Moving from Traditional to Transformational Approaches to Women’s Economic Empowerment A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM IN COLLABORATION WITH © 2023 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 202-473-1000 | www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. 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Johnson Photo credits: Intellicap Team | World Bank B Moving from Traditional to Transformational Approaches to Women’s Economic Empowerment A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM i Acknowledgments This study was undertaken by a team led by Ashutosh Raina, Social Development Specialist, and comprising Matthew Stephens, Senior Social Development Specialist; Sybil Chaidiac, Senior Program Officer, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; Geoffrey Leparteleg, Head, Livelihoods Program, Kenya DRDIP National Project Implementation Unit; and Camila Linneman, Consultant, Social Sustainability and Inclusion Global Practice. An FSD Kenya team comprising Wanza Namboya, Amrik Heyer, and Nancy Atello led the coordi- nation of the study. Intellicap team comprising Karnika Yadav and Shailesh Nagar led the study design, field assessment, data analysis, and preparation of the draft report. The team would like to acknowledge the contributions of Intellicap and FSD Kenya without whom the study could not have been completed. A Quality Enhancement Review (QER) meeting for this paper was held on February 15, 2023. The meeting was chaired by Louise Cord (Global Director, SSIDR). Comments were provided by peer reviewers Ragini Praful Dalal (Sector Leader, SAEDR), Vinay Kumar Vutukuru (Senior Agriculture Economist, SAEA2), Marion Kimani (Operations Officer, CAECS), M. Yaa Pokua Afriyie Oppong (Pro- gram Leader, SAEDR), and Lucia C. Hanmer (Lead Economist, HGNDR). Additional comments were provided by Andrew Roberts (Senior Social Development Specialist, SAES2). The team would like to thank Helene Carlsson Rex, Practice Manager SSI, for co-chairing the peer review meeting of this paper. The team would like to thank Kenya DRDIP National and County level PIUs, county government officials, and representatives of various organizations who participated in consultation workshops and provided inputs. We acknowledge funding provided by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which made this report possible. ii Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v 1 Introduction and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 Assessing the Traditional Model of CDD Livelihood Programs in Lagging Areas: KDRDIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4 Lessons Learned from WEE Programs Globally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 5 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Appendix A. List of Similar Programs Identified for Key Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . 86 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Boxes 3.1 Case Study: Higher Uptake of Traditional Livelihoods Despite Low Returns and Associated Risks . . . . . . 26 3.2 Case Study: Access to Interest-Free Funding from the Program and Its Positive Impact on Income from Traditional Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 5.1 Relevant Components of the World Bank’s Green Resilient and Inclusive Development and Local Economic Development Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 Figures ES.1 Brief Snapshot of Beneficiary Survey Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix 2.1 Proposed Conceptual Framework for Measuring WEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.2 Approach for the Gendered Review of the KDRDIP Livelihood Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.3 Well-Being Domains and a Broad Set of Indicators for Gender Gap Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 2.4 Stages of the Quantitative Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.5 Stages Involved in Reviewing Similar Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.1 Overview of KDRDIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.2 Implementation Steps for Component 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.3 Overview of Businesses Undertaken by Community Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.4 Brief Snapshot of Beneficiary Survey Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.5 Economic Achievement at the Center of Gendered Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 iii 3.6 Proportion of Quantitative Survey Respondents Reporting Improvements on Key Economic Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.7 Enterprise Activities Undertaken by Community Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.8 Changes in Contribution to Household Income Before and After KDRDIP Community Group Enterprise Formation, by Income Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.9 Percentage of Quantitative Survey Respondents Who Report Improvement in Access to Essential Services and Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.10 Overview of Key Categories for Saving Among Men and Women in the Focus Counties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.11 Overview of Asset Ownership Across the Focus Counties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.12 Access to Social Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.13 Overview of Time Use Among Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.14 Existing Skills and Knowledge Among Men and Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.15 Attitudinal Statements Regarding Self-Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.16 Proportion of Respondents Who Would Seek Help in Response to Social Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.17 Overview of Coping Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.18 Changes in Decision-Making Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.19 Perceptions Around Decision-Making Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.20 Involvement of Female Members in Community Group Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.21 Percentage of Survey Respondents Who Agree/Strongly Agree to Statements About Gendered Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.22 Percentage of Respondents Agreeing to Statements About Women’s Access to Resources . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.23 Percentage of Respondents Agreeing to Statements About Gender-Based Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.24 Reported Relationship between Drivers and Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.25 Frequency of Explicit, Implicit, and Other Positive Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.26 Frequency of Key Program Positive Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.1 Overview of the Process to Identify Key Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.2 WISE’s Approach to Achieving WEE Outcomes at Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.3 SETU’s Approach to Empowering Women Beneficiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.4 Overview of Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan’s Approach to Sustained WEE Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.1 Key Factors Impacting WEE Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 5.2 Value Chain Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Tables 2.1 Interviews Using Quantitative Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2 Interviews Using Qualitative Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3 Overview of Weighting Techniques Used in the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.1 Overview of the Population in the Focus Counties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2 Overview of the Status of Basic Services and Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3 Allocation of Funding Under KDRDIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.4 Proportion of the KDRDIP Community Groups as Per their Year of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 iv Executive Summary v A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Community-driven development (CDD) proj- This report seeks to answer two questions: ects focused on livelihoods and economic development work at the local level to drive 1. How can traditional CDD livelihood projects job creation and economic activity. Through a adjust or adopt practices to strengthen local economic development approach, public, women’s economic empowerment out- business, and nongovernmental sector partners comes; and work collectively to create better conditions for economic growth and employment generation. 2. How can government and other develop- To accelerate local development and reach the ment actors employ an ecosystem approach most vulnerable households, many local eco- to the development of coordinated and sus- nomic development projects supported by the tainable local economic development on a World Bank target women, which contributes larger scale? directly and indirectly to women’s economic empowerment (WEE) through interventions Drawing from a mixed-methods study of a that support their economic activities, leader- traditional CDD livelihood program, the Kenya ship, and community participation. Development Response to Displacement Impacts Project (KDRDIP), and an analysis of Interventions that strengthen local economies other WEE programs in the region and globally, and engage women are also critical compo- this report distills lessons and recommendations nents of the response to the dual global crises of that are relevant to practitioners and policy COVID-19 and climate change. The World Bank’s makers. Green, Resilient and Inclusive Development (GRID) approach for transitioning from crisis to Assessing a Traditional Community- recovery emphasizes the importance of wom- Driven Development Livelihood Program en’s economic empowerment and the role of in Lagging Areas: KDRDIP women as agents of change. The scale of need The Kenya Development Response to Displace- due to the COVID-19 crisis and its frequently dis- ment Impacts Project is a five-year project of proportionate impact on women and the poor the Government of Kenya funded by a World requires innovative and coordinated responses Bank credit facility of approximately US$100 to accelerate an inclusive and durable recov- million. The project’s components are focused ery. In line with GRID approaches and broader on improving access to basic social services, policy responses aimed at reaching women expanding economic opportunities, improving and lagging areas, World Bank-supported proj- the environmental management, and address- ects and government actors are interested in ing the effects of the long-term refugee presence strengthening their activities’ focus on WEE and in parts of the country. The program’s theory building enabling ecosystems that take a more of change and livelihood component were not transformational approach to recovery. primarily designed to achieve WEE outcomes but instead focus on improved incomes, liveli- hood diversification, and improved livelihood resilience. The program has not defined any specific gender-centric goals. vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This review of KDRDIP’s livelihood component in similar geographic areas with significant at the project’s mid-term stage aims to provide demonstrated impacts on women’s economic insights and recommendations to strengthen empowerment and presents recommendations its impact on WEE outcomes. By adjusting the for how such an ecosystem approach might project’s approach and implementation pro- be used to strengthen program design and cess, KDRDIP and other CDD programs focused develop the enabling environment. Study find- on livelihoods can strengthen their gender ings and recommendations were refined and interventions, enhance WEE outcomes, and validated through a Stakeholder Workshop in create an enabling environment for WEE in tar- targeted areas. get areas. To identify KDRDIP’s current and potential effects Methodology on WEE outcomes, the study used a framework This study was carried out across the five that conceptualized WEE in terms of resources, KDRDIP target subcounties of Wajir South, Tur- agency, and institutions, as well as their related kana West, Dadaab, Fafi, and Lagdera. These subcomponents.1 Given the semiarid and pasto- counties are considered lagging areas because ral context of livelihoods in the targeted areas, it they fall behind Kenya’s development trends in terms of poverty rates, literacy levels, and access 1. The study’s proposed conceptual framework is adapted from to basic services and infrastructure. Targeted the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s Gender Equality Toolbox and uses the interrelated dimensions of resources and institutional support is needed to address this discrepancy. structures, agency, and achievements. This conceptual frame- This report also examines programs operating work of resources, agency and achievement is commonly used by vii A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM was essential to factor into the assessment con- Economic Achievements textual elements, such as interactions between Involvement in community groups has enhanced livelihoods and the environment, policies, regu- women’s engagement in economic activities by lations, laws, and social norms. facilitating access to capital and entrepreneur- ial opportunities. The improvement in women’s The study was conducted using a mixed- contribution to household incomes has also methods approach. The Qualitative Impact translated into improved decision-making roles Assessment Protocol (QuIP) was combined for women in their households. Women are with other qualitative tools, including key increasingly being seen as entrepreneurs rather informant interviews and focus group discus- than passive community members. In addition sions, to identify the critical contributors to to the funds received through KDRDIP, commu- WEE. A quantitative assessment carried out to nity groups have facilitated access to finance substantiate the qualitative findings included through mechanisms such as table banking, a 24 semi-structured interviews with female pro- form of interloaning where members of small gram beneficiaries, six focus group discussions groups (10–15 people) pool weekly dues and with male and female program beneficiaries, loan the total collection to one member. Such and eight key informant interviews with imple- efforts have improved the capacity of women menting partners and government officials. The in particular to meet both productive needs quantitative survey covered 400 respondents (e.g., expanding existing businesses) and con- (57  percent female, 43 percent male) in the sumption needs (e.g., household items such as five subcounties. This facilitated the develop- food and health-related products). ment of nuanced and in-depth insights about the impact of KDRDIP’s livelihood activities on While gender norms and resource constraints, WEE, gaps in program design, implementation such as skills gaps and poor access to markets, challenges, barriers to the achievement of WEE continue to limit women’s capacity to actively outcomes, and enabling factors for effective engage in economic activities, female program program implementation and scaling. beneficiaries report greater improvements in income-generation capacity, capacity for Economic- and Empowerment-Related financial management, and entrepreneurship Achievements of KDRDIP opportunities than their male counterparts. Figure ES.1 presents a brief snapshot of the At the same time, in absolute terms, men still overall findings of a survey of beneficiaries have greater access to finance, markets, and regarding changes in WEE indicators since the conducive social norms. In addition, the focus of start of the program, disaggregated by gen- community groups on risk-prone traditional live- der and county. Economic and empowerment lihood activities, such as livestock trading, has achievements are then summarized. resulted in limited diversification of livelihoods and poor returns among community group members—one of the project’s key gaps. development actors and researchers, including the World Bank, to define and measure women’s empowerment. viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Figure ES.1. Brief Snapshot of Beneficiary Survey Findings Gender County Assessment areas Male Female Turkana Wajir Garissa Assessment Economic achievements 1 (contribution to income, On track expenditure) Improvement 2 Decision making (household, institutional area Collective action and 3 leadership (involvement Critical area in activities Improvement 4 Resources (time, financial, productive assets) area Improvement 5 Resources (bodily integrity and critical consciousness) area 6 Institutional structures (gender relations and norms) Critical area Institutional structures 7 (law, policy, and market Critical area environment) Strong positive Weak positive Weak/no change change change Empowerment Achievements members who saved more than doubled during Improving women’s resources. In surveyed the project engagement period, from 35 to 74 households, women’s capacity to engage in percent. Involvement in community groups has livelihood activities has improved as a result of also translated into social capital improvements increased access to capital through KDRDIP. for women, as community groups serve as an Involvement in the community groups has effective platform for women to discuss ideas, also positively influenced women’s saving and grievances, and concerns. borrowing behavior. The percentage of female ix A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM However, gaps have been identified in the on personal health, leisure, or skills develop- areas of livelihood activity selection and diversi- ment, as examples. Inconsistencies in women’ fication, both with limited hand-holding project s income generation due to external factors, support. Because livestock trading is a tradi- such as droughts and the pandemic, as well as tional livelihood activity with associated socio- the migration of community members, have cultural norms, there is high livestock ownership also constrained the capacity of women to despite the activity’s poor returns. The focus spend on their personal well-being. of communities on a few livelihood options (e.g., livestock-related—especially trading, retail Despite improvements in women’s roles in shops, and farming) underscores the lack of live- household-level decision making, community lihood diversification. group decision-makers remain largely lim- ited to community group officeholders. The The capacity for livelihood diversification, engagement of women in community groups especially for female members of a commu- is most evident in one-time activities, such as nity group, is also constrained by factors such group formation and the selection of livelihood as awareness gaps, technical skills, and time activities. Within community groups, women poverty. About 50 percent of women’s time is are guaranteed one-third of leadership posi- spent on household chores and livestock rear- tions in mixed-sex groups per KDRDIP policies. ing, limiting their capacity to effectively par- However, women are largely limited to the posi- ticipate in other income-generating activities. tion of treasurer. Non-officeholders, especially The project’s capacity-building component is women, are reported to have limited involve- currently only focused on the community group ment in decision making regarding community officeholders, and only in the areas of financial groups’ daily activities. Women’s involvement management and leadership. This limits the in community group activities is the lowest in impact of capacity building for other commu- Garissa, where the average participation of nity group members and the possibility of live- female members is only 40 percent. In Turkana, lihood diversification. Time poverty also limits there is an average of 71 percent participation. women’s active engagement in income-gener- This low engagement rate among women in ation activities. day-to-day activities of community groups can be attributed to their time poverty, skills gaps, Supporting women’s agency. Women’s and mobility restrictions. enhanced capacity to contribute to household income has translated into their increased role For women, access to collectivization has led in household decision making. However, while to an increase in confidence and willingness women’s role in household spending decisions to actively participate in the social life of the have increased, this is largely in the areas of community. Nevertheless, women’s access to spending on children’s education, household leadership roles in community institutions other members’ health expenses, and household than community groups (e.g., village councils) asset acquisition rather than personal spending x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY remain limited due to the prevalence of rigid infrastructure. These regions are also character- cultural norms and resource constraints. ized by weak penetration of social protection schemes due to poor coverage and resource Transforming institutional structures. While allocation, especially with regard to cash trans- women’s engagement with other community fer programs. While KDRDIP has facilitated members has improved, the project had a women’s access to economic opportunities, limited impact on gender dynamics at the women’s capacity to benefit from these oppor- household and community level. While women tunities is constrained by the lack of connected themselves are enthusiastic about community ecosystems. An enabling ecosystem that groups and enterprises, cultural and religious facilitates linkages to community institutions, norms around mobility and women’s gender financial institutions, policy makers, and market roles in households and communities tend to players is required to enhance the impact of slow this process and limit its potential. The WEE programs on their intended beneficiaries. normative restrictions vary across the three counties. In Turkana, 83 percent of respondents The Contribution of KDRDIP Processes to the quantitative survey disagreed with gen- to WEE Outcomes der-negative normative statements, suggesting The QuIP study assessed what program pro- less-rigid normative structures. In Garissa and cesses contributed to WEE outcomes. Positive Wajir, about 50 percent of respondents agreed changes were largely observed in the areas of with gender-negative statements, alluding to access to livelihood opportunities, social capital, strict and rigid normative structures and the and improvements in confidence levels. Accord- mainstreaming or acceptance of these norms ing to program beneficiaries, these positive by women and men alike. Restrictive norms changes were largely due to the establishment around women’s asset ownership rights are of community groups and fund disbursements. most prevalent in Wajir and Garissa, with about Female beneficiaries indicate that time man- 50 percent of respondents agreeing that only agement was the only area where the program men should own assets. seemed to have had a negative impact. The program has contributed to women’s time pov- Additionally, target communities have poor erty as they now have to find time to engage in market access because the program counties community group business activities in addition are characterized by far-flung villages with low to their existing time commitments to house- population density, poor connectivity infrastruc- hold chores. ture (including roads and telecommunications and supply and demand gaps due to outmi- Lessons Learned from other Livelihoods gration and the absence of markets. Fifty-nine and WEE Programs Globally percent of women report that the absence of To identify key recommendations for ways markets near their homes has made it chal- to increase the effectiveness of WEE efforts, lenging to engage in business or trading due to this study conducted desk research and key mobility restrictions and the region’s poor road stakeholder discussions that examined global xi A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM practices, programs, and organizations working to address restrictive norms, and adult literacy on WEE interventions. initiatives, as examples. The examination of other programs indicates Lastly, different organizations have demon- that increasing women’s access to informa- strated that an ecosystem approach has been tion and strengthening their knowledge base effective to enable sustained WEE outcomes. are crucial to reducing their vulnerabilities and An ecosystem approach enables organizations improving their livelihoods. Evidence shows that and initiatives to collectively address the various traditional/prevalent livelihoods are import- interconnected issues that impede women’s ant and that strengthening them reduces economic empowerment in a way that a single livelihood risks and builds resilience in women. project alone cannot. Pastoral communities are highly susceptible to external shocks, such as droughts, floods, and Recommendations disease, which adversely impact livelihoods, and This section draws from findings regarding the which are increasing in frequency and intensity challenges, gaps, and opportunities associated due to climate change. Accordingly, it is also with KDRDIP, as well as lessons learned and best imperative to diversify livelihood activities, practices from other WEE programs around the enabling women to have alternative sources globe, to offer recommendations for KDRDIP of income and reducing their exposure to risks and other CDD livelihood programs. Suggested associated with undertaking a single livelihood steps are organized around the report’s two activity. questions: In these geographies, and especially in pastoral 1. How can traditional CDD livelihood projects communities, women experience time poverty. adjust or adopt practices to strengthen WEE Women must spend a significant amount of outcomes? their time on unpaid care work, such as collect- ing firewood for cooking and water for domestic 2. How can government and other develop- use, in addition to taking care of children and ment actors employ an ecosystem approach the elderly. This unpaid care work effectively when investing in coordinated and sustain- reduces a woman’s time and ability to engage able local economic development at a larger in income-generating activities. Consequently, scale? livelihood interventions that target women in such communities must consider and address 1. Strengthening WEE outcomes by adjusting their time constraints. Lessons learned from or adapting traditional CDD livelihood other programs show that the provision of programs multiple services contributes to the sustained a. Strengthen implementation architecture. economic empowerment of women. Bundled For traditional CDD livelihood projects to transi- services can include combinations of skills train- tion from subsistence livelihoods to transforma- ing, access to credit, productive assets, health tive approaches towards WEE, it will be critical services, insurance, childcare support, support to shift the focus from only “public goods and xii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY especially common infrastructure” to the deliv- management; and (3) livelihood development. ery of “private goods and services” (financial Each component offers a unique opportunity services, customized extension services, mar- for KDRDIP and other similarly structured pro- kets, and business development services) at the grams to work directly on the multidimensional doorstep of rural women. This also means that, nature of women’s economic empowerment. apart from the government, an equal emphasis The three components can be integrated is needed on greater interface with markets, through: (1)  coordinated project-level planning the private sector, and financial institutions. and monitoring, (2) coordinated village- and Such a substantive change in approach will county-level microplanning; and (3) piloting require an “implementation architecture” with and scaling the local economic development the requisite skill sets to enable women’s col- approach. lective platforms to interface with the private sector, markets, and financial institutions. c. Strengthen capacity through collaboration. Capacity building is a critical component across Based on the experience and lessons from the all of the report’s recommendations. The need large-scale WEE programs, especially in India, for capacity building is especially acute with a robust capacity building and implementa- respect to livelihood-specific activities where tion architecture is recommended to enable skill deficits have led to limited livelihood diver- high-quality training and technical assistance sification. At the same time, training sessions support to women’s collective platforms, allow- on softer subjects, such as gender differences; ing them to interface with the private sector, gender norms; and social-emotional skills, such markets, and financial institutions. At the com- as assertiveness, motivation, self-confidence, munity level, a community-based extension resilience, and risk propensity, have been shown system comprising community facilitators—a to have a positive impact. Beyond training, majority of them women—to support the access to information could be instrumental in community groups and their collectives. At the augmenting livelihoods or reducing risks, such county level, county implementation support as information on an impending drought and teams should be supported by a pool of coun- related risks to livestock-based livelihoods. In try resource persons comprising WEE specialists, order to build capacity for achieving WEE goals, NGO partners, and individual consultants/ projects could: (1) increase resources for capacity domain experts in areas such as financial building; (2) engage technical agencies for spe- inclusion, business development, market-based cific capacity-building needs; (3) include softer value chains, and digital development. skills and gender aspects in training programs; (4) expose community groups to successful b. Integrate program components. The mul- cases; and (5) facilitate mentorship of commu- tidimensional WEE-related gaps and barriers nity groups by successful female entrepreneurs. under KDRDIP include socioeconomic, environ- mental, and institutional issues. KDRDIP has d. Bundle services for better livelihoods and three components: (1) social and economic infra- social security. In KDRDIP, women’s uptake of structure; (2) environment and natural resource livelihood activities is impeded by time poverty, xiii A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM characteristics of the demographic (e.g., low Focus on strengthening traditional livelihoods financial literacy and poor access to health by providing greater access to information services), and limited access to financial ser- related to risk factors, such as weather and vices and social protection schemes (e.g., credit diseases, and enabling factors, such as mar- and insurance), among other factors. By bun- kets, prices, and livestock breeds. The proj- dling these services into a large package, the ect could also partner with social or private program could mitigate some of the risks and enterprises engaged in livestock-related barriers to deepening WEE outcomes. Projects value chains, such as dairy, tannery, and could accomplish this by: (1) identifying products meat, for value addition opportunities at the and services that require bundling based on community group or cluster level. Through rapid studies; (2) piloting the identified bundles sessions on gender and skills building, the with relevant groups; and (3) identifying and program could also amplify and widen the engaging relevant technical agencies for their role women play in the planning and imple- roll out and implementation. mentation of activities related to traditional livelihoods, such as livestock and agriculture. e. Diversify livelihoods, strengthen traditional livelihoods, and adopt a value chain approach. Support livelihood diversification. While While income from community group activities KDRDIP has already assessed and identified as a proportion of overall household income diverse livelihoods in its documentation, has increased for KDRDIP beneficiaries, overall only a few are currently being taken up by income seems to have declined due to multi- community groups. KDRDIP and other proj- ple factors, including droughts, COVID-19, and ects could assess their supported livelihoods poor access to markets. The program needs through the lens of WEE and promote liveli- to strengthen its livelihood component over hoods that are remunerative and have great the short to medium term so it can support potential to advance women’s economic beneficiaries in accessing greater, sustainable, empowerment. and resilient economic benefits. To achieve this, KDRDIP and other programs can: Focus more intently on the need for finan- cial empowerment. Women’s access to Adopt a value chain approach and connect savings and credit is crucial to enabling community groups directly with the market or livelihood diversification. Such access also engage the services of an entity that already enhances women’s agency, both within and has access to or is part of a developed value outside the household. In order for women’s chain. These decisions may depend on prod- collectives to enable greater and quicker uct-specific market assessment and local access to financial services, it will be critical conditions. to provide them with training on financial management and literacy, digitization of the collectives and transactions, and developing credit scores for individuals. It is also extremely important to enable the women’s collectives xiv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY to periodically engage with savings and groups at different levels; (2) promoting women credit cooperatives (SACCOs), microfinance role models from within local communities; and institutions (MFIs), and formal financial insti- (3) identifying and nurturing women leaders. tutions, which would allow them to leverage their savings and internal rotation to access 2. Ecosystem investment approach to substantive livelihood financing from such coordinated and sustainable local economic formal financial institutions. development Given the complex nature of WEE objectives Consider involving the private sector in and the importance of sustainability, building bundling, access to markets, value chain an ecosystem that simultaneously and com- enhancement, and similar efforts. Engag- prehensively addresses structural, normative, ing the private sector could offer solutions and other issues in the medium to long term to several issues at one time, even when is critical to driving resilient WEE impacts. The accounting for gender norms and time pov- program should consider layering the current erty. Examples include companies that can restrictive ecosystem with institutions, stake- source for fruit grown in arid areas and poul- holders, and interactions that could mitigate try off-takers who could purchase chicken existing economic, environmental, social, and reared by women. Private-sector support institutional barriers and create an enabling of activities such as these, which a woman network or support system for greater eco- can engage in at or close to her home, could nomic empowerment outcomes. KDRDIP and provides an assured market, which would other projects can achieve this by: be a meaningful start. A pilot with a poultry processor in Kakuma is using a similar model, Identifying relevant internal and external and if successful, will offer useful findings in stakeholders; this regard. Building strong partnerships and conver- f. Strengthen women’s collectives to improve gence with these identified institutions, social capital. Through collectivization, com- including government; multilateral agencies; munity groups and their cluster institutions can donor agencies; and technical partners such gain better access to credit and improve their as civil society organizations, gender experts, advocacy potential and negotiating capacities. livelihood specialists, social enterprises, and In evolved collective ecosystems that support marketing and value chain development WEE, such cooperatives and federations have organizations; ventured into enterprises benefiting their mem- bers and ensuring self-sustainability. This verti- Participating in and/or organizing periodic cal integration not only widens the social and keynote national- and regional-level events political capital of women members, but also that allow stakeholders to convene via mul- provides a platform for various development tiple platforms to network, share knowledge, agencies to work toward WEE outcomes. Proj- and explore opportunities for collaboration. ects should consider: (1) integrating community xv A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM xvi Introduction 1 and Objectives 1 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM The Kenya Development Response to Displace- Office of the President for the Northern Kenya ment Impacts Project (KDRDIP) is a five-year Development Initiative. project of the Government of Kenya funded through a World Bank credit facility of about KDRDIP was designed to support refugee- US$100 million. It seeks to expand economic hosting communities in Kenya. Various compo- opportunities in refugee-hosting communities. nents of the project focus on improving access Due to the refugees’ immense needs and to basic social services, expanding economic impact on the hosting communities of Garissa, opportunities, improving the environmental Wajir, and Turkana, the Kingdom of Denmark management of refugee-hosting communities, granted the Kenyan government an additional and addressing the effects of the long-term US$8.18 million under the KDRDIP Multi-Do- refugee presence in the communities. The nor Trust Fund. This additional funding has theory of change of the program and the been allocated across all project components design of a livelihood component and associ- proportionate to the original allocations.2 The ated interventions were not primarily designed governance of the project is multilayered, and to achieve women’s economic empowerment the oversight mandate is under the Executive (WEE) outcomes but instead focus on aspects such as improved income, livelihood diversifica- tion, and improved livelihood resilience. 