66561 v i l l a g e s u r v e y r e s u lt s : x x 1 the world bank februAry 2011 Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions Village Survey Results: Yemen february 2011 S o C I a L D e v e L o p m e n t D e pa rt m e n t | S o C I a L D I m e n S I o n S o f C L I m at e C h a n g e Costing adaptation through Local Institutions Village Survey Results: Yemen © 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H St., NW Washington, DC 20433 U.S.A. Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/sdcc E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved. February 2011 This paper is based upon work that has been commissioned by the World Bank as part of the work program on the role of local institutions in climate change adaptation. The results reported in the paper are preliminary and subject to revision. 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For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com iii Contents aCknowLeDgementS xi Summary xii Structure of the Study xii Main Results xii Highly Exposed Villages are not Necessarily Vulnerable xii other hazards also have Impacts on Climate Change adaptation xiii only a few Strategies are Currently being used xiii adaptation Strategies Differ across farming Systems xiii Strategies mostly aim at reducing Sensitivity to Climate variability xiii Strategies to Improve Coping Capacity are hardly applied xiii female-Dominated households apply more Strategies xiii Institutions play a minor role in preparing for Climate Change xiii Institutions hardly provide any assistance xiv Policy Recommendations xiv More Emphasis on Coping Strategies xiv Improve water resource management xiv financial burden of yemeni households xiv Increase ownership to Implement Community Strategies xiv Institutions Should put more emphasis on Climate Change adaptation Strategies xv building on existing Community-based Initiatives, Such as the raLp project xv 1. IntroDuCtIon 1 Background and Objectives of the CALI Project 1 Costing Adaptation Through Local Institutions (CALI)—Objectives 1 the Structure of the CaLI Study 1 Data were Collected on Strategies adopted. . . 2 . . . the role of Institutions. . . 2 . . . and Costs of adaptation options 2 the focus is on past household behavior 2 iv C o S t I n g a D a p tat I o n t h r o u g h L o C a L I n S t I t u t I o n S Report Objectives 2 Structure of the report 3 2. Country Context: yemen 4 Historic Background of Vulnerability to Climate Variability 4 Climate in Yemen is Characterized by Large Regional Differences 4 Land use Systems Depend on geographical Characteristics 5 Climate is expected to become more variable 6 Climate Change will Negatively Affect Livelihoods. . . 7 . . . and the Biophysical Environment 7 poverty is persistent, especially in the rural areas 7 water resources are overexploited 8 yemen’s economy is vulnerable 9 Increasing Climate variability will make it more Difficult to find Solutions 9 Policy Framework Related to Climate Variability 9 Climate adaptation Initiatives in yemen 10 Projects Related to Climate Change Adaptation in Yemen 11 Several other Initiatives Currently taking place 11 Costs of Adaptation to Climate Change 12 The Costing Estimates are a First Step and Should be Interpreted with Care 12 3. Data CoLLeCtIon anD StuDy area CharaCterIStICS 14 Methodology 14 Four Categories of Adaptation Strategies 14 Costing elements 15 Vulnerability 15 Vulnerability Depends on Exposure, Sensitivity, and Coping Capacity 15 Institutions 16 Data Collection 16 Criteria for the Selection of the Villages 16 organization of the fieldwork 17 Description of Study Area and Study Villages 17 Characteristics of the Study Sites 17 Characteristics of the Districts of the Study Sites 19 Observations from the Village Studies 20 Farmers Observe Increasing Temperatures and Decreasing Rainfall 20 major occupations are the Same for almost all households in the Sample 20 4. vuLnerabILIty profILeS anD aDaptatIon praCtICeS 21 Household Vulnerability: Village Vulnerability Profiles 21 Key Similarities: Households are Large and Have a Low Average Age 21 School enrollment is Low and gender Differences are Substantial 21 for many households, Some members have migrated 22 agriculture is the main activity for the majority of households 22 next to Cereals, almost all households grow Cash Crops 22 most households own Livestock 23 v I L L a g e S u r v e y r e S u Lt S : y e m e n v The Roles of Men and Women in Income Earning Activities Differ 23 wealth Differences between households are Large 23 vulnerability profiles Differ Substantially between the villages 23 Vulnerability Levels are Illustrated by the Hunger Period 25 high exposed villages are not necessarily vulnerable 25 Household Vulnerability Profiles 26 Household Clusters Show Vulnerability Classes 26 villages exhibit Signs of a Social Divide 27 the Cluster analysis Confirms the village analyses 28 Climate-related hazards are Significant for the households 29 Vulnerability and Adaptation 29 On Average, 1.7 Strategies Per Household 30 top Six Strategies adopted Contain four Individual Strategies 30 villages Select Different Strategies 31 adaptation Strategies Differ across farming Systems 31 the number of Strategies adopted Depends on wealth 32 Strategies Mostly Aim at Reducing Sensitivity 33 Strategies for Improving Coping Capacity are hardly applied 33 Communal Strategies are adopted especially in the Least vulnerable villages 33 Gender Differences in Adaptation Strategies . . . 33 Cost estimates are Difficult to Interpret 34 highest Costs are associated with Irrigation 34 Institutional Access and Climate Adaptation 35 Household do not Get their Information from External Institutions 36 household are Difficult to reach 36 Institutions play a minor role in preparing for Climate Change 37 Costing adaptation 37 Some Modern Techniques are Necessary to be Able to Farm in Yemen 37 Low Cost, Sensitivity reducing Strategies are adopted 39 more Demanding Strategies require Informal and formal assistance 39 assistance from formal and Informal Institutions may relieve adoption Constraints 40 5. ConCLuSIonS anD poLICy ImpLICatIonS 41 Main Findings 41 Households are Large Families 41 agriculture is the main household activity 41 Highly Exposed Villages are not Necessarily the Most Vulnerable 42 other hazards also have Impacts on Climate Change adaptation 42 Differences between household types are Large 42 Only a Few Strategies are Used 43 adaptation Strategies Differ across farming Systems 43 Strategies mostly aim at Sensitivity reduction 43 Coping Capacity Improvement Strategies are hardly applied 43 female-Dominated households apply more Strategies 44 Institutions play a minor role in preparing for Climate Change 44 Institutions hardly provide any assistance 44 vi C o S t I n g a D a p tat I o n t h r o u g h L o C a L I n S t I t u t I o n S Policy Recommendations 44 More Emphasis on Coping Strategies 44 Improve water resource management 45 financial burden of yemeni households 45 Increase ownership to Implement Community Strategies 45 Institutions Should put more emphasis on Climate Change adaptation Strategies 45 Continuation of Community-based Initiatives Such as the raLp project 45 referenCeS 46 appenDIx 1. methoDoLogy anD reSearCh framework 48 A1.A. Methodology and Costing Framework 48 A1.B. Household Questionnaire 54 Rationale of the Questionnaire 54 Question 1: 56 Question 2: 57 Question 3: 57 Question 4: 57 Question 5: 57 Question 6: 58 Question 7: 58 Question 8: 58 Question 9: 59 List of adaptation Strategies 68 A1.C. Institutional Stakeholder Questionnaire 74 Illustrative Photos 77 A1.D. Focus Group Discussion 79 appenDIx 2. Data anaLySIS 80 A2.A. Descriptive Analysis of the Households 80 A2.B. Descriptive Analysis of the Clusters 86 a2.C. Strategies adopted for villages and Clusters 90 a2.D. Institutional access for Sites and Clusters 95 appenDIx 3. Summary of foCuS group DISCuSSIonS 100 A3.A. Al Wathan 100 Which Climate or Rainfall Related Hazards do you Face in your Daily Life? 100 what are the activities are families adapted to overcome Droughts and Low rainfall? and what the Impact? 100 what are the Impacts and risks resulted from Climatic Changes? 100 what are the Solutions used to adapt to Climatic Changes? 100 which organizations, authorities or people are most helpful to Learn more about how to prepare for these hazards? how can these organizations perform there tasks better? 100 A3.B. Arraheebah 101 What is the Climate Changes that Occurred in the Region During the Ten Previous Years? 101 what are the effects and Consequences (risks) resulting from these Changes in Climate? 101 what are the Solutions that have been used to adapt to Climate Change? 101 v I L L a g e S u r v e y r e S u Lt S : y e m e n vii what are the Institutions that assisted you in Selecting and applying these Solutions to adapt the Climate Change? and what kind of aids were given to you? 102 what are the reasons that Led to the non-existence/Success of Institutions in providing assistance to adapt to Climate Change and overcome the risks? 102 what are the benefits/Strengths that you found in the Solutions for adaptation to Climate Change? 102 what is the Damage/weaknesses that you found in using of Solutions to adapt to Climate Change? 102 how was the Choice of Solutions to adapt to Climate Change; is it on the basis of tribal or Customary, economic or in general? 102 A3.C. Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq 103 What are the Climate Changes that Occurred in the Region During the Ten Previous Years? 103 what are the effects and Consequences (risks) resulting from these Changes in Climate? 103 what are the Solutions that have been used to adapt to Climate Change? 103 What are the Institutions that Assisted you in Selecting and Applying these Solutions to Adapt to the Climate Change, and any Kind of Aid was Given to You? 104 what are the reasons that led to the non-existence/Success of organizations in providing assistance to adapt to Climate Change and overcome the risks? 104 what are the benefits/Strengths that you got when you used Solutions to adapt to Climate Change? 104 what is the Damage/weaknesses of applying the Solutions to adapt to Climate Change? 104 how was the Choice of Solutions to adapt to Climate Change; is on the basis of tribal or Customary, economic or in general? 105 A3.D. Mu’aneet 105 Which Climate or Rainfall Related Hazards do you Face in your Daily Life? 105 what are the Impacts and risks resulted from Climatic Changes? 105 what are the Solutions used to adapt to Climatic Changes? 105 what are the reasons that Lead to the adaptation of these Strategies than other ones? 105 which organizations, authorities or people are most helpful to Learn more about how to prepare for these hazards? how can these organizations perform there tasks better? 105 A3.E. Al Mehraq 106 What are the Climate Changes that Occurred in the Region During the ten Previous Years? 106 what are the effects and Consequences (risks) resulting from these Changes in Climate? 106 what are the Solutions that have been used to adapt to Climate Change? 106 what are the Institutions that assisted you in Selecting and applying these Solutions to adapt to Climate Change, and what kind of aid was given to you? 107 what are the reasons that Led to the non-existence/Success of Institutions in providing assistance to adapt to Climate Change and overcome the risks? 107 what are the benefits/Strengths that you found in applying these Solutions to adapt to Climate Change? 107 what is the Damage/weaknesses that you found in applying the Solutions to adapt to Climate Change? 107 how was the choice of Solutions to adapt to Climate Change is it on the basis of tribal or Customary, economic or in general? 107 A3.F. Al Masajed 107 Which Climate or Rainfall Related Hazards do you Face in your Daily Life? 108 for Drought hazards: to what extent has the Start of the rainy Season and the amount of rain fallen During the rainy Season varied over the Last Decades? 108 Do you adapt farming Strategies if you have experienced Drought problems over the past years? 108 are there Differences in Crops grown, tillage techniques, planting Dates, activities performed, equipment used? 108 viii C o S t I n g a D a p tat I o n t h r o u g h L o C a L I n S t I t u t I o n S Did you Change the Composition of your Livestock owned, Livestock management? 108 how much do these Changes Cost you in terms in resources used, Labor requirements, etc.? 108 which organizations, authorities or people are most helpful to Learn more about how to prepare for these hazards? how can these organizations perform there tasks better? 108 to what extent are Choices Dependent on ethnicity, wealth Class, gender? 108 appenDIx 4. Summary of InStItutIonaL StakehoLDer IntervIewS 109 figures figure 1. population Density, 2002 5 figure 2. average annual rainfall in yemen, 1985–91 5 figure 3. average annual rainfall in yemen, 2002 6 figure 4. annual rainfall at Sana’a airport, 1932–99 6 figure 5. Share of Cultivated Land per farming System, 1975–2000 9 figure 6. Location of Study villages in yemen (village name, District name and governorate name) 18 figure 7. Spider Diagrams of the village Scores on the vulnerability Ccharacteristics 24 figure 8. Spider Diagrams of the Cluster Scores on the vulnerability Characteristics 28 figure 9. percentage of households Choosing a particular adaptation option 30 figure 10. average number of Strategy types for the Different farming System (and agroecological Zone) 32 figure 11. overview of Costs and Investments needed to Implement adaptation Strategies 38 figure a.1. histogram of asset ownership per village 84 tabLes table 1. Development Indicators for yemen 8 table 2. water availability in yemen 8 table 3. practical adaptation activities 10 table 4. proposed adaptation Strategies for three river basins 11 table 5. Strategies to reduce Sensitivity or Increase Coping Capacity 16 table 6. Selection of Sites for the household Survey 17 table 7. Selection of Sites for the household Survey 19 table 8. population and area Information of the Selected Sites 19 table 9. total and Cultivated areas for governorates of Study villages 20 table 10. vulnerability Scores for the Different villages 25 table 11. overview of months in which households face a food Shortage (%) 25 table 12. Distribution of Clusters over the Different villages 26 table 13. Characteristics of Clusters 27 table 14. average ranking of hazards for the Different Clusters (1 = most Important; 10 = Least Important) 29 table 15. number of households, average number of Strategies, and Share of household with Different adaptation Strategies for male- and female-Dominated households 34 table 16. Cost estimates (yer x 1,000) of the adaptation Strategies (yer 1,000 = 4.48 uS Dollars) 35 table 17. allocation of assistance over the Different Clusters and villages (%) 36 v I L L a g e S u r v e y r e S u Lt S : y e m e n ix table 18. type of assistance received by the households from the Different Institutions 36 table a.1. main Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sites – See also table a2.1b below 80 table a.2. Differences in education and migration – See also table a2.2b below 80 table a.3. main activities of households in the Study Sites 81 table a.4. main types of Crops grown 82 table a.4b. Details on area Cultivated and Land owned 83 table a.5. Livestock ownership 83 table a.6. asset ownership 84 table a.1b. Detailed Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sites 85 table a.2b. Detailed education Characteristics of the Study Sites: Share of education Classes for age-Sexe Combinations 85 table b.1. household Characteristics 86 table b.2. agricultural Characteristics 86 table b.2b. Details on area Cultivated 87 table b.3. Livestock Characteristics 88 table b.4. average ranking of hazards and observations on whether the hazard has become more threatening 88 table b.5. percentage households facing food Shortages in particular months 89 table C.1. percentage of households from Clusters and villages adopting particular Strategies 90 table C.2. ranking of adaptation options for Clusters and villages 91 table C.3. Cost estimates (yer 1,000) of adaptation options for the options that had a positive Cost estimate for at Least 10 observations 92 table C.4. average Cost estimates (yer 1,000) of adaptation options for the Clusters and Sites for the most Important Strategies 93 table D.1. Share of households per Cluster or Site that receives assistance from a Certain Institution 95 table D.2. assistance from Institutions for Different adaptation Strategies 95 table D.3. Distribution of Information Sources for applying adaptation Strategies 96 table D.3a. number of times a Certain type of assistance is received as % of the times assistance is given 97 table D.3b. times a Certain type of assistance is received as percentage of the number of the number of households 97 table D.4. type of assistance Institutions are giving to the households 98 table D.5. type of assistance households receive, if they adopt a Certain Strategy 99 photos photo 1: Drought Due to Less rainfall During rainy Season 77 photo 2: human Disease 77 photo 3: prolonged periods of Drought During rainy Season 77 photo 4: animal or Crop pests and Diseases 77 photo 5: floods Due to excessive rainfall 78 photo 6: Decreasing Soil fertility 78 photo 7: Damage Due to excessively heavy Showers 78 photo 8: problems with Input purchase or output Sales 78 photo 9: extreme temperatures Leading to e.g. Scorched Crops 78 photo 10: high food prices 78 xi ACknowledgements Support in methodology, field survey design, workshop organization as well as overall coordination was provided by Dr. Arjan Ruijs and Mark de Bel. Technical support The “Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions� was provided by Sr Environmental Specialist Kanta (CALI) study was a joint effort by the World Bank Rigaud (MNSEN). Social Development Department (SDV), University of Michigan, Royal Haskoning and Wageningen We could not have completed this work without the University. The overall study, comprising of three indi- continuous logistical support provided by Mustafa vidual case study reports from Ethiopia, Mali and Pajazetovic (SDV) and Carmen Martinel (SDV). Yemen, as well as a synthesis report, was designed and Financial support was provided by the Bank- implemented in close collaboration with regional Netherlands Partnership Program (BNPP). colleagues from AFTAR, AFTEN, MNSEN and MNSAR. Additionally, participants in the workshops in Yemen were A.M. Bamatraf (Sana’a University), Bilquis A. The study was undertaken by a core team led by Nicolas Sattar (RALP), Amin Al-Kirshi (AREA-Dhamer), Perrin (ECSS4), Robin Mearns (SDV), Minna Derhim Ali Achmed (AREA-Taiz, Ibb), Ahmed Kononen (SDV), Anne Kuriakose (SDV) and Arun Albakri (Sana’a University), Abdul Hafed Greteb Agrawal (University of Michigan). Research partners in (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation), Abdu Alaziz Yemen were the Agricultural Economics Institute at the Alyousofi (RALP), Rafik Al-Sakkaf (TAMWE), Omal Wageningen University and a local consultant Dr. Taha h. Al-Sakaf (Sana’a University), Adel Al-Sakkaf (WEC, Taher. The study team was led by Dr. Vincent Linderhof Sana’a University), Mansour Haidera (WEC, Sana’a Dr. Nico Polman from Wageningen University, Dr. University), Jawid Al-Jailan (SFD), Wadia Al-Meklafi Arjan Ruijs from Royal Haskoning and Dr. Taha Taher. (SFD), and Job Klein (Dutch Embassy). xii summAry m A i n r e s u lt s H i g h l y e x p o s e d Vi l l a g e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a rily The objectives of the Costing Adaptation through Local Vu l n e r a b l e Institutions (CALI) study were (a) to identify the costs of adaptation through local institutions, and (b) to The results show that the vulnerability and agroecologi- investigate which institutions help households adapt to cal potential in Yemen are related to rainfall, which is climate variability, which efforts and costs are needed to related to altitude. For example, Arraheebah (Taiz) in the realize the adaptation options, and how they facilitate coastal plains—which scores low on agroecological adaptation to climate variability. The study was carried capacity and high on its dependency on agriculture—is out in Ethiopia, Mali, and Yemen. This report discusses most exposed. The three study sites with an arid the results for Yemen. subtropical climate are somewhat less exposed. With relatively high precipitation, the two sites in the high- s tructure of t h e st u d y lands are the least exposed to climate variability. The highly exposed villages, however, are not necessarily the In Yemen, village surveys were conducted in six most vulnerable. villages and two expert workshops were organized to discuss the main framework of the study and to The households in the drylands area show low cash-crop evaluate the draft results. The study assessed earnings, low income diversification, and relatively low household vulnerability, analyzed the strategies educational levels for the households. Due to low soil households adopt to reduce the impacts of climate fertility, their higher landholdings do not result in high hazards, and evaluated the assistance households receive yields. For households in the rainfed areas, the results from different institutions. The analysis was based on are mixed. Despite the high exposure to climate change, household surveys, focus group discussions, and institu- households in rainfed areas show low and high vulnera- tional stakeholder interviews. Vulnerability profiles, bility. The vulnerability of households decreases with developed on the basis of field survey results, show that coping capacity, which increases which higher cash crop household vulnerability differs substantially between and earnings (both from qat and fruits and vegetables), within villages. The size and diversity of income and the higher landholdings, more livestock, more assets, and ability to flexibly decide on alternative measures to miti- higher educational levels. Moreover, a substantial part of gate the adverse climate effects—which depends on income is coming from civil servant activities. Their factors such as level of education and dependency sensitivity to climate variability seems to be relatively ratio—have effects on the adaptation options households low and their coping capacity good. Both highland adopt and the type of institutional assistance they villages score very differently. Vulnerability in the receive. Yemeni study sites seems to be less dependent on v I L L a g e S u r v e y r e S u Lt S : y e m e n xiii climate exposure but more on other factors like proxim- use income diversification strategies. In the highlands, ity to urban areas like Sana’a, which offer potential alter- households use a mix of adaptation strategies. The aver- native income sources. These income sources make age number of strategies, however, is low. households less vulnerable. s t r a t e g i e s m o s t l y a i m a t re d u c i n g s e n s i tivity other Hazar d s a l s o h a v e im p a c t s t o C l i m a t e Va r i a b i l i t y on Climate C h a n g e A d a p t a t i o n Most strategies aim at reducing sensitivity to climate vari- In almost all villages, the increased occurrence of human ability through irrigation, fertilizer/pesticide application, and animal diseases was mentioned frequently during or the improvement, construction or rehabilitation of the focus group discussions. In addition, water collection terraces. The only strategy focusing on improving coping is taking more time (one of the reasons why girls are capacity is short term or permanent migration. Differences dropping out of school), and water prices have risen. As between villages are remarkable. In the vulnerable villages a result of higher disease incidence and the increased in rainfed or dryland areas, only a few households adopt price of water, households spend more effort and means some strategies. The households in highland villages focus on medicines and water. In consequence, animals and on migration and prevention of soil erosion (terracing and personal jewelry were sold to buy medicine or water. reforestation), whereas in the dryland area households This development also has consequences for the imple- focus on irrigation and adapting farming practices. mentation of adaptation strategies. Households simply lack the financial means to apply adaptation strategies, strategies to improve Coping Capacity particularly the more expensive ones such as irrigation. are Hardly Applied only a Few st r a t e g i e s a r e C u r r e n t l y For all villages, coping capacity strategies are restricted Being u sed to migration to urban areas or abroad. Other possible strategies, like migration to other rural areas, home- In Yemen only a few adaptation strategies are used by garden agriculture, increased market sales, or handicrafts households (1.7 on average). About 40 percent of the are rarely used, although some households cultivate households in the survey did not adopt any of the strate- fruits and vegetables. gies listed. Furthermore, there is a large difference in the number of strategies adopted between the sites. Among F e m a l e -d o m i n a t e d H o u s e h o l d s A p p l y the villages, the percentage of responding households more strategies that did not adopt any strategy also varied significantly. In general, water management techniques—the use of In 13 percent of households, two-thirds or more of adults irrigation and the improvement, construction, or rehabil- are female. On average, female-dominated households itation of terraces—and agricultural techniques are most apply more adaptation strategies than other households. frequently adopted. Income diversification techniques— Female-dominated households choose the same adapta- such as temporary migration to urban areas or abroad— tion strategies as male-dominated households, such as or communal techniques are applied, but less frequently. use of irrigation, construction of terraces, fertilizer use, and crop selection. Furthermore, female-dominated Adaptation st r a t e g i e s di ff e r A c r o s s F a r m i n g households tend to apply measures to reduce sensitivity s ystems to climate variability more often than coping strategies. Households in rainfed areas—Al Wathan, Magahem i n s t i t u t i o n s P l a y a m i n o r r o l e i n P r e p a r i ng Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, and Muáneet—have the highest for Climate Change average of adaptation strategies. Households in drylands put most of their effort on agricultural and water In the study sites, institutions only play a minor role in management strategies because they have been dealing the adoption of adaptation strategies by households. In with scarce water resources for a long time. They hardly general there is very limited contact between households xiv C o S t I n g a D a p tat I o n t h r o u g h L o C a L I n S t I t u t I o n S and institutions. Only 7 percent of households have had diversifying income. This is particularly the case for contact with institutions. About half of these households households in the dryland sites that are most exposed judge these contacts as being useful in the adoption of to climate change hazards. Except for migration, adaptation strategies. Extension agencies are the institu- many of the income diversification options are tions mentioned most frequently. Furthermore, national constrained by institutional, market, and financial authorities, regional authorities, local authorities, and constraints. seed production authorities are contacted for assistance, but only by a few households. In addition to the few i m p r o v e wa t e r re s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t outsiders providing help to households, the respondents indicated that they received some help or cooperation Although the emphasis of Yemeni farmers is already from neighbors or people from the clan group. Even more on sensitivity reducing strategies such as irrigation though these are community institutions, the respond- and water harvesting techniques, there is still a need to ents apparently do not judge these to be an institution. expand the implementation of such strategies to improve The low institutional coverage and dependence on water resource management. Groundwater levels are kinship is well-known in Yemen. In rural Yemen, the going down rapidly; in order to stop this process, water role of the national government is often contested and resource management should be improved. Adaptation officials lack trust within the communities, so setting up of more water management strategies should be national extension services is difficult. advocated. institutions H a r d l y P r o v i d e a n y A s s i s t a n c e F i n a n c i a l B u r d e n o f ye m e n i H o u s e h o l d s Most of the adaptation strategies adopted by the house- Financial constraints for applying more adaptation strat- holds were financed and realized by the households egies for Yemeni farmers are urgent for two reasons. On themselves using their own resources. Even if institu- the one hand, households spent their money on medi- tions are present, they are not associated with assistance cines for the diseases of family members and on water for climate change adaptation according to the stake- collection with high prices. On the other hand, the costs holder analysis. Formal institutions hardly provided any for water resource management strategies such as irriga- assistance in terms of training, inputs, or cash. Only tion are extremely high for Yemeni citizens. Financial people from the community helped each other through assistance such as mico-financing is needed to help the provision of labor for rehabilitating terraces and farmers improve their water resource management. This setting up irrigation or water management measures. will require a more explicit role for institutions and The low number of strategies adopted may partly be micro-financing organizations. explained by this low institutional coverage. Households especially adopt strategies they already know for decades i n c r e a s e o w n e r s h i p t o i m p l e m e n t C o m m unity and adopt only a few modern strategies. Households strategies may lack the knowledge to judge the expected net bene- fits of more innovative strategies. Households also often Communal actions seem to be difficult to initiate. lack the knowledge, awareness, and financial means to Yemeni farmers seem to focus on applying strategies on adopt such strategies. Moreover, it is often difficult to their own. Communal strategies could be less costly per adopt them due to malfunctioning markets. Because of farmer. These actions need investments and training the virtual absence of formal institutions, reducing from external institutions, which are virtually absent in market problems is difficult. many regions. Moreover, in order to create a sense of urgency and a feeling of ownership on the part of Poli Cy re Commend Ations households, relationships between external institutions and the community (clan) should be improved. This m ore e mpha s i s o n C o p i n g st r a t e g i e s requires the long-term presence by these institutions. Investments in training and emphasis on creating There is little attention given to strategies to reduce adequate ownership by the households could be benefi- external stress, such as improving education or cial to implement these strategies. This can be facilitated v I L L a g e S u r v e y r e S u Lt S : y e m e n xv by institutions taking into account Yemen’s clan and Building on existing Community-Based neighborhood orientation. i n i t i a t i v e s , s u c h a s t h e rA l P P r o j e c t institutions s h o u l d p u t mo r e em p h a s i s o n In the study, the sites in the RALP districts do not show Climate Cha n g e A d a p t a t i o n st r a t e g i e s significantly better results than the other sites in terms of number of coping strategies adopted, which could According to stakeholders, there are institutions present possibly be explained by the fact that the project is rela- in most villages. According to stakeholders, however, the tively new. However, in terms of institutions and assistance of these institutions is not associated with networks, the community-based approach of the RALP climate change mitigation by households. In the sites project shows progress in the institutional presence (e.g. selected for the RALP project, a minor share of the extension agencies) and the creation of networks for stakeholders mention that extension agents are present, market access (e.g. cooperatives). The framework but the respondents in the survey rarely mention any provided by the project could also be used to facilitate assistance from them. This would be a first step toward training for innovative adaptation strategies and the the use of institutions for adaptation strategies and an improvement of an enabling environment (e.g. market opportunity to extend the services of institutions for access) in the process of reducing the vulnerability of adaptation strategies as well. households. 