Photo ©: Flickr / storri Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North Africa This policy brief presents an update on the state of food security and the gender gap in food insecurity in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region during the May 2023 COVID-19 pandemic using findings from a large-scale phone survey in 10  MENA countries, conducted by the World Values Survey (WVS) Association.1,2 The survey interviewed 12,366 respondents, distributed almost equally across Algeria, Palestine, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and Egypt. Middle East Key Findings and North 1) In all countries, but one, more than 70% of individuals reported experiences of not being able to afford food Africa Gender 2) Women are disproportionately affected by food insecurity, with a higher likelihood of sacrificing food within the family Innovation Lab 3) Experiences of female heads do not necessarily reflect the experiences of The Middle East and North Africa females in male-headed households Gender Innovation Lab (MNAGIL) 4) Gender attitudes permeate unequal experiences of food insecurity between carries out impact evaluations and men and women inferential research to produce 5) Consequences of food insecurity include lower well-being and a higher rigorous evidence on what works in incidence of gender-based violence closing gaps in assets, economic opportunities, and agency between women and men, and how closing Context these gaps can help achieve other Recent crises of the COVID-19 pandemic and current rapid inflation expose fault development outcomes. Ultimately, lines in the sustainability and affordability of food supply. Low- and middle- MNAGIL promotes the adoption of income countries are especially at risk. The recent MENA Economic Update policies and interventions that are (April 2023) has highlighted the issue of rising food price inflation, particularly shown to close gender gaps and for the poor, and the pathways through which this exacerbates food insecurity improve the well-being of women and child malnutrition, resulting in long-run effects. MENA has one of the and men in the Middle East and highest prevalence of severely food insecure people in the world, comparable to North Africa. South Asia (18 percent) and behind Sub-Saharan Africa (22 percent); more than double the prevalence in East Asia & Pacific (7 percent).3 Child malnutrition is 1 The policy brief summarizes the results of a more comprehensive World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, examining the relationship between gender and food security in MENA (Chaudhury, El-Shal, and Halim, 2023). 2 Food insecurity is usually measured and defined using FAO’s Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES). Questions in the World Values Survey hint at food insecurity, but they may not capture the extent of food insecurity consistent with FAO’s definition. 3 Andree, B.P.J. (2022): Machine Learning Guided Outlook of Global Food Insecurity Consistent with Macroeconomic Forecasts. #2 Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North America not just an immediate concern but lowers education/learning outcomes, health outcomes, and earnings well into adulthood. These effects may also be intergenerational.4 However, due to a lack of sex-disaggregated data, few studies could speak to the unequal impacts of food insecurity by gender. Sex-disaggregation is almost exclusively limited to the contrast between female- and male-headed households. Previous studies have highlighted the inadequacy of this comparison.5 The composition of female-headed households—which usually lacks a male income earner due to migration, widowhood, or divorce—is uniquely different from male-headed households. Further, scarcity is often experienced differently by different members of the same household, where due to gender norms, women and girls tend to get lower priority in food consumption during economic crises. As highlighted in the MENA Economic Update, mothers play a crucial role given that the long-term effects occur through child malnutrition. Thus, the differential effects by gender are important. What did we do?45 What did we find? We use a novel survey collected in collaboration with the The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food security in World Values Survey (WVS) amidst the COVID-19 pandemic MENA communities has been devastating, with high-income in 2021 to analyze the gender differences in experiences of countries being no exception. More than three quarters food insecurity by women and men. World Values Surveys (77 percent) of respondents in 10 MENA countries reported an are cross-sectional surveys that assess individual attitudes increase in the number of families not affording to buy enough and values, such as cultural values; attitudes and beliefs food to eat in their community since the beginning of the towards gender, family, and religion; attitudes and experience COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020. The largest increase was of poverty; education, health, and security; social tolerance