2. See “Background Information” at https://kdrdip.go.ke/ background/. 2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES Therefore, a gender review of KDRDIP can pro- programs to enhance WEE. The specific objec- vide insights and recommendations to further tives of this engagement were to: strengthen the design of the project’s livelihood program so that it can enhance the economic Conduct a gendered livelihood gap analy- empowerment of women. Resulting improve- sis with a focus on understanding how and ments in the implementation process can whether the livelihood component creates further strengthen gender aspects, enhance an enabling environment for the economic WEE outcomes, and create an enabling WEE empowerment of women in the program’s environment in target areas. Hence, the gen- targeted areas (Garissa, Wajir, and Turkana); der gap analysis conducted on the livelihood program is aimed at providing practical rec- Understand the role of livelihood programs in ommendations that will be used to strengthen advancing WEE; the program’s design in advance of its midterm review. This work contributes inputs into the Recommend practical ways to strengthen approach and implementation of the KDRDIP program design and improve the livelihood livelihoods component while indirectly informing program’s WEE-related impact; the various donors and program approaches in the livelihoods and women’s economic collec- Use the gendered analysis to indirectly help tives space in Kenya that advance WEE. These identify how the KDRDIP livelihood program recommendations may also be reviewed and and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s considered by other similar community-driven strategy for women empowerment collec- development (CDD) livelihood projects seeking tive intersect; and to develop or expand WEE activities. In this review, provide insights on the ongoing Through a gender gap analysis of KDRDIP’s pilots from the lens of WEE, and examine livelihood program, this study provides prac- the potential for these pilots to be rolled out tical recommendations that can be used across other program counties of KDRDIP. to strengthen the design of this and other 3 2 Scope of Work 4 CHAPTER 2. SCOPE OF WORK 2.1. Research Questions What other programs/interventions can Through a gender gap analysis, this study pro- KDRDIP leverage for greater impact? vides practical recommendations to strengthen the program design and improve the women’s What evidence indicates that these can economic empowerment (WEE) impacts of the work? Where else have these approaches or Kenya Development Response to Displacement interventions been used? Impacts Project (KDRDIP) livelihood program (component 3). The key research questions cov- How can these recommendations be incor- ered in this study are outlined below. porated and implemented in a manner that guarantees sustainability and scale? Gendered gap analysis What interventions are contributing the most What partnerships are needed, and what to WEE? would they look like? Which potential part- ners can the program work with? What roles What is the extent of this impact on the ben- would these partners play? How can these eficiaries’ livelihoods? Are the interventions partnerships be managed? making a difference? 2.2. Conceptual Framework What opportunities for WEE exist in the pro- In this study, WEE is being examined as a gram? How could these be seized? transformative process for improving access to resources, such as opportunities, knowledge, What challenges and barriers has the pro- and markets, and improving women’s agency gram faced in attaining WEE impacts? How and power at multiple levels of influence, could these be overcome? thereby enabling women to control and benefit from economic gains. In a WEE analysis, it is What could be done differently to increase essential to factor in contextual elements, such impact and speed implementation? as livelihood-environment interactions, policies, regulations, laws, and social norms, because What changes are needed at the national they play key roles in influencing the results of and county government levels to create the program. the right enabling environment for greater WEE impact? How could these changes be In light of this understanding and these require- accomplished? ments, a framework (see figure 2.1) was con- ceptualized and used to explore and assess Practical recommendations the program strategies and interventions that Vision: What WEE-related results could the possibly lead to WEE. This framework, adapted program attain? How could they be realized? from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Gender Equality Toolbox, builds on the frame- What innovations are needed to generate work of resources, agency, and achievement the desired impact? commonly used by development actors and 5 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 2.1. Proposed Conceptual Framework for Measuring WEE Source: Adapted from: The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. (n.d.). A Conceptual Model of Women and Girls’ Empowerment. researchers to define and measure women’s fulfill their aspirations, therefore leading to the empowerment. economic empowerment of women. Because the program is being implemented in three This study’s framework depicts the interrelated counties, the framework also considers the spe- dimensions of: (1) resources and institutional cific contexts of interventions that are expected structures, which form the conditions under to significantly influence the outcomes. which choices are made; (2) agency, which is at the heart of the process by which choices are The approach for this study, depicted in fig- made; and (3) achievements, which are the ure 2.2, is to assess and understand how KDRDIP outcomes of choices and WEE. The framework is influencing the WEE-related elements of depicts empowerment as a dynamic process in resources, agency, and institutional structures which women acquire resources and participate and arrangements, and to diagnose gaps in in activities that enable them to develop voice— and opportunities for achieving WEE outcomes the capacity to articulate preferences—and through the program. In addition, the study agency—the capacity to make decisions—to investigates how comparable development 6 CHAPTER 2. SCOPE OF WORK Figure 2.2. Approach for the Gendered Review of the KDRDIP Livelihood Program Understanding contribution of Reviewing contribution of livelihood component to WEE, comparable programs to draw lessons gaps and opportunities for WEE and for programmatic revisions Meaningful choice Livelihood Resources Agency Achievements component Comparable of program development Inputs Outcomes Impacts Assets: Knowledge and Decision making Women’s interventions/ Support to skills, social capital, programs in traditional and Collective action economic financial and productive Leadership empowerment relevant nontraditional assets, time geographies livelihoods Bodily integrity: Health, safety, and security Critical consciousness: Capacity building Self-awareness, desire for of community-based change, aspirations for leadership, self-esteem, organizations perceptions of inferiority Institutional structures: Family, community, market, state Institutional arrangements: Relations, norms, laws, and policies interventions and programs contribute to toward livelihood improvement and WEE. The WEE, and draws lessons for making program- aspects covered by the study methodology are matic revisions to the design of the livelihood discussed below. component of KDRDIP and other community- driven development (CDD) livelihood programs. Preliminary analysis This approach ensures the provision of evidence- The assessment involved a comprehensive based practical recommendations for programs review of available program documents and and the devising of a technical engagement status reports (e.g., monthly progress reports, strategy. biannual reports, and plans) to understand the program goals and aspirations. The learning 2.3. Methodology from the same informed tool development, The study was exploratory in nature and data collection, and analysis. Stakeholder con- followed a mixed-methods approach. This sultations, primarily with the Financial Sector facilitated the development of nuanced and Deepening (FSD) Kenya team, the World Bank, in-depth insights on gender gaps in program the Kenyan national and county governments, design, challenges in implementation, barriers and implementation teams, as well as focus to WEE outcome achievement, and enablers for group discussions with community groups, effective program implementation and scaling were undertaken to understand the pro- up. Interactions at multiple levels in the com- gram’s design, implementation, and perceived munity also aided understanding of the con- achievements and challenges. tribution of other developments and programs 7 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Gender gap analysis interventions. The broad stages involved in the The gender gap analysis was aimed at under- study process are described below. standing the gaps in WEE outcomes while con- sidering women’s capacities and vulnerabilities Co-design. Discussions with KDRDIP and the in relation to aspects such as local value chains, FSD Kenya team were undertaken along with a livelihoods, and cultural norms, as well as the desk review to develop a consensus on concepts program design’s capacity to accommodate the of WEE and gender gaps. Based on this under- same. The analysis had two subcomponents: a standing and agreed definitions, the sampling qualitative component that employed the rele- strategy and research tools were prepared in vant aspects of the Qualitative Impact Assess- consultation with the program stakeholders. ment Protocol (QuIP) methodology for process The cases for analysis were purposively selected assessment and a quantitative element to from members of community groups from all support the qualitative evidence, identify critical three counties. dimensions contributing to WEE outcomes, and quantify gender disparities among male and Data collection. The collected data covered female beneficiaries in terms of accessing and the well-being domains (see figure 2.3), and benefiting from program interventions. These attempted to capture drivers of change (e.g., subcomponents are discussed in detail below. program interventions, new policies, and change in political situation) based on bene- QUIP STUDY: UNDERSTANDING THE PROGRAM’S ficiary perception, outcomes, and prevalent CONTRIBUTION TO WEE OUTCOMES gendered differences. This involved interacting The QuIP methodology employed to under- with quantitative survey respondents to stim- stand outcomes and the set of processes lead- ulate discussions in an open way, with lists of ing to them involved collecting data directly supplementary questions available to sustain from program beneficiaries. The methodol- and deepen conversations about changes ogy facilitated the quantification of changes observed by the respondents and the reasons (positive/negative) in well-being domains as behind them. reported by beneficiaries in response to program 8 CHAPTER 2. SCOPE OF WORK Figure 2.3. Well-Being Domains and a Broad Set of Indicators for Gender Gap Analysis Control over personal decision making Self-confidence and assertiveness Self-e cacy and self-esteem Income and finance Desire for change Bodily integrity and Savings critical consciousness Aspirations for leadership Economic achievements Vulnerability to shocks Perceptions of inferiority Overall well-being Access to financial productive and other assets Expenditure decisions Resources Perception about changes in (financial, productive, access to financial, and other assets) Savings and investment decisions productive,and other assets Household management decisions Existence of networks and its access Control over household productive assets Decision making Reference groups and most influential Control over time Social connectedness through personal networks Division of household work Social cohesion and trust Personal autonomy Resources = Assets (social capital) WEE Community cooperation Well-being Domains Experience of substantive Ability and tendency and transformative leadership to o er or draw on help Influence of women over Borrowing capabilities group’s decision making Leadership roles at community level Agency—collective Literacy action and leadership Level of confidence to participate in community Access to education, activities and feeling of including skills being heard and respected development facilities Access to new technologies and enhanced Gender roles and perceptions technical skills, including Resources—Assets Institutional structures—Norms financial literacy (knowledge and skills) Soft skills—teamwork, use of mobile phone and Schemes and benefits available Internet, etc. Policies facilitating access to infrastructure and livelihood Autonomy and control assets Ability to reduce time devoted Ease of engaging in new to care responsibilities livelihood activities Institutional structures— Resources—Time policies, laws, and Labor burden, workload, satisfaction relations Property rights Experience of shift in the Absence of gender discrimination allocation of household labor 9 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 2.4. Stages of the Quantitative Assessment Data analysis • Understanding the di erences in Data collection the performance of economic Designing the survey • Men and women beneficiaries empowerment indicators between • Literature review from 200 community groups men and women groups and consultations • WEE well-being domains, • Understanding the di erences in • WEE indicators socioeconomic profile, the performance of economic • Mapping indicators benefits and association with empowerment indicators between with program program counties components • Computer-assisted personal • Understanding how variations in the interviewing (CAPI) change drivers associated with the program influence economic empowerment indicators QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT: SUPPORTING AND STAKEHOLDER WORKSHOP COMPLEMENTING THE FINDINGS FROM QUIP In February 2022, FSD Kenya, the Bill and The quantitative assessment (see figure 2.4) Melinda Gates Foundation, Intellecap, the was carried out to support the QuIP assessment World Bank, and KDRDIP teams convened a and to: stakeholder workshop to review the study’s pre- liminary recommendations and solicit stake- Assess the reported impact of KDRDIP’s live- holder feedback. Through this engagement, lihood component on targeted beneficiaries; stakeholders provided inputs on operational- izing recommendations and fostering an eco- Assess gender disparities in economic system approach to WEE in Kenya. Stakeholder empowerment indicators; suggestions, examples, and reflections were incorporated into the study’s final report. Diagnose the critical dimensions of WEE that can explain larger variances; and Sampling For the quantitative assessment, the sample Understand how variations in the change size was calculated at the program level using drivers associated with the program influ- the formula of sample for proportions. The for- ence economic empowerment outcomes, mula (Cochran’s 1977), used for calculating the such as income generation and savings. sample size is: REVIEW SIMILAR PROGRAMS Z2 PQ/D2 Programs with similar geographic, livelihood, P = estimated proportion of the population, and cultural contexts were assessed to draw set at 50 percent for maximum variance; out relevant lessons. The broad steps involved in reviewing similar programs are described in Q = 1–P; figure 2.5. 10 CHAPTER 2. SCOPE OF WORK Figure 2.5. Stages Involved in Reviewing Similar Programs Synthesizing findings Consultations and detailed • Compare with KDRDIP's livelihood assessment Secondary review to list, component • Consult the leadership of filter and assess similar • Understanding WEE program similar programs to explore programmes designs that o er scale and the design and impacts • Assess ongoing and sustaianability • Review of similar programmes concluded development • Roles played by institutions in using evidence available in interventions and such programmes especially the public domain programs (WEE, government • Receive inputs for large-scale livelihoods) • Draw lessons for programmatic programmatic revisions to • Filtering interventions revisions and strategic ensure Women Economic for detailed assessment engagements Empowerment at scale Inputs for developing technical Convergence opportunities support plan Z = standard score corresponding to the At the subcounty level, the sample size confidence interval set at 1.96; and obtained for each of the counties (n=128) was distributed proportionately to the actual D = estimated difference, set at 5 percent number of target beneficiaries within each for this initiative. of the subcounties; and The estimated sample size for the quantitative At the community group level, the repre- survey was 384 beneficiary households. A QuIP sentation of women from both types of assessment previously undertaken by various community groups (mixed-sex and women- initiatives suggests  24 semi-structured inter- only community groups) was ensured. views and four focus group discussions  are sufficient to capture the relevant information Tables 2.1 and 2.2 provide details of the sample required under different well-being domains. for the qualitative and quantitative interviews. Based on the above considerations and discus- The sampling plan assumed an equal proportion sions with the client and implementation part- of men and women to be included in the study, ners, the following sampling size was finalized: as well as equal representation of samples from the three counties of the study. However, field- The total sample size estimated for the level externalities and situations, such as severe quantitative survey (n=384) was distributed droughts, resulted in the migration of com- almost equally across the three counties, munity members, making it difficult to strictly and an equal number of men and women follow the sampling plan for quantitative data were covered within each of the counties; collection. This, in turn, resulted in disparities between the actual and desired sample size of 11 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Table 2.1. Interviews Using Quantitative Methods Quantitative Survey Turkana Garissa Wajir Total Female 74 80 75 229 Male 65 55 51 171 Total 139 135 126 400 Table 2.2. Interviews Using Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods Turkana Garissa Wajir Total Semi-structured interviews for QuIP 8 8 8 24 Focus group discussions with community group members 2 2 2 6 Key informant interviews with implementation partners 1 1 2 4 Key informant interviews with government representatives 1 2 1 4 various subgroups, and the over-representation data was calculated by dividing the desired of one group over another (e.g., women respon- proportions as per the sampling plan by actual dents are over-represented in this case). In order sample proportions, as represented in table 2.3. to address this, collected sample data were Further, the obtained data weights were proportioned according to the desired sample applied to the sample data proportion through size by determining the weights assigned to multiplication. The weighted data proportions each group in the sample. The weight for the hence match the desired proportions. Table 2.3. Overview of Weighting Techniques Used in the Study Actual Sample Desired Sample County Subcounty Gender Proportion (%) Proportion (%) Weight Obtained Turkana Turkana West Male 16.5 16.6 1.01 Turkana Turkana West Female 18.2 16.6 0.91 Wajir Wajir South Male 12 16.6 1.39 Wajir Wajir South Female 19.5 16.6 0.85 Garissa Dadaab Male 6.2 5.5 0.89 Garissa Dadaab Female 5.7 5.5 0.97 Garissa FAFI Male 4 5.5 1.39 Garissa FAFI Female 7 5.5 0.79 Garissa Lagdera Male 3.5 5.5 1.59 Garissa Lagdera Female 7.2 5.5 0.77 12 Assessing the Traditional Model of CDD Livelihood 3 Programs in Lagging Areas: KDRDIP 13 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM 3.1. Vulnerability Context of Targeted lag behind national standards in poverty and Lagging Areas literacy levels. Pastoralism is a way of life in the largely arid and semiarid areas of Kenya. While pastoralist Livelihood vulnerability context communities are accustomed to drought and Pastoralism is a key livelihood source in erratic rainfall, the impact of climate change, program counties. Pastoralism has been along with other recent environmental, eco- adversely impacted due to a range of fac- nomic, and political factors, has adversely tors, including population growth, conflicts, affected their resilience capacity. The situa- climate change, floods, droughts, and envi- tion is grave for women, who face a multitude ronmental degradation. Consecutive years of social, political, and cultural constraints to of poor rains and the resultant droughts have accessing resources and undertaking adaptive resulted in below-average harvests and wors- decision making (CARE 2014). The following ening livestock conditions in northern and subsections provide a contextual overview of eastern Kenya. Turkana, Garissa, and Wajir are the three counties of focus—Garissa, Turkana, among the counties that received low levels of and Wajir—areas described as lagging due to rainfall (26 percent of normal levels), resulting inequalities in their economic performance, in below-average crop production in 2021 (IRC human development indicators, and poverty 2021). The low levels of rainfall in the counties levels compared with national standards. had a detrimental impact on nomadic pasto- ralists, resulting in the loss of livestock in large Socioeconomic context and demography numbers and thereby disrupting these econo- A review of the three select counties shows that, mies. In addition to acute food insecurity, across although their populations are young, literacy pastoral areas, an atypically high number of levels are low and poverty rates are high. The livestock are migrating to dry season grazing population in Garissa is predominantly Muslim areas, driven by a decline in rangeland and (97.7 percent), and an estimated 95 percent water resources, which has also intensified inse- belong to the Ogaden clan. Among these curity, conflicts, and livestock diseases. Between clans, the Bahgari subclan is considered more July and August, livestock trekking distances to marginalized than the other subclans. The lit- watering points increased by 60–90 percent, erature review indicates that this subclan has likely driving the 13–55 percent decline in milk limited access to resources. Similarly, in Wajir, production compared with the country’s three- the population largely consists of Muslims, and year average (FEWS NET 2021). 95 percent of the population in the county belongs to the Ogaden clan. The non-Ogaden In Garissa, some pastoralists have taken up clan members residing in the host communities farming, even though that activity in the county in Wajir South tend to be marginalized in terms is characterized by low productivity due to of decision making and have limited access to lack of inputs, lack of access to markets, water resources.3 As noted in table 3.1, these areas shortages, and flash floods near the Tana River. 3. KDRDIP Social Assessment Report. 14 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Table 3.1. Overview of the Population in the Focus Counties Indicators Garissa Turkana Wajir Kenya Population, 2019a 841,319 926,955 781,214 47,564,296 Population density, 2019 a 19 14 14 82 Household size, 2019 a 5.9 5.6 6.1 3.9 Percent male, 2019 a 55 52 53 50 Percent female, 2019a 45 48 47 50 Percent of population under 30 years, 2019 a 77 76 78 68 Percent of population between 15–29 years, 2019 a 32 31 28 29 Literacy level, 2018 (percent) 8.2 b 20 c 23.6 d 81.5e Poverty rates, 2016 (percent) 45.2f 66.1f 41.3f 37.1 (2015)f /garissaassembly.go.ke/wp-content/up- Sources: a. KNBS 2019; b. Second Garissa County Integrated Development Plan (2018–2022). https:/ / loads/2018/06/CIDP-2018-2022-CO.pdf; c. BSkenya 2018; d. County Government of Wajir 2018; e. Kenya Literacy Rate 2000–2022: https:/ www.macrotrends.net/countries/KEN/kenya/literacy-rate; f. Knoema. Furthermore, only 12 percent of the basin is in the region (County Government of Wajir 2018). irrigated, indicating significant underutilization In Wajir, some agropastoral activities are prac- of irrigation potential (County Government of ticed, however, they are characterized by low Garissa 2020). In Turkana, although the popula- productivity due to aridity, lack of inputs, lack tion is predominantly pastoralist, other livelihood of access to markets, limited technical support, activities differ by region and gender. For exam- and unreliable weather. ple, charcoal burning is prevalent in the county’s dry areas where there are limited opportunities Status of basic services and infrastructure for alternative livelihoods. In Kapua (a region in A review of county data reveals structural the central subcounty of Turkana), 37.6 percent deficiencies in the access to basic services and of the women obtain income through charcoal infrastructure. In program counties, water and burning compared with only 8.1 percent of sanitation facilities remain underdeveloped. women in Katilu. In Kapua, over 40 percent of People often have to travel long distances to women obtain income by weaving baskets.4 In source water. There has been limited develop- Wajir, the county’s herder population continues ment of sanitation infrastructure to date, and to function in fragile and precarious environ- open defecation is prevalent. There is limited ments characterized by long periods of drought access to health facilities and services in these marked by scant and infrequent rain. Persistent counties. Garissa, Wajir, and Turkana are among and sporadic conflicts between clans, often the most critical regions in terms of malnutrition resulting from disputes over limited resources status and disease outbreak since 2021 (OCHA and expanding insecurity in Somalia combined 2021). In May 2021, 36 suspected cases of chol- with poor infrastructure, have restricted mobility era were reported in Garissa (Dadaab Refugee Camp) and Turkana counties, according to the World Health Organization (OCHA 2021). 4. Turkana County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP II 2018–22). 15 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM In these counties, a significant proportion of the counties, negatively impacting livelihood population rely on cooking fuels such as fire- development and access to various services. wood, charcoal, and kerosene. A reliance on fire- The transport infrastructure, including roads, wood for cooking contributes to environmental remains undeveloped or in poor condition. Sim- degradation, increased pressure on limited nat- ilarly, the telecommunications infrastructure is ural resources, and health risks. Furthermore, it limited, and large areas lack mobile network worsens the situation for women and girls in the coverage. Although multiple financial institutions household, who are responsible for collecting exist in the three counties, including banks, sav- firewood for cooking, increasing their time pov- ings and credit cooperatives, and microfinance erty. The health and education outcomes for institutions, the provision of financial services women and girls are also adversely impacted. across all the subcounties remains inadequate. Table 3.2 provides a summary of the status of The connectivity infrastructure and financial basic services and infrastructure. institution coverage is inadequate in these Table 3.2. Overview of the Status of Basic Services and Infrastructure Parameter Garissa Turkana Wajir Water, sanitation, and hygiene (2018) Average distance to nearest water point 25 km 10 km 20 km Health care facilities (2018) Number of health care facilities 205 377 146 Doctor to population ratio 1:41,538 1:20,000 1:29,413 Average distance to health care service provider 25 km 35 km 5 km Access to electricity (2020) a Electricity access (percent) 22.4 7.8 13.9 Off-grid population (percent) 47.8 80 68.2 Connectivity infrastructure (2018) Developed road network (percent) 1 6 9 Mobile network coverage (percent) 62 25 35 Markets (2018) Number of markets 19 9 30 Financial institutions (2018) Number of institutions 22 8 7 Social protection (2021)b Number of people that need food assistance 169,290 231,775 156,374 Note: All statistics for Garissa, Turkana, and Wajir are sourced from the County Government of Garissa 2018, the County Government of Turkana 2018, and the County Government of Wajir 2018, respectively, unless otherwise indicated. a. Source: Power Africa 2020. /reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/KEN211_Response-to- b. Source: ACT Alliance. Appeal 221: Kenya Drought Appeal at https:/ Drought. %281%29.pdf. 16 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Gender norms and inequities However, some norms in Turkana do adversely Gender norms vary across counties. Most of the impact women and girls, such as the idea that population in Garissa and Wajir follow Islam and women are the property of men. norms from the Somali society are followed. In Somali society, it is usually the sons who inherit 3.2. Program Context most of their father’s wealth. Daughters usually Overview of KDRDIP do not receive valuable animals or land. The Kenya Development Response to Displace- ment Impacts Project (KDRDIP) seeks to reduce Specific roles have been established for males the negative effects of displacement in the Horn and females. Male household members largely of Africa. Specifically, it aims to improve access undertake roles that require mobility, such as to basic social services, expand economic traveling for pastoral activities. Women and opportunities, improve the environmental man- girls are responsible for managing the house- agement of communities hosting refugees, and hold. In the Somali culture, parents are quick address the effects of the long-term refugee to withdraw girls from school so they can take presence on these communities. on household responsibilities such as caring for older household members and babies, as well KDRDIP is a five-year program by the Kenyan as other chores. These gendered roles contrib- government, funded through a World Bank ute to the time poverty of women and girls who credit facility of about US$100 million. Due to spend significant amounts of time collecting the immense needs and impact on the com- fuel for cooking and sourcing water. Women munities hosting refugees in Garissa, Wajir, and and girls living in remote and impoverished Turkana, the Kingdom of Denmark granted the areas also face a higher risk of being sexually Kenyan government an additional US$8.18 mil- assaulted and experiencing violence when they lion under the KDRDIP Multi-Donor Trust Fund. travel to source water and fuel. A high incidence This additional grant funding has been allo- of gender-based violence, including domestic cated across all program components propor- violence, is observed in these two counties. tionate to the original allocations.5 The project Women and girls are also negatively impacted is implemented by the government of Kenya’s by prevalent cultural practices, such as female State Department for Development of Arid and genital mutilation (FGM) and early marriage. Semi-arid Lands, working in partnership with Furthermore, females are not encouraged to the participating counties. Figure  3.1 summa- actively engage in community-level decision rizes the four components—and subcompo- making. nents—of KDRDIP. Differences are observed in the norms and prac- Funding allocation across components and tices in Turkana compared with Garissa and subcomponents also impacts WEE outcomes Wajir. The prevalent cultural and religious norms in the target beneficiary communities. A review are less rigid in Turkana, allowing women and indicates that a limited part of the funding has girls to engage in more productive roles than their counterparts in the other two counties. 5. See https://kdrdip.go.ke/background/. 