1 1. INTRODUCTION This study is a reflection of the insights that (a) poor, rural households are facing most of the climate variabil- ity-related hazards; (b) adaptation also has socioeco- B A CK GROU ND AND OBJ ECTIVES OF nomic aspects; (c) understanding local adaptation T HE CA LI PROJ ECT processes is important for informing macro-policies; and (d) for prioritizing future adaptation, it is crucial to Climate change is a global phenomenon. Observations analyze historical adaptation strategies. across countries show that people perceive recent changes in their environment as an impact of climate The CALI study is part of the Social Development change, and in particular changes in temperature, rain- Department’s work program on climate change. The fall, and other weather patterns such as the timing and research is more specifically focused on achieving the occurrence of seasons. Although a lot of this “evidence� following objectives: is anecdotal and needs scientific confirmation, we can assume that most people are making rational statements 1. Identifying the main adaptation strategies currently and therefore do relate the changes to their life experi- adopted by the households. ences. It is also becoming clearer that the people most 2. Investigating which institutions help households affected by the immediate impacts of climate change are adapt to climate variability, and how the institutions the world’s most vulnerable people, and that the people facilitate adaptation to climate variability. and countries that are the least responsible for the 3. Identifying important adaptation cost elements occurrence of climate change carry most of its burden, at (labor, material, and cash) borne by households and least in the short run. institutions. C o stin g Adaptati on Thr ough Local The Structure of the CALI Study In stitutions ( CALI) — Obj ecti ves The study involves an assessment of the adaptation The World Bank Social Development Department options rural household pursue. The study also consid- commissioned a study on costing of climate change ers the differential access of various vulnerability adaptation in Yemen, Mali, and Ethiopia to provide groups, as well as the drivers for adopting particular recommendations to decision makers in development strategies or constraints for not adopting other strate- projects and government agencies regarding the risks, gies. For this, households and institutional stakehold- costs, and benefits of adaptation options in the rural ers were interviewed in six villages in Yemen, focus context, and the institutional investments necessary to group discussions were organized, and experts were facilitate cost-effective adaptation. consulted. 2 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S D a ta Were Col l ected on this study is not on how households will respond to Strate gie s A dopted… these climate hazards, but on how they have responded in the past through the various adaptation strategies In order to obtain information about the strategies and the costs of these adaptation strategies. As a result, adopted, respondents were asked to indicate use of some strategies, which households would be expected to particular techniques or adaptation options. The impor- adopt, may not come forward as being important in this tance of each option was then judged based on the study. For example, small-scale irrigation is an adapta- number of households that adopted them. Adoption of tion strategy that is often initiated or channeled particular adaptation options depends on the importance through external institutions, but which is rationed of perceived climate hazards—such as drought, rainfall among the households based on various criteria. It is variability, flood, and increasing heat—versus other therefore inaccessible for some households even though hazards related to issues such as prices, markets, and they would like to benefit from irrigation as well. As a health. In doing so, visual aids were used to help result, the list of strategies presented in this report respondents rank potential hazards. should not be interpreted as being the best or most wanted strategies to cope with climate variability. It … th e R o le of Insti tuti ons… reflects current practice in Yemen and shows what households currently do by themselves or with institu- To obtain more insight into the role of institutions, we tional assistance. investigated the institutions that help households to adapt to climate variability. We specifically looked at the R E P O RT O B J E C TI V E S efforts and inputs they provided for the adoption of different coping strategies and how they facilitate adap- The structure of the CALI study is the outcome of a tation to climate variability. We considered institutions series of meetings, consultation workshops, and insti- such as local authorities, extension agencies, NGOs, tutional contacts concerning the study design, data cooperatives, religious institutions, and informal village collection, and the interpretation of the results. groups. Respondents were asked to indicate the institu- Primary and secondary data were collected in order to tions with which they have contact and those which achieve the research objectives. Primary data was have been helpful in climate adaptation. For the identi- collected from six villages in different climate zones fied institutions, respondents indicated the duration and in Yemen using a household questionnaire, focus purpose of contact and type of assistance obtained from group discussion, and stakeholder interviews. A quan- the institutions. titative estimation was carried out of data obtained from these sources. Primary data were complemented … and C o sts of Adaptati on Opti ons with secondary data such as documentation from related projects. There are two World Bank-supported To obtain more information about the costing of adap- initiatives in Yemen relevant to the CALI study. First, tation options, we asked for the costs that the house- the Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock Project holds incurred for each of the strategies adopted. A (RALP) conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture costing framework has been developed to capture the and Irrigation (MAI) and Social Fund for labor, material, and cash cost that the households and Development invests resources in terrace rehabilita- institutions incurred. tion and development of the livestock sector. Two of the villages in the CALI study also participate in the T h e F o cu s is on Past Househol d Behav i o r RALP project. Second, the Pilot Programme for Climate Resilience (PPCR) (under preparation) is a For decades, farmers have been facing severe climate- strategic program for climate resilience and is identi- related hazards like extreme droughts and rainfall, rain- fying and preparing potential interventions for fall fluctuations, and temperature fluctuations. These making the Yemeni population less vulnerable to hazards are likely to intensify in the future. The focus of climate change (PPCR 2010). V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 3 This report is the final country report for Yemen S TR U C TU R E O F TH E R E P O RT that has been prepared within the framework of the Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions Chapter 2 presents a brief description of climate change, Project (CALI) as implemented by Royal Haskoning its effects, adaptations, and climate change actions in and LEI Wageningen UR in the Netherlands and Yemen. Chapter 3 describes the methodological issues, several national consultants in Ethiopia, Mali, including the location of the research sites, the and Yemen. The objective of this report is to present approaches, and the contents of the questionnaires. an overview of the main findings of the CALI Chapter 4 presents the main findings of the study. study in Yemen and to provide policy Chapter 5 provides the main conclusions drawn from recommendations. the analysis and policy recommendations. 4 2. COUNTRY CONTEXT: YEMEN than three-quarters of Yemenis live (Republic of Yemen 2002; PPCR 2010). There is an increasing global focus on the effect of C l i m a t e i n Ye m e n i s C h a r a c t e r i z e d b y climate variability and change on rural livelihoods and L a r g e R e g i o n a l D i ff e r e n c e s food security. There are indications that some of the impacts of climate change are irreversible and hence Rainfall in Yemen varies widely across the country adaptation—particularly in the most vulnerable (PPCR 2010). Along the coast, rainfall is less than regions—must be put into action soon (EPC 2001). 50 mm per year. The highest rainfall occurs in the Understanding the effects of climate change, the adapta- Western Highlands and ranges from 500 to 800 mm tion strategies in place, and the stakeholders involved is per year. In the interior desert, rainfall is less than an important step in addressing this issue. 50 mm per year. Precipitation occurs primarily in the spring and summer seasons. The temperature primarily HI S TORI C BACKGROUND OF depends on the elevation. In the highlands, the average V ULNE RA BIL ITY TO CL IMATE annual temperature is 12°C, while in the coastal areas, VA RI A B I LI TY close to the sea, the average annual temperature is 30°C. Temperatures in the coastal plains have increased Yemen is a semi-arid to arid country in the Middle in recent years. As a result, the occurrence of frequent East at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is prolonged droughts during the last three decades has bordered to the north by Saudi Arabia and to the east increased. These droughts have been interrupted by by Oman. In the south and the west, there is a 2,200 occasional floods. During the 1970s and 1980s, Yemen km coastline along the Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, and characteristically had a dry climate with low rainfall the Red Sea. Yemen has a surface area of 528,000 and high temperatures. Figure 2 shows the annual square kilometers. In 2007, Yemen’s population rainfall in the period 1985–91 in Yemen; Figure 3 amounted to more that 22 million, which means there shows annual rainfall in 2002. Although it is difficult are more than 40 persons per square kilometer. In the to compare these maps, the areas of higher rainfall period from 2000 to 2007, the population of Yemen seem to be smaller in 2002 than in the period increased by more than 4 million people. Yemen has an 1985–91. annual growth rate of 3 percent, one of the highest in the world (World Bank 2009). Figure 1 shows that the To illustrate the decline in rainfall observed by EPC majority of the population lives in the Western (2001), Figure 3 shows that there is a downward trend Highlands. Over the same period, poverty increased in rainfall at Sana’a airport since 1930, as indicated by nearly threefold, particularly in rural areas, where more the red line in Figure 4. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 5 Land U se Systems Depend on • The Coastal Plains are located in the west and Geogra phical Char acter i sti cs southwest and are flat to slightly sloping with maxi- mum elevations of only a few hundred meters above Yemen is characterized by five major land systems sea level. They have a hot and humid climate with (Noaman et al. 2008; NAPA 2009): generally low to very low rainfall (< 50 mm/year). Despite the low rainfall, the Coastal Plains include FIG U R E 1. POPULATION DENSITY, 2002 agricultural zones due to the numerous wadis that drain the adjoining mountainous and hilly hinterland. • The Yemen Mountain Massif (Temperate Highlands) constitutes a high zone of very irregu- lar and dissected topography with elevations ranging from a few hundred meters to 3,760 m above sea level. The climate varies from hot at lower elevations to cool at the highest altitudes. The western and southern slopes are the steepest and enjoy moderate to rather high rainfall. On average, rainfall is 300–500 mm per year, but in some places it exceeds 1,000 mm per year. The eastern slopes show a comparatively smoother topography and average rainfall decreases rapidly from west to east. • The Eastern Plateau Region (Hadramawt and Mahra Uplands) covers the eastern half of the FIGURE 2. AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL IN YEMEN, 1985–91 Source: NCAP (2008) and NAPA (2009). 6 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S country. Elevations range from 1,200–1,800 m at • Between the Yemen Mountain Massif and the the major watershed lines to 900 m on the northern Eastern Plateau lies the Ramlat as Sabatayn, a sand desert border and to sea level on the coast. The cli- desert. Rainfall and vegetation are nearly absent, mate in general is hot and dry. The average annual except along its margins where rivers bring water rainfall is below 100 mm except for the higher parts from adjacent mountain and upland zones. In the of the plateau region. In this region, rare rainfall north lies the Rub Al Khali desert, which extends often causes devastating floods. far into Saudi Arabia and is approximately 500,000 km 2 in area. • Yemen has more than 100 small islands along FIGURE 3. AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL IN its coast. The most important of all the islands YEMEN, 2002. is Socotra, where more exuberant f lora and fauna can be found than in any other region in Yemen. Climate is Expected to Become M o r e Va r i a b l e Yemen is prone to various types of disasters such as earthquakes, floods (coastal storm surges and tsuna- mis), and landslides. One of the observed impacts of climate change is the increased occurrence and inten- sity of natural disasters (PPCR 2010). There is no consensus among the 21 global climate models in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report about the sign of the projected changes in winter, summer, or annual rainfall or its distribution pattern over Yemen (Wilby 2008). According to the results of three climate modeling exercises for Yemen in the period until 2050, however, Source: University of Texas, accessible at: <>. scenarios show that rainfall is expected to decrease across the northern regions (see Annex 3 of NAPA FIGURE 4. ANNUAL RAINFALL AT SANA’A AIRPORT, 1932–99 500 450 400 350 Rainfall (mm) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 32 40 44 64 68 72 76 80 85 97 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 Source: NCAP (2008) and NAPA (2009). V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 7 2009). This will lead to an increased pressure on the As a consequence, the human capital (labor) of country’s delicate agriculture and water resources households will decline. sectors. In recent decades, Yemen’s rainfall patterns have shown increasing extremes (PPCR 2010). On the … and the Biophysical Environment one hand, rainfall has decreased considerably, leading to major agricultural losses, losses of animals, and water In addition, EPC (2001) recognizes impacts on the shortages. On the other hand, increased flooding prob- biophysical environment as well: abilities were clearly observed in 1996 and during the period 2005–08. Under a warmer climate, these • Increased sea levels – leading to deterioration of features are likely to be further aggravated. Regional wetlands, coastal mangrove migration, erosion, downscaling efforts were undertaken to further explore infrastructure damage, and seawater groundwater local climatic regimes. In addition to the likelihood intrusion. Aden, for instance, is cited as one of the that rainfall may decrease over a large part of Yemen, top 20 cities in the world in terms of vulnerability to the timing of rainfall, the intensity of individual sea level rise (PPCR, 2010). storms, the delay between falls and the frequency of • Deterioration of habitats and biodiversity, leading to inter-annual variability may all change. Rainfall expansion of desertification. changes will be accompanied by changes in the inten- • Impacts on coastal zones, leading to a loss of tour- sity of wind, frequency of high temperatures, and ism activity due to sea level rise, including loss of changes in cloud cover. When projected annual beaches. changes in rainfall are combined with changes in potential evaporation, a new climate regime for Yemen These impacts indirectly affect livelihoods. For example, is likely to exist by 2050. damage to infrastructure might form an obstacle for households to sell their agricultural products at a local C lim ate C h ange wi l l Negati vel y market. Another example is that the intrusion of Affect Livelihoods… groundwater by salty seawater makes the groundwater unusable for crop irrigation. The Initial National Communication (INC) under the UNFCCC (EPC 2001) reported findings concerning Even without climate change hazards, Yemen suffers the vulnerability of the social and biophysical environ- from low human and economic development (PPCR ment from climate variability and climate change. The 2010) and serious environmental challenges (Noaman major impacts of climate change in Yemen, as reported et al. 2008). As a consequence, Yemen has a high degree in the INC, represented the starting point for the of vulnerability to current climatic variability and to NAPA effort (NAPA 2009). The major impacts with fluctuations in weather patterns over the long term respect to the social environment from climate variabil- (NAPA 2009). Yemen’s major environmental problems ity and climate change are: are water scarcity, soil erosion, and desertification. In the city of Taiz, for instance, running water is available • Increased water scarcity and reduced water quality, for only a few hours per week (PPCR 2010). These which leads to increased hardship on rural environmental problems are likely to worsen under livelihoods. climate change, and future climate change is expected • Increased drought frequency, increased tempera- to see these hazards intensify. tures, and changes in precipitation patterns, which leads to degradation of agricultural lands, soils, and terraces. Poverty is Persistent, Especially in the • Reduced agricultural productivity, which leads to Rural Areas increased food insecurity and to a reduction in income generating activities. Although Yemen has made significant development • Increased climatic variability, which might lead to progress over the past 30 years, poverty and inequality the spread of vectorborne and waterborne diseases. are still widespread. In 2007, GDP per capita was 8 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE 1. DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS TABLE 2. WATER AVAILABILITY IN YEMEN FOR YEMEN Water availability per capita per Year year (m3) Value and unit of 1955 1,089 Indicator description Year indicator Source 1990 460 GNP 2007 $1,000 WDI (2009) 2005 120* Population growth rate 2000–2007 3.0 % WDI (2009) 2025 150 Adult literacy 1995–2005 54.1% UNDP (2007) Source: NAPA (2009) and Hellegers et al. (2008). Total fertility rate 1990s 7.6% NAPA (2009) 2000 6.3% WDI (2009) 2007 5.5% WDI (2009) Malnutrition preva- 1996–2005 46% UNDP (2007) lence, i.e. the share of In Yemen, water resources have become increasingly children under five precious in the period 1955–90, as per capita water avail- years of age that is ability is falling steadily with growing population. Per underweight capita water availability in 1990 was less than half of the water availability in 1955 (Table 2). In the future, the per capita availability of water will further drop to 150 m3 in $1,000, but the inflation rate exceeds the economic 2025 under the business-as-usual scenario. In this growth rate (World Bank 2009) (Table 1). scenario, demand continues to increase due to expected population growth and no action is undertaken to miti- Table 1 shows that factors such as high adult illiteracy gate future climate impacts (NAPA 2009). This drop in (significantly higher for females than for males) and the water availability is one-third of the water availability high total fertility rate continue to put high pressure on per person compared to the amount in 1990. Whereas land, food, and water resources even without the pres- surface water is largely seasonal and unreliable, ground- ence of climate change (NAPA 2009). Due to high water is being simultaneously polluted and extracted population growth and high fertility rates, the demand in excess of recharge. Currently, water abstraction is for water increases rapidly. This demand places a high 125 percent of total recharge (World Bank 2006b). pressure on the availability of water resources. In 2006, one-third of the country did not have access to Figure 5 shows that from 1975 to 2005 the share of improved water sources, and this share has been growing farms depending on groundwater resources increased since 2000 (World Bank 2009). In addition, 46 percent from zero to almost 40 percent in 2000. The share of of all children under five years of age are underweight farms relying on rainfall for irrigation dropped from (UNDP 2007). more than 80 percent in 1975 to almost 40 percent in 2000. One of the explanations for this drop in the share Wa te r R eso ur ces ar e Over expl oi ted of rainfed farming systems is the decline in rainfall. In 2005, the share of groundwater declined compared to Irrigation of agricultural land boosts growth and reduces the share in 2000. poverty directly and indirectly, benefiting the poor in several ways (World Bank 2006a). Farmers can improve According to Republic of Yemen (2001), agricultural land agricultural production and the quality of their crops or in Yemen amounts to 1.66 million hectares, which is crop mix. As a consequence, farmers can sell more prod- 3 percent of Yemen’s area. The amount of agricultural land ucts at local or regional markets. This boost might also that is cultivated varies from 0.98 million ha to 1.5 million lead to more employment in the agricultural sector ha, depending on the amount of annual rainfall (Hellegers (World Bank 2006a). However, water for irrigation has et al. 2008). In 2005, roughly two-thirds of this arable land to be available for these benefits. Currently, 90 percent was used for crops or livestock. Arable land is primarily of available water is used for irrigation (PPCR 2010). located in the highlands or the coastal plain area. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 9 Yet production is consistently quite low, in part due to FIGURE 5. SHARE OF CULTIVATED LAND PER the vulnerability of rainfed agriculture to rainfall vari- FARMING SYSTEM, 1975–2000 ability and prolonged drought. 100% Yemen’s Initial National Communication (EPC 2001) identified the vulnerable economic sectors and liveli- 80% hoods. The three main areas vulnerable to climate change are (1) water resources, (2) agriculture, and (3) 60% coastal zones. Due to changing patterns of rainfall, water resources will further decline, while the demand for 40% water will increase due to population growth. As a consequence, water availability as well as water quality will decline rapidly in the future. This has a direct 20% impact on livelihoods. In addition, groundwater resources are at risk from seawater intrusion induced by 0% 1975 1990 1995 2000 2005 the sea level rise. Rainfed irrigation Well irrigation-groundwater I n c r e a s i n g C l i m a t e Va r i a b i l i t y w i l l M a k e Spring irrigation Spate irrigation-floods i t M o r e D i ff i c u l t t o F i n d S o l u t i o n s Source: Hellegers et al. (2008). Climate variability and change will most likely lead to more droughts, more temperature variability, and changes in the precipitation regime, which can lead to Farming systems in Yemen are based on the provision disastrous consequences for agriculture and food security of water for irrigation. There are four farming systems: (NAPA 2009). This will cause degradation of agricul- rainfed agriculture, spate irrigation, well irrigation, and tural land, soils, and terraces and lead to more desertifi- spring irrigation. Rainfed agricultural production cation. This in turn will lead to lower levels of depends on capturing and retaining rainfall. Spate irri- agricultural production, and consequently put downward gation involves constructing dams across riverbeds, and pressure on income from agriculture. Rural communities building associated distribution systems to carry flood- relying mainly on agricultural income will be affected waters to nearby fields. Spring irrigation depends on severely. At the national level, lower levels of agricultural flows from naturally occurring areas where the production will lead to higher levels of food insecurity. groundwater from surrounding hills reaches the surface. Well irrigation from shallow aquifers has also Flooding of low-lying areas and coastal erosion threat- developed, providing a controlled source of water ens local communities and their livelihoods. based on pumping. Communities may experience damage to household assets and property, constraints on services such as water Yem e n’s Eco nomy i s Vul ner abl e supply and quality, and damage to agriculture. In addi- tion, flooding can damage infrastructural assets in About 90 percent of all food in Yemen is imported from coastal cities, so that local communities might be abroad. The contribution of agriculture to Yemen’s GDP isolated and unable to go to local markets to buy food or declined from 21.7 percent in 1994 (EPC 2001; NAPA sell agricultural products. 2009) to 10 percent in 2000 (World Bank 2009). In addition, NAPA (2009) reports that 53 percent of the P O LI C Y FR A M E WOR K R E LATE D TO workforce is employed in agriculture, where traditional C LI M ATE VA R I A B I LI TY subsistence agriculture dominates production. Addressing poverty through improved agricultural NAPA (2009) summarizes a number of barriers for the production is among Yemen’s development objectives. implementation of the NAPA process. Two barriers 10 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S relate to the institutional framework in Yemen. First, corporate management (World Bank 2006b). However, decision makers have a low awareness of climate change the institutional structure of the Sana’a basin project is hazards. Shortages of water resources are structural in still in progress and could achieve an efficient corporate Yemen, according to the water tables in Hellegers et al. management. (2008), although shortages are expected to increase in the future (Noaman et al. 2008). Second, there is inade- C LI M ATE A D A P TATI O N I N I TI ATI V E S quate institutional, technical, and financial capacity to IN YEMEN develop, modify, or interpret existing models and meth- odologies. In addition, financial resources are insufficient NAPA (2009) summarizes the opportunities for more to implement the adaptation measures due to the high effective integration of climate change adaptation within levels of poverty, especially in the rural areas. development activities. These opportunities can be summarized as follows: (a) improvements in governance, For the NAPA implementation process, NAPA (2009) institutional frameworks, and enforcement of policies; recognizes that the institutional structures and environ- (b) integration of climate adaptation strategies into mental legislations in Yemen are weak. For instance, the different policies (poverty reduction and environmental implementation of environmental legislation is poor, and policy) at different aggregation levels (local to national); there is hardly any enforcement of legislation. At the (c) provision and dissemination of climate change-related CALI workshop organized in June 2010, the Yemeni information; and (d) integration of indigenous and participants mentioned that agricultural extension agen- climate change knowledge at higher administrative levels. cies are rated as relatively unimportant. The institutional framework in Yemen depends much on informal contact In addition, NAPA (2009) listed practical adaptation and is based on mouth-to-mouth communications. strategies for different economic sectors (Table 3). Despite the opportunities offered by World Bank proj- From the NCAP study of Noaman et al. (2008), a ects, there are no projects on water resources manage- number of adaptation strategies were formulated for ment with a significant breakthrough in the three river basins based on stakeholder consultation. The institutional structure for improved efficiency in adaptation strategies relate to urban and rural areas. TABLE 3. PRACTICAL ADAPTATION ACTIVITIES Sectors Adaptation activity Water Rainwater harvesting through various techniques, including traditional methods. Water conservation through reuse of treated waste water and grey water from mosques, and irrigation saving techniques. Rehabilitation and maintenance of mountainous terraces. Agriculture Promotion of research on drought-resistant and heat- and salinity-tolerant crops. Develop and implement sustainable land management strategies to combat desertification and land degradation. Planting and re-planting mangroves and palms for adaptation to sea level rise. Coastal zones Sustainable management of fisheries resources. Develop and implement Integrated coastal zone management programs. Cross-sectoral Develop and implement an awareness raising program on adaptation to the potential impacts of climate change on vulnerable sectors. Incorporate climate change and adaptation into school education. Develop and implement programs to improve Yemen’s preparedness to cope with extreme weather events. Establish and maintain a climate change database. Source: NAPA (2009). V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 11 TABLE 4. PROPOSED ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR THREE RIVER BASINS Sadah Sana’a Aden Demand for water • Improve irrigation efficiency • Introduce drip irrigation techniques ¸ ¸ ¸ • Convey irrigation water through plastic piping ¸ • Rehabilitation of traditional earth and sand irrigation channels used ¸ with spate irrigation • Use of grey water from wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) for ¸ - WWTP plant ¸ ¸ - treated water is irrigated agriculture (with recharge) under construction stored in aquifer • Improve water distribution systems (reduces losses) ¸ ¸ • Promote lower population growth ¸ • Alternative crop production; shift from Qat production to a less ¸ water-intensive crop that can enhance local food security • Improve indigenous methods for wadi flow use/infiltration ¸ Supply of water • Increase storage capacity of water harvesting technologies ¸ • Desalinization—supply of desalinated water from hydropower plant ¸ Sources: Noaman et al. (2008); Ali Ohtman (2007); Mansour (2007); and Noaman (2007). Table 4 presents the list of adaptation strategies to over- Several Other Initiatives Currently come current and future shortages of water. Ta k i n g P l a c e The analysis in the NCAP project revealed that a Three World Bank-supported initiatives related to the collapse of water supply systems will likely take place CALI project are RALP, ACAP, and PPCR. toward the end of the next decade in several important aquifers, suggesting that timely interventions are Rainfed Agriculture & Livestock project (RALP). The urgently needed. At the technological level, improved RALP project addresses the growing stress on available efficiencies through drip irrigation and improved water natural resources caused by a rapidly increasing popula- distribution systems will have demonstrable effects when tion with greater demands and expectations. The proj- combined with other supporting adaptation initiatives. ect is intended to (a) halt and reverse the accelerating trend of resource degradation through participatory Pro je cts R el ated to Cl i mate Change natural resource management initiatives; (b) upgrade Adapta tion i n Yemen and diversify rainfed agricultural and livestock produc- tion; and (c) promote microfinance and microenterprise Currently, there are a number of initiatives related to development, marketing, and partnerships with the climate change adaptation in Yemen. Yemen is involved private sector. in three multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) that relate directly or indirectly to climate change in The project has four components: (1) a farmer-based Yemen: the Framework Convention on Climate system of seed improvement and management; (2) live- Change (UNFCCC), Framework Convention on stock husbandry and health services; (3) productive rural Biological Diversity (UNCBD), and Framework development; and (4) project management. MAI is Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) involved in components 1 and 2, and SFD is involved in (Linderhof et al. 2009). component 3. 