reported in Lebanon (88  percent of respondents), followed and trust; and attitudes towards multilateral institutions. In by Iraq (87  percent), Tunisia (83 percent), Iran (83  percent), addition to the standard WVS modules, this round includes Morocco (82 percent), Jordan (80 percent), Palestine questions related to COVID-19, such as perceptions of (76 percent), Egypt (74 percent), and Algeria (70 percent). In COVID-19 effects on the respondent, of their family, and in March 2021, communities continued to struggle as many the community. The survey covers 10 countries in the Middle people had lost their jobs or their ability to earn income, and East and North Africa (MENA) region: Algeria, Palestine, Iran, some had lost their businesses. Even in high-income countries Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and such as Saudi Arabia, a little less than half of the respondents Egypt. A total of 12,366 adult respondents (aged 18+) were (46 percent) reported an increase in the number of families interviewed via phone between March and June 2021.6 The unable to afford enough food to eat since the beginning of survey is representative at the national level.7 the pandemic. Female respondents tend to report more of an increase in the number of families unable to afford to buy Importantly, given the individual focus of WVS, this survey enough food to eat in their community since the beginning of offers a rare perspective on the individual experiences of the pandemic, except for Iran. The most significant gender women and men inside the household. differences in responses are observed in Algeria, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia (Figure 1). This could be associated with the To explore how gender attitudes permeate experiences of food pattern that women tend to be in charge of food purchases, insecurity, we construct an index of “Attitudes toward Gender and may be more aware of the community’s inability to Equality” from 11 questions in the survey. For more details on purchase as much food since the pandemic. the construction of this index, please refer to Chaudhury, El-Shal, and Halim (2023; henceforth, referred to as CEH 2023). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food security in MENA communities 4 Gatti, Roberta; Lederman, Daniel; Islam, Asif M.; Bennett, Federico R.; has been devastating, with high-income Andree, Bo Pieter Johannes; Assem, Hoda; Lotfi, Rana; Mousa, Mennatallah Emam. 2023. Altered Destinies: The Long-Term Effects countries being no exception. of Rising Prices and Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North Africa. MENA Economic Update; April 2023. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/bb648ce6-7265-4290-8ffc-52292de35065 5 See for example World Bank Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report Chapter 5 (2018). 6 There are slight differences in the interview timeframe. For example, in Lebanon, the survey was concluded in a week (April 2-8), while it took two months to finish the survey in Iran (April 14-June 19). All 10 country surveys started in a similar timeframe, between March 28 and April 17. 7 Stratified random sampling was used to minimize selection bias. However, it is worth noting that the response rate varies across coun- tries, from a low of 8 percent in Iran to a high of 79 percent in Lebanon and Morocco. #3 Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North America Figure 1 Share of individuals reporting an increase in families not affording to buy enough food to eat in their community since the beginning of COVID-19 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Male 10 0 Female Algeria Egypt Iran Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestine Saudi Arabia Tunisia Note: 95% Confidence Interval Source: Author’s calculations using data from the World Values Survey, World Bank, 2021. The COVID-19 pandemic unevenly impacted women’s food (52 percent) reported eating less compared to 42 percent of security in MENA: women often eat less, sacrificing for male respondents. In Tunisia, female respondents are 9 ppts their families. The WVS does not distinguish individual vs. more likely to report eating less than their male counterparts. family experiences of food scarcity. The best indicator to Regression estimates on all 10 MENA countries suggest that, capture individual vulnerabilities inside the household is on average, women are about 2 ppts and 4 ppts more likely to the likelihood of sacrificing individual food consumption for say they have sometimes or often eaten less for the sake of other household members. With the exception of Lebanon other family members, respectively (CEH 2023). and Palestine, larger shares of female respondents (than of male respondents) reported that they ate less sometimes or often in the 10 months preceding the survey to make sure The COVID-19 pandemic unevenly other family members had enough to eat (Figure 2). The impacted women’s food security most significant gender differences are observed in Egypt and Tunisia. In Egypt, more than half of female respondents in MENA: women often eat less, sacrificing for their families. Figure 2 Share of individuals eating less sometimes or often in the last 10 months preceding the survey to make sure other family members had enough to eat 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Male 0 Female Algeria Egypt Iran Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestine Saudi Arabia Tunisia Note: 95% Confidence Interval Source: Author’s calculations using data from the World Values Survey, World Bank, 2021. #4 Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North America Women experience greater disadvantages inside the which are often greater in magnitude, that women inside the household than across male- and female-headed household face relative to other male household members. households. Due to social norms, the patriarch of household Female-headed households are around 2 ppts more likely to is more often considered as the head of household than sacrifice food consumption than male-headed households the matriarch. Female-headed households often represent (2.6 ppts and 2.2 ppts among male and female respondents, a minority share of households without a patriarch, due respectively). However, this gap is smaller in comparison to to divorce, widowhood, or migration. In our sample, 7 out the gap between male and female respondents within the of 10  households are male-headed. In addition, there are household. In male-headed households, female respondents more women in male-headed households (44 percent) are 5.8 ppts more likely to sacrifice food, while in female- than female-headed households (29 percent). Estimates of headed households, female respondents are 5.5 ppts more gender-differentiated impacts on food insecurity that rely on likely to sacrifice food than male respondents. comparison between male and female-headed households are problematic for two reasons. First, it misrepresents Women experience greater disadvantages the experience of the average female in the population. Further, it could miss out on additional disadvantages, inside the household than across male- and female-headed households. Figure 3 Panel A. Panel B. Due to gender norms, households are more Gender gap in the likelihood of sacrificing food commonly considered as male-headed than consumption is greater within household than female-headed between households Distribution of respondents by gender of Likelihood of eating less for other respondent and of household head (%) hosehold members (%) 50 50% 40 45% 30 30% 20 15% 10 0 0% Male-headed HH Female-headed HH Male-headed HH Female-headed HH Male respondent Female respondent Male respondent Female respondent Attitudes to gender equality permeate household behaviors roles (less gender equal) than female respondents. toward female food insecurity. In all 10 countries, male Regression estimates controlling for the gender of the respondents tend to share slightly more traditional gender respondent, an index for gender-equitable values,8 and 8 The gender-equitable values index takes a simple average of 11 ordinal questions on attitudes and values towards equality between men and women. All 11 questions have a Likert scale (1-4) ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree”. We reverse the order on some of the questions to ensure that larger values consistently point to more equal gender values and attitudes. The list of questions includes: (i) safety perceptions of public transport for women and girls, (ii) relative importance of university education for boys vs. girls, (iii) perception of business performance by the gender of executives, (iv) role of men as money earners and women as caregivers, (v) women studying and working in STEM field areas, (vi) rights of men vs. women to jobs when jobs are scarce, (vii) girls/women engaging in income generation activities outside the house, (viii) societal scrutiny faced by married women who work outside of home and returns after 5 PM, (ix) possibility of adult females to work (or start own business) to help their families recover after the Corona pandemic, (x) pre-school children suffer if their mothers work, and (xi) stigma against women putting their children at childcare centers to work. #5 Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North America the interaction between the two confirm the previous Attitudes to gender equality finding that women are more likely to sacrifice food than permeate household behaviors men (Figure 4). Moreover, it indicates that higher levels of gender-equitable values and attitudes are associated with a toward female food insecurity. significantly lower likelihood of food insecurity. Interestingly, higher gender-equitable values and attitudes appear to Figure 4 mitigate the negative effects of being a woman on her or her family’s food insecurity. This suggests that gender values are correlated with the allocation of resources, including Factors associated with sacrificing food food, and therefore, women’s disadvantages (relative to 1 men) inside the household. 