental Assessment umbrella policy cational approach; (OP/BP 4.01) used to identify, assess and miti- (ii) The World Bank's position towards the gate the potential negative impacts associated use of genetically engineered crops in with project operations. The application of the developing countries; and Environmental Assessment to projects involving (iii) The trend toward meeting the dual pest management is detailed in the Annex C of objective of agricultural productivity and the Bank Procedures on environmental assess- environmental sustainability through ment (BP 4.01 Annex C). The latest revisions of sustainable intensification (see the sec- OP 4.09 and BP 4.01 Annex C (1998 and 1999 tion on Sustainable productivity intensi- respectively) did not include major changes in fication in the Agriculture Investment the policy itself but was mainly aimed to clarify Sourcebook). and, hence, improve the compliance by requiring a pest management plan in the case that World Above mentioned issues have been discussed Bank investments would lead to changes in pes- in various World Bank publications46 as well as ticide use directly or indirectly through signifi- in international and national workshops.47 cant changes in agricultural practices. 45 See Farah 1994; Feder 1979; Feder et al. 2004a, b; Kiss and 46 Meerman 1991; Lele 2003; Quizon et al. 2001; Rola et al. 2002; E.g., Feder et al. 2004a,b; Quizon et al. 2001; Rola et al. 2002; Sheriff and Fleischer 2005; Schillhorn van Veen et al. 1997; and World Bank 2004a. and Sorby et al. 2003. 47See Persley and Lantin 2000. 16 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 17 More recently, strengthen collaboration within the development (iv) Food safety and standards have been community.49 added to this agenda, including the need Transport and Energy: The major link to to harmonize and enforce standards, pest management in the transport and energy reduce pesticide residues in food and sectors is by way of the need for vegetation con- facilitate developing countries' access to trol. In some developing countries, where labor international markets (van der Meer is cheap, the cost-benefit ratio of using labor et al. 2005). rather than (imported) pesticides may tilt towards using labor, especially when the potential nega- (v) In addition, considerable work was done tive externalities of herbicide use (including sus- to develop tools and policies to reduce tainability of the farm ecosystem and effects on obsolete stock of out-dated pesticides, human health) are taken into account. However, especially in the Africa region. relatively little work has been done to reduce Most of the above mentioned issues are part reliance on herbicides in vegetation control. of the World Bank's "do good" agenda (promo- Therefore, there is a need to consider the feasi- tion of measures to avoid farmers' adoption of bility of labor intensive alternatives to herbicides pesticides and supporting IPM as an agronomic in World Bank financed projects that involve best practice among other sustainable agricul- vegetation control. tural practices), new developments in the realm WORLD BANK'S ROLE IN THE GLOBAL of pest management may also require a review POLICY DIALOGUE under the "do no harm" (i.e., safeguard and mit- igation of potential negative effects of pesticides, The World Bank continues to engage the various including use of IPM) policy. pest management interest groups in the develop- Health: The World Bank's vector control ment community in a dialogue to promote a policy in lending is more or less guided by the favorable policy environment for expedition of World Health Organization (WHO) or UNICEF sound pest management/IPM adoption. It uses (United Nations International Children's all opportunities to create a platform to influence Emergency Fund) initiated policies. Previous the global policy framework. Recent examples success stories include the long term commit- include the adoption by the Steering Committee ment to River Blindness control in Africa and to of the Consultative Group on International a lesser extent control of Chagas and other vec- Agricultural Research (CGIAR) System wide tor transmitted diseases. The most recent exam- Program on IPM (SP-IPM), in which the World ple is the joint WHO-UNICEF initiated guide- Bank is represented, of a pesticide policy that lines used in the Roll Back Malaria Partnership. excludes the use of Persistent Organic Pollutants, These guidelines are fairly simple and mainly Class I pesticides and where feasible class II pes- focus on the use of bed nets in mosquito control. ticides. In the recent locust crisis, the World However, for a more sustainable long term Bank, in conjunction with the donor community approach, greater emphasis on integrated vector urged FAO and the Desert Locust Control management (IVM) methods is needed.48 Committee (DLCC) to consider: (a) continued Toward that end, the WHO developed a global support for long-term preventive approach to the strategic framework on integrated vector man- Desert Locust problem, including joint planning agement to guide policy makers and to for prevention; and (b) giving greater attention to 48 See Review by Rose, 2001 (Pesticides and Public Health). 49See WHO 2004. 17 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 18 the use of environmentally friendly pesticides. OPERATIONAL CONTEXT Excessive supplies of chemical pesticides under declared emergency situations are likely to con- STAFF RECRUITMENT AND SKILLS tribute to the buildup of stockpiles of obsolete The creation of the safeguard compliance unit in pesticides. The World Bank urged the donor 2000 had the objective to improve the oversight community to consider the concept of a of and compliance with the World Bank safe- "Pesticide Bank" to supply affected countries guard policies. The World Bank also agreed to pesticides in small consignments, spread over improve its staffing to oversee the policy compli- time to reduce the risk of buildup of stocks. ance of OP 4.09, as well as the implementation NATIONAL PESTICIDE of IPM in general by acquiring a full-time tech- AND PEST MANAGEMENT POLICIES nical specialist, initially as a secondment under the umbrella of the joint FAO/UNEP/UNDP/ The importance of sound pest management World Bank IPM facility, but after 2003 with a practices for sustainable agricultural production staff expert. Training on safeguards, and pest is being recognized by many developing coun- management in particular, started in 2001 and tries. Some have developed policies that author- intensified in 2003 both at headquarters and in ize plant protection services to coordinate the the field offices. promotion of pest management practices for Some erosion in agricultural technical know- agricultural production and promote their adop- how and skills among World Bank staff during tion among local farmer groups. These policies the past decade has taken place, mainly due to provide the institutional framework for the retirement of skilled staff and hiring of general- planning and implementation of pest manage- ists. The total number of staff in the rural sector ment, including IPM, as well as emphasize the declined by about 15% from 1996 to 2001.50 promotion of sound pest management practices Some of the regional pest management within the local farming communities. The related work was outsourced to consultants or to extent to which these national policies success- the IPM Facility. The Facility had a depth of fully promote environmentally sound agricul- skills and helped in the quality control of the tural practice will depend on the country's World Bank project operations, although the capacity to enforce their articles and the incen- focus of the Facility was somewhat limited, (i.e., tives to implement them (prices for exports mainly FFS training and associated in-country crops and specialized markets). A greater num- projects). The outsourcing for IPM expertise did ber of countries are signatory to the FAO not significantly advance sustainable pest man- International Code of Conduct on the distribu- agement and IPM in World Bank lending. This tion and use of pesticides and are passing laws issue was further complicated by the policy of on the control of the distribution and use of pes- increased hiring of local staff in country offices, ticides. However, there are still many inade- many of whom have had limited earlier exposure quate local policies and lack of enforcement of to the risks and benefits of various pest manage- the existing regulations that contribute to the ment tools and policies. greater use of unsafe pesticides. The World Bank continues to engage in policy dialogue on pest management with borrower countries (See table 5.1 for examples). 50From "Vision to Action in the Rural Sector:" Working Paper 1996. World Bank and Reaching the Rural Poor 2001. 