12 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Rural poor households will benefit from the RALP proj- its preparatory and investment phases, will also be ect by increasing incomes, agricultural and livestock directly relevant. The primary objective of the PPCR is production and food security, and by creating on- and to demonstrate ways to integrate climate risk and resil- off-farm jobs. These gains will stem from improved ience into core development planning while comple- production technology, water management, seed for rain- menting other ongoing activities. The areas of a strategic fed agriculture, and veterinary and livestock services; program for climate resilience (SPCR) (indicative) in higher on- and off-farm investments; and better margins Yemen are (a) climate change information systems and on sales of produce, as producer groups help members awareness raising; (b) mainstreaming climate change achieve the scale of production necessary to exploit econ- resilience into national development planning; (c) omies of scale and strengthen their bargaining power. formulation of Yemen’s SPCR and identification of Phase II interventions; and (d) PPCR program RALP is one of the activities of the International Fund coordination. for Agricultural Development (IFAD), a specialized agency of the United Nations. The objective of IFAD is C O S TS OF A D A P TATI ON TO to ensure that poor rural people have the skills and C LI M ATE C H A N GE organization they need to take advantage of the preser- vation of natural resources, and have access to improved The costing framework used in this study is presented in agricultural technologies, among others (Linderhof Appendix 1. Three challenges in the estimation of the et al. 2009). cost of climate adaptation are clear from the outset. First, it is difficult to disentangle the cost incurred for Agrobiodiversity and Climate Adaptation Project (ACAP). the adaptation strategies per se and those incurred for The Agrobiodiversity and Climate Adaptation Project normal activities; for example, the labor spent on climate (ACAP) is a GEF-funded project that is particularly adaptation strategies and other daily farming activities. interesting as it relates to the objectives of the CALI The problem is further complicated where labor is a key project in Yemen (World Bank 2010). ACAP aims to input for many of the adaptation strategies in a setting (a) enhance capacity and awareness at key national where the daily working time for normal and adaptive agencies and at local levels to respond to climate vari- farming activities is flexible and is increasingly driven by ability and change; and (b) better equip local communi- weather variability. Second, rural households do not ties to cope with climate change through the keep records of how much labor, material, and cash they conservation and use of agrobiodiversity (World Bank invested when they adopted a strategy due to lack of 2010). The overall investigation strategy aims at the information and education. As a result, this study relies conservation and utilization of agrobiodiversity resources on households’ recollections for estimating adaptation for climate change adaptation and the integration of costs. Reliability of these cost estimates based on house- these strategies in the socioeconomic system. This shall holds’ recollections decreases as the number of years be achieved by (a) bringing together local/traditional since the introduction of a strategy increases. Third, the knowledge, particularly that of female farmers, with current household respondents may have little or no modern farming techniques and practices; (b) develop- information about the household adaptation activities ing initial local predictive capacity of weather patterns, and inputs used during the first year of adopting the climatic changes, and longer term climate change strategy and hence are unable to give a reasonable esti- scenarios for the rain fed areas of Yemen; (c) developing mate of the cost incurred for the specific strategy. vulnerability profiles at the community, district, or governorate level for target species/varieties; and (d) The Costing Estimates are a First Step and developing a menu of adequate and appropriate coping Should be Interpreted with Care mechanisms as well as policy, institutional, and technol- ogy options. In order to obtain reasonable cost estimates for the climate adaptation efforts for rural households, the actual Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR). The Pilot and less precise cost estimates could be complemented Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR 2010), through with estimates from valuation techniques for non-market V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 13 goods. As the latter are not covered in this study, further services, and information) but not what the households investigation is needed to obtain a more accurate estima- would prefer to practice in the future if the constraints tion of adaptation costs. The adaptation cost estimates were eased. Hence, caution needs to be exercised in the obtained through household recollection can only be interpretation of the estimates and making recommenda- considered as a good indicator of the degree of impor- tions and extrapolations based on such estimates. tance of the various inputs for a given adaptation strat- egy. This approach is even more important where there is It is also important to note that—apart from the varia- a need to differentiate between the costs of the adapta- tion of climate-related hazards and consequent adapta- tion strategies farmers prefer to practice in the future tion responses across regions—households’ access to (given the necessary inputs and services) and the costs of inputs, services, and information varies across regions continuing the adaptation strategies that households are due to infrastructural and institutional factors. This is currently practicing. Thus, the adaptation costs estimated particularly the case in many parts of the country where through applying household recollections only provide institutions play important roles in initiating some of the costs incurred by the strategies the households have the adaptation strategies. As a result, adaptation strate- adopted given their current constraints (e.g. market, gies and associated costs vary across regions. 14 3. DATA COLLECTION AND STUDY Four Categories of Adaptation Strategies AREA CHARACTERISTICS The focus of the analysis is on the strategies households currently choose in anticipation or in reaction to exter- In this chapter, the methodological structure of the nal stresses or events that lead to changing agroecologi- CALI study is briefly discussed. A detailed description cal and livelihood characteristics and therefore require and background of the methodology adopted is given in behavioral changes (Nelson et al. 2007; Stringer et al. the CALI inception report (Ruijs et al. 2009; Linderhof 2009). Most of these strategies have been introduced or et al. 2009). In Chapter 4, we investigate the extent to promoted since the droughts in 1970s. These droughts which adoption of adaptation strategies depends on the partly destroyed traditional farming systems, which were level of vulnerability of households. Prior to that discus- in some cases more diversified than current systems. sion, this chapter explains the definition of vulnerability Combined with other reasons—such as increasing popu- adopted in this report. It also describes the study area, lation pressures, civil unrest, and changing social and including some general characteristics of the villages and political structures—farming systems have changed the households in the study villages. substantially since the 1970s, which in some cases made them more vulnerable. The strategies households ME T HODOL OGY currently use to adapt to changing levels of climate vari- ability can be classified as follows (Agrawal and Perrin As discussed in chapter 1, the objective of the CALI- 2008): study is (1) to identify the costs of adaptation through local institutions, and (2) to investigate which institu- • Agricultural techniques to adapt to changes in rain- tions support households to adapt to climate variability, fall regime, including seed selection, planting which efforts and costs have to be made for realizing dates, fertilizer application, feed techniques, the adaptation options, how these institutions interact, improved food storage facilities, and changes in and how they facilitate adaptation to climate variabil- pastoral systems. ity. The focus of the research is on the adaptation • Water management techniques to adapt to changes in options households currently use or have adopted in rainfall regime, including the use of water harvest- the past in order to reduce the hazards from climate ing techniques, rehabilitating terraces, improving variability. These hazards—such as the risk of a delayed irrigation techniques, and improving watering sites start to the rainy season, prolonged periods of drought, in pastoral areas. flood risk, and temperature changes—are expected to • Diversification techniques to diversify income sources, become more severe and occur more frequently in the including short-term or permanent migration, use of future. alternative sources for fuelwood, home-garden V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 15 agriculture, changing consumption patterns, or strategies, and institutions that assist the households drawing down livestock. differ among the different clusters of vulnerability. • Communal pooling techniques, including reforestation, Several definitions of vulnerability exist; depending on rangeland preservation, communal food storage the scale and focus of the system analyzed, different facilities, or local water management rules. elements are part of the definition of vulnerability. In the analysis, special attention is paid to the question Vu l n e r a b i l i t y D e p e n d s o n E x p o s u r e , of whether adaptation is policy- or community-driven S e n s i t i v i t y, a n d C o p i n g C a p a c i t y and initiated with institutional assistance, or whether it is an autonomous choice made by the households them- In order to explain differences in the adoption of strate- selves (Stringer et al. 2009). gies, we compared households with each other on the basis of their vulnerability profiles. We assessed whether C o stin g Ele ments the adaptation strategies and the institutional assistance differed between the different vulnerability classes. In the In the costing framework, different costs required for literature several definitions of vulnerability exist. Here the implementation of adaptation options are indicated. we refer to the widely used IPCC definition, according These refer to (a) monetary costs that have to be made to which vulnerability is composed of exposure to risk, by the household; (b) household labor requirements; (c) sensitivity to that risk, and adaptive capacity (IPCC household training requirements; (d) required help from 2007; see also Kok and Jäger 2009 and UNEP 2002). the community; (e) required help from institutions like authorities or NGOs; and (f ) financial needs by institu- • Exposure refers to the external stress to people or tions necessary to implement their work. communities, which is caused by, for example, changes in rainfall and temperature patterns due to Using a range of interview techniques, ranges of costs climate change. households have made in the past to adapt their strate- • Sensitivity refers to the extent to which people or gies to climate-related hazards are assessed. For the communities are susceptible to exposure to the institutions, we assessed which institutions rural house- stress; for example, farmers using irrigation are less holds most frequently contact and to what extent they susceptible to variations in rainfall than farmers assist households to reduce their hazards. Next, we eval- practicing rainfed farming. uated what type of resources these institutions need in • Adaptive or coping capacity refers to the ability to order to perform their tasks. This assessment will serve cope with external stress. Factors affecting coping as a basis for considering the investments or support capacity are, for example, level of education and that is needed to promote particular adaptation inter- access to other resources. ventions. It will show which entry points can be selected in order to promote particular strategies. This definition supports the notion that vulnerability is a socially constructed phenomenon shaped by a set of The costing framework is shown in Appendix 1. This institutional and economic dynamics (Adger 2003). In appendix describes the envisaged cost elements of the general, high levels of exposure, high levels of sensitivity, different adaptation options. The structure of the house- and low levels of coping capacity result in high levels of hold questionnaire and the focus group discussion is vulnerability. High exposure, however, does not necessar- based on this framework. ily result in high vulnerability if, for example, the coping capacity is high. V U LNE RA BIL ITY Individual households are not able to affect exposure to We investigated the extent to which households have climate variability. Sensitivity and coping capacity can be different vulnerability profiles. Next, we assessed whether affected. Table 5 gives examples of sensitivity-reducing adoption of adaptation strategies, costs of adaptation or coping-capacity-increasing strategies. The capability 16 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S are not adopted or why assistance structures may differ TABLE 5. STRATEGIES TO REDUCE by country, use is made of the broader definition of SENSITIVITY OR INCREASE COPING CAPACITY institutions as adopted in the new institutional econom- ics literature (North 1990; Williamson 2000) in which Coping capacity-increasing institutions also cover norms and rules that govern the Sensitivity-reducing strategies strategies behavior of households and organizations. In particular, Crop selection (e.g. switch to more Temporary or permanent drought resistant crops) migration to urban centers the role of kinship (clan, ethnic group), factors affecting Adapt planting dates Migration to other rural areas commitment among community members, and factors Adapt feed techniques (zero grazing) Home garden agriculture affecting market functioning are important. Adapt cropping densities Reduce livestock/savings D ATA C O LLE C TI O N Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application Improved food storage facilities Improved seeds (use seeds that Handicrafts C r i t e r i a f o r t h e S e l e c t i o n o f t h e Vi l l a g e s have been improved to be more drought-resistant) For the selection of the study sites, we have taken into Use of manure of family herd on Increase market sales account the following criteria as previously defined in the fields the country inception report (Linderhof et al. 2009). Use water harvesting techniques Communal cereal bank Use irrigation The selection of villages is based on the representation Improve, construct, or rehabilitate of farming systems in Yemen. terraces Soil erosion prevention • For site selection, the research process focused on Restore and preserve forests rainfed systems. About 80 percent of the rainfed Rangeland preservation/management areas can be found in the highlands. Communal water harvesting • The study area comprised four governorates: Sana’a and Al-Mahweet (Northern highland region) and Taiz and Ibb (Southern upland region). Those four of households to change their level of sensitivity or their governorates include the different farming systems coping capacity depends on many different factors. (see Table 3-1 in Linderhof et al. 2009). The study Examples are wealth status, gender, level of education, area was further narrowed down to specific subar- employment, and group affiliation. Wealth status is an eas to represent the dominant rainfed farming important factor as it affects the financial capacity to systems. make investments. It depends, for example, on the • The major farming systems in the highland region amount of land cultivated, agroecological and soil qual- can be distinguished based on annual rainfall, alti- ity conditions, types of crops grown and marketed (food tude, crops cultivated, and access to supplementary vs. cash crops), amount of livestock owned, amount of or full irrigation. The main farming systems in assets owned, income earned from other activities, and Yemen are rainfed, highland mixed, dryland mixed, remittances received from migrated household members. and small-scale irrigation farming. The focus of this study was on the first three farming systems, as In stitutions those farming systems are directly affected by changing climatological conditions. For the purposes of this study, institutions are defined as • The selected areas are representative of the north structured, formal or informal organizations that are the and south of the country and are characterized by means through which central governments and donors topographic diversity such as mountains, terraces, channel resources for local development (Agrawal and valleys, plains, and coast. Perrin 2009). The focus is on groups of people who are • Two sites are located in the districts covered by the organized formally or informally and can be approached RALP project, which can provide some indication as a group. For understanding why particular strategies of the assistance provided through RALP. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 17 Org anization of the Fi el dwor k areas supplementary irrigation on summer intensive cereals and full irrigation for winter cash crops is The village studies took place between January and developing rapidly. Rainfall is generally between April 2010. All interview activities were conducted 300mm to 500mm. This could be found in all simultaneously within each village. In Appendix 1, the selected governorates. questionnaires and structure of the focus group discus- • Highland mixed. Locations at high elevation enjoy sions used in Yemen are presented. significant amounts of rainfall and allow for supple- mentary irrigation from springs and boreholes. For the household interviews, within each village, 50 This system is dominated by rainfed cereals and households were selected randomly in coordination with legume cropping. The production of qat and coffee the representatives of the local authorities. The ques- are the most important cash crops. This farming tionnaire contained three main categories of questions. system is especially located in Sana’a governorate The first category consisted of general questions on (Bani Matar District) and Taiz governorate household size, level of education, main activities, crops (Sabir district). cultivated, livestock raised, and assets owned. These • Dryland mixed. This farming system is dry questions are used for analyzing whether different clus- subhumid; annual rainfall is usually between ters of households can be distinguished. The second 150mm to 300mm. The system is found in the category consisted of questions related to the climate southwest of Taiz governorate toward the coast. and non-climate related hazards households face and Rain is often supplementary to irrigation from their vulnerability with respect to food shortages. The surface water. third category of questions is related to the costing • Small-scale irrigated systems. In this farming system, framework. Households were asked which adaptation rain supplements irrigation from groundwater. strategies have been adopted, which investments were required, which hazards have been reduced (if any), Table 6 presents the list of study sites. The selected sites which institutions have been helpful, and what type of largely represent the farming systems in Yemen. The assistance they received from these institutions. sites are presented in Figure 6. DE S CRI P T I ON OF STUDY AREA AND Characteristics of the Study Sites S T UDY V I LL AGES Table 7 shows a number of characteristics of the study As discussed during the launch workshop in April 2009, sites. The three northern study sites (Al Wathan, the site selection was based on the representation of the Mu’aneet, and Al Masajed all have an altitude of more farming systems in Yemen, namely: than 2,000 meters. Arraheebah (Taiz) has the lowest altitude. From all six study sites, Magahem Asha’abi • Rainfed. The major farming system is primarily Dhi-Shraq is closest to a larger town namely Assayani. rainfed agriculture, although in some The road to Assayani is mixed gravel and asphalt. Al TABLE 6. SELECTION OF SITES FOR THE HOUSEHOLD SURVEY Sites District Governorate Farming system RALP district Al Wathan Bilad Ar Rus Sana’a Rainfed No Arraheebah Dimnat Khadeer Taiz Dryland mixed No Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq As-Sayyani Ibb Rainfed No Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Al Mahweet Rainfed Yes Al Mehraq Al Mawadim Taiz Highland mixed No Al Masajed Bani Matar Sana’a Highland mixed Yes 18 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 6. LOCATION OF STUDY VILLAGES IN YEMEN (VILLAGE NAME, DISTRICT NAME AND GOVERNORATE NAME) Al Wathan (Bilad Ar Rus, Sana'a) Arraheebah (Dimnat Khadir, Taiz) Magahem Asha'abi Dhi-Shraq (As-Sayyani, Ibb) Mu'aneet (Ar Rujum, Al Mahwit) Al Mehraq (Sabir Al Mawadim, Taizz) Al Masajed (Bani Matar, Sana'a) Wathan is located close to the asphalt road between roads. Furthermore, Arraheebah is rather close to Al Sana’a and Maber. The distance between Al Wathan Radhidah, but the road is made of gravel, which makes and Mabar is 29 km, and Mabar is more than 60 km Arraheebah more difficult to reach by car. In neither of from at the South of Sana’a). Both study sites in Sana’a the study sites is there any form of public (Al Wathan and Al Masajed) are located by asphalt transportation. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 19 TABLE 7. SELECTION OF SITES FOR THE HOUSEHOLD SURVEY Distance to Altitude nearest town Sites (m) (km) Nereast town Type of road Al Wathan 2,512 29.0 Mabar Asphalt Arraheebah 1,018 6.7 Al Rahidah Gravel Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq 1,769 3.5 Assayani Gravel/asphalt Mu’aneet 2,216 14.5 Al Mahweet Gravel/asphalt Al Mehraq 1,479 12.6 Taiz Gravel/asphalt Al Masajed 2,570 8.7 Matnah Asphalt TABLE 8. POPULATION AND AREA INFORMATION OF THE SELECTED SITES Population Number of Share of Area density households Population males District Governorate km2 x 1,000 x 1,000 x 1,000 % Bilad Ar-Rus Sana’a 1127 8.3 12.0 100.0 51.1 Dimnat Khadeer Taiz 460 244.9 18.4 112.7 48.2 As-Sayyani Ibb 238 464.3 15.4 110.5 49.1 Al Rujum Al-Mahweet 76,589 1.0 9.2 75.7 49.7 Al Mawadim Taiz 202 542.0 16.4 109.5 47.2 Bani Matar Sana’a 398 78.5 4.2 31.3 50.7 C h ara cterist i cs of the Di str i cts of the children under five are malnourished. As much as 90 Stu dy Site s percent of the population has less than the minimum standard of domestic water supply. Infant mortality, the Population. The birth rate is 43 births for every number of children dying before reaching the age of 1,000 persons. The total fertility rate is 6.7 children one, is high. per woman. The growth rate of the population is around 3.2 percent per year, while life expectancy is 57 Education. The overall primary education rate is 78 years. The mortality rate for girls is 15 percent higher percent, but only 55 percent of primary school-aged girls than for boys. Table 8 lists the population in each attend school (with even less in rural areas at 24 district. percent). The overall literacy rate is 50 percent. Male literacy is 70 percent and female literacy 30 percent, Poverty. Some 45 percent of the people in rural areas which is typical for these areas. live below the poverty line. For the nation as a whole, 50 percent live below the poverty line, with as many living Employment. The overall unemployment rate in Yemen on less than $2/day, and 18 percent living on less than is 39 percent, with the employment rate for women $1/day. being less than one-third that of men. Typically, women are employed in low-productivity rainfed agriculture and Health. Around 18 percent of the population cannot small livestock activities. Access to credit is limited afford adequate nutrition and some 46 percent of generally, but especially for women. 20 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S OB S E RVATI ON S FR OM TH E V I LLA G E TABLE 9. TOTAL AND CULTIVATED AREAS S TU D I E S FOR GOVERNORATES OF STUDY VILLAGES F a r m e r s O b s e r v e I n c r e a s i n g Te m p e r a t u r e s and Cultivated Share of Crops Total area Areas in total Decreasing Rainfall Governorate km2 (1,000 ha) cultivated area % Ibb 5,344 88.7 16.6 During the field visits to the six sites, the general Taiz 10,009 87.9 8.8 impression of the day-to-day and climate-related prob- Al-Mahweet 2,332 30.5 13.1 lems were similar in all villages. Villagers talked about increasing climate variability, especially about increasing Sana’a 11,961 176.5 14.8 temperatures and decreasing rainfall. They also observed Source: CSO (2008) for all data except total areas of governorates, a number of general problems, mostly related to the fact which has been taken from Rebublic of Yemen (2006). that markets are thin or missing, resulting in a lack of agricultural inputs and strong variation in prices for agricultural products. Access to services. Large parts of the rainfed area, espe- cially those located in the mountains and remote M a j o r O c c u p a t i o n s a r e t h e S a m e f o r A l m os t regions, are inaccessible, with only limited connection all Households in the Sample via roads. Most villages in the hinterland can be reached only with 4-wheel drive vehicles. Few villages In general, cultivation of cereals is the principal activity have electricity; however, the use of cell phones is for all households, followed by livestock keeping and widespread. fishing if the village is close to a river. Most important crops grown are cereals (maize, sorghum, millet, and Farmers and livestock owners. Villages are dominated by rice) followed by a wide range of cash crops, of which households farming on terraces. Both female and male qat and vegetables are the most important. Most house- farmers share the responsibility of farming activities in holds practice some form of homestead vegetable grow- addition to the household activities for women. The ing. Farm sizes vary between 0.2 and 2.4 ha. Most areas contain several types of livestock such as goats, household dwellings are made of dried mud brick. cows, and sheep. There are also camels and donkeys, which are used for carrying materials and for plowing. The most adopted adaptation measures observed during Yemeni cultural traditions have kept women in the rural the field visits were: areas at a lower status and prevented them from gaining • Improved seeds • Intercropping control over important household resources. • Use of fertiliser and • Vegetable growing pesticides • Sale of agricultural Area cultivated. Most fields are cultivated with cereals • Organic manure products and fodder crops. There are a few areas cultivated with • Migration • Irrigation legumes, vegetables, and fruits. The most widely culti- • Improved storage • Drainage vated crop is sorghum, followed by qat and wheat. techniques • Handicrafts Table 9 shows that the total cultivated areas in the four governorates covered in the study ranges from 8 to Detailed results from the fieldwork are presented in the 17 percent of the total area. next chapter. 21 4. VULNERABILITY PROFILES AND H O U S E H OLD V U LN E R A B I LI TY: V I LLA G E V U LN E R A B I LI TY P R OFI LE S ADAPTATION PRACTICES In Appendix 2, differences between the different villages In this chapter, the main results obtained from the are discussed in detail. The main messages from this data analysis are discussed. Detailed tables presenting analysis are discussed below. the data are presented in Appendix 2. The current chapter focuses on the key messages obtained from K e y S i m i l a r i t i e s : H o u s e h o l d s a r e L a r g e a nd these data. First, clusters of households are distin- H a v e a L o w Av e r a g e A g e guished based on common vulnerability characteristics. Also for the villages, their average level of vulnerability As can be seen from Table A.1 in Appendix 2, the house- is discussed. Next, once the main characteristics affect- holds in the villages all have similar demographic charac- ing coping capacity are identified, for the different teristics. The average household size is 8.6 members. In clusters and for the different villages, the following Al Wathan, the average household size is almost 10 elements are discussed in more detail. First, which members. The percentage of male members is slightly characteristics explain adoption of particular adapta- higher than that of women except for Al Wathan (48 tion strategies? Do different types of households adopt percent). In Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, the share of different adaptation strategies and why? Do costs of males exceeds 60 percent. The dependency ratio is not adopting a strategy differ between groups of house- high, averaging 0.76. Only in Arraheebah is the depen- holds? Are strategies adopted for different reasons? dency ratio larger than one, which means that for each Second, do particular institutions focus on particular adult member (male or female between 15 and 60 years) types of households or facilitate particular types of there is at least one child or elderly member (older than adaptation strategies? What resources do institutions 60 years). In Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, the depen- need for properly targeting their work? These analyses dency ratio is below 0.5. The average age within the are done both for the clusters and for the village. By households is 23 years, ranging from 19 years in focusing on the clusters, we can determine whether Arraheebah to 26 years in Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq. particular household types adopt particular types of strategies or need particular types of assistance. By School Enrollment is Low and Gender focusing on the village, we can determine whether D i ff e r e n c e s a r e S u b s t a n t i a l particular villages need more or different types of assistance. Both conclusions are relevant for targeting The people in the sites studied had access to formal assistance. education, although there is a large difference between 22 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S males and females. On average, males have eight years of employment decisions are made by men, giving the education, while females have less than three years of women few opportunities to improve their own education. In Arraheebah, both males and females are situation. fewer educated, where males have less than six years of education and females slightly more than one year. Agriculture is the Main Activity for the Males from Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq have almost Majority of Households ten years of education, while females are relatively well- educated with five years of education. In Al Wathan Appendix Table A.3 presents the main activities of the females have less than one year of education. households in the study sites. For more than 60 percent of the households, agriculture is clearly the Gender differences in school enrollment are marked in main source of income. For 21 percent of the house- the study sites, although the difference in years of holds, employment as a civil servant is the main activ- education between boys and girls is much smaller than ity. In Al Wathan, located near Sana’a, 40 percent of for males and females. In Al Masajed, girls have more households report that work in the civil service is their education than boys. In Al Wathan and Al Masajed, main activity. About 9 percent of the households girls have more years of education than females, which report that daily labor is their main activity. These indicates that education for girls is improving. households are primarily located in Al Mehraq and According to the focus group discussions, the number Arraheebah in Taiz governorate (22 percent and of girls dropping out of school increased in the last 14 percent respectively). decade, because girls have to help in the household by fetching water for drinking and irrigation. Due to Furthermore, where agriculture is not the main activity, increasing water scarcity, getting water takes more time it is the activity with the second priority for 36 percent and effort. of households. In addition, livestock keeping is the most important second or third priority activity in almost all F o r M any H ousehol ds, Some Member s H a v e households. Other activities such as daily labor and trade M igra te d and commerce are of less importance for most of the households. Table A.2 shows that migration is present within all the sites studied. In the survey, only temporary migration Next to Cereals, Almost all Households was asked, because permanent migration is not consid- Grow Cash Crops ered in Yemen. On average, one quarter of the house- holds in the survey have members that migrate Cereals are the main crops grown by all households, temporarily. In Al Wathan, almost half of the house- although all sites also grow cash crops (qat and holds have migrated members, which might be due to coffee), legumes, vegetables, and fruits (Table A.4). the fact that Al Wathan is close to the capital of Yemen, Cereals are similar for all sites with an important Sana’a. In Arraheebah, only 10 percent of the house- focus on grains, maize, sorghum, or millet. Sorghum holds have temporarily migrated members. Almost all and millet are mainly grown in the drylands of migrated members are male, and the age of the migrated Arraheebah. In Al Wathan and Magahem Asha’abi members is 38 years. Dhi-Shraq, about half of the households also grow qat. Three-quarters of the households in Al Masajed Migration is a useful strategy for diversifying household grow legumes, as well as almost half of the households income and is seen as contributing towards increasing in Al Wathan and Mu’aneet. Vegetables are grown by the coping capacity of the households. Women migrate a significant share of households in Al Wathan (58 less often than men, which is culturally determined with percent), Arraheebah (37 percent), and Al Masajed women staying within the household until they get (20 percent). married. Furthermore, in general there are fewer job opportunities for women, making it more difficult to In three sites, an important number of households sell find income generating activities. Most financial and part of their crop yields. Two-thirds of the households V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 23 in Al Wathan sell part of their crops, mainly vegetables, do the heavier tasks like land preparation and women cash crops, and cereals. Forty percent of the households and children take care of the weeding activities and in Arraheebah sell part of the yields (mainly vegetables, water transportation. Furthermore, in Al Wathan there cash crops, onions, garlic, and cereals). One-third of the is an important share of households where females take households in Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq sell part care of livestock. of their yields (cash crops). Selling parts of the vegeta- ble and cash crop yields make these crops important We a l t h D i ff e r e n c e s B e t w e e n H o u s e h o l d s cash earners for the households. A minority of house- are Large holds in Mu’aneet, Al Mehraq, and Al Masajed, the more remote villages in the sample, sell part of their The households also indicated the ownership of yields. productive and luxury assets. A weighted sum of assets owned was determined in which the weights depend on Table A.4b presents the details on area cultivated in the average prices (see Table A.6). There is a big gap six sites. The average acreage is lowest in Magahem between the richest and poorest asset owners in most Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq (0.2 ha) and highest in Al Masajed sites. A few households own a large number of assets. (2.4 ha). More land owned does not necessarily mean However, the number of rich asset owners is low that households are wealthier. Yield differences between compared to the other quartiles. Except for Arraheebah, the different rainfall zones are so large, that one hectare more than 