17 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.1. Overview of KDRDIP Key Components of the Kenya Development Response to Displacement Impacts Project (KDRDIP) COMPONENT 1 COMPONENT 2 COMPONENT 3 COMPONENT 4 Social and economic Environmental and Livelihoods program Project management infrastructure and natural resource Funding: US$29.44 million and monitoring and services management evaluation Funding: US$48.94 million Funding: US$21.75 million Funding: US$8.05 million SUBCOMPONENT 1.1 SUBCOMPONENT 2.1 SUBCOMPONENT 3.1 OVERVIEW Community Integrated Support to traditional Support the investment natural resources and nontraditional implementation, funds management livelihoode technical oversight of the interventions, e ective social and environmental safeguards SUBCOMPONENT 1.2 SUBCOMPONENT 2.2 SUBCOMPONENT 3.2 management, financial management Capacity support Access to Capacity building and procurement for local planning and energy of community-based decenralized delivery organizations for livelihoods been allocated for capacity building. Under community groups, and capacity building for component 3, less than 10 percent of the producer cooperatives to access input and funding has been allocated for building the output markets. For the duration of KDRDIP, capacity of the target beneficiary communities. component 3 aims to support 4,000 commu- By comparison, global experience suggests nity groups and 25 collectives. The subcompo- that the funding allocation should be closer to nents of this program are: 20–40  percent, depending on the need and context. Table 3.3 provides an overview of the Subcomponent 3(a): Support to Traditional resource allocations to project subcomponents and Nontraditional Livelihoods. The objec- (World Bank 2017). tive of this subcomponent is to increase the production and productivity of pastoralism Livelihood program (KDRDIP component 3) (livestock) as well as agropastoralism and KDRDIP’s component 3 focuses on livelihoods, agriculture (crops and livestock), and to com- and aims to foster interventions that improve mercialize livelihood activities to improve the productivity of traditional and nontradi- incomes, increase employment, and foster tional livelihoods and that strengthen commu- self-reliance. The subcomponent focuses on nity resilience. The support includes improved traditional livelihoods, including pastoralism, access to technology and equipment, stor- agropastoralism, and small-scale agricul- age and processing infrastructure, the selec- ture, in addition to nontraditional livelihoods, tion of beneficiary groups, the formation of to provide income to refugee-hosting 18 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Table 3.3. Allocation of Funding Under KDRDIP KDRDIP Component Subcomponent and Allocation Component 1 • Community Investment Fund (94.4 percent) • Capacity support for local planning and decentralized delivery (5.56 percent) Component 2 • Integrated natural resource management (90 percent) • Access to energy (10 percent) Component 3 • Support to traditional and nontraditional livelihoods (90.9 percent) • Capacity building of community-based organizations to improve livelihoods (9 percent) Component 4 • Project management and monitoring and evaluation funding (100 percent) Component 5 • Support to return to areas in Somalia (100 percent) KDRDIP = Kenya Development Response to Displacement Impacts Project. communities in the target areas. Grant fund- accountability at all steps across planning, the ing of US$26.5 million has been allocated decision-making process, and the implementa- to this subcomponent to achieve these tion and operation and maintenance of liveli- objectives. hood assets and economic infrastructure, while also using existing institutions and government Subcomponent 3(b): Capacity Building of systems. Community groups, village-level liveli- Community-Based Organizations for Live- hood subcommittees, ward-level committees, lihoods. The objective of this subcomponent and producer organizations are key community is to improve the service delivery capacity institutions in the implementation process (fig- of pastoral/agropastoral/farmers organiza- ure 3.2) (World Bank 2017: 68–69). tions, including community-based organiza- tions. The support includes establishing and Beneficiaries for component 3. The direct ben- building the capacity of community-based eficiaries of KDRDIP are members of the com- organizations based on the communi- munities that have been hosting refugees in ty-driven development (CDD) approach Garissa, Turkana, and Wajir. The program spe- of the program and the primacy of these cifically targets host communities in refugee- organizations in inclusive implementation hosting areas using an area-based develop- and sustainability of program investments. ment approach. Grant funding of US$2.94 million has been allocated to this subcomponent to achieve Facilitating partners. Across the three coun- this objective. ties, different facilitating partners have been working with community groups and the sub- Implementation process for component 3. The program committee to create solutions for livelihood component takes a process-driven the host community. The Relief Reconstruction approach for systematic implementation. The Development Organisation has been working in implementation embeds community par- Garissa, and the Waso Resource Development ticipation, ownership, and transparency and Agency has been working in Wajir. 19 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.2. Implementation Steps for Component 3 Step 1: Formation or reinforcement of Step 7: Funds disbursement Step 8: Procurement of community groups for to community groups community group inputs livelihood development Step 6: Approval of Step 9: Livelihoods training Step 2: Community group community group business in areas selected by strengthening/institution plan applications community group building/attitudinal change follow five core principles: 1. Weekly meeting 2. Weekly savings Step 5: Appraisal of 3. interloaning community group Step 10: Community group 4. Timely repayment applications at the village implements business plan 5. Record keeping level Step 11: Support to form Step 3: Livelihood/ Step 4: Business planning producer organizations/ enterprise selection process and budgeting cooperatives for improved income and sustainability Implementation status of component 3. Table 3.2 provides an overview of the estab- KDRDIP’s component 3 began supporting com- lished community groups. munity groups in 2019. The program has already supported 2,007 community groups in Garissa, Livelihood activities. Over 75 percent of the Turkana, and Wajir. A review of the available groups focus on one income-generating documentation for these funded groups high- activity. Variations in the number of activities lights the following: are observed across counties. There are more groups practicing multiple income-generating Group type. Overall, 75 percent of the groups activities in Turkana and Wajir than in Garissa. are mixed—comprising male and female members. There are no male-only groups. Although there are number of feasible liveli- Of the three counties, Turkana has the high- hood activities in the three counties that have est share (~26 percent) of groups with only a short maturity period, community groups women, and Garissa has the lowest share largely engage in businesses related to tradi- (~19 percent). tional livelihoods, such as livestock and retail activities (figure 3.3). Vintage. Over two-thirds of the funded com- munity groups were established after 2014. 20 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Table 3.4. Proportion of the KDRDIP entrepreneurs and not as passive community Community Groups as Per their Year of members. While gendered norms and resource Formation constraints such as skills gaps and poor access Period of formation Proportion of total (%) to institutional structures (markets) limit wom- 2000 and prior 0.7 en’s capacity to actively engage in economic 2001–05 1.8 activities compared with men, women program 2006–10 5.5 beneficiaries have experienced more dramatic 2011–14 14.9 improvements in terms of income-generating 2015–18 42.0 capacity, financial management capacity, and 2019–21 27.1 entrepreneurship opportunities. However, in Year not recorded 7.8 absolute terms, men still have greater access to Total 100 finance, markets, and conducive social norms. However, the program has great potential to address these gendered constraints, thereby 3.3. KDRDIP’s Economic Achievements enhancing women’s ability to actively engage Being involved in community groups has in economic activities within and beyond the enhanced women’s engagement in economic program. In addition, a skewed focus on risk- activities by facilitating their access to capital prone traditional livelihood activities, such as and entrepreneurial opportunities. A resultant livestock trading, because they require a low improvement in women’s contributions to house- level of skill, has resulted in limited livelihood hold income has also translated into improved diversification and poor returns for community decision-making roles for women within house- group members. This emerges as a key project holds. Women are also increasingly seen as gap in the study. Figure 3.3. Overview of Businesses Undertaken by Community Groups Wajir Turkana Garissa 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Percent Beekeeping activity Savings/interloaning activity Online services activity Transportation services activity Construction activity Other activity Beauty parlor Boutique/tailoring activity Farming activity Hotel activity Retail activity Livestock activity 21 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Findings and assesses if WEE has led to any changes in This study views the economic empowerment decision making and their status in the home of women as a multidimensional concept that and in the community. The study also seeks considers the direct and indirect economic to cull out insights as to whether women are benefits (e.g., the capacity to engage in eco- themselves able to benefit from these direct nomic activities, increases in income, and and indirect economic benefits. contributions to household income) to women Figure 3.4. Brief Snapshot of Beneficiary Survey Findings Gender County Assessment areas Male Female Turkana Wajir Garissa Assessment Economic achievements 1 (contribution to income, On track expenditure) Improvement 2 Decision making (household, institutional area Collective action and 3 leadership (involvement Critical area in activities Improvement 4 Resources (time, financial, productive assets) area Improvement 5 Resources (bodily integrity and critical consciousness) area 6 Institutional structures (gender relations and norms) Critical area Institutional structures 7 (law, policy, and market Critical area environment) Strong positive Weak positive Weak/no change change change 22 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Figure 3.5. Economic Achievement at the resources, women’s agency, and the role of Center of Gendered Analysis institutions, especially in terms of gendered social norms, as enablers and/or barriers to WEE. At the same time, changes in women’s Collective economics have an impact on: (1) decision mak- action ing; (2) resources; and (3) institutional structures (figure  3.5). This study begins with an analysis Economic Institutional Achievement of the program’s economic achievements and structures then broadly explores these three factors from this lens. The influence of these three factors Decision making and their nuances are presented in detail in subsequent chapters. Resource DIRECT AND INDIRECT ECONOMIC BENEFITS TO WOMEN Notable changes were observed in women’s capacity to engage in economic activities, Here it should be noted that the findings on including: (1) greater access to financial services; economic achievement have been discussed (2) access to market-related information; and as an outcome and a means. In other words, (3) capacity to take up and expand traditional any progress made on economic achievement and nontraditional livelihood activities (see fig- is a consequence of improving access to key ure 3.6). Figure 3.6. Proportion of Quantitative Survey Respondents Reporting Improvements on Key Economic Indicators Women Men Total 70.0 Access to financial services, such as banking services, access to credit, 66.3 and use of digital payment platforms 73.7 58.6 Access to information on areas such as inputs for business, marketing 48.9 and sale of products, and social protection schemes 68.4 67.8 Livelihood activities such as ease of starting a business, diversification 60.2 of income-generation acitivities, and expansion of business 75.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percent 23 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Across the three indicators, a positive trend is Moreover, women have been seen engaging observed, especially among women. In the con- in additional personal business activities that text of access to financial services, 73.7  per- go hand-in-hand with their community group cent of women (compared with 66.3  percent business commitments. For example, quali- of men) report a positive change. It emerges tative interactions indicate that women have from quantitative and qualitative findings that, expanded their personal business activities beyond the funds provided under the program, along with their community group enterprises community groups have facilitated these pas- by, for example, setting up a personal shop next toralist communities’ access to finance through to a community group shop and managing mechanisms such as table banking, which had both simultaneously. previously been limited or absent. For women in particular, this is increasingly translating into While community-based business by itself the capacity to expand existing businesses serves as a livelihood activity, there has been and access additional economic opportunities. a notable improvement in women’s engage- Most respondents to the quantitative survey ment in entrepreneurial activities beyond (75.5 percent of women and 60.3 percent of community groups. For example, before joining men) report an improvement in the ease of a community group enterprise, only 34.4  per- starting a business, livelihood diversification, cent of women reported that self-employment and business expansion. This progress is likely was a source of personal income. This figure a result of improvements in access to infor- increased to 41.6 percent (not including com- mation of markets (inputs for business, sales) munity group enterprise activities) after joining and social protection schemes as reported by a community group enterprise. This positive 68.4  percent of women and 60.2 percent of outcome indicates that the impact of increas- men. ing access and livelihood capacity is not strictly limited to program activities. It also enables “We contributed Kes 20,000 before the fund- women to take up activities beyond what the ing and were selling vegetables, clothes, and program envisaged. a retail shop and expanded our business after we received funding through KDRDIP. We used Overall, improved access to capital through to buy 5 kilograms of tomatoes, potatoes, and KDRDIP and loans from improved social net- onions and sell them in small portions. After works and financial entities have contributed receiving the funds, we expanded to taking a to women’s capacity to initiate and expand whole lorry and selling it in Garissa.” (Karu Women various types of livelihood activities. Group, Karu Wajir) To understand the nuances of economic “We now have savings of Kes 300,000 in the achievements, it is important to understand bank and we used the remaining Kes 200,000 the nature of and rationale for the livelihood for our business. We built two rooms and rented activities taken up by community groups. them. We have also bought five cows and the Among pastoralist communities, livestock trad- number of cows that increased to 15 cows, ing and rearing are the most widely adopted and we have also bought 50 goats.” (Khadija, livelihood activities of the community groups. Afweyne village) 24 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Retail business and farming are the next most behavior among community members trans- favored due to the ease of setup, already exist- late into a disproportionate dependence ing market demand, and low skill requirements. on this income-generating activity despite its low profitability. While about one-fifth of While community groups are provided a com- community group members involved in crop prehensive livelihood menu at the inception farming or a retail business, and 26 percent of stage, many continue to opt for traditional those engaged in livestock-related activities activities, particularly livestock businesses and report a “significant increase” in income, more farming, despite the risks associated with low than 50  percent report a significant increase profitability and high dependence on natural in income from activities such as working in a resources in a climate-sensitive region. Despite beauty parlor or in construction. Community the associated risks and low returns, because groups involved in transportation services, tai- these activities do not add to the existing loring, and interloaning also report a higher pro- time poverty of women and have a lower skill portion of members with significant increases to threshold, they are more in demand than their income compared with those involved in other activities suggested on the livelihood retail, livestock, and farming activities. However, menu of the program, resulting in a low level less than 10 percent of members report that of livelihood diversification. their community groups are involved in any of these activities, which are more lucrative than Limited diversification is observed even within the commonly adopted activities of livestock retail businesses, most of which are grocery trading, farming, and running retail businesses stores. Long-term familiarity and risk-averse (figure 3.7). Figure 3.7. Enterprise Activities Undertaken by Community Groups Livestock 47.9 Retail 39.1 Farming 12.2 Savings/interloaning 6.5 Hotel 3.6 Boutique/tailoring 1.1 Beauty parlor 0.7 Other activity 0.6 Beekeeping activity 0.6 Transportation services 0.5 Online services 0.3 Construction activity 0.2 N = 364 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent Note: Community group activities are identified here based on data provided by the program team. Percentages are calculated on the basis of data available for 364 cases, although the assessment sample is 400. The missing cases and the resultant change in base are an outcome of mismatches in the names of community groups in the sample collected and the available program data. 25 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Box 3.1. Case Study: Higher Uptake of Traditional Livelihoods Despite Low Returns and Associated Risks Name of Group: Kamil Women Group, Garissa Number of Members: 15 Year of Formation: 2017 Years of Funding: 2019 Community group activities: Tailoring, retail shop, livestock rearing Livestock trade is the primary activity across Gabo was previously selling milk and vegetables groups, although other activities are more prof- and since the funds were disbursed, her group itable and less susceptible to external factors, was able to expand the business and engage in such as droughts, other extreme weather events, multiple livelihood activities. and poor livestock health. This is largely because “We were selling milk and vegetables and we traditional livelihood activities do not add to just expanded our business.” the time poverty of women and have low skill requirements. Community groups often branch The expected sale price is 3,000–7,000 KES per out to engage in multiple activities in addition goat depending on the size. However, the lack to livestock trading, such as selling milk or veg- of an active market during a drought and poor etables (see box 3.2), but this does not translate health status of livestock reduces market value. into higher personal net income when the live- “Around 30 (goats) died and 220 are alive [due stock trade is involved because the business is to the drought]. There is no milk at this time, the vulnerable to weather-related shocks and mar- vegetables we get once in a while.” ket vagaries. As a woman-only group, the Kamil Women From the KES 500,000 provided through KDRDIP, Group also incurs additional costs (KES 10,000 KES 200,000 was used to purchase goats, KES per month) due to their mobility constraints in 150,000 was used for clothes, and KES 150,000 terms of searching for fodder and water in these was used to build a store. However, factors such drought-affected areas, further reducing their as natural resource constraints, extreme weather capacity to generate profits. Consequently, events, and mobility constraints have limited the despite earning profits, the net return per mem- capacity of Kamil Group members to benefit ber is only KES 300-450 per month, or KES 3,600– from the entrepreneurial activities. 5,400 per year. 26 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Box 3.2. Case Study: Access to Interest-Free Funding from the Program and Its Positive Impact on Income from Traditional Livelihoods Name of Group: Nasri Farm Group, Wajir Number of Members: 10 Year of Formation: 2016 Years of Funding: 2020 Community group activities: Vegetable farming Farming is the third most preferred community The group has manged to grow an array of veg- group activity despite severe water scarcity in etables despite being located in a water-scarce the region. Access to interest-free funding has region. Kale is the major crop. The group also increased the production capacity of commu- reported total profits of KES 30,000 per month. nity groups by improving their ability to cope There is an additional cost of KES 20,000 for a with vulnerabilities, such as water scarcity. How- gardener to maintain the vegetable farm. ever, further support is necessary to sustain The expected sale price of a bunch of kale is KES production. 50 per bunch. However, the group struggles to Out of KES 500,000 received through KDRDIP, make sales, especially during drought due to re- the group spent KES 100,000 on drilling a bore- duced community purchasing power. hole, KES 200,000 on fencing, KES 55,000 on a The group also faces challenges to the scaling up generator, and KES 145,000 on a water storage of production due to the additional water and and piping system. fencing needed to increase production and re- duce crop loss. The issue of lack of diversification is further such as training for tailoring, cosmetics, apicul- exacerbated for women because they have ture, and handicrafts, limits women’s choices for limited access to nontraditional livelihood activ- livelihood activities. Additionally, mobility con- ities that require skills building, mobility, and straints associated with cultural norms and time spending time outside home. While women are poverty renders it difficult for women to access seen as enterprising, gaps in livelihood-specific livelihood activities that require them to spend skills and access to skill-building opportunities time away from home and dependents. 27 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.8. Changes in Contribution to Household Income Before and After KDRDIP Community Group Enterprise Formation, by Income Source Before 3.7 4.4 6.0 13.7 14.9 19.3 .6 22.6 13.9 0 0.6 After 1.9 2.3 5.2 8.1 14.6 17.1 46.1 3.5 0 0.1 0.3 0.8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent Nonagriculture wage labor Government assistance Own agriculture Other Seasonal worker agriculture/livestock Occasional jobs Own livestock Self-employed CG enterprise supported by the project Agriculture wage labor Other community group activities Salaried employment Women are attaining the status of household from community group enterprises serves as income contributors. One key finding of the necessary household income support. About study is the positive impact of improved access two-thirds of households consider commu- to employment opportunities through commu- nity group enterprises an active source of nity groups, which has increased the propor- income. Access to such income has reduced tion of income derived from community group vulnerabilities among community members, activities to total household income (figure 3.8). providing low-risk investments, collective This is the case for both men and women. While risk sharing, and the potential to scale up as factors such as continuous drought and the a group. While profits from community group pandemic have reduced absolute household activities have been used to expand personal income in the recent years, the contribution of and community group businesses, the income community group business activities has signifi- from the latter has also served as an emergency cantly increased. For example, the share of com- fund for members of the groups, especially munity-group-based income in total household during the pandemic and the ongoing drought. income grew from 22.6 percent before KDRDIP Qualitative interactions reveal that during the to 46.1 percent in 2021. For women, this increase drought, the income from the community proved to be a meaningful economic achieve- group was primarily used for education and ment because women are traditionally seen as health expenses for household members, caretakers who play a passive role in household thereby improving the household’s capacity economics rather than as income generators. to cope with shocks. In communities characterized by poor living “Before KDRDIP, we and our families had noth- conditions, limited livelihood opportunities, ing that we could sustain ourselves with, when dynamic livelihood conditions, and limited sav- the money from KDRDIP program came, we ings or measures to deal with shocks, income were able to buy goats and start our business. 28 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Even though we did not go to school, now our program has also improved women’s interest children can go to school because we can now and knowledge in matters related to finance, pay the school fees.” (Kamil Women Group, which was previously assumed to be a man’s Alidumal Wajir) domain. As a result, women are increasingly involved in decision making regarding house- While women face resource constraints such hold finances (e.g., borrowing and savings), as skills gaps and time poverty, community- expenditures on children’s education, and asset group-based activities have instilled an management. As figure 3.9 shows, 62.3 percent increased willingness and confidence in women women (compared with 51.4 percent men) to undertake entrepreneurial activities. How- report an improvement in their decision-making ever, such resource constraints can also impede power in their households and in the commu- women’s capacity to generate adequate nity group. Overall, the capacity to contribute income actively and consistently despite their to household income is being translated into increased willingness to engage. For example, improved status for women at the household while both women (82.7 percent) and men and community level. In target communities, report an increase in income since they joined a women are being accepted in the role of community group enterprise, only 21.3 percent entrepreneurs rather than as passive commu- women report a “significant increase” com- nity members. pared with 29.9 percent of men. “I have my own business from the profit I received IMPACT OF CHANGE IN WOMEN’S ECONOMIC from the community group activities and before I CIRCUMSTANCES ON DECISION MAKING AND CONTROL used to stay at home but now, I’m busy with the OVER ECONOMIC BENEFITS group and the business.” (Group member, Karu A critical outcome of the program, especially Women Group, Karu Wajir) from the lens of women’s empowerment, has been that involvement in community- Additionally, the improved control over the eco- group-based business activities has led to a nomic benefits has resulted in women being greater acceptance of women as income gen- able to spend more on essential services such erators in households and in communities. The as health, sanitation, food, and nutrition for the Figure 3.9. Percentage of Quantitative Survey Respondents Who Report Improvement in Access to Essential Services and Decision Making 62.3% 61.4% 58.0% 59.6% 51.4% 49.4% 53.4% 47.2% Decision-making power A ordable Sanitation Food such as a ordable withinhousehold or health services (access to toilet facilities nutritious food, community group at home or nearby) dietary supplements, vareity in foods Women Men 29 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM family (see figure 3.9). While the improvement droughts. Further, the livestock trade is inher- reported for decision making has been higher ently vulnerable to such external shocks, and among women, in terms of absolute compari- this, combined with an absence of viable value son, men still fare better with respect to control chains, has resulted in poor and unreliable of finances and community- and/or household- returns. level decision making. Furthermore, while in- creased capacity to make decisions were 3.4. KDRDIP’s Empowerment reported by both men and women, among Achievements women it was largely limited to household deci- Improving Women’s Resources sions and had minimal impact on institutional In respondent households, women’s capacity to decision-making roles, especially in community- engage in livelihood activities has improved in level institutions. Community groups have, response to increased access to capital through however, opened opportunities for collective KDRDIP. An increase in women’s confidence action, especially for women with limited and visibility as entrepreneurs has improved capacity to exercise their agency as a com- women’s social capital in terms of social net- munity member. works and social connectivity. However, limited livelihood-specific skills building and time pov- Barriers and project gaps erty continue to impede WEE. Limited livelihood diversification. Community groups have a skewed focus on livestock and Under the resources dimension, we analyzed other traditional livelihoods that have low-level three main factors—assets, bodily integrity, and skill requirements and do not significantly add critical consciousness. Access and utilization of to women’s time poverty. A lack of intensive both tangible and intangible economic, social, capacity-building support and hand-holding in or productive resources were analyzed to track livelihood selection, as well as the overall run- how these resources can constrain or enable ning of postfunding businesses after receiving WEE. These resources include (control over) time, financing is another gap that limits livelihood access to financial and productive assets, skills, diversification. While the community groups knowledge, and social capital are provided with a livelihood menu and asked to select an activity, the current program does Access to financial and productive assets not include extensive hand-holding support Improved access to capital (provided by the to identify the benefits of and challenges to project to the community groups) has led to a engaging in various livelihood activities. rise in entrepreneurial activities at the individ- ual and group level among male and female Limited income generation. While the contri- community group members. This, in turn, has bution of community group income to overall resulted in an increased capacity to save, household income has increased, it has not access financial services, and manage produc- led to an absolute increase in income due to tive assets (livestock, agricultural assets, and external factors, including the pandemic and property). 30 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP “Household spending responsibilities are not only “My salary as a waitress was not enough to cater for the men. I now have a small business and for my children’s education expenses, I used to savings and so I can now support my husband.” earn only KSh 6000 from which I had to pay (Khadija, Berisamat Group Afweyne village, rent and take care of my children. I therefore Garissa) decided to join the group where I can borrow and build my business. Now, I have saved about Most women (91.7 percent) report that their KSh 10,000 in my personal account. I also do involvement in a community group improved savings with the group where I have saved about their access to financial services, such as loans KSh 5,000–7,000.” (Selina Akombo, Lady Bird and saving products. The increased access to Women Group) financial services can be viewed as an outcome of better access to credit and the business man- In addition to gendered differences, aspects agement knowledge gained through involve- such as type of livelihood activity, access to ment in community group business activities. banks, and financial literacy influence savings This has positively influenced the savings and behavior. Such differences have also resulted borrowing behavior of the target community. in varied saving behavior across counties. For example, the proportion of female mem- Given the unstable income from pastoralist bers who save more than doubled during the livelihoods due to the persistent drought, the project engagement period (35.1 to 74 percent) majority of respondents from Garissa and Wajir indicating an improved ability to save and man- use their savings for ordinary household needs, age risks such as health emergencies, thereby such as groceries and utilities. Respondents reducing their dependence on men. in Turkana are relatively less dependent on livestock-based incomes, reporting relatively While the percentage of men who save has more diverse livelihood activities, such as inter- also risen since project inception, the increase loaning, self-employment (e.g., business, con- in proportion is less than 20 percent, which is struction, or handicrafts), and occasional jobs. much lower than that for women. This differ- The resultant stability in income generation has ence in savings behavior between men and translated into less dependence on savings for women can be attributed to multiple sociocul- daily needs and savings that are largely used for tural factors, including normative gender roles emergencies or educational needs. Figure 3.10 regarding household spending responsibilities. provides an overview of the various reasons for For example, spending for the household is usu- saving across the focus counties as reported by ally considered to be the responsibility of men, male and female program beneficiaries. while women tend to save for emergencies, such as a drought or illness, or for their children’s Although M-Pesa is the most preferred form of education. More than two-thirds of women savings (60.9 percent of women and 83  per- (68.7  percent) report that their savings are cent of men), 41.3 percent of women save cash meant for emergency use, while men’s savings at home, while only 15.3 percent men do. A are largely used to meet ordinary household higher dependence on cash savings among needs (58.2 percent). women is the result of constraints to mobility, 31 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.10. Overview of Key Categories for Saving Among Men and Women in the Focus Counties 53.4% Emergency 88.4% 35.5% 33.7% Education 80.0% 19.6% 63.3% Ordinary household needs 43.4% 70.7% Oldage 4.7% 0.9% 17.6% Personal 29.3% 0% 54.6% Investment in livelihood activities 32.6% 66.4% Garissa Turkana Wajir capacity—such as illiteracy—and lack of expo- “Yes, there have been great improvement to the sure to other financial services. Furthermore, lives of the group members who have taken loans only about one-fourth of men and women from the group. They have not only purchased report having savings in a bank, indicating poor new households’ items but have also started utilization of banking services regardless of new businesses from the profit they have gained gender. M-Pesa facilitates access to credit from the money they borrowed from the group through “easy processes,” a major advantage as loans.” (Member, Lady Bird Women Group) identified by the beneficiaries, but it is not an optimum alternative to banking services. For Cultural norms associated with livestock own- example, usage of M-Pesa renders customers ership as a symbol of prosperity has translated vulnerable to identity theft and fraud. In addi- into high rates of livestock ownership and poor tion, customers are also susceptible to unreg- diversification of livelihoods. As indicated in fig- ulated spending behavior, especially among ure 3.11, livestock is the major form of productive those with limited financial literacy—a major asset in all three counties despite the persistent barrier faced by program beneficiaries (Makori unfavorable conditions for livestock rearing 2019). However, engagement with commu- in terms of water and fodder scarcity in these nity groups and collectivization has positively drought-affected regions. impacted the community’s access to borrowing despite limited access to banks. Intergroup bor- In Turkana, a significantly higher proportion of rowing, for example, bridges the gap in access households engage in crop farming (41.2  per- to credit despite challenges such as lack of col- cent) compared with Garissa (1.4 percent) lateral and financial illiteracy, especially among and Wajir (26.4 percent). This translates into a women. higher rate of ownership of agricultural assets in Turkana. 