18 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 19 The hiring of the World Bank-wide pest man- ment activities (among other project activities) agement expert in 2003 and the nomination of and safeguard compliance by the private sector regional safeguard focal points is showing some and non-governmental organizations could be positive impact in several regional projects. further promoted. Besides improving compli- Furthermore, the increased awareness of SPS in ance with OP 4.09, it is important to promote the the promotion of export projects has actually "do good" agenda by identifying means to inte- resulted in a genuine call for sound pest manage- grate overall sustainable agricultural practices, ment practices that are country-driven. including IPM, into projects that do not explic- itly require compliance with the safeguard 4.09. TECHNICAL SUPPORT AND TRAINING Finally, to support the trend toward policy-based Sufficient human and financial resources are lending, which reduces the leverage of the World needed to support TTLs, the World Bank's in- Bank's own safeguards, special attention should country staff and borrowers to identify, design be paid to building capacity among national and supervise projects that require compliance experts involved in plant protection to prepare with OP 4.09 as well as the projects that would sound pesticide policies and national safeguards. benefit from promotion of pest management PROCUREMENT alternatives and IPM as an agronomic "best prac- tice." World Bank task teams could be helped by The World Bank has recognized the potential the regional full- or part-time technical specialist risks associated with the use of pesticides and as well as by manuals and templates for World has set a number of conditions on their procure- Bank staff and project staff on pest management ment. However, the internal compliance to these that relate to specific and relevant issues (i.e., conditions has been somewhat irregular, which pest management in non-agricultural sector such can pose a reputational risk to the World Bank. as health, energy, and transport); or related to Additional guidance in procurement has been specific lending instruments (i.e., Community deemed necessary--steps toward this goal are Driven Development (CDD), on-lending, adjust- the recent revision of the pesticide procurement ment), including a template for pesticide pro- guidelines and the updated and detailed instruc- curement. As current skills on pest management tions available in the Pest Management are stretched far, it is recommended to review Guidebook51 to help with pesticides and pest and reassess the need to hire and/or train special- management issues. ist staff, and include an appropriate reward sys- tem. Attention to identification and design of OTHER POLICIES CHANGES pest management activities at the preparation AND stage are likely to support compliance but more IMPACTING PEST MANAGEMENT attention has to be paid on the quality of supervi- Apart from the pest management safeguard pol- sion. Training of team members and the World icy (OP 4.09) there are a number of other poli- Bank's in-country staff (e.g., a primer in pest cies and actions, which have an impact on the management and training in safeguards) is one step. Supervision missions and review of super- vision documents of projects with pest manage- ment activities could be supported by internal 51http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ and external technical specialists as needed. EXTARD/EXTPESTMGMT/0,,menuPK:584328~pagePK: Formal and informal monitoring of pest manage- 64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:584320,00.html 19 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 20 World Bank's ability to comply with OP 4.09 and ness and support dissemination of the concept of to promote overall sound pest management. sound pest management (both "do no harm" and These include: proactive "do good") as well as specific pest management technologies; and (c) help the CHANGES INWORLD BANK'S LENDING World Bank in identifying those technologies INSTRUMENTS that are ready to be main-streamed through The rural portfolio is moving towards greater World Bank supported programs. ICIPE, for decision-making power being shifted from gov- example, not only has a sound research program ernment officials to farmers and rural communi- on IPM in public health and agriculture, but has ties (particularly in CDD projects). In addition, also promoted commercialization of IPM tech- the project safeguard responsibilities are shifting nologies that are specifically targeted for rural from World Bank teams to the project counter- development in Africa. parts. This greater decision making by rural peo- Of all the partnerships the alliance of the ple and rural societies through credit and social World Bank with the CGIAR System wide pro- or competitive fund instruments has increased gram on IPM is of strategic importance because development financing through on-lending pro- it provides the World Bank with an access to a grams. This has also shifted the direct program wide and inclusive network of specialist expert- oversight from World Bank staff to local agen- ise to help in promoting sound pest management cies and loan officers who comply with and practices in World Bank financed projects. The adhere to the policies of their own lending insti- SP-IPM, an initiative of the CGIAR, has grown tutions and are less familiar with risk assessment into a program including many IPM interest and management, and in general unfamiliar with groups and stakeholders operating in several the principles and application of the World countries. Bank's safeguard policies. Changes in the poli- CODEX ALIMENTARIUS ANDPRIVATE SECTOR cies of the lending institutions as well as training STANDARDS PROMOTING SOUND PEST MANAGEMENT of local loan officers in environmental risk man- agement are options to pursue to reduce the risk Developing countries are increasingly facing of unsustainable pest management practices. stricter regulations related to health and food safety standards that continue to evolve interna- PARTNERSHIPS tionally, nationally, and within individual supply As in-house expertise in pest management is chains as a response to improved scientific very limited, there is a need to further enhance understanding of risks and consumer demand. partnerships with expert organizations in pest Non-compliance with these standards seriously management (e.g. CGIAR SP-IPM, the Global threatens countries' access to lucrative markets IPM Facility (GIF), Food and Agriculture in developed countries.52 As part of the technical Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and assistance related to SPS and trade, the World WHO, Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) Bank has been involved in operational lending and selected research organizations, such as projects in standards and SPS capacity building World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), The with the goal of enhanced agricultural productiv- International Center for Insect Physiology and ity in developing countries. Current projects in Ecology (ICIPE), and CABI). These partnerships World Bank lending operations include: (a) The may: (a) help in the development of sound pest Agro-Pastoral Export Promotion Project for management programs targeted to specific Niger that aims to make producers and exporters crops, livestock, agroforestry, fisheries or public health in developing countries; (b) raise aware- 52World Bank 2004b. 20 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 21 more efficient at supplying the agro-pastoral ferent stakeholders of the food chain. SAI export market with pesticide free produce; and Platform supports agricultural practices, includ- (b) the Tunisia Agricultural Support Services ing sound pest management and IPM, and agri- Project that aims to improve the institutional cultural production systems that preserve the capacity and quality of agricultural services future availability of current resources to guaran- delivered by public and private institutions and tee a long-term supply of agricultural raw mate- producer organizations to improve market access rials. EUREPGAP, including retailers, suppliers/ by focusing on pesticide residue testing in growers and associate members from the input Tunisian produce and promoting more sustain- and service side of agriculture was established able pest management practices. Many develop- in 1997 as an initiative of retailers belonging to ing countries have taken the lead in updating or the Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group setting standards for their products to make them (EUREP). It aims to agree on standards and pro- more competitive in the market place. For exam- cedures for development of good agricultural ple, asparagus producers in Peru accepted the practice (GAP) and is based on Integrated Crop Codex Alimentarius standards as the interna- Management. Activities include a certification tional benchmark for food standards and scheme and harmonization of standards for IPM Peruvian policy makers presented their position and minimized pesticide use. at the various Codex Committee meetings, hence CropLife International, led by companies influencing the standard setting. Peru is now one such as BASF, Bayer CropScience, Dow of the largest asparagus exporters in the world. AgroSciences, DuPont, FMS, Monsanto, Another, a more extreme example of the private Sumitomo and Syngenta, is a global federation sector's interest in IPM is cocoa production in representing the plant science industry (mainly Indonesia. The entire sector is threatened by the crop protection and agricultural biotechnology rapid expansion of cocoa borer infestation. The companies) network of regional and national private sector is engaging with national experts associations in 91 countries. The companies par- and international donors to introduce IPM to ticipate in promotion of sound pest management control the borer.53 particularly through stewardship programs, on a Private sector has an important role to play in broad range of crop protection and environmen- promotion of sound