80–90 percent of households own a televi- in Al Wathan will be much more productive than one sion. In Arraheebah, 60 percent of households own a hectare in Arraheebah (dryland). On the basis of the television. survey data, it cannot be analyzed whether fallow peri- ods decreased due to. for example, climate variability or Moreover, it was noted that cell phones are becoming population pressure. more common; currently, about 50 percent of house- holds own a cellphone. It is most common in Al M o st H o use hol ds Own Li vestock Wathan, where 66 percent of families owned a cell phone. Also, one out of six households own a car in the In all six sites a large majority of the households report survey. In Al Masajed (Sana’a), 45 percent of the house- that they own livestock (see Table A.5a). In Magahem holds have a car. In the sample, there are no households Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq and Al Mehraq (both in Taiz), just with cars in the remote village of Mu’aneet. under two-thirds of the households report that they own livestock. In Al Wathan, 92 percent of the households Vu l n e r a b i l i t y P r o f i l e s D i ff e r S u b s t a n t i a l l y own livestock. The amount of livestock is significantly B e t w e e n t h e Vi l l a g e s higher in Al Wathan than the average in the survey. The amount of livestock of households in Magahem Asha’abi Figure 7 summarizes in a spider diagram the main Dhi-Shraq is rather low. There are some households in vulnerability characteristics for the different villages as Arraheebah and Al Masajed that own rabbits. Yet, loss discussed above – see also Table 10. (Chapter 3 explains of livestock was a general tendency in the last 12 which characteristics are considered in the vulnerability months. Livestock reductions range from analysis.) The results have been scaled such that they are 25 percent for households in Al Wathan to 55 percent all on a 0 to 1 scale, in which a score of 1 indicates in Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq. being least vulnerable. The smaller the area of the spider web, the more vulnerable the village. Illustrating vulner- T h e R o le s o f Men and Women i n Incom e ability by using a spider web diagram clearly shows the Earn in g Acti vi ti es Di ffer multifaceted character of vulnerability. Daily labor and civil servant activities are almost exclu- The spider diagrams give an indication of the vulnerabil- sively done by men, while women play a role in agricul- ity of the households toward climate change. The site of ture and livestock jointly with the men. Usually, Arraheebah has high exposure to climate hazards due to agricultural activities are gender specific, where the men low amounts of rainfall. It also has a relatively low 24 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 7. SPIDER DIAGRAMS OF THE VILLAGE SCORES ON THE VULNERABILITY CHARACTERISTICS 1 1 1.00 1.00 10 0.80 2 10 0.80 2 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 9 3 9 3 0.20 0.20 0.00 0.00 8 4 8 4 7 5 7 5 6 6 Al Wathan (Sana'a) Arraheebah (Taiz) Dhi-shraq (Ibb) Mu'aneet (Al Mahweet) 1 1.00 10 0.80 2 1. Climate hazard score 0.60 2. Agroecological score 3. Inverse of dependency ratio 0.40 9 3 4. % of hh with migrated members 0.20 5. Average years of education 0.00 6. Average asset score 7. Average acreage 8 4 8. Cash crop earnings (qat) 9. Cash crop earnings (fruits and vegetables) 7 5 10. Livestock (in tropical livestock units) 6 Al Mehraq (Taiz) Al masajed (Sana'a) agroecological score and high dependency on agriculture, capacity with a strong focus on agriculture with low land- which makes it very sensitive to climate hazards. The fact holdings and without any cash crop earnings. Migration that this village also has a relatively low score on migra- of household members is also low in Al Mehraq. tion gives this village a low coping capacity, although it has cash crop production. Given the combination of The sites of Mu’aneet and Al Masajed currently have a these different factors, Arraheebah is considered to be in medium to high exposure. Households in both sites are a vulnerable situation. The households in the site of Al primarily focused on agriculture, but a reasonable share Mehraq, despite its relatively low level of exposure, also of households have migrated members and livestock are in a vulnerable situation as it has limited coping holdings. Their coping capacity is still rather low as they V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 25 TABLE 10. VULNERABILITY SCORES FOR THE DIFFERENT VILLAGES Villages 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Al Wathan 1.00 0.83 0.61 1.00 0.85 1.00 0.79 1.00 1.00 1.00 Arraheebah 0.20 0.33 0.53 0.21 0.74 0.42 0.90 0.44 0.35 0.56 Dhi-Shraq 0.40 0.50 1.00 0.52 0.96 0.50 0.09 0.41 0.05 0.26 Mu’aneet 1.00 0.67 0.73 0.57 1.00 0.51 0.36 0.02 0.00 0.48 Al Mehraq 0.40 0.67 0.67 0.30 0.95 0.45 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.31 Al Masajed 0.80 1.00 0.72 0.81 0.86 0.68 1.00 0.00 0.14 0.68 TABLE 11. OVERVIEW OF MONTHS IN WHICH HOUSEHOLDS FACE A FOOD SHORTAGE (%) Households with food shortages May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr 1 Al Wathan 14 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 6 0 2 0 0 2 Arraheebah 55 14 10 14 8 6 0 2 4 0 6 10 14 3 Dhi-Shraq 32 8 4 4 6 6 4 2 2 0 0 2 10 4 Mu’aneet 32 4 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 6 0 10 5 Al Mehraq 42 8 8 8 0 2 4 0 2 0 4 8 12 6 Al Masajed 29 4 6 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 6 8 2 Total 34 7 5 5 3 2 2 1 3 0 4 5 8 only have small earnings from cash crops. The sites of spread out over the period March–July. This hunger Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq and Al Wathan have period is also observed at the other sites at the end of medium exposure. Households in Al Wathan have the rainy season, before the crops are harvested. The diversified income sources, so their coping capacity is wider annual fluctuations and the onset of the rainy relatively good. Al Wathan scores high on livestock, season seem to be important vulnerability determinants. migration, and cash crop production. In addition, If climate change will have a worsening impact on this 40 percent of the households in Al Wathan also have annual cycle—for example, by lengthening the dry members as civil servants. Households in Magahem season—this is likely to result in a lengthening of the Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq have cash crop production and live- food shortage period. stock. The general favorable position of these villages is illustrated by the relatively high assets scores, confirming H i g h E x p o s e d Vi l l a g e s a r e n o t N e c e s s a r i ly the general prosperity of these villages. Vu l n e r a b l e Vu ln era bility Level s ar e Il l ustr ated by t h e Vulnerability and agroecological potential in Yemen are H u nger Pe riod related to altitude, which is related to rainfall. The study village in the coastal plains (Arraheebah in Taiz) is the Households in Arraheebah (dryland area with low rain- most exposed. This village scores low on agroecological fall) are most affected by food shortages (Table 11). This capacity, whereas the households are highly dependent on corresponds with the above observation that households agriculture. The three study villages with an arid subtropi- in Arraheebah are the most vulnerable among the six cal climate are somewhat less exposed. The two villages in villages. In Arraheebah, 55 percent of households suffer the highlands with a relatively high precipitation are the from food shortages, although the food shortages are least exposed to climate variability. The highly exposed 26 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S villages, however, are not necessarily the most vulnerable. analysis as well, six clusters would emerge, each again Arraheebah, the most exposed village, has vulnerable consisting of the households of each individual village. households. Those households have low cash crop earn- This shows that exposure is an important characteristic of ings, low income diversification, and relatively low educa- vulnerability. By comparing sensitivity and coping capacity tional levels. Due to low soil fertility, their higher of the households, we gain insights about which house- landholdings do not result in high yields. The site with holds are better equipped to deal with hazards themselves the least vulnerable households seems to be the rainfed and which households will need more assistance. agriculture village Al Wathan in Sana’a governorate. They are highly exposed but compared to most other villages, H o u s e h o l d C l u s t e r s S h o w Vu l n e r a b i l i t y C las s es they also have higher cash crop earnings (both from qat and fruits and vegetables), higher land holdings, more Table 12 presents the distribution of households from livestock, more assets, and higher education levels. Their the different villages in the clusters. sensitivity to climate variability seems to be relatively low and their coping capacity good. Both highland villages Appendix 2 presents some general household charac- show important differences. Households in Al Masajed in teristics of the clusters. The main vulnerability charac- Sana’a governorate have relatively good landholdings, teristics distinguished in this report are presented in income from livestock and migration, and relatively good Table 13 and in Tables B.1 to B.3 in Appendix 2. The levels of education. The highland village of Al Mehraq in results are also presented in Figure 8. Taiz governorate has households with lower landholdings and also lower income levels, so they are more vulnerable. If geographical location (exposure) is set aside, but only Vulnerability in the Yemeni study villages seems to be less coping capacity characteristics are considered, six clus- dependent on climate exposure but more on other factors. ters of household types can be distinguished. Proximity to Sana’a seems to make the villages in the Sana’a governorate less vulnerable. 1. Diversified, wealthy farmers with livestock who are better educated, own large herds of cattle, and pro- HOUS E HOL D VUL NERABIL ITY PROFI LE S duce cereals and cash crops (qat). 2. Highland smallholders in the southern highlands and In the previous section, vulnerability profiles of the differ- rainfed areas with relatively low landholdings, mod- ent villages have been compared. In this section, clusters of erate in asset ownership, and who mainly produce households are formed across all study villages, each having grains. similar sensitivity and coping capacity characteristics. If the 3. Diversified households with a relatively high share of exposure characteristics were included in the cluster females and low dependency ratio, rich in landhold- TABLE 12. DISTRIBUTION OF CLUSTERS OVER THE DIFFERENT VILLAGES Cluster Village 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Al Wathan 31 9 5 2 3 0 50 Arraheebah 5 7 3 3 11 22 51 Dhi-Shraq 9 35 2 4 0 0 50 Mu’aneet 18 11 9 8 0 4 50 Al Mehraq 11 28 3 5 0 3 50 Al Masajed 14 10 21 2 4 0 51 Total 88 100 43 24 18 29 302 Note: See text above for key to cluster types. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 27 TABLE 13. CHARACTERISTICS OF CLUSTERS (fruit and vegetables) Cash crop earnings Cash crop earnings % hh involved civil Livestock (in TLU) Mean asset score Dependency ratio Average acreage Average years of % hh with temp. education migration per hh servnt (qat) Cluster 1 0.62 0.70 0.48 0.90 0.59 1.00 0.27 1.00 0.00 2 0.53 0.37 0.44 0.49 0.21 0.20 0.04 0.18 1.00 3 0.45 1.00 0.42 0.55 0.66 0.10 0.03 0.69 0.98 4 1.00 0.26 1.00 1.00 0.33 0.63 0.08 0.16 0.12 5 0.74 0.57 0.43 0.75 0.61 0.14 1.00 0.46 0.00 6 0.77 0.14 0.34 0.45 1.00 0.00 0.11 0.60 0.02 Notes: (1) The size of the land cultivated and the size of the land occupied with trees is aggregated into one acreage indicator. For convert- ing trees to hectares, it is assumed that 1 tree takes 0.015625 ha (or 64 trees per ha – see also Table B.2 in Appendix 2). (2) TLU = tropical livestock units. TLU conversion factors: Cattle in herd: 0.7, Cows: 1.0, Sheep: 0.1, Goat: 0.08, Poultry: 0.01 (Kassam et al. 1991). ings, producing herbs and legumes, and a high share (Sana’a) are most frequently present and of migration. those from Arraheebah the least frequently. 4. Highly educated cash-crop growing farmers with a high Note that Al Wathan was also the least dependency ratio, with high share of other occupa- vulnerable village and Arraheebah the most tions such as civil servant, small landholdings, rela- vulnerable. tively many assets, and producing cereals and cash 3. The “highland smallholders� are most vulnerable. crops (qat). About halve of them live in Magahem Asha’abi 5. Fruit and vegetable farmers producing cereals, vegeta- Dhi-Shraq (Ibb) and Al Mehraq (Taiz). They score bles, and fruits, with some livestock, a relatively much lower on all characteristics. The observation high dependency ratio, and relatively low levels of that the best scoring (cluster 1) and least scoring education. (cluster 2) households live in all villages is a sign 6. Dryland farmers with large landholdings, producing that villages are divided in better-off and worse-off cereals but no cash crops, low in education, owning households. only few animals, and having a high dependency 4. Most households in the dryland village of ratio. Arraheebah in Taiz are from clusters 5 and 6. They are in a vulnerable situation. The fruit and vegetable Villa ges Exhi bi t Si gns of a Soci al Di vi d e farmers are somewhat better off as they have a higher and more diversified income. Both household The cluster analysis shows that the clusters vary across types, however, have low education levels, which the villages. gives them a low capability of improving their liveli- hoods themselves. 1. The “diversified, wealthy livestock farmers� (clus- 5. The situation of the “highly educated cash-crop ter 1) and the “Highland smallholders� (cluster 2) growing farmers� (cluster 4) is difficult to assess. account for two-thirds of the respondents in the Their low dependency ratio and high levels of edu- survey. cation and assets indicate they are more capable of 2. The “diversified, wealthy livestock farmers� (clus- deciding about adaptation themselves. Low land- ter 1) are the least vulnerable. They are present in holdings and income earning capacities, however, all six villages, although villagers of Al Wathan put them in a vulnerable situation. 28 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 8. SPIDER DIAGRAMS OF THE CLUSTER SCORES ON THE VULNERABILITY CHARACTERISTICS 1 1 1.00 1.00 9 0.80 2 9 0.80 2 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 8 0.20 3 8 0.20 3 0.00 0.00 7 4 7 4 6 5 6 5 Diversified wealthy farmers with livestock Diversified households Highland smallholders Highly educated cash-crop growing farmers 1 1.00 9 0.80 2 1. Inverse of dependency ratio 0.60 2. Percentage of households with migrated members 0.40 3. Average years of education (males of 15 years and older) 8 0.20 3 4. Average asset score 0.00 5. Average acreage per household 6. Cash crop earnings from Qat 7. Cash crop earnings from fruits and vegetables 7 4 8. Livestock (in tropical livestock units) 9. Share of civil servants 6 5 Fruit and vegetables farmers Dryland farmers T h e C luster Anal ysi s Confi r ms the Vi l l a g e production (as in cluster 5) or livestock holdings (as in Analyse s cluster 6). Cluster 3 has a high exposure, but house- holds in this cluster have a good coping capacity If we use the cluster analysis to further evaluate the sites, (migration) and relatively low sensitivity to climate the initial findings are confirmed that the negative situa- variability, as observed for Al Mehraq. The households tion for Arraheebah is caused by a high exposure of the in Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq (mainly in cluster 2) sites, combined with a high sensitivity and poor coping currently have a relatively good position because they capacity. The coping strategies include cash crop have a low exposure but are sensitive to future climate V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 29 change and have limited coping capacity. The cluster fertility are considered by all clusters to be of minor analysis furthermore reveals that most households of importance, even though soil erosion is a known prob- Al Wathan are in cluster 1, confirming their relative lem in Yemen. resilience in the face of climate change. Cluster 4 shows medium exposure with households showing a The main hazards identified are partly climate-related high dependency ratio and low landholdings and live- and economic hazards. Most households indicate that stock. Migration is low, but the households are rela- many of the climate and non-climate hazards have tively wealthy and grow cash crops (qat in most cases). become more threatening over the past years. From all sites, there are a few households present in cluster 4, which are characterized by their high educa- V U LN E R A B I LI TY A N D A D A P TATI O N tion levels and high asset ownership. In the village study, households were asked which strate- C lim ate -R ela ted Hazar ds ar e Si gni fi ca n t f o r gies they had adopted in order to reduce some of the T h e H o use hol ds hazards they face. Four categories of strategies were distinguished: Table 14 shows which hazards are identified by the households themselves as being the most significant in • Agricultural techniques. These include the adoption of terms of the risks that these households face (see also drought-tolerant or resistant crops, changing plant- Table B.4). Drought, due to decreased rainfall, and ing dates, changing cropping densities, changing higher food prices are identified by all clusters as the fertilizer and pesticide application, changing the single most important hazards. Droughts during the pastoral system, changing the herd composition, and rainy season are also important hazards. Problems in applying different feed techniques. purchasing inputs or selling the output are considered as • Water management techniques. These include the use important hazards. Diseases in general (human, animal of water harvesting techniques, improvement or and crop) and extreme temperatures are considered of rehabilitation of terraces, the use of irrigation tech- average importance to all households. Hazards caused by niques, and improvements to watering sites in pasto- an abundance of rainfall or floods and loss of soil ral areas. TABLE 14. AVERAGE RANKING OF HAZARDS FOR THE DIFFERENT CLUSTERS (1 = MOST IMPORTANT; 10 = LEAST IMPORTANT) excessively heavy showers of drought during the rainy 3. Floods due to excessive 2. Drought due to periods 8. Decreasing soil fertility 5. Changed average and purchase or output sales 7. Animal or crop pests rainfall during the rainy 9. Problems with input 1. Drought due to less extreme temperatures 10. High food prices 6. Human diseases 4. Damage due to and diseases season season rainfall Cluster 1 2 3 10 8 6 7 4 9 5 1 2 1 3 10 8 6 7 5 8 4 2 3 1 3 10 8 5 6 7 9 4 2 4 1 3 10 9 6 7 5 8 4 2 5 1 2 10 5 4 9 7 6 8 3 6 1 3 10 8 7 6 5 9 4 2 Overall 1 3 10 8 6 7 5 9 4 2 30 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S • Income diversification techniques. These include tem- households apply one or more strategies. In the other porary or permanent migration, non-timber forest sites, approximately 65 percent of the households apply product commercialization, home-garden agricul- strategies. ture, increase in market sales, charcoal or timber sales, changing consumption patterns, and draw- Agricultural techniques have the highest share in the down of livestock or savings. total number of strategies (35 percent). Water manage- • Communal pooling techniques. These include restora- ment techniques account for 32 percent of the strategies. tion of homestead or mountain forests, rangeland Communal pooling strategies have a share of 20 percent, preservation, soil erosion prevention programs, com- and the income diversification techniques have a share munal water harvesting techniques, or communal of 13 percent. irrigation schemes. To p S i x S t r a t e g i e s A d o p t e d C o n t a i n On Ave ra ge, 1.7 Str ategi es Per House h o l d Four Individual Strategies On average, each household adopted 1.7 strategies. Figure 9 (and Tables C.1 and C.2) show which strate- (For the other countries included in the CALI-study, gies are chosen by the different household types and the the average number of strategies adopted was 8.5 for different villages. For all households together, the top six the Ethiopian sample and 3.5 for the Malian sample.) most important strategies are (1) use irrigation Households in Al Wathan use 3.7 strategies, which is (26 percent), (2) adapt fertilizer/pesticide applications more than twice as much than in Mu’aneet, while (22 percent), (3) improve, construct, or rehabilitate households in Al Mehraq only use on average 0.8 terraces (18 percent), (4) temporary migration to urban strategies. In Al Wathan three-quarters of the house- areas or abroad (15 percent), (5) crop selection holds and in Al Mehraq about 50 percent of the (14 percent), and (6) communal irrigation (12 percent). FIGURE 9. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS CHOOSING A PARTICULAR ADAPTATION OPTION 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% A01 A03 A04 A05 A08 B01 B02 B03 C01 C09 D01 D03 D04 D05 A01 Crop selection B03 Use irrigation A03 Adapt cropping densities C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abr A04 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application C09 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings A05 Adapt tillage practices D01 Restore and preserve homestead or muntai A08 Apply different feed techniques D03 Soil erosion prevention programmes B01 Use water harvesting techniques D04 Communal water harvesting, tanks B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces D05 Communal irrigation V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 31 Note that these are the only strategies that are adopted techniques such as crop selection, adapting fertilizer by more than 10 percent of the households in the use, and adapting tillage practices, which are sample. The most selected strategies do include one adopted by 15–20 percent of the households. communal strategy, which has to be implemented and • Unlike the other sites, Arraheebah hardly uses operated with the community. Two of the top six strate- income diversification strategies. Apparently, the gies are water management strategies. The use of irriga- distance to urban areas (such as the city of Taiz) is tion is the most important strategy adopted, and the an obstacle to apply this strategy. construction of terraces is ranked as third. Both strate- • Households in Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq use gies usually require community action as the labor inputs irrigation (30 percent), adapt fertilizer use (24 per- cannot be borne by individual households. Agricultural cent), or adapt tillage practices (20 percent). techniques such as fertilizer and pesticide use and crop • Strategies adopted in Al Masajed are similar to the selection are two important strategies. Finally, temporary overall preference of strategies. Application of irri- migration, as an income diversification strategy, is partic- gation and of communal irrigation are two of the ularly relevant on sites when there is a large city nearby. most important strategies. A significant share of households in Al Masajed also choose to migrate to Communal actions seem to be difficult to establish in urban areas. the study villages. Communal actions need on the one • As mentioned above, irrigation (either individual hand investments and training from external institutions, or communal) is not chosen by households in the but on the other hand a sense of urgency and a feeling highlands of Mu’aneet. Agriculture in Mu’aneet is of ownership from the side of the households, sufficient mainly rainfed. Not surprisingly, about half of the to outweigh the transaction costs of collective action. households opted for the improvement, construc- tion, or rehabilitation of terraces, and 20 percent Villa ges Se l ect Di ffer ent Str ategi es of the households apply communal water harvesting. The most important strategy selected is the use of irri- • Al Mehraq is the site with households with the low- gation. However, this strategy is not chosen by house- est number of strategies per household (0.82 strate- holds in Mu’aneet and Al Mehraq. In addition, the gies per household). About half of the households in households from these sites do not choose communal Al Mehraq did not adopt any adaptation strategy. irrigation strategies either (see Tables C.1 and C.2). The most important strategy was improvement, Improvement, reconstruction, and rehabilitation of construction, or rehabilitation of terraces (20 terraces are the most important strategy in Mu’aneet percent). and Al Mehraq. Despite the similar preferences for strategies, the agroecological potential and climate A d a p t a t i o n S t r a t e g i e s D i ff e r A c r o s s F a r m ing hazard differs across both sites. Mu’aneet has rainfed Systems agriculture, while Al Mehraq has highland mixed agri- culture. Both villages are in remote areas, which may Figure 10 shows that all types of adaptation measures explain why irrigation techniques are difficult to obtain. are applied in the sites with rainfed farming system (Al Wathan, Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, and Muáneet). For the other four sites, the preferences for strategies are One should keep in mind that households in Al Wathan similar to the overall preference although each site has a have high average numbers of all strategies. Households different emphasis on particular strategies: in drylands put more effort into agricultural and water management strategies because they have faced water • For Al Wathan, the most important strategy, even scarcity for a long time. Income diversification and slightly more important than the use of irrigation, is communal pool techniques are hardly used in the to adapt fertilizer application (adopted by 60 percent drylands. In the highlands, households use a mix of of the household); adaptation strategies. Agricultural and water strategies • In Arraheebah, the use of irrigation is the most are less applied than in rainfed or dryland areas, because important strategy, followed by agricultural the water resources in highlands are less scarce. 32 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 10. AVERAGE NUMBER OF STRATEGY TYPES FOR THE DIFFERENT FARMING SYSTEM (AND AGROECOLOGICAL ZONE) 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 Agricultural Water Income Communal pool strategies management diversification techniques Rainfed Highland Dryland T h e N u m b er of Str ategi es Adopted Dep e n d s diversify income. Furthermore, irrigation use and on Wealth terrace construction are important strategies for this cluster. The “highland smallholders� (cluster 2) applied Differences in strategies adopted are relatively small 1.3 strategies per household; adapting fertilizer use is between the clusters. The “diversified wealthy farmers� the most important strategy, applied by 20 percent of (cluster 1) have the highest average number of strategies, the households. Water management strategies are also namely 2.4 per households. About 30 percent of these relatively important. In 10 percent of the households households either applied irrigation, adapted fertilizer/ in this village, household members migrated to other pesticides, or improved, constructed, or rehabilitated areas. Finally, The “dryland farmers� (cluster 6) only terraces. Almost half of these households applied either used 0.8 strategies per household. The strategies were individual or communal irrigation. The “highly educated either agricultural or water management techniques. cash-crop growing farmers� (cluster 4) adopted on aver- Income diversification is hardly applied, which is not age two strategies, with a significant share of households remarkable since this cluster is dominated by house- choosing for many different strategies. After the strate- holds from Arraheebah, with a low number of gies related to irrigation, terrace construction, and adapt- strategies. ing fertilizer, an important share of households in this cluster also applied crop selection or soil erosion The comparison between the clusters shows that the programs. Income diversification strategies play a minor better-off households adopt more and the worse-off role in this cluster. households adopt fewer strategies. This shows that wealth status is an important determinant in the adap- The “fruit and vegetable farmers� (cluster 5) adopt 1.9 tive capacity of households. Overall, households do not strategies per household. More than 60 percent of the mention any assistance from institutions with respect to households in this cluster apply irrigation. Other adaptation strategies. Households in most sites mention important strategies are crop selection and adapting that institutions are not present. In addition, those insti- fertilizer. The “farmers with diversified other income tutions are often not associated with adaptation strate- sources� (cluster 3) had 1.8 strategies; 30 percent of gies. Many households claim that the information on the households chose migration of household adaptation strategies is based on personal information by members. This is the most important strategy to informal institutions, for instance. In both RALP sites, V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 33 some of the local experts indicated that extension agen- the CALI-study, Mali and Ethiopia, may be a less rele- cies were present (see Appendix 4). vant strategy. In the focus group discussions, home gardening and migration to urban areas were frequently Only in 4 percent of all strategies (23 strategies) do mentioned as new strategies (see Appendix A3). This households mention contact with institutions. This is a lack of coping strategies may be caused by marketing sign that households are more or less on their own when constraints, political problems, and financial constraints. it comes to decisions regarding adaptations of their live- At the same time, market and political restrictions are lihoods. In that case, it is more difficult for the more the reason for generally low levels of use of adaptation marginalized households to make changes in their lives. strategies. Financial constraints cause even lower levels This issue is further discussed below. of strategy adoption for the marginalized groups. Moreover, political instability generally does not create Strate gie s M ostl y Ai m at Reduci ng Sen s i t i v i t y receptive grounds for initiating new activities. In addi- tion, one of the hazards mentioned in the focus group Most strategies aim at sensitivity reduction to climate discussions is the increasing number of diseases. As a variability through irrigation, fertilizer/pesticide applica- result, households spend a lot of money on medicines, tion, or the improvement, construction, or rehabilitation which they cannot spend on other goods such as adapta- of terraces. The only strategy focusing on improving tion strategies. coping capacity is migration. Differences between villages are remarkable. In the vulnerable villages of Al C o m m u n a l S t r a t e g i e s a r e A d o p t e d E s p e c ial l y Mehraq and Arraheebah in Taiz governorate, only a few i n t h e L e a s t Vu l n e r a b l e Vi l l a g e s households adopt some strategies. The highland village of Al Mehraq focuses on migration and prevention of Even though communal strategies like terrace rehabilita- soil erosion (terracing and reforestation), whereas the tion and communal irrigation are chosen regularly, the dryland village of Arraheebah focuses on irrigation and choice of communal strategies differs a lot between the adapting farming practices. For the villages participating villages. In the more vulnerable villages in Taiz, fewer in the Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock Project households adopt communal strategies than in the other (RALP), Mu’aneet and Al Masajed, no significant villages. This is a sign that the more marginalized differences in strategy adoption can be observed groups not only do not adopt fewer strategies, but are compared to the other four villages. Terrace rehabilita- also more on their own. They may be left aside by the tion and reforestation are important for them, as well as better-off households, may be too busy with their daily the use of water harvesting measures. The number of tasks that there is not sufficient time for adaptation, or households adopting these strategies is not much higher they lack the knowledge and resources to try new in the RALP-villages than in the other villages. initiatives. Strate gie s for Impr ovi ng Copi ng Capac i t y G e n d e r D i ff e r e n c e s i n A d a p t a t i o n are H a rd ly Appl i ed Strategies… For all villages, coping capacity strategies are restricted To see whether there are any gender differences in to migration to urban areas or abroad. Other possible choosing adaptation strategies, female-dominated strategies, like migration to other rural areas, home- households were identified. Female-headed households garden agriculture, increased market sales, or handicrafts are hardly present in the survey. Female-dominated are hardly used. In addition, the focus group discussions households are those households where two-third of the pointed out that selling animals or savings is used as a adults are female. Table 15 shows that in the survey, strategy, but the money is spent on purchasing water or 13 percent of the households were female-dominated, medicines for ill family members (or animals). It is because it is a tradition in Yemen to marry off young noted, however, that as the cultivation of fruits and females at an early age. The share of female-dominated vegetables is already applied by many, home-garden households ranges from 6 percent in Al Mehraq to agriculture as it is promoted in the other countries in 20 percent in Al Wathan. 