0.5 Food insecurity is linked to increased risks of domestic 0 violence against women. In all countries, except Algeria, respondents reporting food insecurity are more likely -0.5 to report heightened risks of domestic violence against Female Gender-equitable Female * Gender- women in their community since the beginning of COVID-19 values equitable values (Figure 5). The relationship between domestic violence and Note: the chart shows coefficients from an ordered logit food insecurity might run in both directions. On one hand, regression of sacrificing food consumption for other household members on a female respondent dummy, an economic hardships and food scarcity could heighten index of gender-equitable values, the interaction of the stress levels within the household, which increases the two, country fixed effects, demographic characteristics likelihood of verbal and physical arguments.9 On the other (age, urban residence, educational attainment, marital hand, sacrificing women’s food consumption could be a status, and household size), income level, and a dummy for experiencing an income decline since COVID-19 manifestation of domestic violence. While this analysis pandemic. Positive (negative) coefficients indicate an is not able to establish a causal relationship in either increase (decrease) in the likelihood of sacrificing food. direction, the pattern suggests a close correlation between the two factors, which may underscore the  long-term impacts of a food crisis, especially among women. Figure 5 Share of respondents and/or their families reporting an increase in domestic violence against women in their community since the beginning of COVID-19 by food security state 100 Food insecurity 80 is linked to increased risks 60 of domestic 40 violence against 20 Male women. 0 Female Algeria Egypt Iran Iraq Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestine Saudi Arabia Tunisia Note: 95% Confidence Interval Source: Author’s calculations using data from the World Values Survey, World Bank, 2021. 9 A similar pattern is observed among migrant communities in Indonesia at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Food insecurity is one of the strongest predictors of exposure to gender-based violence (Halim, Can, and Perova 2020). #6 Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North America Government response and state aids were inadequate Women are more reliant on state aid and relatives as a coping in protecting households from food insecurity during strategy than men, with the latter significantly reducing the COVID-19 crisis. On average, only 13 percent of risks to food security during COVID-19. On average, female respondents reported receiving additional income from respondents are more likely to rely on state aid and relatives state aid, which pales in comparison to the 70 percent as compared to males who were more likely to rely on their of respondents who reported increased risks of food own business, bank loans, and savings. Around 18 percent insecurity. Regression estimates reveal that perceptions of female respondents reported help from relatives, a key of adequate government response in curbing the spread informal social safety net, as the income source their family of the COVID-19 pandemic are not associated with used to live during COVID-19 days in 2021 compared to lower food insecurity nor have it mitigated household 14  percent of male respondents. Taking money out of income decline.10 In addition, while male respondents savings is another coping strategy in a time of shock. and female-headed households relying on state aid Around 31 percent of male respondents reported savings as are more likely to be food insecure, state aid has not the income source their family used to live during COVID-19 managed to mitigate the negative effect of household compared to 30 percent of female respondents. This pattern income decline on food security. Only in two countries may be due to the fact that women in MENA lack access did state aid have a significant mitigating effect: Saudi to credits and savings compared to men.11 Regression Arabia and Tunisia. Interestingly, in both countries, state estimates on all 10 MENA countries suggest that help from aid was associated with a reduced negative effect of relatives significantly mitigated the effect of income decline household income decline on the food security state of since COVID-19 on food security for both men and women female-headed households in particular. Saudi Arabia (and for male-headed households). Savings reduced risks provided the strongest income support for households, to food security for women but not for men (and male- replacing 50 percent or more of lost salary. As for Tunisia, headed households) (CEH 2023). the World Bank estimates are consistent with previous findings that those who received emergency government support in Tunisia were 15 ppts less likely to be unable to Women are more reliant on state buy their typical amount of food due to price increases aid and relatives as a coping than those who did not receive support, and that no similar associations were detected in Egypt, Jordan, nor strategy than