pest management and IPM tal stewardship issues that support the marketing particularly through promotion of agronomic standards agreed under the FAO Code. Activities good practices and requirements for certification include e.g., educational outreach programs, and compliance with safety standards. Private research, best practice in manufacture, market- sector involvement includes trade associations ing, use and disposal of pesticides, certification concerned with the interests of the food process- and farmer training on pesticide use and IPM. ing industry, crop protection and biotechnology Lastly, the umbrella organization of 100 national companies and farmers' associations. As an farmer associations (IFAP) is promoting sound example of food industry initiative, the pest management and IPM as part of its work on Sustainable Agriculture Initiative (SAI) Platform sustainable agriculture. that was created by the food industry and cur- rently includes 17 members, aims to actively NEW CHEMISTRY AND GENETICALLY support sustainable agriculture involving the dif- MODIFIED CROPS Progress in the plant science industry is focused on producing safer pesticide products with 53http://www.chocolateandcocoa.org/Programs/SARF/ shorter persistence in the environment. New indonesia.asp pest management tools ranging from less toxic 21 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 22 chemicals, to semiochemicals, biopesticides, and tion is to engage in a dialogue on these develop- insect resistant transgenic crops are becoming ments with all the interest groups in the coun- available to both developed and developing tries, including NGOs, academia and the private countries. The benefits of these new technologies sector. The World Bank remains an important to the improvement of agricultural productivity partner for investing in new technologies while and environmental sustainability have been maintaining its long-standing tradition of being demonstrated in many cases, including those an honest broker of information in helping the arising from the use of genetically modified World Bank's client countries to make informed crops. The latter have, however, generated a great decisions about science and technology policies deal of debate over the potential risks these crops and investments in the agriculture sector. pose on the environment. The World Bank's posi- 22 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 23 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE PEST MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMS IN THE DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY--LESSONS LEARNED Before reviewing the World Bank's performance not have an operational policy on IPM. in pest management a brief description is pro- International Fund for Agricultural Development vided of pest management approaches in the (IFAD) is a strong supporter of agricultural general development community. This includes a development and promotes IPM supporting tech- view of: development banks, international organ- nologies and farmer level training approaches. izations, bilateral assistance agencies, the private INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS sector, and civil society organizations.54 International organizations have diverse man- dates and different experiences. The Organi- DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY zation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- INVOLVED IN SOUND PEST ment (OECD 1995) focuses primarily on MANAGEMENT harmonizing the policies and standards of its member countries. It sees IPM as one of the most REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS effective ways to reduce the risk of pesticide use Regional Development Banks exert considerable and issued "Guidelines for Aid Agencies on Pest leverage on national policies through their lend- and Pesticide Management". The CGIAR is the ing programs. The African, the Inter-American most prominent organization in research to sup- and the Asian Development Banks all have expe- port international agriculture. In 1995 it formed rience in funding projects including IPM prac- the SP-IPM program, which focuses on the gen- tices. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has eration and information sharing on new IPM operated both through policy and strategy sup- technologies, fostering links between different port to its mandate countries as well as through stakeholders including the private sector and farm level training in IPM. The African NGOs and promotion of sound pest management Development Bank's (AfDB) Environmental policies. The FAO has a broad agenda with Policy emphasizes the importance of natural strong focus on sustainable agriculture and IPM resource management in the agricultural sector. including heading up the International Code of It is committed to long-term sustainable produc- Conduct on the Distribution and Use of tivity with strategies to use environmentally safe Pesticides and the Rotterdam Convention on chemicals and IPM techniques and has an IPM Prior Informed Consent (with UNEP). Together operational policy similar to that of the World with UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank, FAO Bank. The Inter-American Development Bank also co-founded the Global IPM Facility in 1997 (IDB) has a broad operational policy, which to assist governments and NGOs in developing encourages integrated approach to sustainable national and local IPM programs. agricultural development. However, IDB does BILATERAL ASSISTANCE AGENCIES Bilateral agencies support pest management and IPM through funding research, field project 54 See further information and discussion in Sorby et al (2003). implementation, guideline development, and 23 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 24 support to regulatory reforms. For example, United In light of the activities in the development States Agency for International Development community as a whole, the World Bank experi- (USAID) supports research on IPM through fund- ence and performance in pest management is ing the CGIAR centers. The European reviewed below. Commission (EC) supports IPM through several agricultural research and field projects and has WORLD BANK'S PERFORMANCE developed guidelines for assessing environmental impact of pest management programs. In 1993 the IN SOUND PEST MANAGEMENT EU facilitated the formation of IPMEurope, a net- The World Bank works on pest management both work for coordinating European support to IPM in through enhancing knowledge through analytical research and development. IPMEurope involves work as well as through supporting pest manage- institutions of the EC, EU member states, Norway ment and IPM in the World Bank's lending oper- and Switzerland (the associate states) with an inter- ations. Various efforts have been made in the est in promoting IPM in developing countries. recent years to measure the World Bank's per- IPMEurope operates mainly through donor harmo- formance in pest and pesticide management and nization of pesticide policies and IPM among the its adherence to its safeguard policy. These eval- donor agencies of its members and through part- uations include assessment by the Quality nerships and policy influence in international fora. Assurance Group, Regional Environmental The French development agency commissions its Reviews and OED. While none of these reviews IPM work to French Agricultural Research Centre dealt exclusively with pest management, they did for International Development (CIRAD), which is point out good practices and alerted to problems a large research organization specializing in tropi- in this area. In addition to these internal reviews, cal agriculture. Other major bilateral donors active a number of NGOs provided World Bank man- in IPM include the Netherlands Development agement and the public with feedback on the Agency and UK Department of International World Bank's compliance to its safeguard Development (DFID). Also the Nordic donors and policy.56 In a more detailed desk review (See SwissAid have supported a limited number of IPM box 4.1). World Bank projects (Project Appraisal field projects. Documents and Project Supervision Reports57) CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS and policy documents were screened and reviewed to assess progress made in the applica- The Pesticide Action Network (PAN) is a glob- tion of the World Bank's Pest Management pol- ally active NGO working in the field of pest icy (OP 4.09) in recent economic policy recom- management. PAN focuses on influencing inter- mendations and project interventions. national and national policies to reduce pesticide use and increase the use of sustainable and eco- logical alternatives to chemical pest control. The Water Resources Institute (WRI) is an advocacy organization with a broader environmental agenda that also includes IPM as a part of sus- 56 Reviews have been prepared in particular by the Pesticide tainable agricultural development. Other NGOs Action Network North America that has a dedicated program monitoring the World Bank's performance with respect to its concerned with pest management include the Pest Management policies. Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN)55 and 57 The Project Supervision Report (PSR) has been streamlined the Rainforest Alliance. and redesigned as the Implementation Status and Results (ISR) report. The PSR system was frozen on December 31, 2004 and the new ISR system was rolled out World Bank wide on 55 Formerly called the Conservation Agriculture Network (CAN). January 3, 2005. 