32 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Figure 3.11. Overview of Asset Ownership Across the Focus Counties Percent 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 72.6 Livestock 65.1 Livestock 68.9 assets 7.8 Livestock barn 4.3 2.1 15.9 Agricultural Shovel 59.1 20.6 assets 3.5 Hoe 59.5 9.9 85.6 House/property 90.1 96.0 30.7 Electricity 7.8 16.4 General 87.3 Toilet at home 39.7 assets 79.0 22.9 Radio 21.2 9.2 36.5 Basic feature phone 58.8 32.6 22.9 Smart phone 16.0 4.6 Garissa Turkana Wajir Access to social capital “The community groups have changed the per- Active involvement in community group busi- ception of women in the community. They are ness activities and collectivization has positively more respected in the community now.” (Sahara influenced women’s access to social capital Mohammad, Karu Women Group) and respectability in society (figure 3.12). It has resulted in improved access to social networks6 Furthermore, qualitative interactions reveal for women. Moreover, it has increased interac- that women’s capacity to access social net- tions of women with individuals beyond mem- works is an indirect result of their improved bers of their own households and increased visibility as entrepreneurs in the community, the respectability of women in the community. which has made it easier for them to interact While this positive trend is visible for both men with community members despite rigid cultural and women, access to social capital is slightly norms that limit women’s access to social net- higher among women in terms of social net- works and public spaces. Improved capacity works formed with community group members and confidence to engage with non-household and non-household members. For women with members has also translated into increased limited access to social spaces, community access to credit sources. For example, female groups serve as an accessible platform to dis- community group members report increased cuss issues and concerns and to socially interact. ease in accessing loans and other informal credit sources—mainly fellow community group members, other community members, and 6. Social networks in the program context are networks formed family members. Improved acceptance of with non-household members, including community group mem- women as entrepreneurs, improved access to bers, individuals in village administrative bodies, and other influen- social networks, and the resultant increased tial community members. 33 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.12. Access to Social Capital 83.9% 86.4% 85.5% 82.5% 82.0% 78.1% 73.2% 68.7% I always have someone Whenever I have a problem My family and friends I can talk about who is around whenever or worry, I can always always try to support me all of my problems I am in need discuss it with my whenever I am facing with my friends fellow CG members di culties Women Men trust of repayment have led to this increased that they typically have less than one-fifth of access to loans. their day available to manage an enterprise (see figure 3.12). Natural resource constraints, “I am a known person in the community; there- especially lack of water, and cultural norms fore, they (community members) will give me around household chores make it difficult for money.” (Ilama Dubow, Karu Mumin Women women to gain more control over their use of Group, Wajir) time. About 50 percent of women’s time is spent on household chores and livestock rearing, lim- Furthermore, despite factors such as time pov- iting their capacity to effectively participate erty, which limits their capacity to engage in in other income-generating activities. Further- enterprises, women benefit from the camara- more, findings from the survey indicate that derie among community members to support less than one-fifth of women report a reduction each other in their limited available time. in their labor burden in the form of household chores and unpaid work outside home, indi- “It is difficult, but I manage, I arrange the fire- cating limited improvements in women’s time wood (personal business) and leave it to my poverty during the program period. neighbor’s care so they can sell it for me while I sell the vegetables [community group activity].” “We don’t have time to sit down because of (Female member of Raha Farmers Group, Lag- the many activities we are supposed to do like boqol, Wajir) fetching water, washing dishes, and the house- hold chores. They (male members) cannot do the Time use and income-generation capacity chores, they will ask you if they are your wife to While women now have better access to liveli- do the chores, if asked to help.” (Lockichoggio hood opportunities through community group Group, Turkana) business activities, quantitative data indicate 34 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Figure 3.13. Overview of Time Use Among Women Percent 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 38.9 Household chores and care 32.2 37.2 20.4 Sleeping resting 27.0 23.6 6.9 Leisure activities 7.4 6.8 Managing own business enterprise/ 14.4 16.0 day-to-day management of enterprise 14.1 12.8 Livestock rearing 6.5 9.9 4.3 Paid labour activities 7.5 6.2 1.2 Agricultural activities in homestead land/own farmland 2.5 1.8 1.0 Garissa Turkana Wajir Other 1.0 0.4 Despite the time constraints that these women attend meetings or trainings, procure inputs, face, they are keen to engage in income- or manage shops. The program design and generating activities to improve their access implementation does not account for the time to income and financial independence. Some poverty experienced by women. community group members have adopted innovative methods to address the time Variations in time use by women is observed poverty issue by engaging in personal/indi- across counties. Women in Turkana fare better vidual business activities on top of the program- than their counterparts in Garissa and Wajir. This supported community group activities. An can be attributed to Turkana’s lower depen- activity like selling vegetables does not require dence on pastoralist livelihoods and higher a woman to travel far from home—she can dependence on activities such as interloaning work near her home, making it easier to mul- (20.2 percent of respondents), which require titask between household chores and income- less of a time commitment. While 58.1 percent generating activities. While community group of respondents in Garissa and 44.4 percent of activities are undertaken on a much larger respondents in Wajir are engaged in commu- scale and have the potential of generating sus- nity group activities related to livestock trading tained income generation, women’s capacity or rearing, only 41.1 percent are engaged in to benefit from such activities is constrained by livestock farming activities as part of a com- their existing time commitments. Community munity group enterprise (base = 364). Women’s group activities often require women to spend engagement in livestock rearing is also rela- more time outside their homes, traveling to tively lower in Turkana, with women reporting 35 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM more time spent on other activities. For exam- “The challenge is that they have children to take ple, program data indicates that community care of and women are like the pillar of the whole groups in Turkana are involved in savings/inter- community. They are looked up to by all and it’s loaning (20.2 percent), beekeeping (1.7 percent), challenging to do everything at once.” (Halima transportation services (1.6 percent), online Abdi Hussein, Karu Women Group, Wajir) services (0.9 percent), and others (1.7 percent), which were less common in the other counties. Livelihood-specific skills development In addition, relatively less rigid cultural norms in among women Turkana have also made it easier for women to While access to livelihood-specific skills and spend more time on income-generating activ- knowledge are limited among both men and ities, such as paid labor, self-employment, or women, in most areas, women lag significantly agriculture management, in addition to leisure behind men (see figure 3.14). However, quantita- and resting time, as indicated in figure 3.13. tive data indicate that women fare better than men in some areas of business management, Figure 3.14. Existing Skills and Knowledge Among Men and Women Interpersonal communication skills 25.0 22.9 Computer programming 11.3 2.4 Accessing digital payment platforms 17.8 10.6 21.1 Accessing financial services 16.4 33.3 Marketing of products/services 31.7 24.2 Trading and negotiation 31.9 Packaging 14.8 2.9 26.0 Business plan development 32.0 Automobile repairing 9.6 2.4 Handicrafts 10.1 3.0 Briquette production 11.6 2.9 Weaving, tailoring, embroidery, etc. 8.2 3.9 Aquaculture 14.7 2.9 Beekeeping 14.4 4.3 Women Men Processing animal-based products 31.2 14.2 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent 36 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP such as business plan development, trading, improvements in self-efficacy in terms of con- and negotiation. This can be attributed to a fidence in one’s ability to overcome challenges higher proportion of women receiving training and positive outlook, they continue to lag in the areas of business plan development behind men in their capacity to cope with vul- (32.4  percent of women and 21.3 percent of nerabilities such as natural disasters. men), and trading and negotiation (30.4 per- cent of women and 18.8 percent of men), as Bodily integrity in the program context is defined indicated by quantitative data. Women’s skills as a woman’s confidence to make decisions development and existing skills can be further regarding her livelihood activities, her capacity enhanced through increased project support for to practice personal autonomy, and freedom business management and capacity building. from acts of violence or coercion. Critical con- sciousness, characterized by the capacity of a Currently, however, training and capacity build- woman to identify and question social issues ing support is only provided to the officeholders that directly or indirectly affect her, is also eval- of the community groups under the program uated. This aspect is measured by gaining an and is largely limited to bookkeeping and lead- understanding of the awareness, confidence, ership. Additionally, women’s capacity to access and self-efficacy that enables women to exer- these programs is further limited by the preva- cise agency. lent cultural and religious norms. For example, in Garissa and Wajir, it is challenging for women to BODILY INTEGRITY AND CONFIDENCE TO ENGAGE IN actively participate in training programs due to INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES cultural norms that frown upon women partici- Community group business activities have pating in activities that involve interacting with opened a new realm of involvement in commu- men who are not members of their household. nity life and access to public spaces for women. Findings show that women are determined to The program beneficiaries, especially women, engage in income-generating activities despite thus face significant gaps in livelihood-based cultural and resource barriers. In the focus coun- skills, limiting their capacity to adopt diverse, ties, especially Garissa and Wajir, cultural and sustainable, and lucrative livelihood opportu- religious norms dictate that women’s activi- nities. An uptake of diversified livelihood activ- ties and engagements ought to be limited to ities has the potential to reduce vulnerabilities female community members and male family due to external shocks, but beneficiaries lack members, which limits women’s ability to inter- the required technical skills and knowledge to act with non-household members. However, diversify livelihood activities. collectivization through community groups has translated into improved confidence in women Bodily integrity and critical consciousness to engage in income-generating activities Improvement has been observed in women’s and to actively engage in the social life of the bodily integrity and confidence to engage in community. income-generating activities with increased access to capital. While women report 37 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM For women community members, commu- SELF-EFFICACY OF WOMEN ENGAGING IN COLLECTIVE nity groups provide valuable opportunities for ACTION income generation, financial independence, Despite challenges in terms of access to resources agency, and access to public spaces. Engag- such as skills, time, credit, and cultural and reli- ing in community groups has improved wom- gious norms, aspirations of women related to en’s confidence in their ability to contribute to entrepreneurial activities have improved. Some household expenses, successfully undertake women (like Catherine Auma from Turkana) are entrepreneurial activities, and enjoy personal seen confident and enterprising. autonomy without completely relying on men. “I have been changing (businesses), I look around “My confidence has increased before I was just to see if everybody is doing what I am doing then a housewife but since joining the group, I have a I move to the next one which no one has. By the clear vision of so many things and my confidence time they get there I change to something else.” has increased.” (Hernamu Raha Hassan Ali, Kamil (Catherine Auma, Turkana) Women Group, Wajir) Engagement in community group business While the program has limited scope to address activities has translated into improved entrepre- these cultural norms, it has great potential to neurial capabilities among women, including ensure consistent and adequate income gener- the ability to adapt to a competitive business ation through community group activities. As a environment. Collectivization and access to result of engaging in businesses and assuming capital through community groups have con- responsibilities in community group activities, tributed to women’s self-efficacy and confi- women report increased confidence to engage dence to undertake entrepreneurial activities, in activities such as sales and input procurement. which in some cases is even higher than that of This, in turn, has, improved women’s autonomy men (figure 3.15). Hence, in terms of the capac- over decisions over their mobility and nature of ity to undertake tasks, overcome challenges engagement in enterprises. Findings show that (financial, economic, and social), and determi- women are more willing to travel despite the nation, community groups have facilitated an prevalent normative restrictions, indicating their enabling environment for women by increasing heightened confidence and reduced depen- their access to capital, developing their entre- dence on men. Due to this increasing willingness preneurial skills, and improving their confidence and confidence to travel, women are assuming to engage in income-generating activities. For more responsibilities in income-generating example, collective sharing of risks significantly activities in the areas of procurement and sup- increases women’s capacity to engage in busi- ply sourcing—previously areas that were chiefly ness and make investments. the domain of men. “If we incur a loss at the clothing shop, all of us “Now, I can travel from here to Lagboqol to sell contribute our savings.” (Ilama Dubow, Karu livestock.” (Kamil Women Group, Alidumal Wajir) Mumin Women Group, Wajir) 38 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Figure 3.15. Attitudinal Statements Regarding Self-Efficacy Women Men 80.8 Compared to other people, I can do most tasks well 83.1 88.7 I am satisfied with my life 89.0 94.2 I feel positive about my future 89.5 89.9 I will be able to successfully overcome many challenges 91.2 89.6 I believe I can succeed in any endeavor to which I set my mind 92.2 10 30 50 70 90 Percent This collective risk sharing and resultant reduc- CHANGES IN CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS tion in individual vulnerability is vital to women AMONG WOMEN IN RESPONSE TO ACCESS TO in target communities due to their dispropor- COLLECTIVIZATION tionate dependence on men on issues related The majority of program beneficiaries are aware to finances, asset ownership, and decision of social issues that need to be addressed, such making, in addition to poor access to institu- as violence against women, indicating height- tions and information gaps. Furthermore, men ened critical consciousness among community are still considered better decision makers than members. Furthermore, women are seen as women regarding matters such as investments more eager to seek help and redress when and livelihood choices. While women are seen it comes to issues regarding gender-based as enterprising, final decisions are expected violence (figure 3.16). to come from men in the community group or household, according to respondents. Men However, despite the ability to acknowledge are thought to be smarter and more aware issues such as gender-based violence, the of possible risks, challenges, and benefits due quantitative analysis suggests that less than to women’s limitations in terms of literacy, 15 percent of women are aware of legal rights mobility, and exposure to the larger society. and redress mechanisms. This information gap For example, as per the quantitative findings, and poor capacity to access a redress mecha- the illiteracy rate is 48.4 percent among male nism is also evident in women’s confidence of respondents and 84.7 percent among women, their coping capacity in the event of natural and indicating women’s heightened vulnerability human-social vulnerabilities, such as domestic compared with men. This constrains women violence (see figure 3.17). from further boosting their confidence to make major decisions about livelihood activities and investments. 39 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.16. Proportion of Respondents Who Would Seek Help in Response to Social Issues Women Men 78.4 FGM 86.6 80.0 Early marriage 88.6 Physical violence aganinst women 88.6 90.9 Domestic violence 91.0 90.0 94.1 Dysfunctional village school 90.9 92.3 Dysfunctional health dispensary 89.9 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent Figure 3.17. Overview of Coping Capacity Women Men Loss of livestock/crops 60.9 52.2 Unemployment 55.6 67.6 Violent disputes and insecurity 30.5 0.0 Flash floods 66.9 42.4 Drought 40.2 38.2 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent The support gained through collectivization is “The women were affected the most [during vital because the ongoing drought and recent a drought] because most of the time the kids pandemic have exacerbated women’s vulner- depend on them for milk and food.” (Raha Farm- abilities. For example, men from pastoralist ers Group, Lagbqol, Wajir) households often migrate during droughts, leaving pregnant women, children, and older Limited individual businesses and community family members behind because traveling is group businesses are often the only sources of challenging for such vulnerable individuals. income in such cases. A community group can Women are often left behind to fend for them- also serve as an immediate and easily accessed selves and their dependents. source of credit during emergencies, as dis- cussed earlier in the chapter. 40 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Barriers and project gaps members of their household. The program has TIME POVERTY OF WOMEN great long-term potential to improve women’s While women’s engagement in income-gener- active involvement through capacity building ating activities has increased, the current proj- and sensitization of community facilitators and ect design does not accommodate women’s community group members. time restrictions to engage in activities outside the home. Currently, the community group busi- POOR CAPACITY TO ACCESS FORMAL CREDIT ness activities do not provide time flexibility for Access to banking services or formal credit women to actively engage in activities. Com- services is limited, especially for women. Apart munity group activities often require women from the officeholders, a poor awareness level to stay out of their homes, reducing the time regarding formal credit services is prevalent they have available to do household chores. among community group members, who The lack of a time-sensitive approach in pro- lack access to training and capacity building gram design thus limits the project’s ability to under the current project design. Community deliver WEE outcomes. The program therefore members, including officeholders, have limited has significant potential to develop market link- access to formal credit sources outside the ages and value addition for activities such as project, largely due to poor financial literacy, beadmaking, which are traditionally practiced collateral requirements, and the limited number by women and do not require additional time of financial institutions in the immediate vicinity. commitments or skills. In this context, the program has great potential to address gaps in financial literacy and facil- GAPS IN LIVELIHOOD-SPECIFIC CAPACITY BUILDING itate linkages to formal financial institutions, The program’s capacity-building component such as banks—not only for officeholders but for currently focuses on general business man- all community group members. agement and leadership skills, including book- keeping, finance management, and leadership LIMITED POSSIBILITY TO ENHANCE BODILY INTEGRITY training. The component has limited scope for OF WOMEN THROUGH PROJECT INTERVENTIONS the development of technical skills that could While the program has facilitated access to enhance the capacity of program beneficiaries collectivization and capital, increasing con- to engage in a more diverse bundle of liveli- fidence and bodily integrity is a slow process. hood activities rather than solely depending on Considering the multiple limitations women livestock trading and retail shops. Furthermore, face, including cultural norms around gendered training sessions are currently only organized for roles, gaps in literacy, access to resources, and community group officeholders, while building skills, the ability of capital disbursement by itself the capacity of all members could significantly to enhance the bodily integrity of women is expand the scope of the program for skills limited. However, the program could directly development. Additionally, actively involving contribute to improving financial literacy and women in training and capacity building activi- developing skills, which could also influence ties is a challenge in Wajir and Garissa because women’s mobility and perceptions regarding religious and cultural norms discourage gendered roles over the long term. women from interacting with men who are not 41 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM 3.5. Supporting Women’s Agency: on children’s education, household members’ Decision Making health expenses, and household asset acquisi- In participant households, women’s input into tion rather than spending on personal health, decision making increased in response to the leisure, or skills development. For example, rise in their contributions to household income. qualitative findings indicate that women are At the community group level, decision making keen on gaining literacy and other technical is largely limited to the group’s officeholders, skills that could help them improve their capac- although other members are involved to some ity to undertake more entrepreneurial activities extent. However, cultural norms around gen- and manage existing enterprises. Factors such dered roles results in poor decision-making as inconsistent income generation from com- capacity among women. Women’s capacity to munity group business activities and cultural make decisions regarding personal needs has norms around women’s role in the household not improved as much as it has for men. contributes to this dichotomy—that women’s capacity to spend on themselves is poor even Agency can be defined as the capacity to though their earnings have increased. act and pursue goals free from the threat of violence or other natural or human-induced Despite community group business activities vulnerabilities. In the program context, agency leading to an increase in women’s contribution is understood to be exercised through deci- to household income, it is inadequate to trans- sion making, collective action, and leadership. late into significant improvements in women’s Women’s control over household-level decisions personal lives, especially because of the incon- and their autonomy to make economic and sistency of income generation due to contin- personal decisions has been assessed. Women’s uous and extreme drought and other factors. roles within the community groups and local Income earned from businesses is being used institutional settings have been analyzed in the to balance crop and livestock losses, thereby context of leadership and collective action. adversely affecting profit generation. Conse- quently, household expenses are prioritized, Ability to make decisions about personal and women’s needs are ignored due to inade- well-being quate income generation. While the role of women in decision making has generally improved after joining a com- “For the first five months, we used to get 10,000– munity group, this has not translated into 15,000 per month, but now there is no profit at improved agency to make decisions about all due to drought and COVID-19. All the income personal needs and well-being. As indicated in goes back to pay for the farm and the household figure  3.18, women’s decision-making capacity expenses.” (Member, Ismaqal Women Group, in the areas of sexual well-being and spending Wajir) on personal needs has shown the least level of increase compared with other areas. While Additionally, cultural norms dictate that regard- women’s role in household spending decisions less of a woman’s personal income, her primary has increased, this is mostly limited to spending role is caretaker, while a man is considered the 42 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP ultimate decision maker and owner of house- generation. Nevertheless, the increased con- hold assets and wealth. Hence, the income tribution to household income through com- brought in by women is spent on collective munity-group-based livelihood activities has household expenses rather than on themselves significantly improved the capacity of women because women lack the freedom enjoyed by to make decisions. As highlighted in figure 3.18, men in terms of personal spending decisions. improvements are much more significant for women than men, especially in terms of bor- “Men here believe that their word is final, and rowing and saving. women are property. You are just there, and your work is to listen and not talk.” (Caterine Auma, Improved access to capital and social networks, Turkana) along with wider acceptance as entrepreneurs in the community, has positively influenced Women’s role in general household decision women’s capacity to access credit sources and making make decisions about savings. Moreover, being Findings from the study show that involvement recognized as active contributors to household in community group business activities has income improves women’s agency to become led to an increase in financial contributions by actively involved in decisions about household women to their households and an improve- finances. Rather than being passive agents, ment in their capacity to make decisions (see women are increasingly involved in decisions figure 3.18). Women are usually expected to on critical matters such as household expenses, undertake only unpaid labor or petty transac- the sale and purchase of assets, education and tions (such as firewood or milk sales) with limited health services for family members, and food potential for consistent and significant income consumption patterns. Figure 3.18. Changes in Decision-Making Capacity After CG enterprise intervention Before CG enterprise intervention Gender After CG enterprise intervention (percent) of the Decision area respondent 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Decision on expenditure on children’s education Female Male Decisions regarding sexual well-being Female (e.g., FGM practices, reproductive health) Male Decisions to borrow Female Male Decisions to save Female Male Expenditure on personal needs Female (leisure, transport, etc.) Male Decisions on household expenditures Female (fuel, groceries, etc.) Male Decisions on sale of assets such as land, Female house, property, gold, and other assets Male 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Before CG enterprise intervention (percent) 43 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM “In Islam religion, we discuss ideas, my husband believe that parents or husbands should make brings in his ideas and I bring my own but since final decisions for women with regard to family we started this business, he listens a lot better planning, mobility, involvement in economic than before.” (Member, Sahan Women Group, activities, and household decisions. In Turkana, Dadaab Garissa) however, less than one-fifth of respondents believe that women cannot make the final deci- “Household responsibilities are not only for man sion in such matters. Decisions about household now. I have a small business and savings and so expenses are also influenced by family dynam- I can now support my husband in managing the ics. In women-headed households, financial household expenses.” (Female member, Bresi- responsibilities rests entirely with women. mat Group Afweyne village, Garissa) “My life is different from when I lived with my Furthermore, community group activities have husband; I depended on him for most things but emerged as a new source of income for both now I earn my own money and thus make my men and women. Qualitative findings indicate own decisions.” (Member, Kamil Women Group, that reduced financial dependence on men has Alidumal Wajir) also fueled an increase in women’s confidence to handle financial decisions. Women also Women’s decision-making role in community report an improvement in their ability to make groups decisions related to the purchase and sale of While women’s role in economic activities has individual and community group assets and increased due to their involvement in commu- businesses. nity group enterprise activities, decision-making roles continue to be limited to community group “I have learned a lot since joining the group and officeholders—even within community group I can make my decisions now.” (Member, Kamil enterprises. It is noteworthy that in mixed-sex Women Group, Alidumal Wajir) groups, these positions are usually held by men, except for treasurer, which is often held by a “Since I started this business, I’ve bought 2 pieces female member. Qualitative findings indicate of land, individually.” (Member, Sahan Women that women’s limited role in decision making Group, Dadaab Garissa) about community group activities is both a result of gender dynamics and a direct outcome While women are increasingly confident to of the community perception that women lack make financial decisions, cultural norms dictate the needed skills to make these decisions. than men are better positioned to make criti- cal decisions, especially regarding investments “The main challenge is that men see women as and asset management. This belief of men’s incapable of making any decision. This is a chal- decision-making superiority is more prevalent lenge because if that’s your understanding, you in Garissa and Wajir than in Turkana (see fig- may not be able to make a collective decision ure 3.19). Findings from this study indicate that in a group.” (Selina Akombo, Lady Bird Women two-thirds of respondents in Garissa and Wajir Group, Turkana) 44 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Figure 3.19. Perceptions Around Decision-Making Roles Garissa Turkana Wajir Only the parents should have the right to decide 60.2 28.5 whom the woman should marry. 69.0 Only the husband/parents should have the right 61.5 to decide where the woman should travel. 20.0 68.4 Only the husband/parents should have the right 62.5 10.2 to decide if the woman should go for paid work. 66.4 Only men are capable of making financial 58.8 10.1 decisions and handling finances. 66.6 A woman does not have the right to 59.2 13.1 challenge her partner’s opinions and decisions. 65.9 Only the husband/parent should have the right 59.4 10.9 to decide if a woman should start/do business. 65.6 Only the husband/parent should have the right 59.2 16.0 to decide if a woman should own property. 65.4 I think a man should have the final word in all 61.3 29.8 the decisions made at home. 63.4 Only the husband should have the right 63.6 12.3 to decide the number of children. 59.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Percent This perception is also rooted in the fact that Thus, improved access to livelihood oppor- women have limited exposure to capacity- tunities does not necessarily translate into a building opportunities that could help them proportionate increase in household decision contribute to community-group-related activi- making for women. While, overall, the role ties. However, a positive deviation to this trend is of women in household decision making has observed in Turkana, where study findings show improved, in most cases, it still lags behind men. a significant involvement of both male and Additionally, the lack of collective participation female community group members in decision among community group members in most making (see figure 3.20). Community accep- decision-making areas is a key challenge that tance of women as active decision makers and the program should consider addressing to increased confidence in their decision-making improve WEE outcomes. abilities has resulted in this variation from the other focus counties. 