men, with the latter Morocco. The effectiveness of state aid in Tunisia may significantly reducing risks to be justified by its early and strong economic support in food security during COVID-19. general—providing a comprehensive package of more than just income support. One hypothesis to be examined in further work is that the design and targeting of state aid in Tunisia may have been more efficient than the rest of the MENA countries. Government response and state aids were inadequate in protecting households from food insecurity during the COVID-19 crisis. Photo ©: Shutterstock / ehasdemir 10 The regression estimates food insecurity on household experiencing income decline, respondent perception of the adequacy of the government's response in curbing the spread of COVID-19, and the interaction between the two, in addition to household and individual characteristics. 11 However, it is possible that households pool resources such that while male and female household members seek assistance from different sources, they both benefit from the assistance (equally or unequally). #7 Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North America Insights for policy Persistent food insecurity in MENA post COVID-19 and Policymakers should calibrate and prioritize responses such the global ramifications of the ongoing war in Ukraine as expanding cash and in-kind transfer programs where will have serious gendered implications on domestic beneficiaries are predominantly women and agriculture violence, wellbeing, and aspirations. Using machine programs where there is potential to boost food production/ learning projections, the prevalence of food insecurity availability and increase female economic empowerment. in MENA is estimated to be 17.6 percent, predicting that Our results suggest a few implications for policy: almost one in five people in MENA are likely to be food insecure in 2023.12 Given that in most MENA countries, women experience higher levels of food insecurity, food Policymakers price inflation will further exacerbate gender disparities. should calibrate and Negative shocks can not only have immediate effects prioritize responses on domestic violence against women, wellbeing, and aspirations, but also multi-generational effects on development outcomes in education, health, and income—among other areas. 1. Rapid welfare monitoring, such as through phone surveys, should be adapted to ensure individual representation of men Persistent food insecurity in MENA and women in the population. Many women post COVID-19 and the global reside in male-headed households, and ramifications of the ongoing war in their vulnerabilities are not captured by surveys that could only contrast male and Ukraine will have serious gendered female-headed households. implications on domestic violence, wellbeing, and aspirations. 2. The expansion of adaptive social protection programs should pay attention to the needs of women in male-headed households. These women are often not well-targeted by social protection programs because of the preconceived notions that female-headed households are the “only” vulnerable group. 3. Expanding access to credits and savings to women can help build their resilience to negative economic shocks. In the absence of state aid or financial services to smooth consumption, women may resort to negative coping mechanisms such as reducing their food consumption for other household members. Photo ©: Shutterstock / Robert Hoetink 12 Andree, Bo Pieter Johannes. 2022. “Machine Learning Guided Outlook of Global Food Insecurity Consistent with Macroeconomic Forecasts.” Policy Research Working Papers, October. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-10202 #8 Unequal Scarcity: A Gendered Analysis of Food Insecurity in the Middle East and North America Acknowledgments This brief is a product of MNAGIL. It was prepared by Nazmul Chaudhury, Amira El-Shal, and Daniel Halim, with inputs from Asif Islam and Tijan Bah. We gratefully acknowledge funding from the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE) to carry out this work. UFGE has received generous contributions from Australia, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States. For more information Nazmul Chaudhury nchaudhury@worldbank.org Daniel Halim dhalim@worldbank.org References Andree, Bo Pieter Johannes. 2022. “Machine Learning Guided Outlook of Global Food Insecurity Consistent with Macroeconomic Forecasts.” Policy Research Working Papers, October. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-10202 Chaudhury, Nazmul; El-Shal, Amira; Halim, Daniel. 2023. “Gender and Food Security in MENA.” Policy Research Working Papers, Forthcoming. Washington, DC: World Bank. El-Shal, Amira; Moustafa, Eman; Rostom, Nada; Abdelfattah, Yasmine. 2022. Social Safety Nets and Food Insecurity in the Time of COVID-19: Selected MENA Countries. 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"What Factors Exacerbate and Mitigate the Risk of Gender-Based Violence During COVID-19?." East Asia & Pacific Gender Innovation Lab Policy Brief. Washington, DC: World Bank.