24 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 25 BOX 4.1. METHODOLOGY USED TO REVIEW THE NTEGRATION OF I PEST MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN THE WORLD BANK'S COUNTRY STRATEGIES AND LENDING PORTFOLIO CAS and PRSPs: Country Assistance Strategies (CAS) bicide use in vegetation control. The 87 PADS of health and Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) from projects were screened for mention of vector/malaria/ 1999 to 2004, a total of 92 and 62 documents, respec- dengue, inclusion of vector/malaria/dengue control activ- tively, were reviewed for content on: pest problems, pest ities, use of pesticides and insecticide-treated bed-nets. control/management (including pesticide use, crop pro- Projects that mentioned malaria and/or vector control tection or plant health measures), IPM, level of IPM only in association with Millennium Development Goals interventions, vector/malaria/dengue and control mea- were not considered. All PADs were screened for inclu- sures, pesticides and insecticide treated bed-nets, and sion of Pest Management Plan (PMP), mention of the IVM. (Notes: In case there was more than one term "Integrated Pest or Vector Management", and the CAS/PRSP per the review period, the most recent one level of intervention of IPM measures (or displayed IPM- was selected. In the case of PRSPs either a full or an related activities) as a minor component, a component to interim paper was reviewed. In addition, where possible mitigate the potential negative impact, major component, one annual progress report per PRSP was also included and/or IPM as a component of a research program. All as significant changes were often observed in the projects were also assessed for having a direct and/or progress reports). indirect impact on pesticide consumption and for their Project documents: Project Appraisal Documents compliance with OP 4.09 at the appraisal stage. (PADs) for agriculture (including agriculture, credit, The Project Status Reports (PSRs) of the agriculture fisheries, forestry, irrigation and research), health, trans- projects that were assessed for having an impact on pes- port and energy projects approved from 1999 to March ticide consumption at the appraisal stage (62 in total) 2004 were reviewed. The 115 agriculture PADs were were further screened for Pest Management safeguard screened for triggering of the pest management safeguard rating, discussion of pest management and IPM issues, policy OP 4.09, mention of pesticide purchase, mention and any changes in compliance during the project imple- and/or activities on pest and pest management, and indi- mentation. This data was compared to the external cation of pesticide use (e.g. pesticide purchase and use, (provided either by World Bank or other organizations) mitigation of the negative impacts of pesticide use, etc., information on compliance at the preparation and imple- projects that aimed to limit pesticide use for research pur- mentation stages on a few selected projects. pose only, were not considered). The 127 transport and 38 energy PADs were screened for mention and/or activ- ities on vegetation control (and related activities) or her- Source: Authors. POLICY and Stockholm Conventions (See also box 2.2). Also, the Global IPM Facility, that the World The World Bank has been among the pioneers in Bank helped to set up, did not evolve into a the world-wide dialogue about pest management major forum for discussion and advocacy on pest and IPM policy and its relevance to sustainable management policy issues. development. The results of the analytical work Within the World Bank, the mainstreaming on IPM have been widely disseminated through efforts through the analytical work carried out in Word Bank documents and through the main- the Agriculture and Rural Development stream literature (See chapter 1). Department, and in the regional operations On a global scale the effort of the implemen- appears to have had a relatively good impact as tation of sound pest management policies in represented in the Country Assistance Strategies overall policy dialogue or donor investments has (CAS) and especially in the poverty reduction been relatively limited and seems to be overshad- strategies (See table 4.1). About 15% of the owed by the major global pesticide policy CASs reviewed mention either agricultural pests changes of the last decade, i.e., the Rotterdam or possible health effects of pesticide use. The 25 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 26 Table 4.1. Pest Management Issues in the World Bank Country Assistance and Poverty Reduction Strategies Total Total (No) (%) 1999 2000 2000 2002 2003 2004 Country Assistance Strategies (CAS) reviewed (total) 92 100 9 16 14 22 24 7* ...that discuss agriculture 89 97 100 100 93 91 100 100 ...that mention agricultural pests 3 3 0 6 0 9 0 0 ...that mention agricultural pest control*** 14 15 11 19 0 18 21 14 ...that mention health effect of pesticide use 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...that mention malaria, dengue or vector control 42 46 33 44 21 41 67 57 ...that mention vector control 22 24 11 31 7 18 33 43 ...that mention impregnated bed nets 1 1 11 0 0 0 0 0 Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSPs) reviewed (total) 62 100 0 8 10 17 20 7 ...that mention pest issues 32 52 n/a** 38 50 53 50 71 ...that mention agricultural pests 23 37 n/a 50 80 29 25 14 ...that mention agricultural pest control*** 39 63 n/a 38 70 65 60 86 ...that mention health effect of pesticide use 31 50 n/a 75 90 35 35 43 ...that mention malaria, dengue or vector control 44 71 n/a 63 90 76 60 71 ...than mention vector control 36 58 n/a 63 70 59 50 57 ...that mention impregnated bed nets 2 3 n/a 13 0 0 5 0 Notes: * = 2004 first quarter; ** = PRSPs started in 2000; and ***= incl. pest control, IPM, crop protection, plant health or pesticides. The numbers in annual columns indicate the proportion of the total number of documents in a given year. Source: Authors. Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) tial increase in the use of pesticides. For exam- showed even a clearer mainstreaming effect with ple, pest management issues were not included over half mentioning pest issues in agriculture in the CASs of many of the Central American and health. PRSPs are generally drafted by teams countries where pesticides have been claimed to that included other donors and NGOs and may cause pesticide-related occupational health hence provide a more comprehensive view of the problems in 19% of the population or 76% of issues. the farm workers (Murray et al., 2002). The data also show that the mentioning of Similarly, pesticide issues were frequently not pest management related issues in both CASs covered in CASs of countries with cotton and and PRSPs increased during the survey period. other cash crop production usually associated This may indicate an increasing awareness with high pesticide use. The lack of discussion among the World Bank and its clients of sound may reflect, however, the overall trend towards pest management, as there is no solid evidence including fewer technical details in the policy of significant changes in pest management that and strategy papers. Also, the emphasis in gen- would indicate a real increase in pest incidence. eral should perhaps be more on internalizing the While strategy papers of countries with low or externalities and on removing distorting policies unchanged pesticide use would not be expected such as pesticide subsidies. to highlight pest management issues, in some The analytical method used, (i.e., review of cases the CAS did not highlight even a substan- CASs, PRSPs and Project Status Reports (PSR), 26 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 27 does not capture other policy dialogues with and the case of vegetable and fruit pro- Governments. Such dialogues have taken place duction for export in Tunisia). in the World Bank implemented Montreal 2. Introduction of IPM technologies: The Protocol projects with respect to reducing the use World Bank has supported several initia- of methyl bromide (for example in Mali, Kyrgyz tives over the years, including bio- Republic, Tunisia, Iran, and others) or the Global control of cotton pests in Central Asia, Environment Facility/World Bank Stockholm the organic coffee production in Mexico, Convention projects for phasing out and disposal the control of water hyacinth in East of persistent organic pollutants (i.e., Africa Africa, and the introduction of tsetse Stockpile Programme, Demonstration of Alter- traps for the management of trypanoso- natives for chlordane and mirex for termite con- miasis in Central Africa. trol in China) during project supervision. Such a 3. Research, extension, and training: The dialogue has also been more or less formalized in World Bank has a number of agricul- the design of the African Stockpiles Program. tural support projects ranging from IPM However, some high pesticide consuming coun- research and extension to providing agri- tries may sometimes be reluctant to engage in cultural inputs, to catalyzing the dissem- either a policy dialogue or in a lending program ination of information and promotion of in agriculture, thereby limiting the World Bank's IPM knowledge (i.e., cotton in Mali, opportunity to initiate such a dialogue and to export crops in Tunisia, IPM research support sound pest management practices. and extension in Turkey and India, PROJECT INTERVENTIONS--LENDING