34 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE 15. NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS, AVERAGE NUMBER OF STRAT- EGIES, AND SHARE OF HOUSEHOLD WITH DIFFERENT ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR MALE- AND FEMALE-DOMINATED HOUSEHOLDS Male-dominated Female-dominated Statistic households households Number of households 262 40 Average number of strategies 1.61 2.33 Share of households with the top-five adaptation strategies 62.6% 72.5% B03 Use irrigation 25.2% 35.0% A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 21.4% 25.0% B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces 16.4% 25.0% C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 14.1% 20.0% A01 Crop selection 12.6% 17.5% With respect to the number of adaptation strategies, questionnaire was already very elaborate, it would have female-dominated households have a higher average of been difficult to ask even more details on the costing adaptation strategies. A higher share of female- elements. This would have been too time-consuming. A dominated households (72 percent) adopt strategies follow-up study could put more emphasis on the differ- than male-dominated households (62 percent). There is ent elements of these costs. This could shed more light no difference in the distribution of the types of adapta- on the costs households incur and on whether they can tion strategies chosen. Female-dominated households bear these costs themselves or need assistance from also choose sensitivity reducing strategies more than outside institutions. coping strategies. H i g h e s t C o s t s a r e A s s o c i a t e d w i t h I r r i g a t ion C o st Estim ates ar e Di ffi cul t to Inter pr e t Taking into account the restrictions raised above, some Information on the costs of the adaptation strategies is careful observations can be made on the costs and time given in Table 16.1 Interpretation of the cost estimates invested in the adaptation strategies. GDP per capita in is difficult. Many of the people interviewed did not give Yemen was $1,300 (i.e. YER 290,000) per year in 2008.2 an adequate cost estimate for the strategies adopted. For The use of irrigation is the most popular strategy, but it many of the strategies, the households did not list direct is also an expensive strategy. On average, the cost of irri- costs, possibly because people have difficulties in trans- gation is twice the annual GDP per capita. The standard lating non-cash expenditures for strategies as costs deviation, however, is large, demonstrating that despite incurred. Furthermore, for some strategies there are the careful way in which these issues were raised in the one-time investments costs, whereas other strategies questionnaire, people have difficulties properly interpret- have annually recurring costs. Moreover, for some strat- ing these questions or are reluctant to tell interviewers egies it is not immediately clear which costs have to be this type of information. It can be seen that water made especially for the specific strategy (for example, harvesting techniques and terrace rehabilitation are adapt planting dates or adapt cropping densities). It has cheaper options than changes in agricultural techniques. to be concluded from the analysis of the cost data that From the costing data in Table C.4, it cannot be it is difficult to provide reliable cost estimates. As the concluded that any of the clusters make more invest- costing framework adopted in this study and ments than others, because the number of observations is rather limited. The cost of using irrigation among the 1 Only for the strategies for which more than 10 positive cost estimates are given the averages have been calculated. For the others, the esti- 2 See http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Yemen#Economic mates are too unreliable and are therefore excluded from the analysis. (accessed on September 15, 2010). V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 35 TABLE 16. COST ESTIMATES (YER X 1,000) OF THE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES* (YER 1,000 = 4.48 US DOLLARS) Mean Min Median Max Stdev # obs. Agricultural techniques A01 Crop selection 52.9 0.2 15.0 700.0 137.4 25 A02 Adapt planting dates 3 A03 Adapt cropping densities 6 A04 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide 28.8 1.5 11.0 200.0 39.7 32 A05 Adapt tillage practices 33.0 3.0 13.5 200.0 49.3 22 A08 Apply different feed techniques 9 A10 Improve food storage facilities 2 Water management techniques B01 Use water harvesting techniques 37.3 1.0 15.0 300.0 67.7 20 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces 33.6 0.0 14.0 140.0 35.3 34 B03 Use irrigation 678.8 3.0 150.0 7000.0 1530.4 42 Income diversification techniques C01 Temporary migration urban areas 5 C04 Home-garden agriculture 1 C09 Draw down on livestock/savings 1 Communal pooling techniques Restore and preserve homestead or D01 mountain forests 56.5 5.0 30.0 200.0 57.4 15 D03 Soil erosion prevention programs 43.4 9.0 25.0 150.0 43.7 11 D04 Communal water harvesting, tanks 1 D05 Communal irrigation 8 Notes: * Only estimated if there are at least 10 observations. See also Tables C.3 and C.4. diversified, wealthy farmers (cluster 1) is substantially adoption of adaptation strategies. Extension agencies are lower than for the poorer “highland smallholders� (clus- the institution mentioned most frequently. Furthermore, ter 2). This is striking, as it might be expected that the national authorities, regional authorities, local authori- poorer, more vulnerable households in cluster 2 make ties, and seed production authorities are contacted for less investments. This might be due to a more favorable assistance, but only by a few households. Due to the low location with more rainfall and closer proximity to an level of institutional contacts, it is difficult to judge urban area. whether particular villages or clusters have more contacts than others. It seems as if the better-off clusters I NS T I T UT I ONAL ACCESS AND CL IMATE (1 and 5) have somewhat more contact with institutions A DA P TAT I ON than the worse-off households; these results, however, are not significant. Nevertheless, it confirms the previous In the study villages, institutions only play a minor role in observation that the more marginalized groups are more the livelihoods of Yemeni households. According to the on their own than the better-off households and there- findings from the field survey, there is hardly any contact fore adopt fewer strategies. between households and institutions (see Table 17 and Appendix A2.D). Only 7 percent of the households According to the findings of the household interviews, reported having any contact with institutions. About half international donors, national authorities, banks, schools, of these households consider these contacts useful in the and religious communities are not mentioned as 36 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE 17. ALLOCATION OF ASSISTANCE OVER THE DIFFERENT CLUSTERS AND VILLAGES (%) Cluster Training Labor Inputs Cash Food Village Training Labor Inputs Cash Food 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Al Wathan n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Arraheebah 0. 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Dhi-Shraq 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mu’aneet 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Al Mehraq 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 Al Masajed 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Note: Remark: not asked in Al Wathan, so that there are 250 observations used. TABLE 18. TYPE OF ASSISTANCE RECEIVED BY THE HOUSEHOLDS FROM THE DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONS National Local International Seed produc- Men’s Women’s Self-help authorities authorities Donors tion authority group groups group Unknown Total Training 1 1 2 Labor 1 1 Inputs 2 1 3 Cash 0 Food 0 not specified 1 8 7 1 17 Total 2 1 8 2 7 1 1 1 23 institutions that are in contact with households. not assistance from external institutions. Whether the However, from the interviews with the institutional more informal communal institution such as men’s, stakeholders, we know there are institutions (national women’s, or self-help groups are involved is unclear. Four authorities and international donors) that are in contact percent of the households talked to other farmers, and with households and sometimes provide households almost 3 percent used external sources. According to the with financial and/or technical support. Apparently, this stakeholders (see Appendix A4), institutions are hardly is not seen by the households, or it is not perceived as associated with support for climate change adaptation. assistance for giving people the means to improve their situation, as was mentioned in the institutional stake- H o u s e h o l d a r e D i ff i c u l t t o R e a c h holder analysis. As follows from the survey, for external institutions, it H o use hold do not Get thei r Infor mati on f r o m is difficult to get into contact with households. Only Extern al Insti tuti ons 4 percent of the households claim to have had contact with an external institution with respect to adaptation In the survey, households were asked where they strategies. Half of the assistance was realised within received the information about adaptation strategies. the community through more informal men’s, women’s For 73 percent of the strategies, the household used a or self help groups. In most of these cases, households personal source for implementing the strategy. How the could not indicate what kind of assistance was personal source is exactly defined is not clear, but it is received – see Table 18. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 37 In stitutions Pl ay A Mi nor Rol e i n Pr epa r i n g For each of the resources, Figure 11 indicates whether fo r C lim a te Change low, medium, or high investments are expected and what currently constrains the successful implementa- Institutional assistance was not found to be significantly tion of the strategy. Given the general lack of informa- higher in Mu’aneet and Al Mehraq which are located in tion about the costs of implementing adaptation districts in which the World Bank-supported RALP strategies, the sensitivity to ask such information from project, focusing on community-based action, operates. households and the low response rate on these ques- This may be due to the fact that the RALP project is a tions, it has not been possible to elicit reliable quanti- rather new initiative or the fact that households tative costing information. Reliable costing information included in the village survey were not familiar with it. from other sources is also almost nonexistent. For establishing networks of extension agencies, one of Moreover, no distinction is made between assistance to the activities of the RALP project, gaining trustworthy be provided by governmental or by nongovernmental relationships with the village households takes time. In institutions. In principle, the same type of assistance addition to the few ‘outsiders’ who provide help to the can be provided by both types of institutions. It households, the respondents indicate that they receive depends on the cultural and political situation whether some help or cooperation from neighbours or people governmental or nongovernmental institutions are from the clan group. Even though these are community preferable. Given the difficult political circumstances in institutions, the respondents apparently don’t judge them Yemen, nongovernmental institutions may be able to to be an institution. The low institutional coverage and reach the local population more easily than govern- dependence on kinship is well know in Yemen. In rural mental institutions. Yemen, the role of the national government is often contested and officials are suspected, as a result of which S o m e M o d e r n Te c h n i q u e s a r e N e c e s s a r y setting up national extension services is difficult. t o b e A b l e t o F a r m i n Ye m e n COS T I NG ADAPTATION Table 16, Figure 11 and the above discussion on adapta- tion strategies show that it is not only the low-cost The survey provides evidence of the types of investments strategies that are adopted. Irrigation and terrace reha- the stakeholders have to make for implementing adapta- bilitation and maintenance are costly strategies for tion strategies. For many strategies, households are not, which households need sufficient money, labor, and or only to a limited extent, capable of choosing and knowledge. Irrigation and terrace rehabilitation seem to implementing these themselves. Households may lack be necessary strategies for Yemen, without which farm- the knowledge, the skills, the labor, or the money. ing is difficult. Terraces have been used for centuries as a Figure 11 gives an overview of the investments needed well-functioning soil erosion and water management to choose, and successfully implement, a strategy. The technique. Terrace maintenance has positive expected figure shows the type of resources needed by the house- net benefits and without them, high rates of soil erosion holds, the community institutions, and the governmental will make farming nearly impossible. or nongovernmental institutions to implement a strategy. Well irrigation is a relatively “modern� technique. Many A distinction is made between the following resources: farmers have individual wells, pumping groundwater from great depths below ground. Even though several • M = monetary needs sources stress the current unsustainable pattern of water • L = labor inputs required to actually carry out the management in Yemen (Hellegers 2008), in the short to tasks medium term, individual irrigation systems have positive • T = time needed for training, negotiations, and expected net benefits. Without it, farming would be social contacts difficult in many areas where dryland farming is prac- • C = commitment needed, which refers to the willing- ticed. As shown above, the better-off households and ness to furnish the effort to successfully and, in case those living in the regions with better access have suffi- of communal action, jointly implement the strategies. cient resources for adopting these strategies. Financial 38 FIGURE 11. OVERVIEW OF COSTS AND INVESTMENTS NEEDED TO IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION STRATEGIES Strategy Household Community Governmental or Constrained by institutions non-governmental institutions Action M L T C M L T C M L T C Top-6 stragies Use (private) irrigation Awareness creation ll l m ll m willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Install irrigation systems hh m h m l m ? ll constraint for commitment to assist with pump installation from community members and high financial needs by the household or formal institutions Operate irrigation systems m ll h constraint for financial needs (e.g. for pumps) and technical and managerial skills; high commitment needed to sustain operation Maintain irrigation systems m l m h constraint for financial needs (e.g. for pumps) and technical and managerial skills; high commitment needed to sustain operation Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application Awareness creation ll lll willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Implementation m ll ll credit constraints for farmers, Improve or rehabilitate terraces: rehabilitate existing or create new terraces along slopes of hills Awareness creation l m l m ll m willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Implementation ? h l h m l m ? m l m constraint for materials (and maybe labour) for party financing construction Maintenance l m l h lllll m constraint for materials and credit for party financing maintenance Temporal migration Implementation l Adequate labour availability within the household that can be spared for migration and off-farm labour Crop Selection: select more drought resistant crop types Awareness creation ll lll willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Purchase and application l l ll credit constraints for farmers, Use communal irrigation: installation and management of communal irrigation systems Awareness creation ll l m ll m willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Install irrigation systems ? h l h ? h l h ? h m h constraint for commitment from community, high labour input by households and high financial needs by extension agencies of NGO's Operate irrigation systems m ll h lll h ll h constraint for financial needs (e.g. for pumps) and managerial skills; high commitment needed to sustain operation Maintain irrigation systems mm l h lll h mm h constraint for financial needs (e.g. for pumps) and managerial skills; high commitment needed to sustain operation Other relevant strategies Water harvesting techniques: installation of individual water harvesting equipment (e.g. tanks, small ponds) Awareness creation ll l m ll m willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Installation of water harvesting equipment ? h l m ? ll m l m credit or financial constraints, depending on who finances equipment; labour contstraints for farmers; managerial constraints for (N)GO's Operation and maintenance of equipment lll m lll m labour and knowledge constraints for farmers; commitment needed to sustain operation Home garden agriculture: promote vegetable and fruit cultivation on home gardens Awareness creation ll llll willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Apply home garden agriculture l m l credit and labour constraints during some months for the farmers C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 39 constraints, which are an impediment for individual irri- (c) households may lack the knowledge to implement gation in many countries, may be less of a problem in the strategies. some regions in Yemen because of the prevalence of cash crop production. This may explain why they need less Alternatively, households may not perceive the focus on institutional assistance for choosing such a strategy. The coping capacities as being useful in reducing their strong clan relationships may serve as a substitute for vulnerability even if net benefits are positive. For most the training and assistance which in other countries are people, agriculture has been the main income source for often provided by formal institutions. This strong clan decades and only migration has become a common relationship may also be a reason why terraces can be strategy to diversify income. It is not evident that maintained without much outside assistance. Moreover, people easily initiate new income earning activities, because terraces have been constructed and used for especially if there is not an enabling environment for centuries, communities may have sufficient knowledge such activities and if education levels are low. Again, an on how to construct them. important role in the adoption of these strategies is apparent for both formal and informal institutions. Low C ost, S ensi ti vi ty Reduci ng Str ateg i e s They can provide training, raise awareness, and are Adopte d promote good practices. In addition to the above-mentioned strategies, a number More Demanding Strategies Require of low-cost strategies are also adopted. Sensitivity- Informal and Formal Assistance reducing agricultural strategies like crop selection and adoption of fertilizer and pesticide application have Besides irrigation and terrace rehabilitation, in Yemen positive net benefits. For these strategies, little institu- households seldom adopt communal and more tional assistance is required. Training, however, may demanding strategies because only a few formal institu- improve efficiency of the farming systems, which may tions provide the support to initiate those more increase yields. As the results indicate that many house- demanding communal strategies. Examples are water holds have not adopted any strategy, not even the low- harvesting and cereal banks. Many of these strategies cost strategies, institutions may assist these households have positive expected net benefits but face financing in overcoming the constraints preventing them from constraints and require higher skills. Their adoption adopting these strategies. These households currently are also introduces new risks, so expected returns on invest- difficult to reach. The long-term presence of institutions ment may turn out to be negative, which according to and trustworthy relationships with these marginalized IFPRI (2010) is an important determinant for choosing households are necessary to persuade households to strategies. It is interesting to see that the adoption of adopt more innovative strategies. Moreover, institutions communal strategies does not seem to be hindered by a can play a role in mitigating some of the constraints, like lack of cooperation between households from the poorly functioning markets, which constrain the community. Even though reported differently in the purchase of inputs (see below). survey (probably due to a misinterpretation of the ques- tion), the strong clan links make it easier to mobilize Other low-cost strategies, such as handicrafts, char- households and assist neighbors or initiate joint activi- coal sales, or non-timber forest product commerciali- ties. It is difficult to say whether the more demanding zation are selected by only a few households. Crop strategies can also be initiated with the help from these diversification (cultivation of fruits and vegetables) is more informal institutional links or whether higher applied already by many households and therefore not managerial skills are necessary for this. A difficulty with seen as an income diversification technique. There more communal strategies, from which all community may be several reasons why expected benefits of some members benefit, may be commitment among the of these low-cost strategies turn out to be negative: participants. Especially if formal institutions that assist (a) markets for these goods may be too thin or poorly the households do not have long-term and trustworthy functioning; (b) inputs may be difficult to acquire if relationships with them, it may be difficult to markets are missing or villages difficult to reach; and implement such strategies. 40 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Assista nce fr om For mal and Infor mal wealthy household types, usually having more cash In stitutions May Rel i eve Adopti on Cons t r a i n t s income, more assets, more cash crop cultivation, and more diversified income sources, can adopt the more expensive From the above, three conclusions can be drawn. First, strategies that reduce their sensitivity or increase their low-cost individual strategies, having low requirements coping capacity. Better educated households, having a for labor and skills, are already adopted even though larger share of household members who attended at least many households haven’t adopted any strategy. Formal primary education, are better able to choose the strategies institutions play a role in reaching these marginalized that best fit their livelihoods. Intervention from formal groups. Second, irrigation and terrace maintenance seem and informal institutions may lessen some of these to be strategies without which farming would be difficult constraints. Thirdly, implementation of communal strate- in Yemen. Many farmers have succeeded in implementing gies requires back-up from formal and informal institu- them even though the worse-off farmers have not. This tions. The informal, clan-based institutions seem to be puts them in a downward spiral with the risk that they relatively well-functioning, but their cooperation with become more marginalized in the future. The more more formal institutions could be improved. 41 5. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY Households are Large Families IMPLICATIONS For all the studied sites, households have about eight to ten members. In general, men have reasonable MA I N F I NDINGS access to formal education (schools are present in all villages). Women have substantially less access to As discussed above, the objectives of the CALI-study education. Despite significant gender differences in are (1) to identify the costs of adaptation through local education of adults, there are limited gender differences institutions, and (2) to investigate which institutions of boys and girls. Gender differences in education could support households to adapt to climate variability and be lower in the future as the schooling of girls has been which efforts and costs have to be made in order to increasing. realize the adaptation strategies. In this report, the results of the village studies—consisting of household Agriculture is the Main Household Activity interviews, stakeholder interviews, and focus group discussions—were presented. Vulnerability profiles were Agriculture is the main source of income for almost all developed based on the exposure of households to households that were interviewed. Cereals are the main climate variability, their sensitivity to climate variability, crops grown in all villages, and in some villages (Al and their coping capacity to deal with it. These profiles Wathan, Arraheebah, and Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq) show that household vulnerability differs substantially substantial amounts of cash crops are also grown (either between and within villages. Household acreage, TLUs, qat or vegetables and fruits). Cultivated land ranges from diversity of income, and the ability to decide on alterna- 0.2 to 2.4 ha per household. Livestock are present in all tive measures to mitigate adverse climate effects (which villages, although the number of households that actually depends on factors such as level of education and have livestock is usually rather limited. Overall, livestock dependency ratio) have effects on the adaptation holdings per household have decreased significantly by options households adopt. The main conclusions more than 25 percent in the last year. from the field survey and data analysis are the following.3 Another important source of income for households is temporary migration, especially in Al Wathan, 3 It is stressed that for this study, surveys took place in six sites in where almost half of the households indicate that they Yemen. For that reason, the conclusions are not necessarily representa- have a migrated member. However, only 10 percent of tive of the entire country and generalizing the main results and policy recommendations to other regions with different agroclimatological the households in Arraheebah have migrated members. and socioeconomic characteristics should be done with care. In Al Wathan, 40 percent of the households indicate 42 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S that they have civil servant activities as their main dropping out of school), and water is bought at higher activity. prices. As a result of diseases and lack of water, house- holds devote great effort and spending on medicines and H ighly Exp osed Vi l l ages ar e not Neces s a r i l y water. In order to be able to do so, animals and personal th e M o st Vu l ner abl e jewelry were sold to buy medicine or water. This devel- opment has also consequences for the implementation Exposure and agroecological potential in Yemen are of adaptation strategies. Households simply lack the closely related to rainfall, which in turn is related to alti- financial means to apply adaptation strategies, and tude. Arraheebah (Taiz) in the coastal plains is the most particularly the more expensive ones, such as irrigation. exposed. This site scores low on agroecological capacity, yet households are highly dependent on agriculture. The D i ff e r e n c e s B e t w e e n H o u s e h o l d Ty p e s three study sites with an arid subtropical climate are are Large somewhat less exposed. The two sites in the highlands with relatively high precipitation are the least exposed to If geographical location (exposure) is left aside, but only climate variability. The highly exposed villages, however, coping capacity characteristics are considered, six clus- are not necessarily the most vulnerable. Arraheebah ters of household types can be distinguished: (Taiz) in the coastal plains is vulnerable. They have low cash crop earnings, low income diversification, and rela- 1. Diversified, wealthy farmers with livestock who are tively low educational levels. Due to low soil fertility, better educated, own large herds of cattle, and pro- their higher landholdings do not result in high yields. duce cereals and cash crops (qat). The least vulnerable village seems to be the rainfed agri- 2. Highland smallholders in the southern highlands that culture village Al Wathan in Sana’a governorate. They mainly produce grains, have relatively low landhold- are highly exposed but compared to most other villages, ings, and moderate asset ownership. they also have higher cash crop earnings (both from qat 3. Diversified households with a high share of females and fruits and vegetables), higher landholdings, more and low dependency ratio, rich in landholdings, pro- livestock, more assets, and higher education levels. ducing herbs and legumes, and a high share of Moreover, a substantial part of income is coming from migration. civil servant activities. Their sensitivity to climate varia- 4. Highly educated cash-crop growing farmers with a high bility seems to be relatively low and their coping capac- dependency ratio, small landholdings, relatively many ity good. Both highland villages score very differently. Al assets, and producing cereals and cash crops (qat). Masajed in Sana’a governorate has relatively good land- 5. Fruit and vegetables farmers producing cereals, vege- holdings, income from livestock, migration, and rela- table, and fruits, with some livestock, a relatively tively good levels of education. The highland village of high dependency ratio, and relatively low levels of Al Mehraq in Taiz governorate has lower landholdings education. and also a low income level, due to which they are more 6. Dryland farmers with large landholdings, producing vulnerable. Vulnerability in the Yemeni study sites seems cereals but no cash crops, low in education, owning to be less dependent on climate exposure but more on only a few animals, and having a high dependency other factors like proximity to urban areas (like Sana’a) ratio. with potential alternative income sources. These income sources could make sites less vulnerable. The cluster analysis shows that the levels of vulnerability of the clusters vary and they are not equally distributed Oth er H aza r ds al so have Impacts on across the villages: C lim ate C h ange Adaptati on • The “diversified, wealthy livestock farmers� (cluster 1) In almost all villages, the increased occurrence of human and the “highland smallholders� (cluster 2) account and animal diseases was mentioned frequently during for two-thirds of the respondents in the survey. the focus group discussions. In addition, water collection • The “diversified, wealthy livestock farmers� (clus- is taking more time (one of the reasons why girls are ter 1) are the least vulnerable. They are present in V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 43 all six villages, although households of Al Wathan Three of the top six strategies require cooperation with (Sana’a) are most frequently from this cluster. Note neighbors or other households from the village. Some that Al Wathan was also the least vulnerable village. strategies are adopted in only one or two sites and many • The “highland smallholders� are most vulnerable. households have not adopted any strategy. About half of them live in Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq (Ibb) and Al Mehraq (Taiz). Compared A d a p t a t i o n S t r a t e g i e s D i ff e r A c r o s s F a r m ing to the other households present in these villages, Systems they score much lower on all characteristics, which is a sign that households in villages are divided in Households in rainfed areas (Al Wathan, Magahem more and less vulnerable households. Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, and Muáneet) have the highest • Most households in the dryland village of average of adaptation strategies. Dryland households put Arraheebah in Taiz are from the “fruit and most of their efforts into agricultural and water manage- vegetable farmers� and “dryland farmers� (cluster 5 ment strategies because they have been dealing with and 6). They are in a vulnerable situation. The fruit scarce water resources for a long time; income diversifi- and vegetable farmers are somewhat better off as cation strategies are hardly used. In the highlands, they have a higher and more diversified income. households use a mix of adaptation strategies. The Both household types, however, have low education average number of strategies is low. levels, which gives them a low capability of improving their livelihoods themselves. S t r a t e g i e s M o s t l y A i m a t S e n s i t i v i t y R e d uc ti on • The situation of the “highly educated cash-crop growing farmers� (cluster 4) is difficult to assess. Most strategies aim at sensitivity reduction to climate Their low dependency ratio and high levels of variability through irrigation, fertilizer/pesticide education and assets indicate they are more capable application or the improvement, construction, or of deciding about adaptation themselves. Low rehabilitation of terraces. The only strategy focusing on landholdings and limited income diversifica- coping capacity is through temporary or permanent tion, however, put them in a vulnerable migration. Differences among villages are remarkable. In situation. the vulnerable villages of Al Mehraq and Arraheebah in Taiz governorate, only a few households adopt some Only a F e w Str ategi es ar e Used strategies. The highland village focused on migration and prevention of soil erosion (terracing and In Yemen only a few adaptation strategies are used reforestation), whereas Arraheebah in the dryland area (1.7 on average). About 40 percent of the households in focused on irrigation and adapting farming practices. the survey did not adopt any of the strategies listed in For the sites participating in the Rainfed Agriculture the questionnaire. Al Wathan has adopted 3.5 strategies and Livestock Project (RALP), no significant differences on average, whereas Al Merhaq only adopted 0.7 strate- in strategy adoption were observed. A possible gies on average per household. Among the villages, the explanation could be that the project is relatively new. percentage of households that responded that they have Terrace rehabilitation and reforestation are important not adopted any strategy also varies significantly. The for them as well as the use of water harvesting measures, top six most important climate adaptation strategies but not much higher than in the other sites. In the more mentioned were: vulnerable sites in Taiz, less households adopt communal strategies than in the other villages. 