45 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.20. Involvement of Female Members in Community Group Activities Garissa Turkana Wajir 71.8 Attending training sessions 90.4 33.5 69.2 Marketing of the products 58.9 35.3 65.4 Input procurement 63.0 36.5 67.9 Day-to-day management of enterprise 71.2 37.4 67.9 Budget management 72.6 37.7 65.4 Conflict resolution 61.6 38.8 67.9 Selection of enterprise activity and business plan development 80.8 40.3 66.7 Organizing meetings and minutes preparation 50.7 41.2 70.5 Formation of the CG 93.2 60.1 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent 3.6. Collective Action and Leadership concerns and seek support even though they The engagement of women in community continue to depend on male village leaders to groups is most evident in one-time activities access redress mechanisms. such as group formation and the selection of livelihood activities. In response to the program Involvement in community group activities requirement that one-third of community The study reveals the active engagement of group leadership roles in mixed-sex groups be women in one-time community group activi- reserved for women, women are usually given ties such as group formation and selection of the role of treasurer. While women are generally livelihood activity. However, active involvement confident about assuming leadership roles, this of women is limited in areas of budget man- has not always translated into increased access agement, day-to-day business management, to such roles beyond the community groups. input procurement, and marketing, which Such low representation can be attributed to require consistent engagement. This low level of the prevalent cultural norms and time pov- engagement among women in the daily activ- erty experienced by women. Nevertheless, ities of community groups can be attributed to community groups have developed into easily factors such as time poverty, skills gaps, and accessible platforms for women to discuss their mobility restrictions. In terms of leadership roles, 46 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP one-third of community group officeholder “Business and leadership are important; it positions are reserved for women under the empowers everyone to be able to lead.” (Mem- program. Qualitative findings reveal that in ber of Sahan Women Group, Dadaab Garissa) mixed-sex groups, women members often take the treasurer role while men are assigned the “I am the group mobilizer, and this role is import- roles of chairperson and secretary. ant to me because I’ve learned how to deal with different people. People have different As indicated in figure 3.20, women’s involve- perceptions and different expectations. Now, I ment level in community group activities is have better interpersonal skills and it has helped lowest in Garissa, wherein the average female me learn how to deal with people and in public participation is only 40 percent, while Turkana speaking. This has greatly improved the ability reports an average of 71 percent female par- of the women to express themselves through ticipation. This intercounty variation can be the daily meetings. Previously, I could not even viewed as a direct outcome of the restrictions speak before a crowd but now I can even speak women face in terms of access to resources and in church.” (Selina Akombo, Lady Bird Women rigid cultural norms in the focus counties. It must Group, Turkana) be noted that despite the limited consistent engagement in community group activities, Women leaders of community groups serve as a female beneficiaries are positively influenced source of inspiration for other women members by their access to collectivization through com- in the community. They demonstrate a high munity group business activities, especially in level of confidence in their ability to conduct terms of their increased willingness to interact business and serve as leaders, even though with non-household members. leadership roles are often held by men. Willingness to engage with community “Women can do any business; they know how to members run a business than men. I can now set an exam- Qualitative findings indicate that increased ple for others who are starting groups.” (Ilama engagement in community group and enter- Dubow, President, Women group, Wajir) prise activities translates into increased confi- dence and willingness to actively participate in However, despite this increased confidence the social life of a community. Through engage- to interact and engage with non-household ment in community group business activities, members, women’s access to leadership roles women have become self-assured in their inter- in local institutions continues to be limited by actions with others—their engagement with their poor access to such institutional bodies. non-household members is otherwise limited This then limits women’s capacity to access a in Garissa and Wajir due to prevalent cultural redress mechanism or exercise agency because norms. Members also report a better under- women continue to depend on mostly male vil- standing of the concepts of accountability in lage leaders to address their concerns. Overall, managing a business and leadership because while women have gained agency to raise their of their involvement in the community group voices about these issue, the power to resolve a activities. conflict or concern still lies with men. 47 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Community groups providing social support LIMITED ENGAGEMENT OF WOMEN IN COMMUNITY to women GROUP ACTIVITIES Most of the survey respondents report gaining While the program directly promotes the col- knowledge about business management since lectivization of women for business activities, joining community groups and starting com- the role of women in the day-to-day manage- munity group enterprises. Many have used the ment of community group activities is limited community group platforms to share business due to cultural and resource barriers, especially ideas and techniques, which has made their in Garissa and Wajir. While aspects such as time enterprises and their personal endeavors more poverty restrain women from actively engaging successful. For women entrepreneurs in par- in the management of business activities, cul- ticular, community groups serve as a platform tural norms around women’s role in economic to actively discuss and build support for their activities further aggravates the issue. The business ideas, regardless of their age and program has great potential to bridge wom- gender. en’s resource barriers in terms of skills gaps and capacity to engage in economic activities. The “They help me with advice, and they can give me program can help address skills gaps faced money when I want to borrow something from by women in terms of literacy and livelihood- them.” (Member of Karu Women Group, Karu specific skills. Furthermore, the program can Wajir) facilitate opportunities for value addition and scaling up of livelihood activities, which could “Yes, like if it is a problem of fighting at home I go improve women’s income without increasing to my parents. If it’s a problem of lacking money their time poverty. I go to the group, ‘Group please help me, I have this financial problem,’ or ‘I am sick, help me.’ And LIMITED PROJECT SCOPE TO INCREASE WOMEN’S they help me.” (Member of Lokichoggio Group, LEADERSHIP ROLES Lokichoggio Turkana) While women are increasingly confident in assuming leadership roles, this has not trans- Barriers and project gaps lated into an increase in representation of NORMATIVE RESTRICTIONS women in community institutions beyond com- While women’s role in decision making has munity groups. The program does not engage improved, men are still thought of as the ulti- in the creation of linkages to community insti- mate decision makers. Additionally, despite tutions and other local governance structures, their increased contribution to household but there is great potential in facilitating such income, women’s ability to make decisions linkages. regarding their personal well-being is limited because women lack autonomy over spending 3.7. Transforming Institutional Structures, decisions. Relations, and Norms Because KDRDIP is largely focused on creating and improving livelihoods for refugee-hosting populations, the program has had minimal 48 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP impact on the prevalent attitudes toward actively engage in economic activities and enjoy gender roles, restrictive norms around women’s the economic and personal benefits of entre- access to resources, and gender-based violence. preneurial activities. In addition to time poverty, The design and scope of KDRDIP does not have such norms also impede the increasing con- components related to restrictive norms and fidence and motivation of women to perceive gender relations that impede WEE. themselves as entrepreneurs. For example, it is thought that activities such as the handling of Under the institutional structures dimension, finances, the sale or purchase of assets, serving four spheres of women’s lives have been ana- in a leadership role, and generating household lyzed: (1) family; (2) community; (3) market; and income are the primary responsibility of male (4) state. Gender relations and attitudes toward household members, while household chores women are explored at the household and are the responsibility of women. community level. Furthermore, women’s access to the social services offered by the state and Despite the increased participation of women the market have been reviewed to understand in economic activities, rigid norms around gen- how access to these facilities and institutions dered roles continue to be prevalent in the target enhances or hinders WEE. communities, limiting the capacity of women to actively engage in economic activities. Find- Norms around gendered roles ings from the study show that the prevalence The prevalence of gender roles in the target com- of these norms differ across the focus counties munities directly influences women’s capacity to (figure 3.21). For example, in Turkana, only Figure 3.21. Percentage of Survey Respondents Who Agree/Strongly Agree to Statements About Gendered Roles Garissa Turkana Wajir 57.4 I believe only men should handle the household finances. 6.6 50.9 I believe only women should do all the household work, 59.8 40.5 such as collecting water, cooking, and cleaning. 56.5 I believe community groups should have at least 63.6 32.9 one male member. 65.1 56.4 I believe only men should handle sale and purchase 5.8 of produce/assets. 47.5 53.8 I believe only men should take leadership/management 8.1 roles in a business enterprise. 50.7 52.2 I believe only men should be earning members 6.6 in a household. 45.2 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent 49 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM 5.8 percent of survey respondents believe that Restrictive norms around women’s asset own- only men should be involved in asset manage- ership rights are most prevalent in Wajir and ment compared with 47.5 percent in Wajir and Garissa. In these two counties, about half of 56.4 percent in Garissa. Religious and cultural respondents agreed that only men should own norms around women’s role in the household assets. These counties are also characterized by and the community is the major reason for this a significant proportion of respondents stating intercounty variation. that women need not have access to educa- tion or leisure time. These prevalent norms and Attitude toward women’s access to resources attitudes impede women’s agency and the Increased access to income-generating activ- program’s capacity to realize empowerment ities through community groups has positively outcomes for women. The lack of support from influenced women’s access to resources such as household and community members ham- financial assets and services. However, the prev- pers women’s ability to access more resources, alence of rigid norms around women’s use and engage in economic activities, and exercise management of resources impedes the pro- agency. The gendered norms around access to cess of empowerment. For example, although resources is also evident in their access to edu- women are increasingly being accepted as cation, leisure time, and mobility (figure 3.22). entrepreneurs, a significant proportion of the community believes that only men should own Attitude toward gender-based violence and productive assets. marital relations Exposure to gender-based violence has led to “Pastoralist communities like ours believe that an adverse impact on women’s capacity to women themselves are men’s property and thus achieve economic empowerment because it cannot own property.” (Nasteha Muhumed, hampers a woman’s ability to exercise agency, Kamil Women Group, Wajir) achieve financial independence, and engage in productive economic activities. While these Figure 3.22. Percentage of Respondents Agreeing to Statements About Women’s Access to Resources Garissa Turkana Wajir 100 68.9 63.8 61.3 62.0 58.3 59.2 56.8 Percent 48.0 47.5 49.5 50 26.7 24.4 19.7 9.7 7.9 0 I believe only I believe a woman I believe a woman I believe women I believe a woman men should own should not own should not travel alone or need not be does not need as much property. a mobile phone. travel to far o places. educated. leisure time as men do. 50 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP communities have self-devised redress mecha- necessary practice rather than an act of vio- nisms to address issues such as gender-based lence against women in the community. For violence in the community, about one-fifth of example, 62.1 percent of respondents in Wajir respondents in Garissa and Wajir report that and 46.3  percent in Garissa believe that FGM they frequently witness domestic violence in the is necessary for hygiene reasons, while less than community. By contrast, less than 2 percent of 10 percent of the respondents in Turkana have survey respondents in Turkana report witness- such misconceptions regarding the practice, ing domestic violence “frequently.” indicating significant intercounty variation in prevalent norms. Interestingly, the intercounty “In Turkana the community doesn’t practice variation is the least dramatic for perceptions FGM. In the case of violence at home, village around domestic violence. Findings from the elders act as the office in the community, they quantitative and qualitative surveys highlight act as arbitrators and find a solution to most that both men and women report that it is such cases where husband and wife engage in acceptable for the husband to physically punish fighting.” (Athuguru Ekales, Ladybird Self-Help his wife. According to the quantitative survey, Group, Turkana) 31.3 percent of women and 48.2 percent of men believe that it is acceptable for a man to Evidence from the quantitative survey indicate beat his wife if she is disobedient, while only that there is high acceptance of gender-based 25.7 percent of women and 15.1 percent of men violence, particularly in Wajir (see figure 3.23) believe that there is no justification for beating Findings show that FGM is considered a a woman. Figure 3.23. Percentage of Respondents Agreeing to Statements About Gender-Based Violence Garissa Turkana Wajir 55.8 36.8 I believe it is okay for a man to beat his wife if there is a reason for it. 45.2 45.8 9.1 I believe a woman can have multiple partners in marriage. 55.4 64.9 5.8 FGM is an important traditional practice and should be continued. 51.9 62.1 I think FGM is necessary for hygiene reasons. 7.3 46.3 62.4 I think all girls should perform FGM. 5.8 48.9 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent 51 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM At present, the program design does not women have little or no decision-making role. directly address issues involving gender-based The limited active involvement of women on violence. However, there is significant potential community-based councils also hampers their for the program to leverage community groups ability to exercise their rights regarding asset as a platform for increasing awareness of such ownership. issues among men and women. Furthermore, community groups can serve as a platform for “Women are well respected in Somali culture; facilitating discussions and sharing information they are in charge of the household. But if the around gender-based violence with the larger community wants to make a decision, it is the community. council of elders who sit down, no woman is allowed here, and makes the decision for the 3.8. Law, Policy, and Market Environment community.” (Farah Siyad Tuben, Livelihood Spe- Poor control over assets increases women’s cialist, Wajir) dependence on men and reduces their capac- ity to exercise agency in terms of decision Additionally, while land is allocated through making about investments and business oppor- inheritance, no formal documentation is in tunities. Additionally, women have poor access place, and land is demarcated by indicators to markets due to mobility restrictions, exten- such as watering wells and large old trees sive outmigration, poor connectivity to larger (FAO 2017: 4). Poor ownership rights and con- markets, demand and supply constraints, and trol over assets such as land and livestock not low capacity for value addition in terms of skills only reduce women’s agency to make decisions and knowledge. Program counties also experi- but also limit their access to formal credit. For ence poor access to social protection schemes example, lack of collateral impedes women’s largely due to their poor coverage. access to bank credit, which in turn increases their dependence on informal sources of credit Women’s asset ownership rights and on male household members to make Despite favorable changes in women’s empow- investment decisions. erment policies, women from pastoralist com- munities continue to face challenges to owning Market access and managing property. Qualitative interac- The program counties are characterized by far- tions reveal that cultural norms in the commu- flung villages with low population density, poor nity perceive women as co-owners of productive connectivity in terms of infrastructure (roads assets with their husbands, but women play a and mobile connectivity), supply and demand minimal role in managing assets. For example, gaps due to outmigration and absence of mar- women play a negligible role in the sale and kets. Hence, existing and intended beneficiaries purchase of household assets, such as livestock, have poor access to markets. For women, the despite being actively involved in livestock rear- situation is worse given the norms around mobil- ing. Similarly, women have a limited role in land ity and skills gaps. In the quantitative survey, management under customary mechanisms of 59.2 percent of women report that the absence resolving land-related disputes, which are often of markets near their home makes it difficult to resolved in community-based councils where access markets due to mobility restrictions and 52 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP poor road infrastructure in the program region. 15 percent of men report having packaging Furthermore, about one-third of women identi- skills, less than 2 percent of women do. The skill fied a lack of buyers and sellers as the primary and information gaps in alternative livelihood reason for poor market access. The outmigra- opportunities further increase women’s depen- tion of families due to the persistent drought dence on traditional and nonlucrative livelihood has contributed to low market demand and activities, particularly agriculture and livestock purchasing power in the pastoralist communi- rearing. Moreover, other livelihood activities in ties in drought-afflicted regions. High mortality program counties, such as beadmaking and and morbidity of livestock along with more retail businesses, are conducted at a small expensive livestock feed has worsened the situ- scale. For such activities, women currently have ation for pastoralist households. Unhealthy ani- limited capacity for value addition and low mals result in poor price realization for livestock potential for expansion due to their existing owners while the expenses involved in rearing skills and market availability. livestock have increased. Livestock rearing in this context has thus become a risky livelihood Access to social protection schemes option with low profitability. The quantitative survey indicates significant awareness gaps in all three program coun- “Business was good before but right now it is bad. ties about existing social protection schemes, Only a few goats are left. We feed the goats with although Turkana is somewhat an exception, the food sold in the kiosk, right now what is left with programs such as Hunger Safety Net Pro- in the kiosk is very little.” (Waraka Abdi, Burwaqo gramme (91.3 percent of respondents aware), Group, Garissa) Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable Chil- dren (92 percent aware), and National Hospital Furthermore, despite local demand for poultry Insurance Fund (56.3 percent aware). On the and farm-based products (e.g., vegetables), other hand, less than 35 percent of respondents production capacity is minimal in the natural- in Garissa and Wajir report being aware of resource-scarce region. Scarcity of water and the preidentified social service schemes. How- fodder have dwindled farming and livestock- ever, closing awareness gaps will not suffice in based production and markets. The community addressing the major gaps in access to social also has low capacity for marketing and value protection schemes in the three counties. The addition in terms of skills and access to larger country’s social protection system is character- urban markets. For example, more than two- ized by three pillars: (1) social assistance (cash thirds of community group members report transfers to the poor and vulnerable); (2) social lacking marketing skills (67.5 percent), business security (retirement schemes for informal sector plan development skills (71 percent), and trad- workers); and (3) health insurance. Quantitative ing and negotiation skills (71.9 percent). findings indicate that less than one-fourth of respondents in the focus counties have accessed Findings show that this skills gap is higher among these social service schemes. women than men because women’s access to skill-building and training opportunities is Despite a significant increase in government relatively limited. For example, while about expenditures for social protection, the coverage 53 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM is inadequate due to the high poverty rates, While the program has facilitated access to eco- especially in the program counties. In addition nomic opportunities for women, their capacity to limiting the potential for increasing cash to benefit from the same is constrained by a lack transfer rates, high poverty levels also limit of connected ecosystems. For example, women coverage of target households. For example, continue to face major challenges in gaining under the unconditional cash transfer program control over assets and in accessing financial Hunger Safety Net, less than one-fourth of institutions, social protection mechanisms, and households in Turkana (24.3 percent) received markets. In this context, there is great potential program assistance despite receiving the high- for the program to facilitate the development est share of total payments under the program of enabling ecosystems for women by support- in 2020.7 Efforts to influence poverty rates, as ing linkages to community institutions, financial high as 66.1 percent in Turkana, using cash assis- institutions, policy makers, and market players. tance programs requires significant resource allocation, revealing the vicious cycle of high Barriers and project gaps poverty rates leading to poor coverage of social GENDER NORMS LIMITING WOMEN’S CAPACITY TO protection schemes, which in turn reduces the ENGAGE IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES program’s capacity to influence poverty rates. While it increases women’s engagement in While 15 percent of households were covered in income-generating activities, the current proj- Wajir in 2020, the program is still in a nascent ect design does not accommodate the restric- stage in Garissa despite its being one of the tions faced by women in terms of norms around most vulnerable counties in the country in terms mobility, gendered roles, property ownership, of food security and poverty. and gender-based violence. These factors not only limit women’s agency to make decisions In addition to a direct influence on access to but also adversely affects their capacity to gen- income, improving access to social protection erate income. The prevalence of such norms schemes can significantly contribute to WEE renders it difficult for women to actively engage outcomes in program counties, especially in community-group-based entrepreneurial appropriate livelihood-based social safety nets activities and renders them dependent on men that can enhance both livelihoods and natural to make decisions, access markets, and use the resource restoration, such as the Cash for Assets generated income. program. In addition to generating livelihood opportunities, improving natural resource man- POOR CONTROL OVER ASSETS agement increases cash flow into the local Women’s lack of asset ownership increases their economy, which can also boost local economic dependence on men to make important deci- activity. However, this would require efforts sions about investments, business expansion, to expand the program’s scope to include and livelihood opportunities. The lack of col- social protection schemes and to facilitate lateral also impedes women’s ability to access linkages with relevant policy and community formal credit services. While the project has stakeholders. improved access to employment opportunities, it has limited scope to create a supporting eco- system, such as linkages to financial, market, 7. See “HSNP Dashboards” at http://197.254.7.126:9700/glance/. 54 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP and community institutions that could facilitate factors that contributed to positive or negative capacity building for women to identify and changes informed the recommendations pre- benefit from alternative livelihood opportunities. sented here. The assessment also provided an understanding of aspects of WEE over which POOR MARKET ACCESS the program has minimal influence, in addition Program counties are characterized by far- to areas that could be improved. flung villages, outmigration, poor connectivity to urban markets, gaps in supply and demand, As part of the QuIP study, female respondents and poor community purchasing power, among were asked to assess the changes they had other significant challenges. For women, restric- experienced in a selected range of domains of tions on mobility and gaps in skills development economic empowerment, including: render it more difficult to access lucrative and high-value markets. In this context, the pro- Economic achievement, including indicators gram has great potential to facilitate access to for income, additional livelihood opportuni- markets by integrating program components, ties, savings, credit business expansion, and especially infrastructure development. Gaps in financial management capacity; road connectivity, storage facilities (e.g., ware- houses), and processing centers to facilitate Agency, including indicators for decision- value addition could therefore be addressed to making power and access to leadership an extent by the program. roles; 3.9. How Do KDRDIP Processes Resources, including indicators for produc- Contribute to WEE Outcomes? tive assets, time, confidence, and risk mitiga- Positive changes were observed, primarily in tion capacity; and terms of access to livelihood opportunities and social capital and increased confidence. Institutional structures, including indicators While the positive influence of the program was for access to markets and other institutions. explicitly and implicitly attributed to income generation, the outcome was set back by neg- For each of these areas, respondents were ative drivers such as droughts, the pandemic, asked both open-ended and closed questions skills gap, and gender norms. that revealed if they had experienced positive, negative, or no changes in various aspects of The QuIP assessment was largely aimed at their lives since joining the community groups. examining how program processes contribute The respondents were further prompted to to WEE outcomes. Its findings, which were used explain which factors contributed to these to corroborate evidence generated from the changes and to what extent such changes quantitative survey, used a quantitative compo- occurred. nent to capture positive and negative changes to certain well-being domains as perceived by Positive changes in most of the outcome areas the program’s women beneficiaries. The QuIP were explicitly or implicitly attributed to pro- assessment findings regarding critical program gram drivers, as illustrated in figure 3.24. The 55 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.24. Reported Relationship between Drivers and Outcomes Outcomes (%) Improved social networks and (e.g., droughts and COVID-19) Time management capacity productive assets (e.g., land) Increased access to credit/ Improved decision-making Risk mitigation capacity Increase in confidence Improved capacity for finance management Expansion of business Additional livelihood Increased access to Increased access to Increase in Income Increase in savings leadership roles collectivization Market access opportunities capacity loans Formation/reinforcement of community groups under 9 6 4 4 1 3 3 9 4 1 11 2 KDRDIP KDRDIP fund disbursements 2 6 7 1 1 1 2 1 2 -1 Project mentorship support on training modules and business 1 2 3 1 plan implementation Establishment of personal 1 1 1 business Power to set goals and make strategic choices (e.g., improved control over resources) Sharing of best practices, business improvement 1 training, review meetings Economic achievements, including increased income 1 1 1 1 2 Drivers (%) and savings Natural causes (droughts, -7 -1 -2 -1 pandemic) Individual factors (health, education, soft skills, access -2 to networks, participation in organizations) Household factors (bargaining power, division of work, ability 1 to participate in decision making) Economic/market features (e.g., access to business and financial services, -2 2 infrastructure, markets, existence of networks) Change in marital status 1 3 1 -1 Contextual factors (norms, -1 laws, policies, regulations) Skills development and 1 1 training programs 56 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP rows show identified drivers of change in the not necessarily translate into increased access program as well as external factors that led to and control over productive assets. Interactions changes in well-being domains. The columns during the Quip study reveal that, in addition represent the well-being domains identified to insufficient income generation for productive in the assessment framework adopted for the asset procurement, women are at a disadvan- study. The colors in the figure represent fre- tage in terms of gendered norms around asset quency: darker colors indicate more citations ownership and management. Gendered norms when respondents were asked to identify pos- around mobility in combination with poor road itive and negative changes since joining the connectivity not only reduces women’s access program and the perceived driver of change. to markets but also negatively affects women’s For example, the formation and reinforcement income and savings because postproduction of community groups was identified as the most loss during transport is a common issue faced influential program driver, improving social net- by women in the target communities, espe- works and collectivization. cially among vegetable farmers and sellers. In addition, while women have access to reserved Respondents were able to acknowledge the leadership positions within the community program’s influence on economic achieve- groups, they have witnessed almost no change ments, particularly income, additional livelihood in their ability to access leadership roles in opportunities, capacity for business expan- local governance, as indicated by qualitative sion, and associated resources, such as access interactions. to credit, social capital, and bodily integrity. According to program beneficiaries, positive Female beneficiaries of the program indicate changes in these areas were largely the result that time management is the only area where of the establishment of community groups and the program seems to have had a negative fund disbursements. Fund disbursements in the impact. The program has contributed to wom- target communities also resulted in increased en’s time poverty because they now must find entrepreneurial activities in the target villages, time to engage in community group business especially those undertaken by women. This activities in addition to their existing time com- has also led to local market development in mitments to household chores. Involvement in terms of improving women’s access to markets. activities outside the home therefore becomes difficult for women because the household labor The program has had the least influence in the burden cannot be shared with male members areas of improving women’s agency and access due to the prevailing cultural norms around the to institutional structures, including facilitating gendered division of work. access to and control over productive assets, leadership roles, decision making, and insti- Key positive outcomes tutions (such as markets), which are driven by Among the positive outcomes realized, some cultural norms and existing institutional struc- changes were explicitly or implicitly attributed tures and are not directly influenced by the to the program, and some were the result of program. For example, while women report drivers beyond the program’s influence (see an increase in income and savings, this does figure 3.25). Respondents explicitly attributed 57 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 3.25. Frequency of Explicit, Implicit, and Other Positive Drivers Other Positive implicit Positive explicit Additional livelihood opportunities Increase in income Increase in confidence Improved social networks and collectivization Expansion of business Increased access to credit/borrowings Increase in savings Market access Increased access to productive assets (e.g., land) Improved decision-making capacity Risk mitigation capacity (drought, Covid, etc.) Improved capacity for finance management Time management capacity Increased access to leadership roles -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 positive changes to the program, especially in financial independence are also identified as a the areas of economic achievement (increase driver for improved decision-making capacity, in income, additional livelihood opportunities, to a limited extent. and expansion of business), social