Agricultural research and extension in Peru). In the World Bank project Portfolio, there are 4. Obsolete stockpiles: The World Bank is very few projects dealing exclusively with pest presently leading a partnership effort, management. Interventions in pest management including FAO, World Wildlife Fund, are always treated as good agricultural practice Croplife International, UNEP, PAN, and within larger projects. These interventions range others, to help clean up the obsolete from establishing regulatory frameworks to stocks of pesticides in Africa (See cleaning up of obsolete pesticides (Schillhorn Stockpile Program in MNA and SSA van Veen, 2003). Specific interventions include: regions). This will be a long process that 1. Regulations: With the ever-increasing requires interventions on several fronts demands on product safety, exporting (regulatory, prevention, procurement, countries need to establish certification and communication). programs. The World Bank is often asked to build the necessary capacity A summary of a review of 366 project (for example, analytical laboratories for appraisal documents approved between 1999 residue testing as in the case of (when the stronger pest management policy Colombia) and to strengthen local was in effect for the first time) and the first expertise to meet the demands of the quarter of 2004 are shown in Table 4.2. The export markets. Often these activities are majority of these projects were in transport and associated with the necessary policy dia- rural sector. Over half of the rural projects logue to support the development of reg- and between 20 and 30% of the projects in ulatory frameworks (i.e., such as the health, energy and transport mentioned pest case of organic production in Romania, management, weed or vector control. The num- ber of projects that clearly indicated the use of 27 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 28 Table 4.2. Pest Management-related Topics as Mentioned in the World Bank Project Appraisal Documents Total Total (no) (%) 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Projects in Rural/Agriculture (total) 115 100 26 21 22 14 22 10 ...with pest management mentioned 73 63 69 52 64 79 59 60 ...with indication of pesticide use* 62 54 54 43 59 64 55 50 ...with Pest Management Plan (PMP) 34 30 8 19 45 43 32 50 Projects in Energy (total) 38 100 7 7 11 12 1 0 ... with vegetation control 10 26 14 14 36 25 100 0 ... with indication of herbicide use 2 5 0 0 9 8 0 0 ... with PMP 1 3 0 0 0 8 0 0 Projects in Transport (total) 127 100 20 31 25 15 25 11 ... with indication of vegetation control 25 20 10 19 16 33 28 9 ... with indication of herbicide use 2 2 0 3 4 0 0 0 ... with PMP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Projects in Health (total) 86 100 17 24 19 18 8 0 ...that mention malaria, dengue or vector control 17 20 29 17 21 17 13 0 ... with indication of pesticide use 14 16 24 13 16 17 13 0 ...with PMP 2 2 0 4 0 6 0 0 * = Projects with PMP due to e.g. purchase or application of pesticides, and projects without PMP but with a clear indication of having an increase in pesticide use (8 projects stating an increase in pesticide use, 3 with Environmental Management Plan stating concerns on increased pesticide use, 6 projects claiming to mitigate the negative impact of pesticides, 5 with a clear indication to intensify and increase production, and 6 with other clear indication of using increasing amounts of pesticides). The numbers in annual columns indicate the % of the total number of documents. Source: Authors. pesticides58 was lower, but still fairly high in guard OP 4.09 requirements. It should also be health (16%) and agriculture/rural projects noted that projects focus on implementing (54%). Project compliance with the World World Bank safeguards but as policy-based Bank's safeguard OP 4.09 would have required lending is increasing there is a stronger need to the development of a pest management plan establish and build capacity in client countries (PMP) in the projects. The observed trend to develop and enforce their own safeguard towards improvement in compliance is likely to policies. be due to improved understanding of the safe- The compliance with the safeguard require- ment at the appraisal stage of the agriculture/ rural projects varied to some extent among the regions, 20 to 75% of the projects having a PMP, 58In agriculture/rural projects, clear indication of pesticide use was considered in (a) projects that included a PMP due to (e.g., and 60 to 100% of the projects having a PMP purchase or application of pesticides), and (b) projects without and/or IPM component (See table 4.3) indicating PMP but with a clear indication of having an increase in pesticide that some projects planned to include IPM activ- use: 8 projects stating an increase in pesticide use, 3 with ities without developing a PMP. The compliance Environmental Management Plan stating concerns on increased pesticide use, 6 projects claiming to mitigate the negative impact improved significantly during the review period, of pesticides, 5 with a clear indication to intensify and increase from 14% in 1999 to between 58­100% by the production, and 6 with other clear indication of using increasing first quarter of 2004. It is also noteworthy that amounts of pesticides. Projects that limited pesticide use only for 40% of all agriculture projects (46 out of 115) the research purpose were not considered to have a major impact, and as such, not counted. mentioned that they include IPM activities. In 28 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 29 Table 4.3. Agriculture Project Appraisal Documents (PADs) between 1999 and the First Quarter of 2004 with Pest Management Activities and Pest Management Plans (PMP) LCR MNA AF SA EAP ECA PADs reviewed 13 11 25 13 22 31 PADs mentioning pest management (PM) activity 7 (54%) 8 (73%) 18 (72%) 9 (69%) 14 (64%) 17 (55%) Projects with impact on pesticide use1 5 8 16 8 10 16 ... of which with PMP 3 6 10 6 6 3 ...of which with PMP and IPM 2 4 10 4 6 2 ... of which with IPM 5 4 13 6 9 9 ... of which without PMP and IPM 0 (0%) 2 (25%) 3 (23%) 2 (25%) 1 (10%) 6 (40%) Compliance at PAD stage2 60% 75% 63% 75% 60% 20% 1 = Projects with PMP due to e.g. purchase or application of pesticides, and projects without PMP but with a clear indication of having an increase in pesticide use (8 projects stating an increase in pesticide use, 3 with Environmental Management Plan stating concerns on increased pesticide use, 6 projects claiming to mitigate the negative impact of pesticides, 5 with a clear indication to intensify and increase production, and 6 with other clear indication of using increasing amounts of pesticides). 2 = Compliance defined as having a PMP in place when the project had an impact on pesticide use. The compliance improved significantly during the review period, from 14% in 1999 to varying degree between 58­100% by the first quarter of 2004. Source: Authors. addition, eight projects without pesticide cide consumption at the appraisal stage (57 in use intended to include IPM or similar activities 1999­2003) were further screened for pest man- (data not shown). The inclusion of IPM in agement safeguard rating, discussion on pest PSRs was less than that at the design stage (See management and IPM issues, and any changes in table 4.4). OP 4.09 compliance during the project imple- mentation (See table 4.4). The PSRs of projects SUPERVISION OF PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION with clear indication to increase pesticide use Realism of compliance with safeguards is diffi- typically paid little attention to pest management cult to measure. A recent Quality of Supervision and IPM issues despite the fact that most of these Assessment59 indicated that overall supervision projects (73%) mentioned IPM issues at the quality, after a steady improvement from fiscal appraisal stage. Attention to IPM issues in PSRs year 1997 to year 2000, has stabilized at about improved steadily, albeit slightly from 1999 to 90% satisfactory. Many aspects of supervision 2002. The lack of attention to pest management performance were rated strong, but supervision and IPM issues in PRSs may also reflect the fact quality for compliance with safeguard policies that there were no serious issues in the imple- for environmental assessments and pest manage- mentation of the prior agreed IPM plans or the ment was satisfactory at 72%. fact that aide memoirs are the preferred choice of To enforce compliance, considerable empha- TTLs to discuss project implementation in detail. sis on monitoring is required. To get a clearer In most PSRs, the rating for pest manage- picture on the situation, the agriculture/rural ment safeguard compliance was satisfactory or projects assessed for having an impact on pesti- not applicable, and remained the same through- out the project implementation. Seven percent of the projects (a total of 8 out of 57) also rated compliance satisfactory despite not having a 59QSA5, 2003. PMP at the appraisal stage. However, most of 29 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 30 Table 4.4. Pest Management Safeguard Rating and Discussion of Pest Management and IPM Issues in Project Status Reports (PSR) of 57 World Bank Agriculture/Rural Projects (1999­2003) Assessed for Having an Impact on Pesticide Consumption at the Project Appraisal Stage (PAD) Total Total (no) (%) 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total number of PADs 105 100 26 21 22 14 22 PADs with pesticide use1 57 54 14 9 13 9 12 of which with IPM activities 36 34 6 5 10 7 8 of which with PMP2 at PAD stage 29 28 2 4 10 6 7 Retrieved projects with PSRs 47 1003 12 8 13 8 6 PSRs of projects with IPM activities 7 15 1 1 3 2 0 PSRs mentioning plant protection (in addition to IPM) 8 17 2 1 2 3 0 Pesticide safeguard compliance rating Satisfactory--Highly S 33 70 9 4 11 7 3 Unsatisfactory 3 6 32 0 0 0 0 Not Applicable 10 21 0 4 2 1 3 Notes: Dropped (D) or not available (NA) 1 NA, 1 NA 1D 6 NA projects in 1999­2003 all had IPM activities 1 D at the PAD stage. 