1. Use irrigation (26 percent) 2. Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application (22 percent) Coping Capacity Improvement Strategies 3. Improve, construct, or rehabilitate terraces (18 percent) are Hardly Applied 4. Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad (15 percent) For all villages, coping capacity strategies are 5. Crop selection (14 percent) restricted to migration to urban areas or abroad. 6. Communal irrigation (12 percent) Other possible strategies, like migration to other rural 44 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S areas, home-garden agriculture, increased market sales, help to the households, the respondents indicate that or handicrafts are hardly used. However, the cultivation they receive some help or cooperation from neighbors or of fruits and vegetables is already applied in some sites people from the clan group. Even though these are (Al Wathan and Arraheebah). community institutions, the respondents apparently do not judge them to be an institution. Low institutional F e m a le -D omi nated Househol ds Appl y coverage and dependence on kinship relations is well M o re Strate gi es known in Yemen. In rural Yemen, the role of the national government is often contested and officials lack Thirteen percent of households are dominated by trust within the communities, so setting up national females; that is, the share of female adults is equal to or extension services is difficult. more than 66.6 percent. On average, households with a dominating number of female adults apply more adapta- Institutions Hardly Provide any Assistance tion strategies (2.3) than other households (1.7). More than 70 percent of the female-dominated households and Most of the adaptation strategies adopted by households 62 percent of the other households apply at least one were financed and realized by the households themselves adaptation strategy. There is no difference in the top-five using their own resources. Even if institutions are most adopted strategies. Female-dominated households present, they are not associated with assistance for tend to use sensitivity reducing measures more often than climate change adaptation, according to the stakeholder coping strategies. Because the number of female-domi- analysis. Formal institutions hardly provided any assis- nated households is rather low, it is not feasible to distin- tance in terms of training, inputs, or cash. Only people guish the gender issue at the level of individual villages. from the community helped each other through the provision of labor for rehabilitating terraces and setting In stitutions Pl ay a Mi nor Rol e i n Pr epa r i n g up irrigation or water management measures. The low fo r C lim a te Change number of strategies adopted may partly be explained by this low institutional coverage. Households especially In the study villages, institutions play only a minor role adopt strategies they have known for decades and adopt in the adoption of adaptation strategies by households. only a few modern strategies. For adopting more inno- In general, there is very limited contact between house- vative strategies, households may lack the knowledge to holds and institutions. Only 7 percent of the households judge their expected net benefits. Households often lack have had contact with institutions. About half of these the knowledge, awareness, and financial means to adopt households judge these contacts as being useful in the such strategies. Moreover, it often is difficult to adopt adoption of adaptation strategies. Extension agencies are them due to poorly functioning markets. Because of the the institution mentioned most frequently. Furthermore, virtual absence of formal institutions, reducing market national authorities, regional authorities, local authori- problems is difficult. ties, and seed production authorities are contacted for assistance, but only by a few households. Surprisingly, P O LI C Y R E C OM M E N D ATI O N S for the sites in the RALP districts, institutional assis- tance is not noticeably higher than in the other villages. More Emphasis on Coping Strategies This may be due to the fact that the RALP project is a rather new initiative, or the fact that households There is little attention to strategies for coping with included in the village survey were not familiar with it. external stress, such as improving education or diversify- Setting up networks of extension agencies, as done in ing income. This is particularly the case for the sites that the RALP project, and gaining trustworthy relationships are most exposed to climate change hazards (Arraheebah with the village households takes time. In addition, in the drylands). Except for migration, many of the RALP also sets up cooperatives to improve the access to income diversification options are constrained by institu- local markets. Next to the few “outsiders� who provided tional, market, and financial factors. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 45 Im pro ve Wa ter Resour ce Management a sense of urgency and a feeling of ownership from the side of the households, relationships between external Although the emphasis of Yemeni farmers is already institutions and the community (clan) should be good. more on sensitivity reducing strategies such as irrigation This requires the long-term presence of these institu- and water harvesting techniques, there is still a need to tions. Investments in training and an emphasis on creat- expand the implementation of those strategies in order ing adequate ownership by the households could be to improve water resource management. Groundwater beneficial to implement these strategies. This can be levels are going down rapidly. In order to stop this facilitated by institutions taking into account the clan development, water resource management should be and neighborhood orientation. improved. Adaptation of more water management strat- egies should be advocated. Institutions Should Put More Emphasis on Climate Change Adaptation Strategies F inancial Bu r den of Yemeni Househol d s According to stakeholders, there are institutions present With respect to the promotion of applying more adap- in most villages. However, the assistance of those insti- tation strategies, financial constraints for Yemeni farmers tutions is not associated with climate change adaptation are pressing for two reasons. On the one hand, house- by households, according to the stakeholders. In the sites holds spend their money on medicines to treat diseases selected for the RALP project, a minor share of stake- among family members and on water collection with holders mention that extension agents are present, but high prices. On the other hand, the costs of water the respondents in the survey hardly mentioned any resource management strategies such as irrigation are assistance from them. This would be a first step toward extremely high for Yemeni citizens. Promoting financial the use of institutions for adaptation strategies and an assistance such as micro-finance could help farmers opportunity to extend the services of institutions for improve their water resource management and secure adaptation strategies as well. crop growing seasons. This will require a more explicit role for institutions and micro-finance C o n t i n u a t i o n o f C o m m u n i t y - B a s e d I n i t i a t i v es organizations. Such as the RALP Project In crease Owner shi p to Impl ement Com m u n i t y In the study, the villages in the RALP districts do not Strate gie s show noticeably better results than the other villages, which could possibly be explained by the fact that the Communal actions seem to be difficult to initiate. project is relatively new. However, in terms of institutions Yemeni farmers seem to focus on applying strategies and networks, the RALP project shows progress in the on their own. Provided the transaction costs of collective institutional presence (e.g. extension agencies) and the action can be overcome, communal strategies could be creation of networks for market access (e.g. cooperatives). less costly (per farmer) and can help farmers to adopt It is an interesting project that could be also be used to strategies themselves. These actions need investments facilitate training for innovative adaptation strategies and and training from external institutions, which are virtu- built an enabling environment (e.g. market access) in the ally absent in many regions. Moreover, in order to create process of reducing household vulnerability. 46 REFERENCES Vulnerability. Summary for Policy Makers. Geneva: IPCC and World Meteorological Organization. Adger, W.N. 2003. “Social capital, collective action and Kassam, A.H., H.T. van Velthuizen, P.H. Sloane, G.W. adaptation to climate change.� Economic Geography 79: Fischer, and M.M. Shah. 1991. Agro-Ecological Land 387–404. Resources Assessment For Agricultural Development Planning. A Case Study of Kenya. World Soil Resources Agrawal, A., and N. Perrin. 2009. Mobilizing Rural Reports,71/5. Rome: FAO. Institutions: A comparative Study of Rural Institutions for Improving Governance and Development: Kok, M.T.J., and J. 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ME T H ODOL OGY AND COSTING discussion aims at obtaining hands-on and detailed F RA ME W OR K information on (1) concepts, perceptions, ideas of a group on perceived climate related hazards and their The study set out to answer the following research effect on livelihoods of the different social groups, (2) questions: the adaptation strategies, (3) the type of institutional support obtained to deal with climate related hazards • Which adaptation strategies have been adopted in and (4) the costs associated with the adaptation strate- the past? gies. Institutional stakeholder interviews focus on (1) the • For which hazards have these strategies been types of services provided by the various institutions, (2) adopted and to what extent are the adaptations their role in assisting households with adaptation, (3) related to climate variability hazards rather than their linkages with authorities, and (4) the costs used for other hazards? performing their tasks as well as identifying their • Which inputs in terms of cash, materials, informa- constraints. tion, or labor were required in order to adapt to the changed circumstances? The household data were analyzed to explore whether • Which household and livelihood characteristics clusters of households, livelihood or vulnerability profiles explain why certain households adopt particular can be distinguished in order to see the linkages between strategies? adaptations, and clusters. Furthermore, a costing frame- • Which formal or informal institutions are most rel- work was set up (see below) to identify important cost evant for assisting or stimulating households to elements of the different adaptation strategies. The use of adopt certain strategies? a combination of household questionnaire, focus group discussions, and institutional stakeholder/expert inter- The study was conducted in Yemen with a reasonable views helps to increase the reliability of data by increas- representation of major agroecological regions. Both ing the tools for triangulation, among other things. primary and secondary data were collected for the analy- Moreover, data on some of the questions involving sis. The primary data were collected through a house- community activities were verified in focus group discus- hold questionnaire, focus group discussions, and sions. Finally, the results were cross-checked with experts institutional stakeholder interviews. The household working in related areas. We are aware of the limitation V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 49 of the number of research villages for representation and study represents a case study of the selected regions and wider generalization. However, the issue of representa- the results should be interpreted in that light. tion cannot be addressed by just increasing the number of regions by one or the number of villages within the The questionnaire was pre-tested to judge if it is regions. This would only reduce the errors. Rather, the comprehensible to the average respondent. COSTING FRAMEWORK 50 Costs Costing Adaptation Methodology Individual costs Communal costs External costs Adaptation options Inputs Time Training needs Inputs Time Inputs Training needs Agricultural techniques Seed selection: select drought costs of improved or training on improved training on use of resistant/tolerant crops like different seeds cultivation seeds improved seeds sorghum and heat and salinity methods resistant crops. Adapt planting dates changes in labor training on training on allocation cultivation cultivation methods methods Adapt cropping densities/mixed changing input costs additional labor time training on training on cropping due to intensification cultivation cultivation methods methods Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application changing input costs additional labor due to training on fertilizer and training on changed input use cultivation pesticides cultivation methods methods Adapt tillage practices (changes in changing input costs additional labor time training on new tillage training on priorities in land use, land area related to new tilling cultivation tools cultivation cultivated, labor input) methods methods methods Apply different zero grazing costs for feed use; additional labor due to training on communal material for training on techniques costs for stall changing livestock livestock labor provi- stall livestock farming construction farming methods management sioning construction; feed Change composition of herd (e.g. costs for feed ; additional labor training on more goat and less cattle) and opportunity costs for related to changing livestock livestock products different types of livestock farming management livestock methods Improve food storage facilities costs for food labor for storage training on food communal training on food storage construction facility construction storage facilities labor provi- storage sioning Change the herd composition costs for livestock labor time for training of purchase/sales alternative herd livestock management management Change the pastoral system labor time for (distance and frequency of alternative herding mobility) regimes Water management techniques Use water harvesting techniques: materials needed for labor time training on water land for labor time for materials training on water collect water from roofs, collect water harvesting harvesting water wells, construction and needed for harvesting water in tanks, . . . harvesting maintenance of water techniques systems water storage harvesting C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S and ponds facilities Improve, construct or rehabilitate materials needed for labor time for training on farming land for labor time for materials training on terraces terrace construction construction, on terraces terraces construction, needed for terrace and renovation maintenance and maintenance and terrace construction and rehabilitation rehabilitation construction maintenance and and on farming on renovation terraces Use irrigation materials for labor for construction training on the use land for labor for materials training on construction and of irrigation systems; of irrigation irrigation construction of needed for set setting up and maintenance of time for communal facilities and water canals and irrigation up of irrigation maintaining irrigation systems; water management management systems systems; set up systems; legal irrigation; training costs for water; of water user documents for on communcal costs for pumping association or a organizing water comparable water user management organizaton associations V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N Reuse treated wastewater systems to labor for managing set up of labor to set up, materials for training on redistribute water waste water treatment wastewater maintain and wastewater wastewater from waste water and for applying storage manage storage and treatment facility to plots treated waste water and wastewater treatment facilities and treatment treatment facility; facility management facility training on wastewater treatment and management Improve watering sites in pastoral labor for well and land for labor for pond materials for determination of areas pond construction ponds; construction; set designing, optimal location materials up of water user constructing and design of for design- association and ponds; ing, con- maintaining assistance with structing ponds water user and main- association taining ponds Diversification Use alternative sources for fuel costs for new training on new cooking capacity building wood. cooking facilities alternative cooking facilities and on cooking, and fuel facilities. fuels fuelwood problems, etc. Temporary migration to urban investments in reduced on-farm labor depend- awareness areas or abroad transport costs and availability during ence of raising on (dis) living expenditures off-season those stay- advantages of ing at migration home on neighbors (continued next page) 51 52 COSTING FRAMEWORK Costs Costing Adaptation Methodology Individual costs Communal costs External costs Adaptation options Inputs Time Training needs Inputs Time Inputs Training needs Temporary migration to other rural investments in reduced on-farm labor depend- awareness areas (e.g. plantations) transport costs and availability during off- ence of raising on (dis) living expenditures season those stay- advantages of ing at migration home on neighbors Permanent migration (to other rural investments in reduced on-farm labor depend- awareness areas, urban areas or abroad) transport costs and availability during ence of raising on (dis) living expenditures entire year those stay- advantages of ing at migration home on neighbors Non-timber forest product investments in tree labor time needed for invest- labor time investments in training on non- commercialization (e.g. gum cultivation planting and ments in needed for tree cultivation timber forest production) maintaining forests tree cultiva- planting and product commer- tion maintaining cialization forests Home-garden agriculture/legume investments in labor for home-garden improve training on home- based agroforestry/horticulture home-gardens; cultivation marketing garden cultivation seeds, fertilizers channels; seeds, etc. Increase market sales labor for marketing improve improve information on local marketing price fluctuations markets channels and and price road development infrastructure Handicrafts/commerce inputs for labor for handicrafts improve improve information on handicrafts local marketing price markets channels development Reduce expenses by changing lower costs but high consumption patterns (meal opportunity costs composition, frequency of meals) due to reduced productivity Draw down on livestock, surpluses lower reserves or savings C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Communal pooling Restore and preserve homestead costs of labor for replanting training on labor for trees, seeds, training on or mountain forests to reduce reforestation reforestation replanting materials, reforestation erosion and peak-flows from fertilizers, . . . intense rainfall Rangeland preservation and labor for implementing rangeland set up of a legal assistance with grazing restrictions management systems management rangeland embedding of rangeland training management rangeland management system management system systems Set up community seed banks and labor for facility storage labor for storage storage knowledge on food storage facilities implementation facilities management facilities optimal storage techniques V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N Soil erosion prevention programs costs for erosion labor for erosion labor for erosion inputs needed training on of farming landv prevention works measures measures for erosion erosion measures prevention (e.g. stones, measures (e.g. trucks, rock bunds, . . .) materials) Change local water management labor for alternative water labor for water training on water rules and regulations water management management management management training ass. 53 54 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S A 1. B . HOUSEHOL D QUESTIONNAIRE of the costing elements asked for and the way they are asked for have changed. The main reason for simplifying R a tionale of the Questi onnai r e and shortening the questions 2 through 6 is that for the purpose of this study, it is not necessary to obtain Compared to the household questionnaire as presented detailed information on individual household member in the inception report, the questionnaire as used in the characteristics and household activities. For example, it villages contains a number of changes. The changes were is not necessary to know: made in response to comments received during the three launching workshops, lessons learned from the missions • for each household member how many years of edu- to the three project countries, observations from the cation they have; members of the project team, and lessons learned during • what is the exact relation between land cultivated, the pilot interviews. yields and sales; • the exact number of each possible type of livestock The objective of the household questionnaire was to owned and the exact sales of animals; learn about the following issues (in order of importance): • the exact catch and sales of fish. • Which adaptation strategies do rural households In these questions we ask for information in such a level adopt? Which climate-related hazards explain why of detail that it allows us to define different types of households choose these strategies? households and livelihoods and to be able to analyze • What are the costs the households have to make which characteristics explain the choice of a particular when they adopt a particular strategy? strategy. More detailed information on the above issues • Which institutions are most helpful to assist the is interesting and relevant for farming systems studies or households adopting particular adaptation strategies? household analyses. For the purpose of our study, • Are there differences in the adaptation strategies however, this information is not necessary and would adopted by particular household types or wealth distract us from the main objective. Moreover, much of classes; which livelihood characteristics best explain the information that is not asked for (e.g. on the amount which strategies are adopted? harvested and the number of animals owned) is sensitive information for which it can be wondered whether relia- In order to reach these objectives, information was ble answers will be given. Furthermore, in the question- collected on four issues: naire, a number of additional questions were raised in order to obtain gender specific information on adapta- 1. Factors explaining livelihood type and wealth class: tion. Below, the questions are discussed in order. this contains information on e.g. primary activity (e.g. farming type), household characteristics (size of 1. The first question is necessary in order to obtain household, level of education, . . .), assets owned, land general information about the respondent and the cultivated, crops cultivated, livestock owned, and type of household the respondent is representing. access to financial resources. An important determinant of the adaptation strate- 2. Information on perceptions regarding climate gies adopted will be the main activity of the house- related hazards. hold. For that reason, the respondent is asked to 3. Information on the adaptation strategies adopted rank using a participatory approach (using cards and the costs made to apply the strategies in terms indicating the possible occupations, if possible using of money, time and in-kind inputs. pictures) the importance of the different activities 4. Information on the institutions with whom house- for their household. For small households, it is pos- holds have contacts. sible that they are only involved in one or two activi- ties. Larger households and especially extended Compared with the household questionnaire in the families are probably involved in multiple activities. inception report, the order of some questions was Here, it is also asked whether the activity is per- changed, questions 2 through 6 have changed and some formed especially by the men or women in the V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 55 household, in order to learn more about the gender household budget is managed by the men, this ques- issues. tion can be deleted. 2. In the second question, we ask for information 4. The fourth question only applies for households about household composition and household charac- owning livestock. Livestock is an important savings teristics. The way this question is asked may differ source for many households. For pastoralists, it is per country. In principle, it is preferable and easier their primary source of income. Different from the for the interviewer to ask each individual member draft version, we do not ask for detailed information about their age, years of education and relation to on the amount of animals owned and sold for a the household head. However, for example for large number of possible types of animals. The main Yemen, it may be preferable to ask for more aggre- reason for this is that people are usually not willing gate information for two reasons. First, Yemen to give exact insights in the number of animals extended families may have a too large number of owned and sold. Moreover, in order to learn more household members, making this question too time about the wealth class of the household, it is suffi- consuming. The country teams have the choice to cient to have information in a more aggregate man- ask one of the two questions, as long as all house- ner. For that reason, we ask for information per hold within one country receive the same question. livestock category: breeding cattle, dairy cattle, trac- The question also contains a sub-question on tion animals (oxen, mule, horse), small ruminants migration. This is for double-checking the adoption (goats/sheep) and poultry. Moreover, we ask about of the adaptation strategy to permanently or tempo- the number of animals currently owned and the rarily migrate. number owned 12 months ago. This gives informa- 3. The third question elicits information about land tion on changes in wealth class. This information is and crops cultivated. In the draft version of the also meant to double check some of the questions questionnaire, we also asked for information about related to the adaptation options, to indicate the amount harvested and the amount sold. whether wealth has increased or decreased and to Moreover, it was proposed by some people to add indicate whether households are participating in the questions about the date since when particular crops money economy. are cultivated and on whether cultivation of particu- 5. The fifth question only applies for households lar crop has increased or decreased. This last ques- engaged in fishing activities. We ask which types of tion would give information about the effect of fish are caught and whether they sold fresh or pro- changing climate characteristics on crops cultivated. duced fish. Like in the previous question, we do not We decided not to add this question as it is already ask for the amount of fish caught because it is too part of question 8. Moreover, it is difficult for difficult to answer such a question. respondents to indicate how much of each crop was 6. The sixth question deals with asset ownership. The harvested and how much was sold. Moreover, this types of assets owned are an important determinant level of detail is not necessary. In order to know of wealth class. The more or more luxury assets more about household type and wealth class, it is owned, the wealthier the household will be. It is sufficient to know how much land is cultivated with expected that wealth class partly explains the types the different types of crops and whether or not they of adaptation strategies adopted. In the analysis, we sold part of their harvest on the market. The size of distinguish four types of assets: basic necessary the land cultivated with particular crops tells us assets (especially equipment), basic non-essential which type of farming system we are dealing with assets (like radio, jewellery, bicycle/moped, . . .), lux- (small-middle-large farm, subsistence-mixed-cash ury assets (like a cell phone, gas/petrol stove, refrig- crop oriented farm). The yes-no question on sales erator), and top-level assets (including a television, tells us whether households take part in the money car, and house built of bricks). For the basic neces- economy. We also ask information about ownership sary and non-essential assets, also the number of status of land to see whether land ownership has an assets owned is asked for. For the other types of effect on the adaptation strategies adopted. For assets it is asked when they are purchased in order countries for which it is sure that the entire to learn more about changes in wealth class. 56 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 7. The seventh question deals with the hazards house- based on discussions with several people. For house- holds experience and their perceptions on the holds who are only partially integrated in the mone- importance of these hazards. First, it is asked which tary economy, it can be expected that if they actually climate related hazards they have experienced in the have to spent money for adopting a strategy, they past and when they experienced them. In a narrative know the amount. Next, for the time and money manner, the respondent is asked in what period the spent on the strategy, it is asked who has to make hazard was experienced and whether they can recall the expenses: men-women, individual-communal- any major climate related events that have taken external. This gives information on the gender per- place in the last 30 years and that have caused sub- spective of adaptation and the importance of stantial changes in livelihoods. Based on that, it is communal and external aid to adopt particular strat- attempted to link it to a particular year. Next to egies. For the in-kind inputs, it is asked what type that, it is asked whether the households have any and how much of each input is used. In the data specific difficult periods throughout the year in analysis phase, it will be attempted to monetize order to learn more about the vulnerability of the these inputs in order to learn more about the household. It is also asked to what extent these haz- implicit costs of the options. Thirdly, it is also asked ards affected their activities and who is affected the what type of benefit is envisaged if an option is most. Thirdly, it is asked which hazards are consid- chosen. We distinguish between earning additional ered most threatening and whether they have cash income, reducing risk and increasing non-cash changed. Using a participatory approach (by order- income. Fourthly, it is asked whether the household ing cards with possible hazards) it is elicited how received help from institutions. This question is households perceive the importance of climate and important in order to be better able to target non-climate related hazards. Here, it is also asked assistance to institutions. It shows which entry whether the hazards especially affect men or points are important and what type of help the women, in order to learn more about gender differ- institutions need. ences in hazard perception. 8. In Question 8 more information is elicited about the In the first village in which the questionnaire is used, it types of institutions households have contacts with. is evaluated whether the questionnaire works as Moreover, it is attempted to link the reason for con- expected. If some questions are too difficult or are tacting a particular institution with the hazards they misinterpreted, they will be reformulated. It is attempted are facing (as asked for in question 7). This learns us to keep these reformulations as small as possible, such whether particular institutions have a certain focus that only the formulation changes but not the rationale on particular climate hazards. If they are not related and its position with the questionnaire. to any climate hazard, this is also indicated. 