capital, and confidence. This indicates the program’s direct Improvements to market access were reported, and tangible impact in terms of facilitating largely regarding increased local market activi- income generation, increasing confidence, and ties in the target villages in response to KDRDIP improving access to social networks. While the fund disbursements. However, the lack of busi- respondents also report improvements in the ness activity diversification limits the potential areas of decision-making capacity and access for further expansion. Furthermore, no explicit to productive assets, these improvements or implicit positive changes were recorded in were largely attributed to other drivers, such terms of accessing larger urban markets or as a woman’s marital status, which directly innovative value chains, which could enhance influences her decision-making role, especially the potential for business expansion and con- within the household. However, the economic sistent income generation. achievements of the women due to improved 58 CHAPTER 3. ASSESSING THE TRADITIONAL MODEL OF CDD LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMS IN LAGGING AREAS: KDRDIP Figure 3.26. Frequency of Key Program Positive Drivers Project mentorship support on training modules and business plan implementation KDRDIP Fund disbursements Formation/reinforcement of community groups under KDRDIP -5 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 Increase in income Additional livelihood opportunities Expansion of business Increase in savings Increased access to credit/borrowings Improved capacity for finance management Risk mitigation capacity (drought, Covid, etc.) Increased access to leadership roles Increase in confidence Improved decision-making capacity Increased access to productive assets (e.g., land) Improved social networks and collectivization Market access Time management capacity Key positive drivers increase the women members’ confidence to Three main program activities have contributed deal, support, and collaborate with each other to a significant share of the positive outcomes and with other community members. Com- realized across all the assessed domains: the munity group business activities have opened formation and reinforcement of community a new realm of women’s involvement in com- groups, fund disbursements, and trainings (fig- munity life and access to public spaces based ure 3.26). While trainings had the least impact on the newly gained confidence of women to of these, there is a great deal of potential for exercise agency. Furthermore, the formation the program to improve this area because sig- of community groups has impacted the group nificant gaps are observed in the community’s members’ ability to access credit and borrow access to skills-building, training, knowledge, because the community group acts as both a and business management support. The for- platform and opportunity to build goodwill to mation of community groups is deemed highly access to credit from both community group beneficial across almost all identified empow- members and the broader community. erment domains. Financial support through grants have opened For women who have traditionally had limited multiple opportunities for women to engage in access to collectivization and public spaces, economic activities as a group and as individu- community groups are seen to be the focal als. The access to funds has a multiplier effect driver of social and economic empowerment. in the areas of decision making and status For example, community group activities visibly in the household and community, especially 59 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM for women. For example, access to capital Positive changes were explicitly reported in facilitates the entry of women into economic the areas of income generation, business activities, which in turn translates into financial expansion, and adoption of additional live- independence and an increased role in decision lihood activities in response to improved making at the household level. access to capital and collectivization though community groups and allocated funds. While these drivers have improved women’s capacity at the individual level, the Quip study The positive changes in income-generation also reveals that women’s capacity to consis- capacity were realized on a limited scale tently generate income and access economic because they were curbed by external fac- opportunities is curbed by gendered norms, tors, such as droughts, the pandemic, gen- poor institutional infrastructure, and skills gaps, der norms, and poor access to institutional which are not currently influenced by the pro- structures. Some of these external factors gram drivers due to the program’s focus on cre- have had a more detrimental impact on ating employment opportunities. Additionally, women than men. the mentorship support offered by the program has great potential to provide consistent hand- Increased entrepreneurial activities in target holding support to women so they can both villages resulting from fund disbursements increase their access to livelihood activities and have reportedly led to improvements in enhance their capacity to consistently generate women’s access to markets, although to a income, cope with adversities, manage their limited degree. time, and access productive assets and institu- tional structures, including markets. There was no evidence in the Quip findings that indicate hand-holding support in busi- Changes in women’s economic empowerment ness plan development, implementation, Through Quip, this study unpacks changes in and livelihood-specific skills development. WEE domains and assesses attribution to pro- However, explicit positive changes were gram interventions as reported by program attributed to the program in terms of book- beneficiaries. Specifically, the study sought to keeping and leadership skills for community identify the program drivers that influence WEE group officeholders. without biasing respondents to positively attri- bute favorable outcomes to the program. This Quip findings also indicate that the program analysis reveals that: has had a limited influence on gender norms and women’s representation in community institutions. 60 Lessons Learned from 4 WEE Programs Globally 61 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM This study examined other women’s economic recommendations from global practices. This empowerment (WEE) programs and interven- review was undertaken through desk research tions around the globe to identify lessons that and discussions with key stakeholders. A com- could strengthen the contributions and impact prehensive list of programs and organizations of the Kenya Development Response to Dis- reviewed is included in appendix A. placement Impacts Project (KDRDIP) and other community-driven development (CDD) liveli- 4.2. Lessons Learned hood projects to WEE. First, the approach used Access to information and strengthening to identify key lessons learned is described, the knowledge base for women is critical followed by a detailed presentation of the to reducing vulnerabilities and improving findings. livelihoods This review illustrates that access to information 4.1. Approach and strengthening women’s knowledge base To identify key lessons learned, the study used can play a critical role in promoting WEE in an iterative, three-pronged approach to review these geographies. Access to information, such practices, programs, and organizations (see as information on the weather (e.g., droughts figure 4.1). This involved reviewing programs and floods), markets, and social protection and organizations that work on WEE in geog- schemes, can reduce vulnerability for women raphies and cultural contexts similar to the and those engaged in pastoral livelihoods. semiarid northern region of Kenya. The orga- nizations and programs assessed were largely Key organizations that have implemented from Kenya, other African countries, and India. programs with a component that sup- They serve as the basis for drawing lessons and ports access to information include Oromia Figure 4.1. Overview of the Process to Identify Key Lessons Learned Key areas of analysis • Review of types of livelihood activities, organizations, • Review of types of and projects (from Kenya, other countries of Africa, Review and other contextually similar regions reviewed) livelihood activities, organizations, and • Discussions with key stakeholders projects (from Kenya, other countries of Africa, and other contextually similar regions reviewed) • Identification of key learnings that Filter can be leveraged for WEE • Where else have these approaches been used? • How can these be incorporated for • Key actions and strategies sustainability/scale? Action that can be impleented by • Partnerships needed various stakeholders and their contours 62 CHAPTER 4. LESSONS LEARNED FROM WEE PROGRAMS GLOBALLY Pastoralists Association (OPA), Nashulai Maasai on preserving traditional practices but also Conservancy, Oxfam Great Britain (GB), Food empowering women through the develop- and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and Kutch ment of income-generating activities and the Mahila Vikas Sangathan. OPA has over 15 years education of girls.8 Over the last five years, of experience addressing livelihood challenges the programs have benefited 3,000 people. faced by pastoral communities in Ethiopia and Working in similar ecological, cultural, and Kenya. The organization has benefited over livelihood contexts in India, Kutch Mahila Vikas 2.5 million beneficiaries and has implemented Sangathan provides information and support over 20 projects. OPA has implemented initia- to pastoral women to address limited natural tives that specifically address the vulnerabilities resources, such as water. faced by pastoral women, contribute to their socioeconomic empowerment, and deepen Oxfam Great Britain (GB) is implementing a the knowledge base on these pastoral com- 15-year-long program focused on pastoralists in munities (OPA 2020). To provide pertinent infor- six countries in the Horn of Africa: Sudan, Ethio- mation to pastoral communities in Kenya and pia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Its Ethiopia, OPA conducts information sessions programs include improving drought prepared- on weather and livestock markets that enable ness and integrated natural resource manage- pastoral communities to prepare for potential ment. As part of one of its programs, Oxfam GB hazards and strategically manage the sale of in Ethiopia has been working with local commu- their livestock (OPA 2020). A study in West Africa nities to develop community-based early warn- found that access to information on antici- ing systems. In Abifolan, women participated in pated floods and subsequent action reduced early warning committees. Evidence shows that negative impacts on the livelihoods and lives of 60 percent of the committee members were vulnerable communities (Tall et al. 2012). women, and the participation in the committee and knowledge/information accessed through The review of the literature shows that there it contributed to their empowerment. Further- is a need to leverage and build on indigenous more, the women’s engagement with the com- knowledge of ecosystems and communities. In mittees facilitated efforts to warn other female addition, a research paper by the International community members (Flintan 2011). Similarly, Fund for Agricultural Development on women to increase access to pertinent information, and pastoralism recommends supporting such as the potential for droughts or floods, a women’s access to knowledge and innovations United Nations Development Programme ini- in pastoral communities (IFAD 2012). Organiza- tiative launched in Somalia in 2019 is leveraging tions such as OPA and Nashulai Maasai Conser- mobile phones to provide such information to vancy promote sustainable traditional grazing nomadic pastoralists in the country. This mobile practices and resilient livestock breeds. Nashu- phone-based alert system provides informa- lai Maasai Conservancy is based in Narok, tion on nearby water resources and livestock Kenya, and works on empowering pastoralists and their families through its various programs. Its women’s empowerment programs focus 8. See the Nashulai Maasai Conservancy website at https://www. nashulai.com/story. 63 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM management techniques during an impending behind to take care of the household and drought (Furneaux 2019). remaining livestock. Consequently, there is a need to strengthen traditional livelihood activ- The importance of strengthening traditional ities because women rely on limited resources livelihoods to reduce livelihood risks and build and livestock to support their households. resilience Furthermore, traditional livelihood activities, Key organizations that have implemented such as livestock rearing and trading and milk livelihood programs focused on traditional live- production, are susceptible to external shocks lihoods are the World Food Program, (Brown such as droughts, floods, population pressures, 2020), I Choose Life, and Hydroponics Africa and environmental degradation. Hence, some Limited in Turkana; SNV and Oromia Pastoral- programs focus on strengthening these tra- ists Association in Kenya and Ethiopia; Nashulai ditional livelihood activities and building the Maasai Conservancy in Narok, Kenya; Practical resilience of these pastoral communities. In the Action in Sudan (Hou-Jones, Roe, and Holland past, some programs have leveraged a mix of 2021); Oxfam GB in the border areas of Ethiopia indigenous knowledge of the land and modern and Somalia (Anguko 2015), and Kutch Mahila practices to combat these external shocks and Vikas Sangathan in India. strengthen these traditional livelihood activities. This includes activities such as the development A review of these programs, literature, and of pastoral natural resources, including pas- discussions with stakeholders indicate that tra- tureland, feed resources, and available water ditional livelihoods are important for pastoral sources. communities in two ways. First, these livelihoods have been practiced for centuries, and the Organizations such as OPA in Ethiopia and pastoral community has an in-depth under- Kenya and Nashulai Maasai Conservancy in standing of them. Second, these livelihoods are Narok County, Kenya, have revived sustainable well integrated into the ecological and socio- traditional grazing practices. In Kenya, some economic context of the region and have, until organizations have strengthened livestock rear- recently, proved to be largely resilient. However, ing and sales by addressing specific aspects of given the changing risk factors for such liveli- these livelihood activities, such as enhancing hoods, including climate change and frequent fodder and pasture production, increasing the droughts and floods, it is essential to strengthen supply of available water, and improving the these livelihoods to build community resilience. health of livestock. A part of Save the Chil- Furthermore, aligning the livelihood activities dren’s intervention in Mandera County, Kenya, promoted under the program with traditional focused on enhancing fodder production by livelihoods ensures greater community engage- fencing areas and regulating its use. Oxfam GB ment and ownership as well as the long-term in Kenya has utilized facilitated access to water success and sustainability of the implemented (boreholes) to enhance pasture production in activities. an enclosed area. In Kenya, Concern and Tro- caire have supported livestock health through In pastoral communities, men travel long dis- the treatment of livestock diseases and the pro- tances with livestock, with women often left vision of vaccinations for livestock (Siedenburg 64 CHAPTER 4. LESSONS LEARNED FROM WEE PROGRAMS GLOBALLY 2021). Other organizations, such as the Africa Conservation Centre in Kenya, have imple- Oxfam’s Somaliland–Ethiopia Cross Border mented initiatives to rehabilitate rangeland for Drought Preparedness Project is aimed at grazing, including pasture management train- building community capacity to manage the ing and reseeding. impacts of drought in Ethiopia by addressing the limited availability of water. Over 76,000 Designing livelihood interventions that involve pastoralists (9,500 households) directly ben- greater community engagement and own- efited from project activities. Through this ership is equally important. A recent study project, 500 water points were rehabilitated evaluating livelihood interventions in pastoral for the target community. One of the lessons and agropastoral communities in Mandera, learned from the project was that it is crucial Marsabit, Turkana, and Wajir found that local to support capacity to manage these water ownership of an implemented livelihood inter- points (Bekele n.d.). vention is essential for long-term impact. The study recommends that livelihood interventions began its efforts in Turkana in 2018 and has so be developed in collaboration with the intended far provided over 1,500 people with the skills beneficiaries (Siedenburg 2021). Another study to grow crops such as cowpeas, kale, spinach, by the International Union for Conservation and pigweed using hydroponics (Brown 2020). of Nature on the sustainable management of In Garissa, FaIDA has leveraged drip irrigation drylands suggests that local community own- to enable beneficiaries to grow produce for ership, community-driven implementation, and household consumption and sale in markets. the robust participation of women ensured the success and sustainability of the project (IISD Similarly, there are initiatives that have enabled 2003). improved incomes from the production and sale of milk by leveraging innovations in distri- Organizations have also leveraged innovations bution processes. For example, Anolei Women’s in the production process to enhance the cul- Camel Milk Cooperative, which is based in Isiolo tivation of agriculture with limited available County, Kenya, and was established in the late water. Organizations such as Hydroponics Africa 1990s,9 received support from multiple donor Limited, World Food Program, and I Choose Life agencies and partners to build its capacity to have already implemented the production of facilitate sustained incomes for group mem- crops by leveraging hydroponics in Turkana. bers. Through donor support, the cooperative Hydroponics has enabled agropastoralists to established a collection and processing center grow agricultural produce with 80 percent less for camel milk and purchased a refrigerated water and nutrient solution, with or without soil, truck to transport the milk to urban areas. This in limited land space, to produce higher crop truck enables the efficient transport of milk yields and more nutritious food. The crop pro- over longer distances and reduces losses due duction cycle using hydroponics is not affected by changing climatic conditions or dependent on rain (Brown 2020). The World Food Program 9. See the CELEP website at https://www.celep.info/anolei-womens- camel-milk-cooperative/. 65 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM to spoilage during transport (Lüthi 2020). The of livelihood innovations in pastoral communi- cooperative has also expanded its offerings to ties in Mandera, Marsabit, Turkana, and Wajir include camel milk yogurt.10 reveals that the target communities struggle to sustain themselves with pastoral livelihood Sahjeevan, a Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan activities alone. The study suggests that future initiative in India, has over two decades of programs must consider supporting promising experience supporting marginalized pastoral opportunities for livelihood diversification in communities to strengthen their livelihoods. these communities (Siedenburg 2021). Its activities focus on the conservation of local animal breeds, such as buffaloes and cam- Diversification of livelihood activities has els; the management of grazing resources; enabled members of these communities to and resilience strengthening through rain-fed obtain an alternative source of income and agriculture. Sahjeevan’s work also includes the reduce their exposure to risks associated with facilitating linkages with dairy and women col- undertaking a single livelihood activity, such as lectives for selling milk and associated products the keeping of livestock. In Garissa, the World to make the keeping of livestock sustainable for Food Program (WFP) supports farmers to these communities (Desor 2014). These initia- diversify their existing livelihood activities and tives show that there are various mechanisms increase incomes by engaging in beekeeping. to build community resilience by strengthening So far, it has engaged with 52 farmer groups traditional/prevalent livelihoods. and provided 260 farmers with the required equipment for beekeeping. The program trains Diversification of livelihood activities is frontline extension officers on modern beekeep- imperative ing practices and establishes partnerships with As previously mentioned, pastoral communities other stakeholders (Farm-to-Market Alliance are highly susceptible to external shocks, such and The Hive Ltd.) to commercialize this value as droughts and floods, that frequently and chain in the county (Looniyo 2020). In Narok adversely impact community livelihoods. The County, the Nashulai Maasai Conservancy is frequency and intensity/severity are increasing enabling women to participate in alternative due to climate change. A study by the FAO livelihoods activities and contribute to house- on pastoralists in African drylands states that, hold income. The organization has launched along with supporting livestock production and an initiative for women-led businesses to collect marketing, livelihood programs for pastoralists and sell traditional herbs.11 Organizations such should also consider supporting diversified and as Solar Sister’s model provides women with an alternative livelihoods. Furthermore, it suggests opportunity to diversify their livelihood activities alternative livelihood opportunities specifically and reduce exposure to risks. The Solar Sister for women and youth (FAO 2018). Closer to the model enables women entrepreneurs to estab- project context, findings from an evaluation lish sustainable businesses in their own commu- 10. See “Anolei Women Camel Milk Cooperative” at https://maar- 11. See the Nashulai Maasai Conservancy website at https://www. ifa.cog.go.ke/27/anolei-women-camel-milk-cooperative/. nashulai.com/story. 66 CHAPTER 4. LESSONS LEARNED FROM WEE PROGRAMS GLOBALLY nities. The women entrepreneurs are recruited date, Livelyhoods has trained over 5,000 young and trained to sell affordable solar-powered men and women and created over 2,300 jobs.14 products and clean stoves. These women entre- Salimia Energy is a renewable energy company preneurs earn income from the products. Solar in Kenya that provides clean cookstoves and Sister has supported 10,000 entrepreneurs and fuel to populations in Kenya. Envirofit makes reached 7 million people across five countries.12 a range of smart wood and charcoal-fueled cookstoves in Kenya and distributes them in It is critical to understand and account for Kenya and other East African counties. Kidogo’s women’s time poverty franchise model not only creates employment A review of the literature and discussions with for women in Kenya but also reduces the time stakeholders indicate the need to support and poverty experienced by women in low-income scale livelihood activities that do not add to areas by providing access to affordable child- women’s time poverty in pastoral communities. care. Through its franchising model, the orga- A research paper by the International Fund nization provides women with the required for Agricultural Development on women and training and mentoring to start or improve their pastoralism recommends investments in labor- own childcare microbusinesses. These women saving initiatives that save pastoral women are also provided with a starter kit, including key time.13 Lessons learned from Kutch Mahila Vikas resources for their centers and ongoing quality Sangathan also show that livelihood activities assurance to maintain Kidogo’s minimum stan- that do not contribute to the time poverty of dards. So far, the organization has expanded women experience greater acceptance by to seven counties, established 538 franchises women. in Kenya, and supported over 400 female entrepreneurs in starting or growing childcare There are multiple organizations and initia- microbusinesses.15 tives that reduce women’s time poverty. Key initiatives include providing clean cookstoves, Provision of bundled services solar products, nearby access to clean water, The review also demonstrates that bundling and affordable childcare services. Livelihoods in services contributes to women’s empowerment. Kenya has over a decade of experience distrib- Bundled services involve the provision of mul- uting products that reduce time poverty, such tiple services that enable sustained economic as clean burning cookstoves, solar products, and empowerment for women, including one or household appliances. The organization has more services that directly contribute to eco- distributed over 44,000 cookstoves and sold nomic empowerment, such as skills training, at least 15,000 solar products in the country. To access to credit and productive assets, and other services that enable women to effec- 12. See Solar Sister website at https://solarsister.org/what-we-do/ tively engage and benefit from economic our-impact/. 13. See “Livestock Thematic Papers: Tools for Project Design— Women and Pastoralism at https://www.ifad.org/documents/ 14. See Livelyhoods website at https://www.livelyhoods.org/what# 38714170/39148759/Women+and+pastoralism.pdf/bc1ac853- impact-section. bfd4-420e-aeae-1d63dd7ea3e1. 15. Kidogo’s website at https://www.kidogo.co/impact. 67 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM empowerment activities. Some examples of women artisans in Turkana through child edu- these other services are access to health ser- cation tuition sponsorships, emergency medical vices and funding, insurance, childcare support, funding, an in-house child enrichment program, support to address restrictive norms, and adult and financial literacy training. literacy initiatives. In Tanzania, the Pastoral Women’s Council has Evidence from a randomized control trial in been working for over two decades to empower Ghana shows that women who received bun- pastoral women. So far, the organization has dled services, including access to a savings supported the economic empowerment of over account at a bank, as well as a productive 6,000 women and worked in over 90 villages. It asset, life skills training, asset management focuses on addressing access to education and training, stipends, and health services, saved rights along with economic empowerment for more and generated sustained economic pastoral women. A key lesson from the orga- growth (Banerjee et al. 2018; Buvinic, O’Don- nization is that it has been able to successfully nell, and Bourgault 2020). The BOMA Project, address gender inequality among pastoral which operates in Kenya and supports women women and empower them by linking it to land in other remote drylands of Africa, has adopted rights, education, livelihoods, social services, a bundled service model to empower female and other issues (Ngoitiko 2008). beneficiaries. Its model involves the provision of a conditional cash transfer for business activi- Afya Research Africa in Kenya bundles eco- ties; training in finance, human rights, and life nomic empowerment with the provision of skills; mentoring support; access to savings and health care services. The organization facilitates credit; and linkages to formal financial institu- the economic empowerment of the intended tions. Evidence from a randomized control trial beneficiaries and communities and provides for the BOMA Project shows a positive and sig- sustainable access to quality health care by nificant impact on income, savings, and asset leveraging community partnerships and locally accumulation among the women program relevant technology. Womankind Kenya has beneficiaries compared with the control group over two decades of experience addressing (BOMA Project 2015). challenges faced by pastoral communities in Kenya. It has programs related to women’s Programs and organizations offer varying types empowerment; education; sustainable live- of bundled services to support the empow- lihoods; and water, sanitation, and hygiene. erment of women. The Imani Collective has Some of its programs focus on addressing norms been operating in Kenya for over five years. Its such as gender-based violence along with model focuses on empowering women by pro- the economic empowerment of the intended viding female artisans with consistent income- female beneficiaries in Garissa and Lamu. generating opportunities, skills training, a sense of community, and access to education. The Imani Collective employs and empowers 68 CHAPTER 4. LESSONS LEARNED FROM WEE PROGRAMS GLOBALLY Focus more intently on the need for financial An ecosystem approach has enabled scale empowerment and sustained WEE outcomes Women’s access to savings and credit is cru- Implementing an ecosystem approach has cial to enabling livelihood diversification. Such been effective at enabling sustained WEE out- access also enhances women’s agency, both comes. This approach considers and accounts within and outside the household. In order for for critical factors that constructively or women’s collectives to enable greater and adversely impact the economic empowerment quicker access to financial services, it will be crit- of women. In this context, the approach involves ical to provide them with training on financial the development of partnerships and a conver- management and literacy, digitization of the gence with different stakeholders to address collectives and transactions, and developing the various interrelated issues that impact WEE credit scores for individuals. It is also extremely outcomes, including addressing issues such as important to enable the women’s collectives prevalent norms and institutional barriers. to periodically engage with savings and credit cooperatives (SACCOs), microfinance institutions Other organizations’ experience indicate that (MFIs), and formal financial institutions, which the ecosystem approach enabled them to would allow them to leverage their savings and scale and sustain WEE outcomes. In Ethiopia, internal rotation to access substantive livelihood the Organization for Women in Self-Employ- financing from such formal financial institutions. ment (WISE) has taken an ecosystem approach to addressing the interconnected issues faced In India, the World Bank invested almost by women in support of women’s empower- US$2 billion over 15 years from the early 2000s ment (see figure 4.2). It has developed strategic to 2020 to support rural livelihood projects. partnerships with the government, donors, and These projects focused on empowering women- private players to address the myriad barriers only self-help groups and their federations. The that impede WEE. WISE has partnered with the Indian government adopted this approach and government to establish a training center; and launched the National Rural Livelihoods Mis- it has sought and engaged donors to support sion, which has mobilized over 70 million rural its capacity building initiatives, such as capacity women across India to enhance their livelihoods. development for its employees and cooperative This has resulted in more than US$50 billion of members. It has also been able to identify and financing from formal financial institutions. The partner with relevant agencies to enhance WEE World Bank Development Economics Group outcomes for its beneficiaries. For example, it (DEC) and other stakeholders have conducted has partnered with an insurance company to several studies on this approach and its contri- provide microinsurance services to its beneficia- bution to women’s economic empowerment. ries. To date, WISE has been able to establish Here is the link to the evidence and lessons from 90 savings and credit cooperatives and has several studies undertaken by the DEC and reached 44,000 women and girls.16 other key stakeholders. 