1Projects with PMP due to (e.g., purchase or application of pesticides), and projects without PMP but with a clear indication of having an increase in pesticide use (8 projects stating an increase in pesticide use; 3 with Environmental Management Plan stating concerns on increased pesticide use; 6 projects claiming to mitigate the negative impact by pesticides; 5 with a clear indication to intensify and increase production; and 6 with other clear indication of using increasing amounts of pesticides). 2The rating in two projects changed from U to S in the next PSR. 3The rating percentages in the total % column from this point downward present the proportion of retrieved projects with PSRs, not of the total number of projects in 1999­2004. Source: Authors. these projects were approved in 1999, when the A comparison between the internal and/or PMP requirement was in effect for the first time external supervision and evaluation reports and whereas the project preparation had taken place the regular World Bank PSR reports also verified prior to 1999. Information gleaned from the the challenges in supervision (See table 4.5). A World Bank internal reviews of application of its total of 19 projects were selected based on the safeguards in supervision indicated that the availability of recent reports by the World Bank supervision effort--increasingly by staff with and others. Regarding the design stage, devia- limited experience in agronomy or pest manage- tions from the safeguard policy were frequent and ment tend to concentrate on the major project claims for non-compliance valid in all but 2 cases objectives (often research, extension, and credit out of 15. The selected supervision missions were disbursement). In some cases where the pest able to identify major deviations from the pest management safeguard was not complied with management safeguard in 2 out of 12 projects. In included those with a major objective to encour- most cases, deviations were observed and fol- age private sector participation. However, when lowed up after external monitoring missions iden- such non-compliance was noted during supervi- tified them. These results indicate that due atten- sion (or during safeguard review of supervision) tion at the design phase does not guarantee corrective action was taken (See box 2.2). compliance during the implementation stage. 30 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 31 Table 4.5. The World Bank Agriculture/Rural Projects Flagged for Possible Non-compliance by Internal or External Reviews LCR MNA AF SA EAP ECA Total Number of projects with possible compliance issue 2 1 8 1 4 3 19 Design stage reviewed Internal1 0 0 7 0 0 0 7 External2 1 1 2 1 2 2 9 Validity of the claim3 1 1 8 0 2 2 13 Implementation stage reviewed Internal 0 0 7 0 0 1 8 External 1 1 1 0 2 1 5 Issue flagged in PSR4 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 Follow-up action by the project 1 -- 3 -- 1 1 5 1Internal reports refer to supervision/evaluation reports prepared by the World Bank's own quality assurance staff and/or consultants. The selected projects were approved between 1994 and 2001. 2External reports refer to reports prepared by independent organizations/individuals, (i.e., mainly PANNA.) 3Validity of the claim = whether the World Bank reviewer considered the claim valid. 4Value 0 = the Project Status Reports did not identify any deviations from safeguard compliance. Source: Authors. STAFF RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING reviews. Other regions either use consultants or depend on the QACU (Quality Assurance and One indicator of implementation of pre-stated Compliance Unit)/ARD specialists. objective is the hiring of staff and the amount of With the increasing visibility of the safe- effort provided into staff training. The World guard the World Bank started a comprehensive Bank's attempts to recruit IPM expertise from training program that consisted of a comprehen- the agro-chemical industry through the staff sive 1-day training of safeguard application in exchange program met with limited success. general, as well as a 0.5 or 1-day special training Staff secondments to the Agriculture and Rural covering a single safeguard. For example, in the Development Department from the Global IPM period of April 2003 to March 2004, a total of Facility and the GTZ organization helped to pro- 9 training sessions were organized, four specifi- mote the IPM agenda, however, only provided a cally provided in the regional offices (SA, LCR, temporary solution. More recently the World and AF), others were held at the headquarters Bank has hired a fulltime pest management (See table 4.6). expert. Comprehensive training was provided Although about 30% of the rural sector invest- through the World Bank's training program (by ment projects include pest management, few of World Bank Institute) and in some cases through the regions have been able to designate a dedi- regional training. During the period of April cated pest management expert among their staff. 2003­March 2004, a total of 5 training sessions The East Asia Region frequently uses consultants, were provided at headquarters with an average and the ECA Region has designated a staff mem- attendance of 15 staff members/half-day session. ber with an agronomy background as the pest This appears fairly low especially in the ECA, management specialist with part-time responsibil- LCR, and SA region (Note in table 4.3 that ECA ities in oversight of pest management safeguard and LCR are also the low outliers with respect to 31 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 32 Table 4.6. Participation in Training Sessions on Implementation of Pest Management Safeguards Policy OP 4.09 (March 03­March 04) AFR EAP ECA LCR MNA SAR Other Staff participating in OP 4.09 training at headquarters (4 sessions) 12 14 5 5 4 5 15 Total task team leaders1 (WB data 2004) 252 128 187 156 59 112 n/a Percentage TTLs trained 2003/04 5% 11% 3% 3% 7% 4% n/a Participants of in-country training2 (sessions) 25 (1) 0 0 48 (1) 0 76 (2) n/a 1Most TTLs attending the pest management safeguard training belonged to rural sector. 2In-country training for World Bank and project staff was provided in Uganda, India, Bangladesh, and Columbia. Source: Authors. PMPs). The LCR and SA regions, however, pest management was 5 times on the program, of organized special training in OP 4.09/pest man- which once on the main program and agement in the region (i.e., respectively Uganda 4 times in break-out sessions. Nearly all training and Columbia for 2 days, India and Sri Lanka) is provided at the headquarters; some of this is that was attended by local World Bank and proj- concentrated around Rural Week or other events ect staff. Other regions have organized safeguard during which country-office staff visit headquar- training in general in the region, but not specifi- ters. In some cases pest management related top- cally on pest management/OP 4.09. ics are part of the program of regional sector Unlike training in procurement or trust fund retreats. management, training in safeguards is not a pre- PROCUREMENT condition for task managers or for safeguard reviewers. The latter is of concern, as recognition Although the procurement of large volumes of of pest management related safeguard issues pesticides is deemed to be something of the requires expertise and understanding of the par- past (with possible exception of emergency ticular systems and alternatives, whether in agri- programs) many projects appear to procure culture, health or vegetation control. However, small volumes of pesticides (See table 4.2). training and enforcement may result in greater The purchases include herbicides for vegeta- attention on safeguard issues, including pest tion control in power and transport projects, management, as indicated in Table 4.2. The num- vector control in health (including the use of ber of projects (that included pesticide use) with impregnated bed nets) and various agricultural a PMP increased from 11% in 1999 to 54% in and CDD interventions. 