9. Question 8 is one of the most important questions N o t e s o n H o w t o C o n d u c t t h e Q u e s t i o n n ai r e of the questionnaire. Compared to the draft version, we have slightly changed the order and types of These notes give tips about how to ask for some of the questions. We first ask for the types of adaptation questions when conducting the questionnaire. options they have adopted, whether they are adopted by the men or women in the household, and why Question 1: (which hazard is reduced). Secondly, for those options adopted, we ask for detailed information • Not all questions have to be asked to the respond- about the costs. We distinguish between monetary ent. Village name and code, household code and sex costs, time input and in-kind input that were not of the respondent can be filled in without asking it purchased. In the draft questionnaire, a participa- to the respondent. tory approach was proposed to ask for the monetary • i. Rank occupations of the household in order of costs. The rationale for this was that it was thought importance: Use the cards as given at the end of the to be difficult to memorize the costs made for a par- questionnaire and ask the respondent to lay them ticular option. We decided to change this approach down in such a way that the most important V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 57 occupation of the household is put on the left side column a. When the questionnaires are finished, the and the least important occupation on the right side. interviewer has to fill in the crop codes in the first Activities not performed can be put on a separate column of the table. pile. Once the options are ranked, ask whether the • b. Ask for each crop how much land was cultivated activities are especially performed by men or by with that crop. In the cells, fill in the amount of women. An alternative way of ranking is to give the land cultivated in the last 12 months. Make sure respondent 15 stones and ask them the put stones on that for all households within a village the same unit the cards indicating how important they are. The of measurement is used. interviewer has to write down the number of stones • c. ask for each crop whether the household sold a put on each card. Make sure that for all villages part of its stock on the market in the last 12 within one country the same approach is adopted. months. Tick yes or no. If a crop is sold, ask whether the earnings from the sales are managed by Questio n 2: the men or the women. If the household budget is managed by both equally, tick both M and W. If it First, the country team has to choose whether option is sure that the entire budget is managed by the men 1 or option 2 is chosen. In case of option 1 aggregate (e.g. in Yemen), this question can be deleted. information will be asked for on household composition. • d. ask for how much land the household has owner- In option 2, questions will have to be asked for per ship rights or permanent or long-term use rights. household member. Use the same unit of measurement as in question b. • e. ask how much land was rented or sharecropped • a. within each cell, fill in the number of men or in. Land sharecropped in is land cultivated by the women within a certain age class. Ask the respon- household that is owned by another household. dent how many boys/girls under the age of 15 life in the household, how many men/women in between Question 4: 15 and 30 live in the household, etc. Permanently migrated people must not be included. Temporarily • a. First ask whether the household owns livestock. If migrated members should only be included if they the answer is no, look around to see whether indeed live in the household at the time of the interview. there are no signs that not even poultry is owned. If • b. first ask whether household members have tem- the household indeed does not own any livestock, porarily migrated to another village, city or abroad move to question 5. in the last 12 months; secondly ask for the age of • b. for the types of livestock indicated in the first the migrated household members. In the cells, fill in column of the table, ask whether the number of ani- the number of people of a certain age class who have mals owned is in one of the classes indicated. Tick temporarily migrated. the cell indicating the number of animals they own. • c. first ask whether household members have perma- Check whether the answer given is plausible. If a nently migrated from the village. If people have large number of animals are observed close to the migrated, then ask the age and sex of the people dwelling, ask more questions about who owns these migrated. In the cells, fill in the number of people animals. The distinction made between cattle and of a certain age class of have permanently migrated. dairy cattle refers to livestock owned especially for • d. ask how many boys/girls/men/women have had purpose of meat or reproduction or for the purpose education in one of the indicated classes. In the of milk production and sales. cells, fill in the number of household members who • c. similarly to question 4b, ask how much livestock were in school for a particular number of years. was owned 12 months ago. Questio n 3: Question 5: • a. first ask which crops the household cultivated in • a. first ask whether the household engages in fishing the last 12 months. Fill in the names of the crops in activities. Tick the correct answer. Secondly, if they 58 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S engage in fishing activities, ask whether they do it 5. being unfavourable than normal years with individually or as a member of a fishing group. If higher than average temperatures which com- the answer to the first question is no, move to bined with long periods without rainfall resulted question 6. in scorched crops. • b. indicate the type of fish people catch. When the • b. If they experienced one of the hazard described questionnaire is finished, the interviewer has to fill above, ask when the period took place. If they don’t in the fish codes in the first column of the table. know the year ask for events that have taken place in • c. ask whether the household sells any freshly caught that period that can be traced back to a year(s). fish during the last 12 months. Tick the correct answer. • c. Ask whether people can recall whether there are • d. ask whether the household has sold any processed any periods in the past 30 years, that can be charac- fish. Processed fish is cleaned, smoked or dried. terized by major droughts, major floods or major Tick the correct answer. shifts in rainfall pattern and that have caused sub- stantial changes in the way people make a living. Questio n 6: • d. Ask people to describe in their own words the major weather related hazard they are facing in their • in the table a list is given of possible assets house- daily activities. Is it related to the amount of rain- holds can own. For the first list of assets it has to be fall, the variability (spread of showers over the rainy asked whether they own these assets. Tick yes or no. period), the temperature, . . . . If they own them, ask for the number of the asset • e. Ask the respondent whether in the last 12 months they own. they had a period in which they experienced problems • For the second list of assets, it has to be asked to sufficiently feed all household members. Also ask whether they own the asset. Tick yes or no. If they the months in which they experience these problems. own the asset, ask when they purchased the asset. • f. for the hazards for which the respondent indicated that they have experienced it, ask how it affected 1. Questio n 7: crop production (were yields less??) – 2. area culti- vated (did they cultivate less fields??) – 3. livestock • a. For the five hazards indicated in the first table of owned (did animals die or did they sell animals??) – question 7, ask whether people experienced in their 4. fish landed (did it affect catch) – 5. assets owned lifetime periods of more than one year that can be (were assets sold to get cash??) – 6. cash income (did characterized as they own less cash??) 1. being more unfavourable than normal years with • g. ask whether the effect had a larger effect on the lower amounts of rainfall than normal during the men or the women of the household, or whether rainy season, leading to droughts, and which there is no difference. they remember as being distinctly different from • h. For the 10 hazards given in the table (and on other periods; cards) ask the respondent to order the cards in such 2. being more unfavourable than normal years with a way that the most important hazard is put on the more irregular rainfall, e.g. because it was dry for left side and the least important on the right side. a long time after the first rains or because the Hazards that are not at all deemed to be important first rains started later or because there were too can be put on a separate pile and scored 0. long periods without rain during the farming • i. ask the respondent whether the hazards indicated in season, leading to droughts and reduced yields; the table have become more or less threatening than in 3. being more unfavourable than normal years the past. Compared to the past, do they affect produc- because it had periods of excessive rainfall due to tion, income and consumption more than in the past? which fields flooded; 4. being more unfavourable than normal years Question 8: because it knew excessive showers leading to damage to crops, livestock or property (e.g. • a. Ask with which organizations listed in the table destroyed roofs); the household holds contacts with V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 59 • b. If they have contacts with the organizations, ask • for diversification techniques relating to how often they have contacts with the migration, people migrating probably have organizations. to spent time on preparing their trip and it • c. If they have contacts with the organizations, ask takes time before they start earning a living for how long they are in contact with the (ask for how much time it takes to find organization. work); for diversification techniques relat- • d. The interviewer has to check whether the ing to new activities, it takes time make moment since when they are in touch with an orga- handicrafts, collect timber or produce nization is related to any of the climate events as charcoal. listed in question 7. • For communal pooling, the activities indicated • e. ask whether the assistance given by the organiza- take time to build. tions is useful to reduce the weather related hazards 2. Also ask who did the work: 1. men from the as discussed in question 7. household, 2. women from the household, 3. men jointly with other men from the commu- Questio n 9: nity, 4. women jointly with other women from the community, 5 people from other • This question is the most important question of the organizations. questionnaire. It is important to get a full overview 3. Ask whether people had to make cash expendi- of the strategies people have adopted to reduce the tures to start the activity. effects of the different hazards asked for in the pre- • For agricultural activities, cash expenditures vious question. refer to seeds, equipment, inputs, building • a/b. For the different strategies listed ask whether materials and other cash expenditures people have made these changes in their activities in • For water management techniques, cash order to reduce their dependence on weather. If they expenditures refer to investments in water adopted a strategy ask whether the decision to adopt collection systems, inputs, equipment, the strategy was made by one of the men or women materials, etc. in the household. Moreover, in that case ask which • For diversification techniques related to of the hazards listed in question 7 was the main rea- migration, cash expenditures refer to travel son for changing their activities. If none of these costs and money needed to cover the first hazards was the reason, give the score 6. period in which people don’t earn an income • c. fill in the strategies asked for in question a were yet. For techniques referring to other adopted to reduce any of the climate related hazards. activities, cash expenditures refer to • d. in this question, we have to ask which invest- equipment and materials needed to start these ments had to be made for adopting the strategy. activities. This refers to cash expenditures that had to be • For communal pooling techniques, cash made, time needed to make the change and in-kind expenditures refer to expenditures on inputs inputs that were needed. Moreover, it is asked and equipment that have to be made by the whether the time spent or cash expenditures made household. are done by men, by women, by the community or 4. If people had to make cash expenditures, how by external organizations. much money did it cost them in the first year 1. ask whether in first year after adopting the strat- after they adopted the strategy. egy, adoption cost them more time compared to 5. Like for question d.3, ask who had to make the their normal activities and how much time (days). expenditures • For agricultural activities, this may be clear: 6. Ask the type of in-kind input they needed and do the new activities cost more time than the how much. This has to be filled in in a sepa- usual practice; rate table. In-kind inputs may include equip- • for water management techniques, setting up ment or materials that are available in the and maintaining the systems asks for time; household or in the village. It refers to all inputs 60 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S except for the inputs they purchased and 3. did their non-cash income increase (higher labor input. production, more livestock) • e. Ask which benefits they obtained from adopting • f. ask whether they were assisted, advised, trained or the strategy; supported by organizations or institutions working 1. did they earn more cash income, in the village. 2. did they have less risk to lose production or ani- • g. if they were assisted by any organization, ask what mals; did they have less risk on income or food type of input they received: training, labor, inputs, shortages; did they have less risk to water shortages? cash or food. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 61 1 . V il l a g e a n d h o u s e h o l d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s V101. Village Name: V103. Household code V102. Village code: 1 2 3 4 5 6 V104. Respondent name: V105. Sex of respondent: Male Female V106. Relation of respondent to household head 1. Household head 2. Wife of household head 3. Other, namely ........................... V107. Number of years the family of the household members is living in the village: ...................................................................... VI08. Number of years, household occupies this residence: ...................................................................... V109. Rank occupations of the household in order of importance Use cards indicating the possible activities and ask the respondent to indicate the importance of the activities by allocating 5 stones over the seven items, for which they allocate more stones to the more important activities) V110. Indicate whether the activity is especially performed by men or women; if there’s no difference, tick both answers. (V110) Performed by men or women (V109) Main activities of the household Men Women No difference Crop farming Animal husbandry Off-farm labor (non-agricultural) Trade and commerce Civil servant Other: V111 Observations: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 2. Household composition and household characteristics This question deals with the household members who are currently living within the household and those who migrated for less than 12 months. V201 What are the names of the household members? Tick male or female V202 What is the sex of each member of the household? V203 What is the relation of the household members to the household head? V204 What is the age of each member the household7? V205 How many years of education did the household member receive? V206 Did the household member migrate for a period of less than 12 months during the last year? Tick yes or no. V201. V205. V206. V200 Name household V202. V203. V204. Years of Temporarily No. member Sex Relation to household head Age education migrated 1 2 3 4 5 . . . 20 1 = Male 1 = Household head 1 = Yes 2 = Female 2 = Wife 2 = No 3 = son - daughter 4 = brother-sister 5 = Parents (in law) 6 = Brother/sister (in law) 7 = Uncle/aunt 8 = Nephew/niece 9 = Migrated household member 10 = Other............ V207 Are there any household members who belong to the household but who have migrated permanently? Yes/No Note that these do not refer to household members who left the household to start their own household somewhere else. It refers eg. to husbands or wives who have migrated permanently with the objective to cent cash to the village. V208 If there are household members that migrated permanently. . how many household members have migrated permanently?.............. V209 Observations:.......................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................... V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 63 3. Crops cultivated last year V301 Did you cultivate any of the crops listed below during the last 12 month (tick if the crop is grown) V302 How much land have you cultivated with each of these crops? V303 From which crops harvested during the last 12 months did you sell a part? (tick ‘yes’ or ‘no’). V304 If crops are sold, ask whether the money earned is managed by the men or women. If the household budget is managed equally by the men and women, tick both cells ‘men’ and ‘women’. V304 V302 V303 Income I by Income managed by V301 Land cultivated Sold whom? V300 Crops cultivate Crop during the last 1 = Yes code 12 months Amount Unit 2 = No Men Women 1 2 3 . Up to . 20 V305 How much land do you own or have permanent or for? ........................................ (unit) V306 How much land do you rent or sharecrop in? ............................................ (unit) V307 Observations:.................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................ Cell phone Television Boat House built of stones/bricks Car Other .............................. V605 Observations: ........................................................................................................................................................ ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 4. Livestock V401 Does the household currently own livestock or animals? Yes/no If the answer to V401 is yes, continue with question V402, otherwise continue with V403. V402 How much livestock does the household currently own? (mark the category indicating the number of livestock owned in the table below) V402 How much livestock does the household currently own? Livestock 1–2 3–5 6–10 More than 10 1. Cattle 2. Traction livestock (e.g. camels. mules, horses, oxen) 3. Goats 4. Sheep 5. Rabbits 6. Poultry V403 Did the household own livestock or animals one year ago? Yes/no If the answer to V403 is yes, continue with question V404, otherwise continue with V405. V404 How much livestock did trie household own 12 months ago (mark the category indicating the number of livestock owned in the table below) V404 How much livestock did the household own one year ago? Livestock 1–2 3–5 6–10 More than 10 1. Cattle 2. Traction livestock (e.g. mule, horse, oxen) 3. Goats 4. Sheep 5. Rabbits 6. Poultry V405 Observations:.......................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................................................ Note to interviewers: check to what extent this corresponds with the hazards given in the previous table. V705 In the last 12 months, were there any periods in which the household experienced difficulties to suffi- ciently feed all household members? If there were such periods, which months were difficult? Yes/No V706 If there were difficulties to sufficiently feed all household members in the last 12 months, can you indicate in which months this occurred? V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 65 V706. e.2 Which months were difficult? Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec V707 Due to climate related hazards, to what extent did you experience effects in crop production? V708 Due to climate related hazards, to what extent did you experience effects in cultivated areas? V709 Due to climate related hazards, to what extent did you experience effects in livestock? V710 Due to climate related hazards, to what extent did you experience effects in Fisheries? V711 Due to climate related hazards, to what extent did you experience effects in Assets Owned? V712 Due to climate related hazards, to what extent did you experience effects in income cash? V713 Are male and female household member equally, affected by the climate related hazards? V713 Gender effect V707 V708 V709 V710 V711 V712 1 = Male Crop Area Livestock Fish Assets Cash 2 = Female Effect of hazard on livelihoods production cultivated owned landed owned income 3 = No difference Unfavorable years with less rainfall during the rainy season leading to droughts Unfavorable years in which the rainy season has periods of prolonged drought, leading to crops drying out or livestock dieing because not having sufficient water. Unfavorable periods, within a year with excess rainfall leading to floods Unfavourable periods within 3 year with too heavy showers leading to damage to crops, livestock, and property Unfavorable periods characterized by periods in a year of extreme temperatures, leading to scorched crops 66 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V714 Rank the hazards given below from the least important (1) to most important (10). V715 If you compare the situation in the last five years with the period before. Have the hazards become more threatening in the last 5 years? V715 More or less threatening than in Hazards V714 Hazard ranking the past? 1 = Yes 2 = No Drought due to less, rainfall during the rainy season Draught due to periods of draught during the rainy reason Floods as due to excessive rainfall Damage due to excessively heavy showers Changed average and extreme temperatures Human diseases Animal or crop pests and diseases Decreasing soil fertility Problems with input purchase or output sales High food prices Others: ............. V716 Observations: ........................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................ V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 67 8. Institutions V801 With which organizations or groups does your household have contact? V802 If you have been in contact with an organization, how often do you have contacts? V803 If you have been in contact with an organization, since when have you been contacting the specific institution? V804 Is it possible to link the date since households are in contact with an institution with the date since a hazard is experienced as discussed in question V701 (numbered 1 to 5). V805 If you have been in contact with the organization, has the help or assistance obtained been helpful to prepare your household for hazards which are a danger for your household? Yes/No V802 V804 Frequency of contacts Link to hazards in with institutions question 7 1 = Never 1. Drought V806 2 = Occasionally 2. Rainfall variablity Helpful for V801 3 = Once a year V803 3. Floods adaptation In contact 4 = A few times per year Have been 4. Changed temperature 1 = Yes 5 = Every month in contact 5. Human diseases 1 = Yes Organization hazards 2 = No 6 = Every week since 6. Other........ 2 = No 1. National Authorities (central) 2. Regional Authorities at governorate levels 3. Local authorities at district levels 4. Extension centers 5. International Donors 6. Non-Governmental Organization 7. Cooperatives 8. Schools 9. Banks 10. Village communities 11. Religious communities 12. Women’s groups 13. Micro-finance groups 14. Self-help groups 15. Unions 16. Other........... 68 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S List o f Ad aptati on Str ategi es Agricultural techniques A1. Crop selection A2. Adapt planting fruits (olives and peanuts....etc) A3. Adapt cropping densities A4. Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application A5. Adapt tillage practices A6. Change the posture system (distance and frequency mobility) A7. Change the herd composition A8. Apply different feed techniques, like e.g. zero grazing A9. Change from pastoral to sedentary agricultural system A10. Improve food storage facilities A11. Others Water management techniques B1. Use water harvesting techniques: roof water collection tanks B2. Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces B3. Use groundwater irrigation B4. Improve waterring sites in pastoral areas B5. Other..... C. DIVERSIFICATION C1. Temporal migration to urban areas or abroad C2. Temporal migration to other rural areas (e.g. plantations) C3. Permanent migration (to other rural areas, urban areas or abroad) C4. Home-garden agriculture C5. Increase market sales C6. Handicrafts C7. Charcoal or timber sales C8. Reduce expenses by changing consumption (type and number of meals) C9. Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings C10. others C. Communal techniques D1. Restore and preserve homestead or mountain forests to reduce erosion D2. Rangeland preservation and grazing restrictions D3. Soil erosion prevention programmes (e.g. community terracing) D4. Communal water harvesting, tanks D5. Communal irrigation D6. Others..................... V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 69 9. Major strategies of the household to cope with hazards V901 Do you apply the adaptation options given below in order to adapt to the hazards given in the previous question? If No, go to the next item V901b If V901b = Yes, from where do you get this TECHNIQUE (1 = Self-resource 2 = Mouth-to-mouth 3 = From external resource) V902 Who decided about the strategy change; men, women or both? V903 If the adaptation strategy is adopted, which of the hazards are reduced? (1 = Drought due to less rainfall during the rainy season; 2 = Drought due to periods of drought during the rainy season; 3 = Floods due to excessive rainfall; 4 = Damage due to excessively heavy showers; 5 = Changed average and extreme temperature; 6 = other) V901 Is the If V901b = Yes, strategy from where do you V902 Who is get this decides to V903 adopted TECHNIQUE adopt? Which hazards are reduced? 2 = Drought 1 = Drought due to 4 = Damage 5 = Changed 1 = Self-resource as a result of periods of 3 = Floods due to average and 2 = Mouth-to-mouth 1 = male less rainfall drought due to excessively extreme Strategy 1 = yes 3 = From external 2 = female during the during the excessive heavy temperature type* 2 = no resource 3 = both rainy season. rainy season rainfall showers and others 6 = other 1 2 3 4 5 - - - - - *See list below Interviewer: Only FILL out these questions for ALL adopted STRATEGIES FROM QUESTION V901 What are inputs did you need for this strategy: V904 How much time did you have to allocate the activity in the first year after which you adopted the strategy? V905 If time had been allocated to the task, who had to spent these hours on the activity? V906 Did the strategy cost you a certain amount of money in the first year after you adopted it ? V907 If the strategy did cost you money, for how many rals. Did you purchase inputs or materials in the first year after which you adopted the strategy? V908 In the strategy cost money, who has to estimate these costs? V909 Did you need any kind of (in-kind) inputs such as equipment, manure, seeds, other inputs) for the adaptation strategy? → If yes, fill out the next table as well. V910 What kind of benefits did you obtained from adopting the strategy? 70 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V911 Which institutions provided help in terms of training, inputs and assistance relevant for the hazards mentioned under (b)? 1. National authorities 6. Non Governmental Organization 11. Religious communities 2. Regional authorities 7. Cooperatives 12. Women's groups 3. Local authorities 8. Schools 13. Micro-finance groups 4. Extension Agency 9. Banks 14. Self-help groups 5. International donors 10. Village Communities 15. Unions V912 What kind of inputs did you obtain from these Institutions? V808 V808 V809 806 Did you esti- Who did estimate the Did you need V810 V811 V812 Inputs from Who did the work? mate costs? costs? inputs Benefits Institutions Institutions 1 = Individual men 1 = training 2 = Individual women 1 = Individual men 2 = labor 3 = Men from the 2 = Individual women 3 = Inputs (seeds, community 3 = Men from the 1 = additional cash equipment, V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 4 = Women from the community income; wood, machin- V804 community V807 4 = Women from 2 = loan risk; ery, bricks...) Strategy Time spent 5 = Other 1 = Yes Costs community 1 = Yes 3 = increased non- 4 = cash type* (Days) organizations 2 = No (Yemen Real) 5 = Other organizations 2 = No cash Income See that 5 = food 1 2 3 4 5 - - - - - *See list above 71 72 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S If respondents received assistance from organizations for a particular adaptation strategy, please ask the following question on the assistance organizations: V820 Did you get training/advice? V821 How many days of training did you get? V822 From which institution did you receive training? V823 Did you get labor (hired or for free)? V824 How many days of labor did you get? V825 From which institution did you receive labor? V826 Did you get inputs such as seeds, equipment, manure, wood, machinery, bricks etc.? V827 How many inputs did you get? V828 From which institution did you receive inputs? V829 Did you get cash? V830 How many cash did you get? V831 From which institution did you receive cash? V832 Did you get food? V833 How much food did you get? V834 From which institution did you receive food? V924 V923 How V926 V928 V934 V921 V922 Did many V925 Did you get V927 From V930 V931 From How From you days From inputs such as How which How From which V920 many which get of which seeds, many institu- V929 many which V932 V933 institu- Did you days of institution labor labor institution equipment, inputs tion did Did cash institution Did How tion did get training did you (hired did did you manure, wood, did you you did did you you many you training/ did you receive or for you receive machinery, you receive get you receive get food did receive Strategy* advice? get? training? free)? get labor? bricks etc.? get? inputs? cash? get? cash? food? you get? food? c.a FILL IN THE ADOPTED STRATATEGIES FROM 1 = Yes 1 = Yes 1 = Yes 1 = Yes QUESTION 2 = No 2 = No 1 = Yes 2 = No 2 = No V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N V901 if “no�, if “no�, 2 = No if “no�, if “no�, (PREVIOUS go to go to if “no�, go to go to go to PAGES) V923 V926 V927 V930 V930 1 2 3 4 5 .. .. .. .. .. * see list above Observation: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 73 74 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S A 1. C. I NS T ITUTIONAL STAKEHOL DER Q U E S TI ON N A I R E Part 1: General Questions for all Institutional Stakeholders 0. Administatrative Answer Village name Region Date of interview 1. General statistics of respondent. Answer 1a. What is your main activity/position/profession in the village (please describe)? 1b. How long have you held this position? years 1c. Age 1d. Education (number of years) years 2. Livelihoods in villages continuously change because of many outside changes. Improvement of livelihoods is threatened by many different hazards a. Rank the hazards given below from the least important (1) to most important (10)1 b. To what extent have the hazards become more or less threatening for the village compared to the past? (a) (b) Hazards Hazard ranking More or less threatening than in the past? Drought due to less rainfall during the rainy season Drought due to periods of drought during the rainy season Floods due to excessive rainfall Damage due to excessively heavy showers Changed average and extreme temperatures Human diseases Animal or crop pests and diseases Decreasing soil fertility Problems with input purchase or output sales High food prices Other: . . . . . . . . ... 1 = lot less 2 = less 1 = least important 3 = same .... 4 = more 10 = most important 5 = lot more. 1 See note at the end of the questionnaire. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 75 3. a. What kinds of organizations are present in your village? b. Which of these organizations deals with assisting the population to adapt to changing weather characteristics? c. How important are these organizations for helping the population to adapt to changing weather characteris- tics in terms of how good they help the population and how many people they reach? If present, deals with Importance of institution? Present? adaptation strategies 1 = not at all important Services Yes No Yes No 5 = very important Extension agents 1–2–3–4–5 International donors and development organizations 1–2–3–4–5 Nongovernmental organizations 1–2–3–4–5 National authorities 1–2–3–4–5 Regional authorities (regional administration) 1–2–3–4–5 Local authorities (local administration) 1–2–3–4–5 Cooperatives 1–2–3–4–5 Schools 1–2–3–4–5 Banks 1–2–3–4–5 Village communities 1–2–3–4–5 Religious communities 1–2–3–4–5 Women’s groups 1–2–3–4–5 Micro-financing groups 1–2–3–4–5 Self-help groups 1–2–3–4–5 Unions 1–2–3–4–5 Other: . . . . . . . . ... 1–2–3–4–5 Other: . . . . . . . . ... 1–2–3–4–5 4. Discussion question: (type of service needed) • Which organization(s) are in your opinion most helpful or best to help the population adapting to the risks of weather variability? • What type of assistance do households need in order to adapt to the risks of weather variability? Training, knowl- edge, inputs, financial aid, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, soil erosion prevention or water harvesting, . . ..? • What kind of problems hamper to your opinion the activities of the organizations who are assisting the popula- tion to adapt to changing weather variability. • What kind of external assistance or help do organizations who are working in this field need in order to improve their results? Financial help, knowledge/training, inputs/material, back-up from governmental or international organizations, . . . . .? PART 2: Questions only for stakeholders representing an institution/organization. 