16. See the Organization for Women in Self Employment (WISE) website at http://www.wiseethiopia.org/about-us. 69 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 4.2. WISE’s Approach to Achieving WEE Outcomes at Scale Outcome: Mechanisms: WISE Strategic partnerships with government, Develop learning and donors, and other stakeholders; strategic partnerships established training center (government); developed partnership with insurance UNION company; trainings provided to other institutions; network Mechanisms: Outcome: Develop capacities of Kes ~1.2 billion disbursed; Kes 0.37 billion SACCOs; leadership and mobilized in savings management skills SACCO 1 SACCO 2 SACCO N Mechanisms: Outcome: Bundled services (financial 44,000 women and girls reached; services, life skills training, over 5,000 women supported for micro-insurance, BDS Underprivileged low-income self-employed literacy skills, health education and unemployed women SETU (Strengthening African People’s Organiza- facilitates the collaboration of different imple- tion and NGOs) is another example of an eco- mentation agencies in Africa on one platform to system approach to address poverty reduction provide bundled services for greater reach and and self-reliance of women in five African coun- effectiveness. The initiative also involves training tries—Ethiopia, South Africa, Tanzania, Ghana, and capacity development for implementation and Senegal (see figure 4.3). This initiative agencies and beneficiaries. Figure 4.3. SETU’s Approach to Empowering Women Beneficiaries Microfinance Microenterprises Microinsurance Health services Promotion of self-help Market assessment Develop plans for Develop tailored groups for feasibility extending micro- mechanisms to reach insurance to local women and children for + + + Providing integrated Help implementing financial services— agencies support communities, especially their basic health needs savings, credit, women beneficiaries women Including education insurance, pension with their own Capacity building of and life insurance Capacity building and microenterprises implementing agencies information financial literacy to implement this MECHANISM OF IMPLEMENTATION Partnership and collaboration with local technical agencies Training and capacity and implementing agencies development of Grassroots-level implementing women leadership Brought on one platform agencies as well as development through workshop and exposure direct beneficiaries visits 70 CHAPTER 4. LESSONS LEARNED FROM WEE PROGRAMS GLOBALLY Figure 4.4. Overview of Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan’s Approach to Sustained WEE Outcomes Strong partnerships and convergence—government schemes, donor agencies Interconnected groups Federation Network of technical partners Multiple tiers—democratically elected o cials Cooperative Cooperative 1 2 Multiple objectives of groups—livelihood, Community Community Community Community gender, professional Resource support Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 grouping centers—education, legal, GBV Capacity building Grassroots leadership development The approach of Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan groups, networks, and capacity building at has also demonstrated long-term success and multiple levels to address the interconnected sustainability in empowering women from a issues faced by women. Figure 4.4 provides an similar geographic and vulnerability context overview of its approach to enable the empow- through collectives. It has used a multipronged erment of women. strategy involving partnerships, interconnected 71 5 Recommendations 72 CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations were drawn 5.1. Move from Traditional CDD from this study’s findings on challenges, gaps, Livelihood Programs to Transformative and opportunities, as well as learned lessons WEE Outcomes and best practices from other similar women’s 5.1.1. Integrate program components economic empowerment (WEE) programs. WHY AND WHAT Recommendations are grouped based on the KDRDIP’s WEE-related gaps and barriers are report’s two lines of inquiry: multidimensional, including: 1. How can traditional CDD livelihood projects 1. Socioeconomic barriers, such as low liter- adjust or adopt practices to strengthen WEE acy rate, high incidence of poverty, limited outcomes? access to adequate food/nutrition, lack of available health services, poor development 2. How can government and other develop- infrastructure, weak value chains, and lim- ment actors employ an ecosystem approach ited market access; when investing in coordinated and sustain- able local economic development at a larger 2. Environmental barriers, such as an arid/ scale? semiarid ecology, frequent droughts and floods, and climate change; and While the recommendations are tailored to the arid/semiarid ecology of the studied 3. Institutional barriers, such as limited col- KDRDIP areas, they are generally relevant to lectivization among women and restrictive similar community-driven development (CDD) gender norms. livelihood programs and development actors focused on local economic development. Currently, KDRDIP has three components: (1)  social and economic infrastructure; (2) envi- Figure 5.1 illustrates the three key factors ronment and natural resource management; impacting WEE outcomes: (1) integrating pro- and (3) livelihood development that largely grammatic levers for systemic change; (2)  sys- operate independently. Each component offers temic enablers and WEE-related strategic levers a unique opportunity for KDRDIP and other of change; and (3) resilient and connected similarly structured programs to work directly ecosystems. on the multidimensional nature of women’s economic empowerment if implemented in an The first two factors can serve as entry points integrated manner. that CDD livelihood programs like KDRDIP can use to invest in and deepen transformative HOW WEE outcomes. The third factor details recom- Strengthen implementation architecture. For mendations and entry points for developing an traditional CDD livelihood projects to transition ecosystem approach that supports sustainable, from subsistence livelihoods to transformative coordinated investments in WEE. approaches towards WEE, it will be critical to shift the focus from only “public goods and 73 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Figure 5.1. Key Factors Impacting WEE Outcomes 74 CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS especially common infrastructure” to the deliv- allocation of available financial and nonfinan- ery of “private goods and services” (financial cial resources, such as trainings, infrastructure, services, customized extension services, mar- hand-holding support, market support, and kets, and business development services) at the exposure, with a focus on WEE. To enable this doorstep of rural women. This also means that, integration, guidelines for planning and mon- apart from the government, an equal emphasis itoring at the village/community group and is needed on greater interface with markets, subcounty/county level should be prepared the private sector, and financial institutions. and project resources should be trained on Such a substantive change in approach will integrated planning and monitoring processes. require an “implementation architecture” with The implementation of this integrated process the requisite skill sets to enable women’s col- could be completed within six months and is lective platforms to interface with the private a more readily accomplishable step toward sector, markets, and financial institutions. deepening WEE outcomes. Based on the experience and lessons from the Integrated microplanning at the village/ large-scale WEE programs, especially in India, county level. Integration of KDRDIP’s three a robust capacity building and implementa- components at the community group/village tion architecture is recommended to enable level can be achieved through the develop- high-quality training and technical assistance ment of microplans17 and the aggregation of support to women’s collective platforms, allow- village-level microplans at the subcounty and ing them to interface with the private sector, county level. While some degree of integration markets, and financial institutions. At the com- is already taking place across the three com- munity level, a community-based extension ponents, it is vital to ensure that the developed system comprising community facilitators—a microplans align with WEE objectives. Projects majority of them women—to support the should prepare a guiding document on the community groups and their collectives. At the pathways for developing these microplans and county level, county implementation support facilitate their development through participa- teams should be supported by a pool of coun- tory approaches. Once prepared, the micro- try resource persons comprising WEE specialists, plans can be consolidated at the subcounty and NGO partners, and individual consultants/ county level for program planning purposes. domain experts in areas such as financial inclusion, business development, market-based Piloting and scaling a local economic devel- value chains, and digital development. opment approach. The integration of different program components is also consistent with Integrated planning and monitoring at the project level. Projects should consider under- 17. Microplans are visualized as an integrated plan for a community taking integrated planning and monitoring of group that enables a group to articulate its livelihood objectives (with a focus on WEE), create a business plan, articulate resources interventions at the community group level. required for it (e.g., in terms of finances, ecological resources, KDRDIP and similar projects should plan both infrastructure, and capacity needs) and deliberate on the plan at community groups’ enterprise selection and the intervals to monitor the progress and revise or course correct. 75 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Box 5.1. Relevant Components of the World Bank’s Green Resilient and Inclusive Development and Local Economic Development Framework Local economic development approach GRID approach • Focused on income generation and job • Green. Invests in solutions that sustain natu- creation. ral capital through energy, food, and land use as well as urban transport. • Analyzes the market and value chain from a local perspective. • Resilient. Invests in risk management for nat- ural hazards and climate change using a ho- • Interacts with private sector players to un- listic risk-management approach. derstand market barriers and mechanisms for developing value chains. • Inclusive. Fosters inclusive growth by creating jobs and reducing inequality. Bundles services • Conceptually looks at income generation from with health, education, social protection, and a systems and evolutionary perspective: sub- access to basic infrastructure (water, sanita- sistence livelihoods > market-driven livelihoods tion, roads, and electricity). > local economic development livelihood pro- grams with value chain/infrastructure > digi- tal technology-supported livelihoods. other World Bank initiatives in the region. Impor- uity, they are not focused on gender. Exploring tantly, the World Bank’s Green, Resilient and the convergence between these frameworks Inclusive Development (GRID) (Development and the WEE framework may help strengthen Committee 2021) and local economic devel- the WEE focus of CDD livelihood programs. opment18 frameworks (see box 5.1) have several aspects that echo the WEE framework and 5.1.2. Strategic levers of change for WEE emphasize creating a market-driven, sustain- Beyond exploring component integration over able, and inclusive livelihood ecosystem. While the short-term, KDRDIP and other similar pro- both GRID and local economic development grams should consider the following strategic approaches aim to work toward reducing ineq- and operational recommendations over the short to medium term. 18. See “Moving from CDD Basic Service Delivery to Livelihoods/LED” Address structural barriers through adjust- at https://collaboration.worldbank.org/content/usergenerated/ asi/cloud/attachments/sites/collaboration-for-development/ ments to program design; en/groups/cdd-and-local-economic-development/documents/ jcr:content/content/primary/blog/ashutosh_ppt-ahvx/CDD%20 Bundle and provide livelihood and other ser- and%20LED%20Global%20experience%20presentation%20 vices related to WEE; by%20Ashutosh%20-%20Feb%2022,%202021.pdf. 76 CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS Strengthen livelihood components; and identifying and engaging social enterprises or technical agencies with expertise in specific Widen and leverage social capital. capacity-building areas. 5.1.3. Strengthen capacity through Include soft skills and gender aspects in train- collaboration ing programs. Projects may include soft skills WHY AND WHAT such as assertiveness, leadership, motivation, Capacity building is a cross-cutting need self-confidence, resilience, and risk propensity in across all of the study’s recommendations. It their training plans for community groups. is especially relevant to livelihood activities where skill-related deficits have led to limited Expose community groups to successful cases. livelihood diversification. At the same time, While frequent trainings on business skills, soft training on softer aspects, including gender skills, market assessments, gender norms, and differences; norms; and social-emotional other subjects are critical, community groups skills such as assertiveness, motivation, self- would also benefit from exposure to examples confidence, resilience, and risk propensity have of other community groups that are implement- been shown to have a positive impact. Besides ing successful enterprises. KDRDIP and other training, facilitating access to information could projects could incorporate these exposure visits also be instrumental in augmenting livelihoods into their training curriculum. and reducing risks, such as providing informa- tion about an impending drought or other risk Mentoring by successful female entrepre- to livestock-based livelihoods. neurs. Another strong need expressed by com- munity group members was for hand-holding HOW support. KDRDIP has already engaged a num- Increase resources for capacity building. ber of successful and enterprising women who KDRDIP project documents suggest that can play the role of mentors to fledgling com- 10 percent of the financial resources for compo- munity groups. These women could be iden- nent 3 (livelihood improvement) are allocated to tified by the project and provided training to capacity building. The project should consider become mentors to other community groups. augmenting resources for capacity building given its vital importance to WEE. Other proj- Put greater emphasis on peer-to-peer ects should consider whether existing resources learning. Peer-to-peer learning could play an for capacity development should be increased. importnat role in scaling up WEE. In the case of the India self-help group experience, the entire Engage technical agencies for specific training curriculum and methodology for the capacity-building needs. A single organiza- women’s collectives was developed and deliv- tion/resource may not be able to provide ered by women members themselves, and the capacity-building support in multiple areas training curriculum was very “case based” rather either directly or through a training-of-trainers than being “theoretical.” Such an approach model. Therefore, projects should consider ensures internalization of the training content. 77 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM 5.1.4. Bundle services for better livelihoods Pilot identified bundles with relevant groups. and social security After identifying bundles, projects may pilot WHY them in relevant geographies or clusters to Service bundling is a strategy to makes WEE assess their effectiveness and the overall a core program objective. It seeks to address approach in the project context. WEE-related barriers. Under KDRDIP, women’s uptake of livelihood activities is impeded by Identify and engage relevant technical agen- multiple constraints, including time poverty cies to roll out successful packages. Projects due to women’s disproportionate burden of may need to identify and engage relevant household chores (e.g., collecting water for the agencies that can design, implement, and pro- household, group characteristics (e.g., low level vide training support to other implementation of financial literacy and poor access to health partners to implement the bundles in targeted services), and limited access to financial services areas. and social protection schemes (e.g., credit and insurance). By offering services that address these constraints as part of a larger package, Organizational Example projects may be able to mitigate risks and SETU (Strengthening African People’s Orga- barriers that stand in the way of achieving WEE nization and NGOs), VimoSEWA, Womankind objectives. Kenya, Afya Research Africa, BOMA Proj- ect, Imani Collective, and Pastoral Woman’s WHAT Council in Tanzania provide bundled services. The project can offer services such as access to social protection schemes, insurance, and health services as a bundle because these fac- tors have emerged as barriers to the achieve- 5.1.5. Diversify and strengthen traditional ment of WEE objectives. livelihoods, and adopt a value chain approach HOW WHY Identify products and services that should be While income from community group activities bundled based on rapid studies. Other orga- as a proportion of overall household income nizations have bundled interventions such as has increased under KDRDIP, overall income microfinance, microinsurance, social security, seems to have declined due to multiple factors, health-related support (to humans and live- including droughts, COVID-19, and poor access stock), childcare, and capacity building to work to markets. The project needs to strengthen its toward the economic empowerment of women livelihood component over the short to medium more comprehensively. Projects should consider term so beneficiaries can access greater, sus- carrying out rapid studies to identify the exact tainable, and resilient economic benefits (e.g., bundle of products and services that will sup- income and assets). port their WEE-related objectives. 78 CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS WHAT the community groups. Programs, with the help To strengthen this component, the following of technical partners, may connect community initiatives may be implemented by KDRDIP: groups directly with the market or engage the (1) adopt a value chain approach; (2) strengthen services of an entity that already has access traditional livelihoods; and (3) support liveli- to or is part of a developed value chain. These hood diversification (nontraditional and resilient decisions may depend on product-specific mar- livelihoods). ket assessments and local conditions. Another mechanism for value chain development is to HOW build clusters around already existing small and Value chain development is a medium- to medium enterprises or farms. long-term process requiring the advancement of multiple nodes for an economic activity/ Organizational Example product to provide consistent, sustainable, and resilient income avenues to the involved actors 2Scale works with producer organizations, (figure 5.2). farmers, and small and medium enterprises on training, collective purchasing of inputs, Community groups can be engaged at any and extension services. It also implements node of the value chain under primary activ- marketing and distribution activities to cre- ities, based on the most suitable local condi- ate consumer demand and supply nutritious tions. The program can then provide support food. The organization currently operates through one or more supporting activities, in 10 African countries, including Kenya. It is such as enhancing access to credit or capac- considered a technical partner for capacity ity building. However, for any chosen livelihood building on livelihood activities and value activity to be sustainable, there must be market chain development. demand, and it must make connections with Figure 5.2. Value Chain Nodes Primary activities Suitable infrastructure Local market Regional/ national Input/raw material Production Processing Marketing market Export markets Supporting activities Access to Logistics/ Capacity Technology credit transport development platform 79 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Strengthen traditional livelihoods while KDRDIP’s county teams could complete a sim- expanding women’s roles. Livestock-based ilar assessment for already selected activities livelihoods have remained resilient for centuries to understand which livelihoods align with the despite providing low and uncertain income to overall principles of WEE. This could include community groups and the broader community. suggestions on the types of value chain part- Programs like KDRDIP can focus on strengthen- ners the program could consider for each of the ing these traditional livelihoods by providing selected activities. Other CDD livelihood pro- greater access to information about risk factors grams could consider launching or building on (e.g., weather and disease) and enabling fac- similar market assessments to identify livelihood tors (e.g., markets, prices, and breeds). Projects opportunities that would facilitate WEE goals. could also partner with social or private enter- prises that are engaged in livestock-related Focus more intently on the need for financial value chains (such as dairy, tannery, and meat) empowerment. Women’s access to savings and for value-added opportunities at the commu- credit is crucial to enabling livelihood diversi- nity group or cluster level. Through sessions on fication. Such access also enhances women’s gender and skills building, programs can also agency, both within and outside the house- amplify and widen the role of women in the hold. In order for women’s collectives to enable planning and execution of traditional livelihood greater and quicker access to financial services, activities. it will be critical to provide them with training on financial management and literacy, digiti- Livelihood diversification. KDRDIP’s existing zation of the collectives and transactions, and market assessments show that there are a developing credit scores for individuals. It is also number of feasible livelihoods that commu- extremely important to enable the women’s nity group members can engage in, with at collectives to periodically engage with SACCOs, least 10 potential livelihood activities for each MFIs, and formal financial institutions, which geographic subgroup. These assessments also would allow them to leverage their savings and provide details on feasible activities by location, internal rotation to access substantive livelihood maturity period, market availability, associated financing from such formal financial institutions. risks, and required technical support. However, the assessment does not evaluate livelihood Consider involving the private sector in activities in relation to WEE goals, such as the bundling, access to markets, value chain time and effort required by women beneficia- enhancement, and similar efforts. Engaging ries. For example, beekeeping has been iden- the private sector could offer solutions to sev- tified as a suitable activity in some counties or eral issues at one time, even when accounting villages. The activity is ecologically aligned to for gender norms and time poverty. Examples the region and does not add to the time pov- include companies that can source for fruit erty of women and therefore may be a suitable grown in arid areas and poultry off-takers who livelihood that could be taken up on a pilot could purchase chicken reared by women. Pri- basis. vate-sector support of activities such as these, which a woman can engage in at or close to 80 CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS her home, could provides an assured market, which would be a meaningful start. A pilot with Organizational Example a poultry processor in Kakuma is using a similar Successful collective women’s livelihood pro- model, and if successful, will offer useful find- grams such as WISE, SEWA India, and Kutch ings in this regard. Mahila Vikas Sangathan employ similar mul- titiered collective structures. 5.1.6. Strengthen women’s collectives for improved social capital WHY WHAT Studies of women’s collective ecosystems in Projects can create and support a multiple India and Africa suggest that vertical integra- tiered collective structure that connects tion of community groups is a useful strategy groups through platforms such as periodic and an organic next step for local community cooperative- or federation-level general body groups. Vertical integration through the for- meetings, leverages each other’s strengths mation of cooperatives and federations wid- and networks, and has democratically elected ens the social and political capital of group leaders. members; expands access to services, such as credit through revolving funds; and improves HOW the negotiating capacities of groups due to the Vertically integrate community groups (pyr- increase in scale. Operating at a greater scale amid structure). Community groups that are is especially relevant where household-level geographically closer to one another may be surpluses for livestock or farm products are collectivized to form cooperatives that can be low and there is a need to aggregate at the further unified to form higher-level institutions village and higher levels. This scale is also useful called federations. These institutions could draw for advocacy efforts at the national or regional officials from community groups and democrat- level. Through such collectivization, commu- ically elect members and officeholders. Projects nity groups and their cluster institutions can could invest in the capacity of these collectives have better access to credit and improve their at different levels to facilitate this aggregation advocacy potential and negotiating capacities. by providing training and equipment and by In evolved collective ecosystems for WEE (e.g., funding and supporting leadership and mar- SEWA), these cooperatives and federations keting efforts. have ventured into enterprises that both ben- efit their members and ensure self-sustainabil- Promote women role models from local com- ity. Moreover, the vertical integration not only munities. Identify and promote women role widens the social and political capital of the models from the community with activities female members but also provides a platform such as periodic talks and local events. Projects for various development agencies to engage should particularly target women who have with WEE goals. successfully broken or challenged stereotypes around livelihoods or mobility. The more that a woman feels that she can relate to/identify with 81 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM a role model, the more likely she will begin to in economic activities. Resource constraints due question her own status. to an arid/semiarid ecology, as in the targeted areas of Kenya, further exacerbate the gen- Identify and nurture women leaders. Identify dered division of labor, adding to overall drudg- women from community groups who have ery and time poverty for women. displayed leadership potential, and promote them as leaders around issues relevant to the Set against this layered and complex problem, community, including local-level rights-based KDRDIP needs to adopt a systems approach advocacy or demand for services. Projects could that considers and accounts for critical factors facilitate or support the nomination of selected constructively or adversely impacting the over- women for participation in a short-term lead- all goal. ership development curriculum provided by expert agencies. In view of this, the approach of KDRDIP and other projects should be aimed at building an Engage women as facilitators and last-mile ecosystem that addresses these issues simul- extension workers/mobilizers. While this taneously over the medium to long term to paper does address the potential benefits of create resilient impacts on women’s economic developing women role models, it is vital to empowerment. Programs should consider lay- ensure that a majority of the facilitators and ering the current restrictive ecosystem with last-mile extension workers and mobilizers are institutions, stakeholders and their interac- women. This will ensure greater acceptance of tions that aim to mitigate economic, environ- the project approaches at the community level mental, social, and institutional barriers that and enable more efficient and effective pro- exist. By doing so, programs can create an gram delivery. enabling network or support system for bet- ter economic empowerment outcomes. 5.2. Develop an Enabling WEE Ecosystem for Sustainable Impact WHAT WHY Creating or supporting an enabling ecosys- No program focused on livelihood improvement tem requires building a strong public private can comprehensively address WEE goals on its partnership platform and converging with own, especially in an arid/semiarid context. For the government; multilateral agencies; donor a livelihood intervention to be effective and its agencies; technical partners, including civil soci- outcomes to scale and flourish, lessons from ety organizations, gender experts, livelihood regions with similar contexts and more evolved specialists, social enterprises, digital enterprises, collective livelihood ecosystems, such as India, and marketing/value chain development orga- suggest that many interdependent institutions, nizations; and target beneficiaries. systems, and entities must coexist and interact. This is increasingly complex when the livelihood Importance of social enterprises for WEE. The program focuses on a particularly vulnerable project should explore the possibilities of lever- demographic, such as women. Social norms aging social enterprises to extend their impact often act as barriers to women’s participation beyond capacity building. The social enterprises 82 CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS could play a more active role in service delivery, and gender disparities, paving the way for more addressing various aspects of the project while inclusive and equitable economic growth. also facilitating the required infrastructure to connect cooperatives and entrepreneurs with HOW markets. To enhance their endeavors, seeking A key issue is how to bring these multiple support from Finance, Competitiveness, and stakeholders together on one platform to Innovation (FCI) colleagues or the International explore partnership opportunities. Key steps Finance Corporation (IFC) for launching a com- and examples where similar models are already petition similar to Nigeria’s successful YouWin! being implemented include: initiative aimed at social entrepreneurs could be considered. The YouWin! model demon- Identify relevant internal and external strated great success in Nigeria, as evidenced stakeholders. For KDRDIP, this study’s by McKenzie’s study “Creating Jobs through a “Workshop Stage” provides an opportu- Business Plan Competition: Evidence from Nige- nity for identifying relevant stakeholders for ria’s YouWin! Competition” 19 By emulating such the targeted regions. Other projects can successful initiatives, the project can harness consider similar stakeholder workshops as the innovative potential of social entrepreneurs, forums for identifying and engaging relevant fostering economic growth, job creation, and stakeholders. sustainable development. Compile contact and other basic information Importance of digital technologies for WEE. from relevant stakeholders for the targeted Digital technologies can empower women by geography, including relevant government making it easy for previously unbanked women officials; civil society organizations; imple- to save money, build credit history, access loans, menting agencies; multilateral agencies; and achieve their financial goals. The digital and social enterprises and technical experts platforms could facilitate market access, infor- on gender, value chain development, and mation sharing, and financial transactions. This marketing, into a database to facilitate could include developing mobile applications outreach and communication by projects. for market prices, online training resources, and digital payment mechanisms. In summary, Develop a common technology platform digital technologies, including digital finance, for networking and information exchange have the potential to revolutionize women’s among the selected stakeholders; create economic empowerment by providing women opportunities for identifying common ground with financial inclusion, market access, and new and potential areas for collaboration; cull out entrepreneurial opportunities. Embracing digi- conflicts of interest; and identify focus areas tal tools can help overcome traditional barriers for advocacy. Mechanisms such as regular email and online communication forums could stimulate collaboration within this ecosystem. 19. McKenzie, D. J. 2015. “Creating Jobs through a Business Plan Competition: Evidence from Nigeria’s YouWin! Competition.” World Bank, Washington, DC. 83 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Establish partnerships with organizations developed by project teams22 and community that are working specifically on gender norms group members, the exercise could be facili- (e.g., mobility, distribution of chores, and tated by either project field teams or technical control over income). In the Kenyan context, partners with experience working on gender potential partners include Womankind Kenya20 issues in the region. and Africa Conservation Center.21 KDRDIP and other CDD livelihood programs could consider Participate in and/or organize periodic facilitating the development of gender action national/regional keynote events for stake- plans at the village/county level with the aim holders to come together on various subplat- of mitigating socioeconomic and normative forms for networking, knowledge sharing, and barriers that impede women’s participation in economic activities. While the resulting plan, 22. Their understanding of gender aspects should be considered its indicators, and monitoring efforts may be when strengthening the capacities of the project teams and frontline cadre, especially in the implementation of participatory approaches and in the facilitation of community groups for plan- ning and implementation. 20. See http://www.womankindkenya.org. 21. See. https://www.accafrica.org/ 84 Appendix 85 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM collaboration opportunities. These could be followed by smaller, specifically customized work- shops where specific collaboration opportunities Region of can be fleshed out to support the larger goal of economically empowering women in the region. Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 1 ACDI VOCA Kenya Northern Kenya To increase the resilience of pastoralists and ASALs accelerate sustainable economic growth in Kenya’s arid lands, Resilience and Economic Growth in Arid Lands-Accelerated Growth (REGAL-AG) facilitated behavior change in actors all along the livestock value chain—from livestock keepers to middlemen, traders, transporters, and buyers—to increase incomes and stimulate growth. Specifically, the project aimed to build a more inclusive and competitive livestock value chain in Marsabit, Isiolo, Wajir, Turkana, and Garissa counties. 2 Action Kenya Turkana Action Africa Help International’s Kenya program Africa Help seeks to address development challenges in International partnership with marginalized Kenyan communities living mainly in low-income urban and rural settings, including arid and semiarid areas. The program targets pastoralists, refugees, displaced, and urban poor communities by supporting micro, small and medium enterprises, and small-scale agricultural production systems. 3 Africa Kenya Increasing women’s economic opportunities is Conservation imperative to building sustainable conservation Center practices and more equitable societies. Our programs empower women to develop conservation- related enterprises so that they can more actively contribute to their community’s livelihood. Businesses such as Bees for Conservation, aloe and opuntia production, Beads for Conservation, and ecotourism are helping women support themselves as well as community development projects. Through these programs, women entrepreneurs gain new skills and make connections, launch and build innovative businesses, and develop as respected leaders in their communities. Bees for Development: Working with a bee keeping expert, Jessie de Boer, The Reto Olkiramatian Women’s Group, has developed apiaries and a business model for the sale of bee products. Beehives are now installed in all sublocations of the Olkiramatian group ranch: Entasopia, Olchorolepo, Olkiramatian, Oloiborototo, and Oldorko. 4 African Kenya West Pokot The African Beekeeping Resource Centre is a Beekeeping nonprofit South-based NGO registered in Kenya. It Resource works on beekeeping development across Africa, Centre researching, educating, and lobbying for knowledge and environments that will maximize bee husbandry, increase the trade in bee products, protect and enhance bee forage and habitat, and find ways to use beekeeping and honey hunting for wider benefit. 5 Apiculture Kenya Apiculture Venture Limited is a social enterprise that Venture engages youths and women to create a value chain Limited for beekeeping and honey. 86 APPENDIX A. LIST OF SIMILAR PROGRAMS IDENTIFIED FOR KEY LESSONS LEARNED Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 6 CAP Youth Kenya Turkana CAP YEI implements the Basic Employability Empowerment Skills Training model through public-private Institute partnerships for its sustainability and scalability. (CAP YEI) It mobilizes and enrolls qualified targeted youth by involving grassroots government officials, local community-based organizations, a network of youth organizations, youth and community leaders, and religious gatherings. CAP YEI skills training is guided by the labor force demands of each area where the training is conducted, informed by market research and site visits. 