2003 in all four sectors whereas the greatest Direct large scale pesticide procurement, improvement was in agriculture/rural projects although decreasing, may be facilitated by con- from 14% in 1999 to 58­77% in years tinuing the on-going effort to develop better pro- 2001­2003. curement manual and templates. Much of the Apart from safeguard training, training in procurement, however, relates to smaller vol- pest management is generally limited to occa- umes in CDD projects, on-lending projects and sional coverage of relevant topics during the or (agricultural) research. Some regions, ECA "Rural Week," an annual venue for dialogue and for example, have prepared specific manuals for training for rural staff, and covering contempo- the procurement of (agricultural) goods through rary issues. Of the 8 rural weeks held since 1997, on-lending or CDD projects. Safeguard condi- 32 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 33 tions include monitoring and/or annual reporting Bank has launched new programs and projects of the aggregate portfolio of the communities, with direct impact on the pest management credit banks or other group-clients to prevent policy. Principal among these, the Africa adverse cumulative effects when numerous on- Stockpile Program, in collaboration with FAO, lending clients would borrow for pesticide or WWF, PAN-UK, PAN-Africa, NEPAD (New other commodities, products or equipment that Partnership for Africa's Development) and the could affect human health or the environment. private sector. This program aims to help African The preparation of detailed World Bank doc- countries cope with obsolete stock of pesticides uments, such as project implementation plans that threaten human health and the environment. and tender documents, need to be managed by The project on the Demonstration of Alternatives trained staff or consultants who are familiar with to Chlordane and Mirex in Termite Control aims World Bank requirements and/or past experi- to phase out the persistent organic pollutants, ence. The pesticide tender documents aim to help Chlordane and Mirex, through environmentally in moving towards this sustainability goal. sustainable and cost-effective integrated termite Recent reviews of compliance with World Bank management, based on baiting systems. Sector- safeguards and other experiences with the pro- wide approaches, and close collaboration with curement of pesticides indicate that task leaders, international agencies (especially FAO and Project Implementation Unit staff and others WHO) are also successfully implemented in the involved in World Bank financed projects are health sector (Malaria Booster Program) and in neither always aware of best practices nor of the the agricultural sector (the Africa Emergency risk and need for compliance. Locust Project). NEW PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS In part driven by the recently adopted Stockholm Convention and by the World Bank's interest in sector wide approaches (SWAPS), the World 33 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 34 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS In the past, investments in agricultural intensifi- of pesticides by safeguard policies with associ- cation were often associated with an increase in ated institutional mechanisms for their enforce- external inputs such as fertilizers and chemical ment; and (b) promotion of IPM in development pesticides. More recently, new investments are projects and programs. The latter has been more economically, socially and environmentally attempted mainly through extending IPM techni- based. This holistic approach is seeking to cal support for projects involving investments in enhance agricultural productivity (through effi- crop production. These efforts have met with only cient use of agricultural technology), to improve limited success. The adoption of IPM practices by the livelihood of the rural poor and to foster an farmers has been relatively limited in view of the environment conducive to sustainable rural investments made for its promotion. The low development. Within this context, the Bank con- adoption of IPM has been attributed a number of siders integrated pest and crop management as a reasons with varying relative importance. These cost-effective and sustainable agricultural prac- range from technical, institutional, social, cul- tice to increase farmer income, foster growth and tural, economic, educational, informational, to food security by reducing pest losses while pro- policy constraints. The traditional response has tecting the health of producers, consumers and been to allocate more funding to alleviate one of the environment. more of these constraints. The most important Chemical pesticides have indeed been a pow- reason, however, remains with the end user. erful tool in managing pests in various sectors Farmers often address this dilemma in economic and ecological conditions. They can be effective, benefits and their decisions are based on whether fast acting, adaptable to all crops and situations. their efforts will result in actual profits. When first applied, a plant protection strategy The economic incentives for the adoption of based exclusively on chemical pesticides can IPM in many cases start with a significant reduc- result in impressive production gains. However, tion in production costs, but can also come from despite these initial gains, excessive use of insec- two other sources: (a) internalizing the potential ticides has proven to be ecologically unsound, harmful external impacts of pesticides in their leading to the destruction of natural enemies, the price and removal of price distorting direct and increase of pest resistance pest resurgence and indirect subsidies; and (b) price premiums paid outbreaks of secondary pests. These conse- for food products grown under IPM regimes. The quences have often resulted in higher production former calls for sound national pesticide policies costs and lost markets due to undesirable pesti- and the latter for technical, marketing and certi- cide residue levels, as well as environmental and fication competence to reach the recently opened human health costs. Many development agencies markets created by consumer demand for pesti- and international research organizations have cide free and organic food products. In addition, recognized these negative effects of chemical an improved regulatory system is needed to pesticides and many, including the World Bank, reduce the utilization of undesired pest manage- have pursued the strategy of promoting IPM as ment methods, thus improving the prospects for an alternative crop protection and springboard IPM approaches. towards sustainable agricultural production. The In this context, and in view of the trend strategy has in most cases been two-pronged: towards policy based lending and restricted (a) monitoring the procurement and application resources available for agricultural development, 34 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 35 it is important that the World Bank and the devel- ing the issues, conducting preliminary studies, opment community at large revisit their strate- helping to design solutions and in monitoring gies regarding pest management and IPM. implementation. Considering the number and diversity of stakeholders and the potential asso- ciated conflict of interest, the World Bank is well PROACTIVE AND SELECTIVE placed to play a catalytic role as an honest broker APPROACH TO ADVANCING in such policy dialogues. An added benefit of SUSTAINABLE PEST MANAGEMENT enhanced national policy-based support to IPM is the need for capacity building in the client In order to allocate resources efficiently, and to countries' own safeguard policies and good prac- enhance the impact of policy dialogue and tice as development assistance shifts from proj- investments in IPM, a more targeted strategy ect support to development policy based support. may be considered by development agencies, This focus may also be supported by identifying such as the World Bank. and monitoring clear and measurable indicators A targeted promotion of more intensive IPM (e.g., yield losses to pests, pesticide consumption programs in those countries/areas where the ben- per capita, health indicators for farm workers, efits of IPM are likely to be higher, the resource and pesticide residue in water and in the food use justified and opportunities for IPM adoption chain; area under IPM production) which are likely, (i.e., countries with a high pesticide con- consistently included in policy dialogue, CAS sumption, prominent cash crop production, large reviews, PRSPs, and portfolio reviews. monoculture/sole cropping areas, access to high value markets for pesticide-free products, coun- tries with a conducive policy environment for IMPROVING THE WORLD BANK'S IPM or with particular risk of pesticide exposure PERFORMANCE IN IPM and pesticide related health problems). IMPLEMENTATION IN OPERATIONS Agricultural and economic benefits that can be obtained include decreased pesticide use, Improvement of World Bank performance can be reduced likelihood of emergence of pesticide achieved by paying more attention to project resistant pests, reduced production costs, higher design and supervision through improvement of output prices and lower public health costs. staff skills, in particular those of task team mem- The above approach is relatively easy where bers and operational staff in country offices. governments have expressed interest in develop- Further effort also needs to be made to increase ing their pesticide policies and in promoting awareness among managers and safeguard IPM, but may be more complicated when this reviewers. In addition, it is essential to address interest and especially when the respective sector the need to include sufficient resources to build dialogue is lacking. Table 5.1 lists a number of up borrower's capacity in pest management pol- entry points for such a discussion, whether icy, research and management issues. within agriculture (especially with the renewed The World Bank task teams could be helped interest of countries in SPS and international by the availability of technical specialists (or trade) or in health (especially where there are staff with pest management skills), as well solid data on farm worker intoxication and water as by manuals and templates for World Bank contamination, (i.e., in LAC and Asia). This