7 CARE Kenya Various locations The CARE 2020 Program strategy lays out the three International main roles CARE plays to impact poverty and social injustice in its efforts to achieve lasting impact at scale. Considering the greater household economic responsibility left to women in times of crisis, CARE’s approach is to strengthen women economic status and capacity, which it believes will translate into full economic rewards and build resilience in the communities in which they. Its priority regions are Nyanza Province (with a suboffice in Kisumu) and Kibera in Nairobi and North Eastern Province (with suboffices in Garissa, Dadaab, Elwak, and Marsabit). 8 CGAP Kenya Various locations In Kenya, the CGAP team’s research highlights the challenges faced by women in rural and agricultural livelihoods (WIRAL) and opportunities for service providers and funders to improve their lives and livelihoods. This is part of the WIRAL Program implemented for the past few years. Their key findings and lessons learned can be found here. 9 Concern Kenya Baringo, Isiolo, Concern Worldwide, a humanitarian organization, Worldwide Marsabit, began operations in Kenya in 2002. The organization Mombasa, Nairobi, presently covers Marsabit, Turkana, Isiolo, Wajir, Samburu, Tana Tana River, and Nairobi City counties through River, Turkana, Wajir, a multisectoral program, including urban and and West Pokot rural livelihoods, primary education, health, and nutrition—all underpinned by advocacy, governance, and community engagement. The organization has historically supported several food security and nutrition emergency interventions, including most recently the 2020 COVID-19 and desert locust response. 10 Concern Kenya Northern Kenya Concern Worldwide is focused on enhancing the Worldwide ASALs assets of the extreme poor, as well as improving returns on those assets, particularly in terms of their income. The ultimate goal is to improve their food security and prevent hunger by improving productivity. This is done by providing seed tools and other resources and developing skills for alternative income-generating activities. At the same time, it works with local and national governments to ensure that communities have access to functioning markets. It advocates for the provision of the necessary infrastructure and other supports, such as access to financial services. It also lobbies for the development of a comprehensive social protection system so that extremely poor people have a safety net. 87 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 11 Cordaid Kenya Northern Kenya Cordaid works in the Netherlands-based Partners ASALs for Resilience. This partnership comprises Cordaid, the Netherlands Red Cross, the Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre, and Wetlands International, with support from the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It promotes an integrated risk management approach to strengthen and protect the livelihoods of vulnerable communities. 12 FaIDA Kenya Garissa FaIDA has been working with local communities to provide alternative livelihoods for and diversify the livelihood options of pastoralists in light of the fact that climate change is rendering nomadic pastoralism unsustainable. Many households are being forced to abandon pastoralism and seek employment. Climate-smart agriculture, such as drip irrigation and greenhouse technology, is very useful in helping communities produce vegetables for household consumption and for market, which helps improve household nutrition and food security. FaIDA has supported several women groups with greenhouses and provides technical backstopping and capacity building to ensure that the groups are able to maximize yields from them. To address the impact of climate change on pastoral household and help severely affected households find means of restarting their livelihoods, FaIDA occasionally implements restocking programs that supply households with small stocks, mainly goats, to help them restart their livelihoods and build resilience. 13 Farm Africa Kenya Various locations Farm Africa reduces poverty in eastern Africa by helping farmers grow more, sell more, and sell for more. It works in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. It engages in agriculture, protects the environment, and develops businesses in rural areas. 14 Food for the Kenya Various locations Food for the Hungry works in local markets and Hungry economies to help restore communities through vocational opportunities, training, and other sustainable and long-term solutions. It also works with many communities to establish savings groups that enable families to save and borrow money so that they can open a new business or improve their living conditions. 15 Global One Kenya Garissa Global One Kenya aims to alleviate the burdens of Kenya underserved and vulnerable widows and orphans. It supports them in diversifying their income sources by setting up income-generating activities, thereby improving their living standards. It provided support to women in Garissa to create and run viable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly businesses. The project constructed a solar-powered cold house in the Iftin area, benefiting 20 vulnerable young women with no source of livelihood. It also purchased solar-powered refrigerators and freezers to improve food preservation, particularly for meat. 88 APPENDIX A. LIST OF SIMILAR PROGRAMS IDENTIFIED FOR KEY LESSONS LEARNED Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 16 GOK Kenya Various locations The Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP II) strengthens the entrepreneurial skills of priority value-chain actors and service providers to stimulate the creation of commercial enterprise. It is focused on developing value chain actors and service providers in the 29 priority agricultural value chains through entrepreneurial skills development and relevant technical skills enhancement. 17 GOK/AfDB Kenya Baringo, Isiolo, The project consists of three components and Marsabit, Samburu, seven subcomponents. The components are Turkana, Pokot natural resources management, improvement of livestock infrastructure and management, project management, and capacity building. It aims to enhance drought resilience and improve sustainable livelihoods in the arid and semiarid lands of Kenya. 18 Hatching Hope Kenya Western Kenya Hatching Hope builds on the growing demand for Initiative poultry products in Kenya, positioning smallholder farmers as key players in the poultry value chain. It also alleviates malnutrition by promoting poultry consumption. 19 Heifer Kenya Not available Hatching Hope is a groundbreaking initiative that International equips farmers with the tools and expertise needed to start and grow poultry businesses. It works at scale, connecting producers to markets so they can increase their incomes, while also promoting the nutritional value of eggs and meat within communities, thereby building sustainable markets for the future. Agricultural training, tools, and resources provided by Hatching Hope enable farmers to raise larger numbers of healthy chickens in a sustainable way and to connect with high-value markets and private sector partners. Farmers also have access to community veterinarians, who help them improve the well-being of their animals. For a small fee, these local veterinarians will vaccinate chickens, which keeps the birds healthy and stops the spread of disease. As their businesses scale, farmers require other types of support, such as good-quality chicken feed and transport to take their products to market. Demand for such products and services creates additional income-generation opportunities for many others in their communities. 20 Honey Care Kenya Honey Care Africa is a for-profit social enterprise that Africa has launched its business in a Beehive program to provide smallholder farmers in rural areas with the inputs, training, services, and market access needed to become commercial honey producers. Founded in Kenya in 2000, the organization is a member of the World Fair Trade Organization, guaranteeing a competitive fixed purchase price for honey on a contract basis. This enables farmers to repay their loans quickly and to sell to a stable market. 89 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 21 Hydroponics Kenya Baringo, Bungoma, Hydroponics Africa Limited works with organized Africa Limited Embu, Garissa, youth and women groups, selecting the most viable Home Bay, youth or women groups, especially young mothers in Isiolo, Kajiado, slums, streets, and rural areas. It generates awareness Kakamega, Kiambu, of, increases sensitization to, and provides training on Kilifi, Kirinyaga, hydroponics technology, life skills, and agribusiness. It Kisii, Kisumu, then looks for financing partners to assist the groups Kitui, Machakos, in acquiring a hydroponic system. It installs the Makueni, Meru, hydroponic systems on behalf of the group members. Migori, Mombasa, It deploys an agronomist and trainer to provide best Murang’a, Nairobi, practice crop support, management, and training Nakuru, Narok, with a view toward transferring the technology and Nyeri, Samburu, empowering the group members to manage the Siaya, Turkana, hydroponic systems independently. It then connects Vihiga the youths to the market to sell their fresh farm produce and/or engage them in its contract farming platform. Lastly, it connects them with financing institutions (e.g., youth funds, women and disabled government funds, banks, and microfinancing) to scale up their investments. 22 I Choose Life Kenya Bomet, Garissa, The organization has adopted and developed (ICL) Homa Bay, Kilifi, projects around climate-smart agriculture, mostly Kisumu, Laikipia, in ASAL counties, to improve livelihoods, increase Machakos, Meru, agricultural productivity, and enhance resilience/ Migori, Mombasa, coping mechanisms to climate change risks. The Nairobi, Turkana, ICL adopts a market approach to entrepreneurship Uasin Gish and business training that builds the capacity of young people to produce based on market need. Under agribusiness development, the ICL integrates practical hydroponic technology skills training into Jiinue business accelerator training to enables beneficiaries in the development and management of viable agribusiness enterprises. In its economic empowerment intervention ICL seeks to address key aspects of production, access to credit, value addition, and market linkages to provide end-to-end solutions for the establishment of viable enterprises. 23 Imani Kenya Mombasa, Kenya Dignified employment is a key ingredient for Collective economic development and poverty alleviation in developing countries around the world. Over the past five years, Imani Collective’s innovative model for providing women, men, and their families with consistent wages, skills training, community, and access to education has proven highly successful at improving artisan livelihoods and well-being. 24 International Kenya Nairobi, Kampala The International Rescue Committee is working Rescue with the IKEA Foundation on a five-year, €30 Committee million (US$35 million) initiative to develop livelihood opportunities for urban refugees and host communities. The program seeks to provide job support to 20,000 people by facilitating a change in policies and systems to build strong markets and enable refugees and host communities to access city services. 90 APPENDIX A. LIST OF SIMILAR PROGRAMS IDENTIFIED FOR KEY LESSONS LEARNED Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 25 Kidogo Kenya Nairobi Kidogo is a social business focused on providing high-quality and affordable early childhood care and education to families living in urban slums. It seeks to improve health and learning outcomes of young children to unlock their potential while creating employment opportunities for women. 26 Komaza Kenya Coastal areas of Komaza is a social enterprise that turns underused Kenya land into thriving microforests, connecting the dots from seeding to sawmill into one integrated business. Farmers provide the land, farming skills, and security— and, in exchange, Komaza provides seedlings designed to grow in the world’s toughest conditions, an innovative technology platform to share step- by-step know-how and management, coordinated commercial log harvesting, and a ready market for the wood. Eucalyptus is one of the most efficient biological machines for growing wood—plus, when used properly, it can help restore highly degraded sites. Komaza is committed to preserving and restoring the natural environment and has worked with leading foresters and conservationists to ensure that their planting is responsible and safe. Eucalyptus can cope with poor soil and drought conditions, where much else will not grow. It is fast growing, low-maintenance, and regrows from stump after harvesting. 27 Kujenga Kenya Busia, Siaya and KUMEA’s western dairy project was initiated in Maisha East Vihiga February 2020 to improve livelihood opportunities Africa (KUMEA) for women and youth groups in Busia, Siaya, and Vihiga counties. The project was delayed by COVID-19 restrictions but resumed in August 2020. The church coordinator mobilized groups to participate in capacity building forums for goat rearing and management, conducted August 11–13, 2020. The training took place in two venues simultaneously: the Busia group convened at the Funyula Trading Center, and the Siaya (Yala) and Vihiga groups convened at the Ebuyangu New Apostolic church. 28 Livelyhoods Kenya Garissa, Isiolo, Kilifi, By offering training and job opportunities, Livelyhoods Kisii, Kisumu, Kwale, provides opportunities for unemployed youth and Lamu, Machakos, women to work their way out of poverty. This door-to Mandera, Marsabit, door distribution network of youth and women from Meru, Mombasa, slum communities also brings clean-energy products Nairobi, Nakuru, that improve the health and quality of life into these Narok, Samburu, communities. In addition, Livelyhoods products Taita-Taveta, Tana prevent harmful emissions, reducing deforestation River, Turkana, Wajir, and climate change. West Pokot 91 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 29 Mercy Corps Kenya Northern Kenya Mercy Corps, a program funded by USAID, is aimed ASALs at improving the resilience of people experiencing stress and reducing poverty, household hunger, and chronic undernutrition through collective action; by expanding viable economic opportunities; by strengthening formal and informal institutions, systems, and governance; and by improving human capital. 30 Nashulai Maasi Kenya Narok Under its mixed-use model pooling of its 5,000 Conservancy acres, the Nashulai Maasi Conservancy tore down all fencing, creating a common area where it reverted to rotation grazing and reopened a key migration corridor. In only four years there has been a massive restoration of the ecosystem, home to several engendered species, an elephant nursery, and a bird sanctuary. The conservancy invested in education and funded sustainable development programs to benefit the entire community. It built a primary school, acquired a school bus, and started a communal gender parity Bursary Fund that provides a postprimary education to 62 children. It built a potable water system, reducing waterborne diseases and infant mortality. It empowers women and girls through education, campaigns against female genital mutilation that reached over 1.5 million people, and female-led cooperative enterprises. 31 World Bank In India, the World Bank invested almost US$2 billion Group over 15 years from the early 2000s to 2020 to support rural livelihood projects. These projects focused on empowering women-only self-help groups and their federations. The Indian government adopted this approach and launched the National Rural Livelihoods Mission, which has mobilized over 70 million rural women across India to enhance their livelihoods. This has resulted in more than US$50 billion of financing from formal financial institutions. The World Bank Development Economics Group (DEC) and other stakeholders have conducted several studies on this approach and its contribution to women’s economic empowerment. Here is the link to the evidence and lessons from several studies undertaken by the DEC and other key stakeholders. 32 Nuru Kenya Kenya Migori, Homabay Nuru Kenya helps Kenyan farmers and their families lift themselves out of extreme poverty by helping farmers move from subsistence farming toward building thriving farmer-owned and farmer-led cooperative agribusinesses. 33 Pastoralist Girls Kenya Pastoralist Girls Initiative works empowers the most Initiative vulnerable members of the community to champion their own rights. It focuses on pastoralist girl children and women, aims to reduce gender disparities, extreme poverty, poor health, and gender-based violence. It believes that sustainable community development can only be achieved if marginalized people are involved in the community dialogue. 92 APPENDIX A. LIST OF SIMILAR PROGRAMS IDENTIFIED FOR KEY LESSONS LEARNED Appendix A. List of Similar Programs Region of Implementation Identified for Key Lessons Learned Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 32 Pragya Kenya Kenya Kakamega County, Pragya Kenya is working toward the sustainable Turkana County, development of the most vulnerable and underserved Samburu County regions of the African continent, and the vulnerable and marginalized communities that inhabit them, as well as the conservation of their sensitive ecosystem. Grassroots projects are being undertaken in the remote and deprived parts of the highlands of East Africa and in the dryland savannah belt. Research on critical issues and policy needs is followed by necessary advocacy and support to other state and nonstate actors. Pragya’s livelihoods work in Kakamega equips smallholding farmers with the knowledge and capacity to sustainably cultivate high-value medicinal plants as a livelihood option, reducing the need for wild harvesting and helping rural communities in Kenya harness this natural resource as a way out of poverty. Pragya trains smallholder farmers in cultivation protocols for selected species with high market demand and provides start-up support so communities can establish their own plantations and begin putting knowledge into practice. To aid the initiative’s grassroots intercommunity dispersion and sustainability, Pragya supports the formation of village medicinal plant nurseries equipped with greenhouses and irrigation facilities to ensure the availability of high-quality seeds and saplings to local cultivators. It trains traditional medicine practitioners and experienced local farmers to manage these nurseries, from which they can derive additional income. An essential aspect of this work is securing market access and ensuring that produce is ready for market. Pragya trains smallholding farming communities in postharvest processing of and value-addition to the produce, as well as packaging and storage solutions and quality assurance. Pragya has previously conducted a comprehensive value chain and market potential analysis for medicinal plants in the region. This, in combination with its local knowledge and networks, enables it to secure links with local and regional buyers, cutting out middlemen and negotiating fair prices for equitable trading relationships. Pragya facilitates buyer-seller meetings where medicinal plant farmers can interact with national-level buyers to discuss sales. As part of Pragya’s commitment to gender equity, its medicinal plant initiatives focus on women farmers. The project is therefore calibrated to promote women’s economic empowerment and independence. 93 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 33 Salimia Energy Kenya Salimia Energy is a start-up renewable energy Limited company established in 2019. It delivers a clean cheap cooking fuel alternative at a lower cost. It aims to reduce detrimental health impacts and environment risks, such as pollution and deforestation. 34 Save the Kenya Northern Kenya Save the Children works with partners to strengthen Children ASALs resilience and sustainable livelihoods, which includes delivering cash transfers and providing life-skills training to young people. It also offers financial services through savings groups and trains women and youth on nutrition-sensitive agriculture and production. 35 SNV Kenya Various locations SNV and its partners CLASP, Renewvia, MECS, GIZ, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees are implementing a project to pilot the use of electric pressure cookers among refugee and host community households and among small and medium enterprises connected to the solar mini- grid in Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement, Kenya. The project, which is funded under the Energising Development (EnDev) innovation window, will be implemented from November 1, 2021, to October 31, 2022. 36 Technoserve Kenya Elgeyo-Marakwet, The program facilitates improved dairy production, Embu, Garissa, business practices, and market access by supporting Isiolo, Kiambu, the formation of competitive dairy business hubs and Kilifi, Kirinyaga, the application of knowledge. Kwale, Machakos, Makueni, Marsabit, Meru, Mombasa, Murang’a, Nairobi, Nyandarua, Nyeri, Samburu, Tana River, Tharaka-Nithi, Turkana, Wajir 37 Technoserve Kenya Nairobi In Kenya, where they are known as dukas, these small retail shops supply roughly 80 percent of consumer goods and are often run by women or families. But dukas face many challenges to efficiency, resulting in lower earnings for their owners. In partnership with the elea Foundation and Citi Foundation, TechnoServe is working to increase the profitability of 840 high-potential shops in Nairobi, the majority of which are women-operated or women-owned. Launched in late 2015, the Smart Duka initiative builds on the success of a similar effort in Latin America. The project provides one- on-one consulting and group training to improve marketing and merchandising; general business skills; relationships with lenders, suppliers, and customers; and coordination among shops. The project is also exploring practical digital solutions that will enable Nairobi’s shopkeepers to efficiently manage inventory and make mobile payments. 94 APPENDIX A. LIST OF SIMILAR PROGRAMS IDENTIFIED FOR KEY LESSONS LEARNED Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 38 The BOMA Kenya Garissa, Isiolo, The BOMA Project’s Rural Entrepreneur Access Project Marsabit, Samburu, Project is a gender-focused model built on a globally Turkana, Wajir, West validated proof of concept. It helps pastoral families Pokot by mapping the barriers to overcoming extreme poverty and then implementing a series of sequenced interventions with a defined exit strategy. 39 The Green Belt Kenya Nyandarua County: The Green Belt Movement is an environmental Movement Kinangop; Murang’a organization that empowers communities, County: Kiharu particularly women, to conserve the environment and improve livelihoods. Its mission is to improve environmental management, community empowerment, and livelihoods using tree-planting as an entry point. 40 The Lutheran Kenya Kakuma, Turkana The sustainable livelihood sector of The Lutheran World West/Dadaab, World Federation enables vulnerable groups to Federation Garissa achieve sufficient and sustainable livelihoods through skills development at vocational training centers and capacity building for village savings and loan associations. 41 Trócaire Kenya Northern Kenya Trócaire works with over 20 local partner ASALs organizations across all levels of Kenyan society. Its work addresses both the symptoms of poverty and marginalization as well as the underlying causes of such poverty. Its integrated gender and HIV work seeks to challenge gender inequality. It is focused on the empowerment and protection of women and girls, particularly those at risk of experiencing violence, abuse, and HIV infection. The organization raises awareness and knowledge about women’s rights in communities, supports several clinics in city slum areas that provide treatment and care to poor communities, and addresses gender norms that can be barriers to changing attitudes and behavior by working with men and boys. 42 United Kenya Kakuma, Turkana KISEDP initiative was developed by UNHCR around Nations High West the choice theory approach, the main aim of Commissioner which is to create an enabling environment where for Refugees inclusive service delivery and local capacities are (UNHCR) strengthened, legal frameworks and policies are improved, a conducive environment for investment and job creation is promoted, and community resilience is strengthened. It also aims to build people’s skills and capabilities to successfully function in this new environment and to enhance the overall local economy. 95 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 43 Water and Kenya WE4F is a joint international initiative of the German Energy for Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Food (WE4F) Development, the European Union, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of the Netherlands, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, and USAID. WE4F aims to: increase food production along the value chain through more sustainable and efficient use of water and/or energy; increase income for women and men in rural and urban areas who are at the base of the economic pyramid; sustainably scale innovators’ solutions to meet the challenges in the WE4F nexus; and promote climate and environmental resilience and biodiversity through the sustainable, holistic management of natural resources and ecosystems. 44 Womankind Kenya Garissa, Lamu The Womankind Kenya project is being implemented Kenya in Lamu County (Hindi, Mpeketoni, and Witu) and in Garissa County (Ijala and Masalani). It was initiated in response to issues such as gender- based violence, sexual exploitation and abuse, and sexual harassment that followed the initiation of the construction of the Lamu–Garsen highway. As the construction work got underway, the project corridor areas experienced a large influx of workers from other parts of the country. These workers were not accompanied by their spouses, which put girls and young women already vulnerable due to poverty and unemployment at greater risk of being sexually exploitered or engaging in commercial sex. The Watoto Watu Project, which seeks to increase women’s income, facilitate women’s participation in decision making, and enhance women’s voices to promote girls and women and to protect them from sexual exploitation and abuse. The project also supports women’s economic initiatives, such as promoting dairy goat farming, irrigation farming, and beekeeping, through established community groups. This enables women and young mothers to participate in economic activities for sustained income that supports households and ensures children access to education. The theory of change for this project assumes that increasing women’s income and providing them with an enabling decision-making space can enhance their voices in the promotion and protection of girls and women against sexual exploitation and abuse. 45 World Food Kenya Garissa The World Food Program has provided 260 farmers Program from 52 farmer groups over 1,050 modern Langstroth beehives and accessories to boost honey production and allow participants to fully benefit from this highly lucrative industry. 96 APPENDIX A. LIST OF SIMILAR PROGRAMS IDENTIFIED FOR KEY LESSONS LEARNED Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 46 Care Ethiopia Ethiopia Tigray, Amhara Livelihoods for Resilience (L4R) promotes sustainable development, women’s leadership, youth employment, off-farm income generation, and the addressing of social barriers that have traditionally constrained women from income-generating activities. It is a five-year, USAID-funded project designed to help the government of Ethiopia find sustainable solutions to chronic food insecurity. It builds on its predecessor program, Graduation with Resilience to Achieve Sustainable Development. 47 EthioChicken Ethiopia Oromia, Amhara, EthioChicken launched its first breeder farm, feed mill, Tigray and hatchery in 2010. In 2014, after several years of research and development, the company introduced the SASSO T451 breed to Ethiopia. The SASSO T451 is a dual-purpose (eggs and meat), hardy, free-range, scavenging chicken that thrives at rural smallholder farms. 48 FUNDACAO Mozambique The URITHI program is based on an integrated MASC approach and is structured under five mutually reinforcing blocks: (1) democratic governance, peacebuilding, and social cohesion; (2) improved access to basic services; (3) rural livelihoods; (4) resilience and income generation 49 Oromia Ethiopia Addis Ababa Oromia Pastoralist Association (OPA), was founded Pastoralists in June 2006 by group of community activists Association who came together from pastoralist areas (Bale, Borana, East Hararge, East Showa, Guji, and West Hararge) in the Oromia region with the overall aim of encouraging the participation and decision making of pastoralists in local policy processes impacting their livelihoods and supporting local efforts to address the chronic levels of poverty and vulnerability faced by pastoralists due to natural or man-made disasters. 50 Oxfam GB Somaliland Oxfam’s Somaliland–Ethiopia Cross Border Drought Preparedness Project is implemented as a component of Oxfam GB’s 15-year regional pastoral initiative that covers six countries in the Horn of Africa and East Africa. It is divided into three-year phases. In the Somali region of Ethiopia, implementation began in 2002 and is now in its second phase, while in Somaliland, the first phase started in 2005. The first phase of the project ran from January 2008 to June 2009. The second phase, funded under the European Commission Humanitarian Office Regional Drought Decision, was a 12-month project implemented in partnership with HAVOYOCO (Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee) that ended in June 2010. 51 The Center for Ethiopia Established in 2004, CAWEE is one of the pioneer Accelerated nonprofit trade promotion membership organizations Women’s operating in the country. It provides promotional Economic and capacity building support services that target Empowerment existing and potential or emerging women exporters (CAWEE) involved in small and medium enterprises through the provision of multiple support services. 97 A REVIEW OF THE KDRDIP PROGRAM Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 52 United Nations Uganda Northern Uganda The Development Initiative for Northern Uganda is Capital a program of the Ugandan government, supported Development by the European Union, with the overall goal of Fund consolidating stability in Northern Uganda, reducing poverty and undernutrition, and strengthening the foundation for sustainable and inclusive socioeconomic development. The aim is to improve access to finance for small and medium enterprises engaged in agricultural value addition, improve the stock and quality of the district’s road assets, increase local fiscal space, and improve local service delivery. 53 Organization Ethiopia WISE works with low-income self-employed women for Women and girls to help them achieve self-reliance and in Self improve the quality of their lives. Its major focus area Employment is the economic and social empowerment of women (WISE) and girls and thereby the improvement of their position and condition in society. To date, over 44,000 women and girls have been reached through 90 savings and credit cooperatives that have been established in Addis Ababa. These women and girls received assistance in initiating or expanding their preferred lines of microenterprise operations by organizing into cooperatives and accessing various financial and nonfinancial services. Furthermore, an umbrella institution of the cooperatives, referred to as a union, has been established to ensure the sustainability of services when WISE ceases its direct support to the cooperatives. 54 Agha Khan India Bihar The Agha Khan Foundation seeks to transform and Foundation improve the quality of life for landless and marginal farming households in Bihar, India, by improving small ruminant production. Women who formed self- help groups under the Bihar government’s JEEViKA program will form goat producer groups as part of Project Mesha. 55 Anthra India Maharashtra Anthra documents the knowledge that women livestock keepers and pastoralists in Maharashtra have related to livestock rearing systems, produce and processing, breeding, and health. 56 Centre for India Andhra Pradesh, The Centre for Collective Development works Collective Telengana, with small and marginal farmers to improve their Development Maharashtra, livelihoods by educating them in collective methods Jharkhand, of pool and sell, processing, market links, and Karnataka, sustainable agropractices. Rajasthan 57 Centre for India Gujarat, The Centre for Pastoralism engages in research, rights Pastoralism Uttarakhand advocacy, and livelihood improvement of pastoralist communities by focusing on specific by-products, such as milk and wool. 98 APPENDIX A. LIST OF SIMILAR PROGRAMS IDENTIFIED FOR KEY LESSONS LEARNED Region of Implementation Country of within Country (If No. Organization Implementation Available) Brief Description of the Program 58 Child Fund India Maharashtra, MP WHEEL impact bond helped marginalized tribal India women in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh become self‐reliant and feel empowered by training them to become poultry microentrepreneurial farmers. The Poultry for Profit project is aimed at equipping tribal women, ages 18–40 and living below the poverty line from 10 villages in Dhar District, Madhya Pradesh, with entrepreneurial and financial inclusion skills to create an alternate source of livelihood other than poultry farming. 59 Heifer India Mayurbhanj, Odisha Heifer International, in partnership with Cargil CSR, International ensures food security, enhances livelihoods, and (partnership increases awareness of and education about poultry with Cargil production and consumption. It also increases access CSR) to products, services, solutions, and markets. It is focused on women farmers and the formation of collectives. 60 Maldhari Rural India Gujarat The Maldhari Rural Action Group mainly works for Action Group the regeneration, conservation, and protection of common property resources on which mobile communities/pastoralists depend. It includes a livelihood component that encourages youth and women to engage in traditional livelihoods and traditional traits such as handicraft and embroidery. 61 National India Maharashtra, Assam The National Small-Holder Poultry Development Trust, Small-Holder funded by Tata Trust, promotes producer collectives, Poultry and connects women poultry farmers to the market. It Development also trains women to start and run successful poultry Trust enterprises. 62 Society for India Andhra Pradesh, The Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty is Elimination of Telengana state-level poverty alleviation program that Rural Poverty supportswomen self-help groups to promote farm and off-farm livelihoods. The self-help groups are also used as a platform to address wider social and gender issues, such as substance abuse, intimate partner violence, and child labor. 63 Timbaktu India Andhra Pradesh The Timbaktu Collective creates assets for landless Collective agricultural laborers by promoting the rearing of small ruminants, supporting the thrift and credit activities of a landless laborers cooperative, and developing a meat enterprise for the cooperative. 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