dia- staff and project staff on pest management that logue can be strengthened through coordination relate to specific and relevant issues (i.e., pest with international agencies (including CGIAR, management in the non-agricultural sector such WHO, FAO, and others), and through involve- as health, energy, and transport or related to ment of NGOs, and the private sector in identify- specific lending instruments) and pesticide 35 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 36 Table 5.1. Entry Points for Initiating a Policy Dialogue on Pest Management with Borrower Countries Entry point Examples of policy discussion or projects Global data show excessively high pesticide consumption, either in terms Limited experience with Pakistan. of volume or in expenditure. Potential candidates include selected Latin American countries. Global data show excessively high incidence of pesticide toxicity among CGIAR's work in Ecuador is a powerful example, but farm families. so far rarely used because of the lack of data. Better public health data may help in using this approach. Country has considerable stock of obsolete pesticides. Countries participating in the Stockpile Program in MNA and SSA regions. Countries that have substantial or growing domestic pesticide industry. China, India Countries where a large number of international pesticide companies India, China, Pakistan are present. Countries where agricultural sector policy indicates diversification into Horticultural production in Kenya. crops which are traditionally high pesticide users Promotion of exports in Tunisia. (e.g. horticulture, cotton). Irrigation Project in the coastal region of Peru. Country wants to improve sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards (SPS) Various countries have approached the World Bank to enhance trade. Data on refused exports, or below-price exports can be including Tunisia (ASSP), Romania (ASSP), Colombia used in the assessment. and Brazil. Country wants to borrow for pest management related investments. Borrowers for locust and vector control. (Agricultural) research projects, especially competitive research. Turkey Agricultural Research Project. National Allocate a certain funding block to IPM research. Agricultural Technology Project in India. EA during project Project Concept Note indicated a need for PMP. Iran Integrated Water and Land Development Project PMP discussion may lead to broader Government interest in improving (pending). pest management policy. Project supervision shows flaws in safeguards compliance, and country Armenia ARP (completed), Romania ASSP (ongoing) wants to correct this. Country wants to mainstream pilot work by NGO's, CGIAR or others. Indonesia IPM (completed). Partnership with international organizations whether locally Malaria control projects (ongoing) African Stockpiles or strategically. Program in alliance with FAO and WWF (pending). Partnership with private industry. IPM initiatives with Masterfoods in Indonesian cocoa industry. Source: Authors. procurement (i.e., Pest Management Guide- and supervision packages of projects that book). As current skills are stretched far, it is rec- include pest management activities should be ommended to review and reassess the need to reviewed by technical specialists, and more hire and/or train specialist staff or to obtain nec- attention should be given to possible formal or essary expertise through partnerships with expert informal monitoring of safeguard compliance organizations. It is also recommended that link- by the private sector, non-governmental organ- ages with regional and country focal points on izations or by the civil society (i.e., the com- pest management, pesticides, safeguards and munities themselves). those for international protocols and conventions The experience of using FAO and the Global (Montreal protocol and Stockholm Convention) IPM facility technical expertise in project design be strengthened. and supervision and involving NGOs to monitor Supervision performance needs to be implementation has been positive and should be improved by continuing current quality assur- encouraged, and expanded to a wider group of ance monitoring of supervision. PSRs/ISRs NGOs. Similarly, preliminary experiences with 36 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 37 community monitoring have been promising, the concept of IPM as well as specific IPM tech- and can be considered at the project design stage nologies and policies; (c) facilitate compliance as it is the case for the Africa Stockpile with pest management policy by providing back- Programme. Partnerships with technical and pol- stopping support in the preparation, implementa- icy groups in academia, NGOs, farmers and tion and supervision of projects; (d) catalyze the other professional associations, with specialized dissemination of knowledge and information international centers and institutes, such as the through workshops, training courses and SP-IPM, CGIAR institutions, AVRDC, ICIPE, exchange visits; and (e) help the Bank in identi- GIF or CABI, as well as other international fying those technologies that are ready to be organizations, such as WHO, ILO (International main-streamed through Bank supported pro- Labor Organization) and FAO, are essential in grams. Examples of successful partnerships obtaining technical input, local buy-in and a bal- include the Africa Emergency Locust Project, anced view of this dynamic field. ICIPE, for where the technical expertise of the FAO example, not only has a sound research program Emergency Center for Locust Operations has on IPM in public health and agriculture, but has been crucial to the project; the Africa Stockpile also promoted commercialization of IPM tech- Programme featuring a close collaboration with nologies that are specifically targeted for rural the FAO obsolete pesticide unit, the World development in Africa. Wildlife fund and the Pesticide Action Network These partnerships should be strengthened (United Kingdom and Africa). Other potential to: (a) develop and support IPM programs as a outcomes include the collaboration with the "good practice on specific crops, livestock or International Potato Center on the linkages of public health projects in developing countries; agriculture, pesticides, and health. (b) raise awareness and support dissemination of 37 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 38 REFERENCES Abate, T., A.van Huis, and. J. K. O. 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Food Safety and Agricultural Health Selected World Bank financed Projects in Africa." Standards: Challenges and Opportunities for Washington, DC: World Bank. Developing Country Exports. A Research Program Synthesis. A Joint Product of the International Trade 41 3535-Book.pdf 6/22/05 12:39 PM Page 42 ANNEX 1. POTENTIAL SIDE EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE USE The debate on pesticide effects is generally strat- are relatively safe for mammals but are very ified by effects on health, environment, econ- toxic for lower animals. omy, and trade and--in particular relating to · Presence of pesticides in the environment methyl bromide--on global implications. The that may further affect public health. positive effects are linked to reduction in vector- There is some evidence that meat-eating borne diseases (especially malaria) and plant human population can accumulate certain pests, to labor saving in agriculture, road and pesticides in their bodies and in the longer power line maintenance, to erosion reduction in run be affected similarly to other predators agriculture, and to the production of esthetically at the top of the food chain. attractive produce with extended shelf life or storage. The negative effects include: ECONOMIC EFFECTS HEALTH EFFECTS Improper pesticide application has major effect on beneficial insects including · Direct poisoning among farm workers and · risk of eliminating bees, silkworms and or food industry. other economically important insects. This is still a major issue in developing · detrimental effect on predator arthropods countries. In Central America, for example, ("bugs") that largely control populations of case rate is 171/100,000 in the general insect pests. population, but a staggering 76% among farm workers (mainly fruits, vegetable and banana plantation workers). An economic TRADE EFFECTS analysis indicates the cost per case is at least 5 times the daily wage. · Developing countries that export · Indirect effects on others exposed either agricultural products are faced with fairly through contact or pesticide (residue) high standards of food safety applied in consumption. developed countries, and risk refusal of their More sophisticated research is pointing to the product when MRL are exceeded. fact that these effects can not be generalized · Limiting trade: developing countries see the but are product specific, which complicates stricter application of MRL and emphasis the analysis. However, among the major on "safe" pesticides as a tool to limit trade effects of pesticide are cancers and endocrinal to developed countries. changes (including effect on fertility, refocus Details in Altieri and Nichols, 2001; APO, 2002; puberty, child development etc.) London et al. 2002; Maredia et al. 2003, Murray et al, 2002; Pingali and Rosengrant, 1994: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Yudelman et al. 1998. · Effect on plant biodiversity. · Effect on animal biodiversity. Especially the newer pesticides (including pyrethroids) that 42