5. General questions on organization • Name of organization • Geographical area served by the institution (villages/areas) • Number of full-time staff employed by the institution • Number of part-time staff employed by the institution 76 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S • Gender of the staff: % female. • Estimation of average age of staff (years) • Number of years institution is in operation (years). 6. Type of institution • What is the goal/objective of the institutions? • What type of service does your institutions provide? What are the activities of the institution? • What is the benefit that members get from joining/participating in your institution? 7. Membership/clients of institution • Who can become member or receive services? • What are the criteria for becoming a member or for receiving services (Is this dependent on social standing, on economic standing or on geographic area?) • Are there any restrictions on becoming member or receiving services? • Are there any limitations for membership or services (i.e. only a certain number of years that members can receive service) • Does the institution provide the same type of service to all members? (Is the service dependent on social group or level of need?) 8. Funding • Where do the institutions get funding from? • For formal institutions: What is the annual budget of your organization? How is the budget allocated over personnel expenses and activities initiated? • For formal and informal institutions: Assume that your institution has a budget of 100 ‘tokens’. If you would allo- cate this budget over the services you provide, how would you allocate it? Moreover, if this budget would have to be allocated over different types of members or different groups within the community, how would you allocate it? 9. Climate impacts • Has there been an extreme weather event that has impacted the type of service you provide or the demand for the type of service you are providing? • Was the service still applicable or effective during the weather event? • What strategies were employed to adapt to the change in conditions? • During extreme weather events in the past, were there different forms of distribution (either physical route or social connections) of the services? • Were the same number of people served? Were there more people seeking assistance? Fewer people seeking assistance? • What role do you see organizations playing in implementing or promoting adaptation strategies? Capacity building? Funding? 8. What government policies support institutions? • What government policies are restrictive to institutions? • Do supportive or restrictive government policies play a role in determining whether you work with institutions in the country? V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 77 Hint on Question 2: In order to ask respondents to rank the different hazards from most to least important, it is possible to give them cards like the ones given below and ask them to order them on the basis of their importance. Afterwards, the interviewer can number them and fill in the form. I LLUS T RAT IVE PHOTOS PHOTO 1: DROUGHT DUE TO LESS RAINFALL PHOTO 2: HUMAN DISEASE DURING RAINY SEASON PHOTO 3: PROLONGED PERIODS OF DROUGHT PHOTO 4: ANIMAL OR CROP PESTS DURING RAINY SEASON AND DISEASES 78 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S PHOTO 5: FLOODS DUE TO EXCESSIVE PHOTO 6: DECREASING SOIL FERTILITY RAINFALL PHOTO 7: DAMAGE DUE TO EXCESSIVELY PHOTO 8: PROBLEMS WITH INPUT PURCHASE HEAVY SHOWERS OR OUTPUT SALES PHOTO 9: EXTREME TEMPERATURES LEADING PHOTO 10: HIGH FOOD PRICES TO E.G. SCORCHED CROPS V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 79 A 1. D. F OCU S GROUP DISCUSSION of the composition of the community. The list of people invited is set up jointly with the local authorities and Within each village, one focus group discussion is organ- representatives from the projects active in the villages. ized. The focus group discussion is a qualitative method with the objective to obtain hands-on and detailed infor- Using images and pictures from different hazards, mation on concepts, perceptions and ideas of a group. climate risks and adaptation options, the following The results from the discussion complement results and discussion questions are brought forward: insights obtained from the household questionnaires, institutional stakeholder interviews and expert interviews. • Which climate or rainfall related hazards do you The main objectives of these group discussions are: face in your daily life? • For drought hazards: to what extent has the start • to obtain more insights into the perceptions on the of the rainy season and the amount of rain fallen main (climate) hazards communities and households during the rainy season varied over the last dec- are facing; ades? Do you adapt farming strategies if you have • to obtain more information about the changes in experienced drought problems over the past years? hazards and adaptation options; Are there differences in crops grown, tillage tech- • to obtain more information about the reasons for niques, planting dates, activities performed, adoption or non-adoption of the different adaptation equipment used, . . . .? Did you change the compo- options; sition of your livestock owned, livestock • to obtain more information about the advantages/ management, . . .? disadvantages/bottlenecks/strong points/weak points • For flood hazards: to what extent has the of the different adaptation options; amount of rainfall or the intensity with which • to obtain more information about the institutions it rains changed over the last decades? Do facilitating the adoption of certain adaptation options; you change farming and livelihood strategies if • to obtain more information about the you have experienced regular flooding prob- bottlenecks preventing institutions to give useful lems over the past years? Are there differences help; in crops grown, tillage techniques, planting • to obtain more information about differences in dates, activities performed, equipment used, . . . .? strategy adoption between socio-economic groups Did  you change the composition of your live- with the community stock owned, livestock management, . . .? • How much do these changes cost you in terms in In the focus group discussions, a group of 15 to 20 resources used, labor requirements, etc.? people from the village is invited and with the help of a • Which organizations, authorities or people are most facilitator are stimulated to talk freely and spontaneously helpful to learn more about how to prepare for these about the issues mentioned above. A ‘recorder’ keeps a hazards? How can these organizations perform there record of the discussion as well as the emotional reac- tasks better? tions and important aspects of the group interaction. An • To what extent are choices dependent on ethnicity, assessment of the emotional tone of the meeting and the wealth class, gender? group process enables us to judge the validity of the information collected. Depending on the direction in which the discussion is going, questions are phrased in a certain way or empha- The length of each of the discussions takes approxi- sis is put on particular topics. It is attempted to cover all mately two hours. Mixed groups of men and women are the above questions during the discussion. During the invited or held separately, as appropriate to the context. discussion, the recorder pays particular attention to The groups contain different age classes and have to whether representatives from different socio-economic contain as well people who experienced the droughts in groups answer the questions differently, whether they the 1970s. Moreover, people from different wealth have different perceptions, use different adaptation classes are included in order to get a good representation options or are dependent on different institutions. 80 APPENDIX 2. DATA ANALYSIS A 2. A . DE S CRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF T H E H OU S E H O LD S TABLE A.1. MA IN DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY SITES – SEE ALSO TABLE A2.1B BELOW Village Average household size % male members Dependency ratio Average age 1 Al Wathan 9.8 48 0.89 22.2 2 Arraheebah 8.2 51 1.17 19.2 3 Dhi-Shraq 8.2 61 0.46 26.0 4 Mu’aneet 8.3 58 0.65 24.7 5 Al Mehraq 8.4 52 0.78 23.4 6 Al Masajed 8.8 56 0.72 23.8 Total 8.6 54 0.76 23.2 Notes: 1. Dependency ratio = (number of children under the age of 16 plus elderly people above 60) / (number of adults in between 16 and 60 years) TABLE A.2. DIFF ERENCES IN EDUCATION AND MIGRATION – SEE ALSO TABLE A2.2B BELOW Temporary migration Average years of education Average age of migration % hh with Boys Girls Men Women temp. migr. Men Women 1 Al Wathan 2.8 2.3 7.6 0.9 6.7 36.2 18.0 2 Arraheebah 2.7 1.2 5.9 1.2 1.2 31.2 3 Dhi-Shraq 4.4 3.6 9.9 5.0 4.6 33.2 4 Mu’aneet 3.6 1.9 8.5 2.3 4.6 39.6 5 Al Mehraq 3.2 2.8 8.7 2.7 1.7 50.6 6 Al Masajed 2.6 3.9 8.1 3.6 5.8 42.4 Total 3.2 2.6 8.1 2.6 4.1 38.5 18.0 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 81 TABLE A.3. MAIN ACTIVITIES OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE STUDY SITES share of the hh for whom the activity is the 1st, 2nd or 3d important activity (in %) Trade and Agriculture Livestock raising Daily labor commerce Civil servant 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 Al Wathan 60 40 0 0 30 48 0 0 0 0 2 4 42 28 8 2 Arraheebah 67 33 0 0 49 20 14 6 4 2 0 0 10 0 0 3 Dhi-Shraq 62 38 0 0 32 14 8 2 0 2 0 0 18 4 0 4 Mu’aneet 80 18 2 0 48 22 0 8 6 4 0 0 16 18 6 5 Al Mehraq 54 44 2 0 28 26 22 16 6 0 0 0 14 4 0 6 Al Masajed 55 43 0 0 37 31 8 0 2 4 2 2 27 14 14 Total 63 36 1 0 37 27 9 5 3 2 1 1 21 11 5 Share of work especially done by (in %)* Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women 1 Al Wathan 66 44 76 0 0 10 0 80 0 2 Arraheebah 100 92 69 69 24 0 2 0 10 0 3 Dhi-Shraq 100 84 46 44 10 0 2 0 22 0 4 Mu’aneet 100 88 70 68 14 0 4 0 40 0 5 Al Mehraq 100 94 52 56 44 0 0 0 18 0 6 Al Masajed 98 73 67 63 10 0 8 0 55 2 Total 100 83 58 63 17 0 4 0 37 0 Note: If the sum of the shares of men and women is larger than 100, it means that for a part of the households the work load is equally divided over men and women 82 TABLE A.4. MAIN T YPES OF CROPS GROWN Average acreage planted with (ha) Average area per household Cereals Legumes Millet Sorghum Vegetables Herbs Cash crops 1 Al Wathan 1.85 1.15 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.01 0.13 2 Arraheebah 2.12 0.70 0.00 0.66 0.47 0.12 0.09 0.05 3 Dhi-Shraq 0.22 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 4 Mu’aneet 0.84 0.65 0.09 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.01 5 Al Mehraq 0.33 0.26 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 6 Al Masajed 2.35 1.55 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.16 0.00 Total 1.29 0.74 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.04 Share of households cultivating (%) Cereals Legumes Millet Sorghum Vegetables Herbs Cash crops 1 Al Wathan 98 46 0 0 58 10 44 2 Arraheebah 78 0 55 35 37 6 10 3 Dhi-Shraq 90 0 0 2 8 4 52 4 Mu’aneet 90 42 16 22 0 12 8 5 Al Mehraq 94 8 16 30 0 2 10 6 Al Masajed 100 78 0 0 20 51 0 Total 92 29 15 15 21 14 21 Share of producing households (%) who sold any of their Crop Cereals Legumes Millet Sorghum Vegetables Herbs Cash crop 1 Al Wathan 14 8 0 0 50 6 38 14 2 Arraheebah 10 0 8 2 27 2 10 10 3 Dhi-Shraq 2 0 0 0 8 4 34 2 4 Mu’aneet 4 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 5 Al Mehraq 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 6 Al Masajed 6 2 0 0 8 4 0 6 Total 6 2 1 0 16 3 14 6 Note: All information on crops was measured in surface units. In the questionnaires conducted in Al Wathan (Sana’a). Al Masajed (Sana’a) and Ma’enet (Al Mahweet) land was measured in Libna (44.4 m2). For Al Rahaiba (Taiz), Thy Yashreq (Ibb), and Al Mehraq (Taiz) cultivated land was measured in Qsaba (20 m2 ). C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 83 TABLE A.4B. DETAILS ON AREA CULTIVATED AND LAND OWNED Quartiles Average Standard Minimum acreage deviation acreage 25% 50% = median 75% 100% = max 1 Al Wathan 1.84 1.63 1.21 1.21 6.84 2 Arraheebah 2.12 4.44 1.00 1.00 24.00 3 Dhi-Shraq 0.22 0.32 0.13 0.13 2.00 4 Mu’aneet 0.86 0.84 0.67 0.67 5.33 5 Al Mehraq 0.33 0.65 0.12 0.12 3.24 6 Al Masajed 2.36 1.77 1.78 1.78 6.78 Total 1.29 2.27 0.58 0.58 24.00 TABLE A.5. LIVESTO CK OWNERSHIP Average heads of livestock per household Share of hh (%) Breeding and owning livestock dairy cattle Traction livestock Goats Sheep Rabbits Poultry Tlu 1 Al Wathan 92 1.5 1.5 3.5 4.0 0.0 3.4 3.2 2 Arraheebah 76 0.9 0.7 2.5 2.5 0.3 0.4 1.8 3 Dhi-Shraq 64 0.8 0.2 1.7 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.8 4 Mu’aneet 86 1.2 0.4 1.8 1.5 0.0 1.0 1.5 5 Al Mehraq 64 0.7 0.2 2.6 1.5 0.0 0.9 1.0 6 Al Masajed 84 0.9 1.1 2.2 2.6 0.5 2.3 2.2 Total 78 1.0 0.7 2.4 2.1 0.2 1.4 1.8 Average heads of livestock last year Breeding and dairy cattle Traction livestock Goats Sheep Rabbits Poultry Tlu 1 Al Wathan 2.0 1.9 5.2 6.1 0.0 4.5 4.4 2 Arraheebah 1.4 0.9 4.7 4.7 0.6 1.9 2.8 3 Dhi-Shraq 1.7 0.3 3.7 1.0 0.0 0.8 1.9 4 Mu’aneet 1.7 0.5 2.8 2.4 0.0 1.3 2.2 5 Al Mehraq 1.3 0.2 4.4 3.7 0.1 2.8 1.8 6 Al Masajed 1.2 1.4 3.4 4.5 1.2 4.7 3.0 Total 1.5 0.9 4.0 3.7 0.3 2.7 2.7 Change in livestock holdings compared to last year (in %) Breeding and dairy cattle Traction livestock Goats Sheep Rabbits Poultry Tlu 1 Al Wathan –26 –24 –32 –34 –23 –26 2 Arraheebah –38 –22 –46 –47 –48 –80 –35 3 Dhi-Shraq –55 –53 –52 –78 –57 –55 4 Mu’aneet –31 –18 –37 –38 –26 –30 5 Al Mehraq –46 –28 –41 –59 –100 –69 –46 6 Al Masajed –26 –24 –34 –42 –52 –52 –28 Total –37 –25 –40 –45 –52 –48 –34 Note: 1. TLU = tropical livestock units. TLU conversion factors: Cattle in herd: 0.7, Cows: 1.0, Sheep: 0.1, Goat: 0.08, Poultry: 0.01 and Rabbits: 0.01 (see Kassam et al., 1991). Note 2. In Al Wathan there are also two bee keeping households. 84 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE A.6. ASSET OW NERSHIP Quartiles Standard Mean deviation Min. 25% 50% 75% Max. 1 Al Wathan 76 111 18 41 661 2 Arraheebah 32 12 9 28 68 3 Dhi-Shraq 38 24 19 33 168 4 Mu’aneet 39 25 14 32 160 5 Al Mehraq 34 24 10 29 173 6 Al Masajed 51 42 17 41 257 Total 45 40 14 34 247 Notes: 1. Four types of assets were distinguished, which were weighted from 1 till 4 to calculate a household specific asset ownership indicator. The four of assets were: 1) basic farming equipment including a plow, hoe, axe, sickle, shovel and fishing equipment; 2) basic assets including jewelry, cart, improved stove, radio and bicycle; 3) more luxury assets including iron roofed house, separate kitchen house, gas or petrol stove, refrigerator, stable for livestock and mobile phone; and 4) tv, boat, house built of cement, and car. FIGURE A.1. HISTOGRAM OF ASSET OWNERSHIP PER VILLAGE 25 20 Number of households 15 10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 140+ Asset score Al Wathan Al Rahaiba Thy Yashreq Ma'enet Al Mehraq Al Masajed TABLE A.1B. DETAILED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY SITES Standard Average number of household members per age class Average Minimum Median Maximum deviation 0–15 15–30 30–45 45–60 60+ Total household household household household household Village size size size size size Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 1 Al Wathan 9.8 2 10 21 3.49 2.1 2.2 1.5 1.8 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 4.7 5.1 2 Arraheebah 8.2 2 8 20 3.63 2.1 2.2 1.3 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 4.2 4.0 3 Dhi-Shraq 8.2 3 8 15 2.86 1.3 1.0 2.3 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 5.0 3.2 4 Mu’aneet 8.3 2 8 18 3.08 1.5 1.3 2.1 1.3 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 4.8 3.5 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 5 Al Mehraq 8.4 2 8 16 2.96 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.3 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 4.3 4.1 6 Al Masajed 8.8 3 8 16 3.46 1.7 1.5 2.0 1.4 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 5.0 3.9 Total 8.6 2 21 3.28 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.3 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 4.7 4.0 TABLE A.2B. DETAILED EDUCATION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY SITES: SHARE OF EDUCATION CLASSES FOR AGE- SEXE COMBINATIONS Boys < = 15 Girls < = 15 Men > 15 yrs Women > 15 yrs 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 1 Al Wathan 66 22 12 100 72 24 4 100 27 9 56 7 100 89 5 6 0 100 2 Arraheebah 72 23 5 100 90 10 0 100 45 23 20 12 100 86 13 1 0 100 3 Dhi-Shraq 45 43 12 100 62 21 17 100 24 10 38 29 100 58 5 31 7 100 4 Mu’aneet 57 32 11 100 84 13 3 100 28 12 37 22 100 77 10 11 2 100 5 Al Mehraq 63 29 8 100 69 22 9 100 23 13 47 17 100 69 14 14 2 100 6 Al Masajed 73 24 3 100 53 32 14 100 27 13 44 16 100 58 20 23 0 100 Total 64 28 8 100 73 20 7 100 28 13 41 18 100 73 11 14 2 100 85 86 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S A 2. B . DE S CRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF T H E C LU S TE R S TABLE B.1. HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS Number of hh Share of children Share of males in Share of females members in hh (<15 yrs) hh (>15 yrs) in hh (>15 yrs) Asset score hh per cluster Share (%) Mean St.Dev. Mean St.Dev. Mean St.Dev. Mean St.Dev. Mean St.Dev. 1 88 29.1 9.98 3.29 36.60 22.87 33.23 18.15 30.17 15.46 60.3 58.8 2 100 33.1 8.05 2.78 29.72 22.74 43.27 20.54 27.01 13.08 33.0 22.7 3 43 14.2 8.33 3.46 20.31 22.70 49.50 20.95 30.18 14.60 37.0 11.8 4 24 7.9 7.21 2.26 62.20 10.20 17.15 5.92 20.65 6.41 66.8 129.6 5 18 6.0 9.33 4.47 46.68 14.71 28.99 12.53 24.33 10.82 50.1 54.2 6 29 9.6 7.62 3.26 44.83 24.15 31.41 20.03 23.77 13.99 30.3 10.4 302 100.0 8.62 3.28 35.43 24.18 37.16 20.54 27.41 13.86 45.0 53.2 Note: St.Dev. = standard deviation. TABLE B.2. AGRICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS average acreage Average acreage planted with (ha) per hh Cereals Legumes Millet Sorghum Vegetables Herbs Cash_crops Union and garlic Fruit Rest 1 1.54 76.8 6.5 1.5 1.3 5.9 0.5 7.3 0.0 0.0 0.1 2 0.55 81.4 2.3 0.2 2.1 1.9 0.6 11.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 3 1.72 58.5 20.7 2.5 3.2 1.3 9.3 0.4 0.1 0.0 1.7 4 0.86 62.7 6.3 4.3 8.2 7.4 0.4 10.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 1.60 31.1 2.3 1.3 7.3 44.2 1.5 1.4 7.8 2.5 0.6 6 2.62 20.0 0.0 28.6 46.2 1.5 0.6 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 1.29 66.4 6.3 4.0 7.0 5.9 1.8 6.9 0.9 0.1 0.3 st.dev. of acreage % of households cultivating per hh Cereals Legumes Millet Sorghum Vegetables Herbs Cash_crops Union and garlic Fruit Rest 1 1.69 22.7 10.6 6.0 6.6 11.3 1.8 15.8 0.2 0.0 0.9 2 0.92 28.4 7.0 1.4 9.6 6.4 2.5 26.1 1.3 0.0 0.0 3 1.55 23.1 16.9 6.6 8.7 4.6 14.2 1.7 0.8 0.0 5.2 4 1.22 31.7 12.1 11.4 17.3 22.2 1.6 22.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 1.66 16.7 5.9 4.0 17.9 23.3 3.5 4.3 13.4 7.0 2.4 6 5.71 20.4 0.0 18.2 39.0 4.7 3.1 0.0 8.9 0.0 0.0 2.27 31.9 11.9 11.2 20.1 14.9 6.5 18.9 4.7 1.8 2.1 Share of households selling (%) Share of hh who sold (%) Cereals Legumes Millet Sorghum Vegetables Herbs Cash_crops Union and garlic Fruit Rest 1 66 14 8 0 0 50 6 38 0 0 4 2 41 10 0 8 2 27 2 10 14 0 0 3 38 2 0 0 0 8 4 34 0 0 0 4 6 4 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 6 14 6 2 0 0 8 4 0 2 0 0 28 6 2 1 0 16 3 14 3 0 1 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 87 TABLE B.2B. DETAILS ON AREA CULTIVATED Percentiles (ha) Average acreage Minimum acreage (ha) Standard deviation (ha) 25% 50% 75% 100% 1 1.84 1.63 1.21 1.21 6.84 2 2.12 4.44 1.00 1.00 24.00 3 0.22 0.32 0.13 0.13 2.00 4 0.86 0.84 0.67 0.67 5.33 5 0.33 0.65 0.12 0.12 3.24 6 2.36 1.77 1.78 1.78 6.78 1.29 2.27 0.58 0.58 24.00 88 TABLE B.3. LIVESTOCK CHARACTERISTICS Large livestock Small livestock No animals 1–2 animals 3–5 animals 6–10 animals >10 animals no animals 1–2 animals 3–5 animals 6–10 animals >10 animals Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % 1 0 0 32 36 53 60 2 2 1 1 0 0 12 14 16 18 13 15 47 53 2 60 60 40 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 81 81 1 1 6 6 4 4 8 8 3 9 21 10 23 24 56 0 0 0 0 19 44 2 5 8 19 5 12 9 21 4 19 79 5 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 50 5 21 2 8 2 8 3 13 5 7 39 7 39 4 22 0 0 0 0 12 67 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 33 6 8 28 10 34 11 38 0 0 0 0 10 34 4 14 5 17 5 17 5 17 103 34 104 34 92 30 2 1 1 0 134 44 24 8 37 12 29 10 78 26 Note: Freq. = frequency TABLE B.4. AVERAGE RANKING OF HAZARDS AND OBSERVATIONS ON WHETHER THE HAZARD HAS BECOME MORE THREATENING 2. Drought due 1. Drought due to periods of 5. Changed 9. Problems to less rainfall drought during 3. Floods due 4. Damage due average and 7. Animal or with input during the rainy the rainy to excessive to excessively extreme 6. Human crop pests and 8. Decreasing purchase or 10. High food   season season rainfall heavy showers temperatures diseases diseases soil fertility output sales prices Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat Rank threat 1 7.8 93 6.5 68 2.1 14 4.4 25 5.3 57 4.4 38 5.7 63 4.0 36 5.5 65 8.2 89 2 9.2 97 7.0 76 1.4 11 4.1 29 4.8 44 4.5 55 5.6 72 4.1 35 5.8 79 8.1 92 3 8.3 86 6.0 60 2.8 9 4.5 19 5.6 65 5.0 51 4.9 51 3.6 30 6.0 67 8.1 88 4 9.1 100 7.4 83 2.1 13 3.3 17 4.8 46 4.3 54 5.7 71 4.1 38 6.5 92 7.8 83 5 8.9 94 7.5 94 1.1 22 5.2 44 5.3 78 4.3 67 4.6 78 4.7 67 4.5 78 7.4 89 6 9.5 100 6.6 83 1.3 3 4.5 28 4.5 41 5.4 83 5.6 76 3.3 31 5.8 93 8.8 97 8.8 95 6.8 78 1.8 12 4.3 27 5.1 55 4.7 58 5.3 68 4.0 39 5.7 79 8.1 90 Notes: 1). The average rank is the average over all households from a cluster. The higher the number, the more important the hazard is perceived. 2) The columns ‘higher threat’ give the percentage of C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S households from a cluster whom indicate the hazard has becoming more threatening in the last five years V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 89 TABLE B.5. PERCENTAGE HOUSEHOLDS FACING FOOD SHORTAGES IN PARTICULAR MONTHS Number of % of hh months May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr 1 34.1 1.2 5 6 2 2 0 3 1 7 0 6 1 7 2 41.0 1.2 8 5 6 2 3 2 1 3 0 2 7 12 3 18.6 1.1 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 5 5 2 4 16.7 2.0 8 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 50.0 1.4 22 6 6 6 6 0 0 0 0 11 6 11 6 37.9 1.6 3 7 10 7 7 0 3 3 0 3 10 7 34.1 1.3 7 5 5 3 2 2 1 3 0 4 5 8 A2 . C . ST R AT EG IE S AD O PT ED F OR VIL L A GE S A N D C LU S TE R S 90 TABLE C.1. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS FROM CLUSTERS AND VILLAGES ADOPTING PARTICULAR STRATEGIES Share of hh from cluster adopting a strategy (%) Share of households from villages adopting a strategy (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Al Wathan Arraheebah Dhi-Shraq Mu’aneet Al Mehraq Al Masajed Total A01 Crop selection 11 12 14 21 28 10 28 18 4 8 8 16 14 A02 Adapt planting dates 2 0 0 4 6 0 0 2 0 0 0 6 1 A03 Adapt cropping densities 9 3 5 17 0 0 18 2 0 8 0 6 6 A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 30 20 14 25 33 7 60 16 24 16 10 6 22 A05 Adapt tillage practices 16 8 5 8 0 17 18 18 20 4 2 0 10 A05 Change the pastoral system 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 A08 Apply different feed techniques. 8 3 9 0 0 0 8 0 0 14 2 4 5 A09 Change from pastoral to sedentary agricu 0 0 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 A10 Improve food storage facilities 5 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 4 0 0 2 B01 Use water harvesting techniques 13 9 12 13 11 0 12 8 10 14 4 12 10 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terra 30 13 16 25 0 3 26 2 2 46 20 10 18 B03 Use irrigation 31 18 28 25 61 21 56 39 30 0 0 33 26 C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abr 16 11 30 8 17 3 20 4 16 16 14 18 15 C02 Temporary migration to other rural areas 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 C03 Permanent migration 0 1 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 C04 Home-garden agriculture 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 C05 Increase market sales 0 0 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 C06 Handicrafts 5 2 0 0 0 0 6 0 2 0 2 2 2 C08 Reduce expenses by changing consumption 0 0 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 C09 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or sav 9 2 9 0 0 0 18 0 2 0 2 6 5 D01 Restore and preserve homestead or muntai 13 8 7 17 0 3 16 2 0 14 10 12 9 D02 Rangeland preservation and grazing restr 0 0 0 4 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 1 D03 Soil erosion prevention programmes 10 5 7 21 0 3 16 4 0 10 6 10 8 D04 Communal water harvesting, tanks 10 2 7 0 0 0 8 0 0 20 0 0 5 D05 Communal irrigation 17 7 14 17 17 0 42 6 6 0 0 16 12 Total 515 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE C.2. RANKING OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR CLUSTERS AND VILLAGES Rank of strategy per cluster Rank of strategy per site 1 2 3 4 5 6 Al Wathan Arraheebah Dhi-Shraq Mu’aneet Al Mehraq Al Masajed Total A01 Crop selection 9 4 4 4 3 3 4 2 7 9 5 3 5 A02 Adapt planting dates 17 12 7 9 9 17 A03 Adapt cropping densities 12 11 13 6 7 9 9 9 11 A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 2 1 4 1 2 4 1 4 2 3 3 9 2 A05 Adapt tillage practices 5 7 13 10 2 7 2 3 11 8 7 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N A05 Change the pastoral system 18 17 21 A08 Apply different feed techniques. 14 11 8 13 5 8 13 12 A09 Change from pastoral to sedentary ag. 7 17 21 A10 Improve food storage facilities 15 12 15 11 16 B01 Use water harvesting techniques 7 6 7 9 6 12 5 5 5 7 5 8 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terra 2 3 3 1 5 5 9 8 1 1 7 3 B03 Use irrigation 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abr 5 5 1 10 4 5 6 7 4 3 2 2 4 C02 Temporary migration to other rural areas 18 17 21 C03 Permanent migration 16 5 17 14 18 C04 Home-garden agriculture 18 16 17 8 18 C05 Increase market sales 7 17 21 C06 Handicrafts 15 13 15 8 8 14 15 C08 Reduce expenses by changing consumption 7 17 21 C09 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or sav 12 13 8 7 8 8 9 12 D01 Restore and preserve homestead or mt. forests 7 7 10 6 5 10 9 5 3 5 9 D02 Rangeland preservation and grazing restoration 12 5 11 18 D03 Soil erosion prevention programs 10 10 10 4 5 10 7 8 6 7 10 D04 Communal water harvesting, tanks 10 13 10 13 2 12 D05 Communal irrigation 4 9 4 6 4 3 6 6 3 6 91 92 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE C.3. COST ESTIMATES (YER 1,000) OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR THE OPTIONS THAT HAD A POSITIVE COST ESTIMATE FOR AT LEAST 10 OBSERVATIONS if all observations are included Mean Minimum Median Maximum St.dev. N A01 Crop selection 52.9 0.2 15.0 700.0 137.4 25 A02 Adapt planting dates 1704.0 12.0 100.0 5000.0 2854.8 3 A03 Adapt cropping densities 22.1 1.0 12.3 80.0 29.0 6 A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 28.8 1.5 11.0 200.0 39.7 32 A05 Adapt tillage practices 33.0 3.0 13.5 200.0 49.3 22 A05 Change the pastoral system 0 A08 Apply different feed techniques. 3.0 1.0 2.0 10.0 2.8 9 A09 Change from pastoral to sedentary agriculture 0 A10 Improve food storage facilities 6.5 3.0 6.5 10.0 4.9 2 B01 Use water harvesting techniques 37.3 1.0 15.0 300.0 67.7 20 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terra 33.6 0.0 14.0 140.0 35.3 34 B03 Use irrigation 678.8 3.0 150.0 7000.0 1530.4 42 C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 51.0 5.0 30.0 100.0 45.6 5 C02 Temporary migration to other rural areas 0 C03 Permanent migration 0 C04 Home-garden agriculture 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 1 C05 Increase market sales 0 C06 Handicrafts 0 C08 Reduce expenses by changing consumption 0 C09 Draw down on livestock, surpluses, or savings 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 1 D01 Restore and preserve homestead or mountain forests 56.5 5.0 30.0 200.0 57.4 15 D02 Rangeland preservation and grazing restoration 0 D03 Soil erosion prevention programs 43.4 9.0 25.0 150.0 43.7 11 D04 Communal water harvesting. tanks 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 1 D05 Communal irrigation 46.8 1.0 35.0 150.0 49.4 8 Note: respondents claim to have had costs for 237 out of 515 adaptation strategies. TABLE C.4. AVERAGE COST ESTIMATES (YER 1,000) OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR THE CLUSTERS AND SITES FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT STRATEGIES Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5 Cluster 6 Code Adaptation strategy Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N A01 Crop selection 21.0 2 26.5 10 147.2 5 36.3 3 28.3 3 42.5 2 A02 Adapt planting dates 100.0 1 12.0 1 5000.0 1 A03 Adapt cropping densities 13.5 2 1.0 1 9.5 1 47.5 2 A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 7.9 7 31.9 15 2.8 2 12.5 4 100.0 3 33.0 1 A05 Adapt tillage practices 20.0 6 6.9 7 70.0 2 13.0 2 78.2 5 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N A08 Apply different feed techniques. 2.3 4 1.5 2 5.0 3 A10 Improve food storage facilities 10.0 1 3.0 1 B01 Use water harvesting techniques 14.4 7 71.6 8 14.5 2 14.3 3 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terra 29.3 18 48.9 8 8.0 4 48.3 4 B03 Use irrigation 187.6 8 796.1 11 220.0 5 2087.5 4 668.8 8 575.0 6 C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 17.5 2 100.0 2 20.0 1 C04 Home-garden agriculture 40.0 1 C09 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 150.0 1 D01 Restore and preserve homestead or mountain forests 36.8 6 92.0 5 5.0 1 66.0 2 30.0 1 D03 Soil erosion prevention programs 51.4 5 62.5 2 26.7 3 15.0 1 D04 Communal water harvesting, tanks 18.0 1 D05 Communal irrigation 93.3 3 8.0 3 20.0 1 50.0 1 (continued next page) 93 94 TABLE C.4. AVERAGE COST ESTIMATES (YER 1,000) OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR THE CLUSTERS AND SITES FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT STRATEGIES Al Wathan Arraheebah Dhi-Shraq Mu’aneet Al Mehraq Al Masajed Code Adaptation strategy Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean N A01 Crop selection 29.0 8 51.0 2 186.0 4 12.3 4 27.9 7 A02 Adapt planting dates 100.0 1 2506.0 2 A03 Adapt cropping densities 15.0 1 27.0 4 9.5 1 A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 53.1 8 37.4 10 4.8 7 15.3 5 7.0 2 A05 Adapt tillage practices 53.8 9 7.6 10 67.5 2 30.0 1 A08 Apply different feed techniques. 2.9 7 3.0 1 4.0 1 A10 Improve food storage facilities 6.5 2 B01 Use water harvesting techniques 16.3 4 93.0 5 13.0 6 80.0 1 14.5 4 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terra 9,0 1 75,0 1 25,0 22 61,0 8 11,0 2 B03 Use irrigation 493.6 20 1286.8 14 77.6 8 C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 60.0 2 17.5 2 100.0 1 C04 Home-garden agriculture 40.0 1 C09 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 150.0 1 D01 Restore and preserve homestead or mountain forests 30.0 1 55.1 7 82.4 5 10.0 2 D03 Soil erosion prevention programs 12.5 2 50.8 5 61.7 3 13.0 1 D04 Communal water harvesting, tanks 18.0 1 D05 Communal irrigation 73.3 3 65.0 2 8.0 3 Note: Questions on costing of adaptation strategies has not been asked to respondents in Al Wathan. C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 95 A 2. D. I NS TITUTIONAL ACCESS FOR S I TE S A N D C LU S TE R S TABLE D.1. SHARE OF HOUSEHOLDS PER CLUSTER OR SITE THAT RECEIVES ASSISTANCE FROM A CERTAIN INSTITUTION National Regional Local Extension Seeds production Non governmental Religious Number of authorities authorities authorities agency authority organization communities contacts 1 2 1 0 3 0 0 0 7 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 7 4 0 0 4 4 0 4 4 17 5 0 11 6 11 0 0 0 28 6 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 7 total 1 1 1 4 0 0 0 7 Al Wathan 4 0 2 0 0 0 0 6 Arraheebah 0 4 0 8 2 0 0 14 Dhi-Shraq 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mu’aneet 0 0 4 4 0 2 0 10 Al Mehraq 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 4 Al Masajed 0 0 0 8 0 0 2 10 total 1 1 1 4 0 0 0 7 TABLE D.2. ASSISTANCE FROM INSTITUTIONS FOR DIFFERENT ADAPTATION STRATEGIES Local National authorities Guidance International Men Self-help authorities in Gov. centers donors groups groups Unknown Total A01 Crop selection 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 A02 Adapt planting dates 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 A03 Adapt cropping densities 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 B03 Use irrigation 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 D02 Rangeland preservation and grazing restrictions 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 D04 Communal water har- vesting, tanks 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 9 D05 Communal irrigation 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 Total 2 1 1 9 8 1 1 23 Note: no information on the site Al Wathan. 96 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE D.3. DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION SOURCES FOR APPLYING ADAPTATION STRATEGIES Talking between Code Adaptation strategy Personal source the farmers External source Total A01 Crop selection 25 6 0 31 Improve food storage facilities 3 0 0 3 A02 Adapt planting dates 3 0 1 4 A03 Adapt cropping densities 13 0 0 13 A04 Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 40 5 4 49 Adapt tillage practices 24 0 0 24 Apply different feed techniques. 11 0 0 11 Use water harvesting techniques 26 0 0 26 B02 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces 46 0 0 46 B03 Use irrigation 58 5 1 64 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 39 0 0 39 permanent migration 2 0 0 2 Home-garden agriculture 2 0 0 2 Handicrafts 4 0 0 4 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 5 1 0 6 Restore and preserve homestead or mountain forests 24 0 0 24 D02 Rangeland preservation and grazing restrictions 0 2 0 2 Soil erosion prevention programs 20 0 0 20 D04 Communal water harvesting, tanks 5 0 8 13 D05 communal irrigation 28 2 0 30 Total 378 21 14 413 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 97 TABLE D.3A. NUMBER OF TIMES A CERTAIN TYPE OF ASSISTANCE IS RECEIVED AS % OF THE TIMES ASSISTANCE IS GIVEN A. TIMES A CERTAIN TYPE OF ASSISTANCE IS RECEIVED AS PERCENTAGE OF THE NUMBER OF CASES IN WHICH ASSISTANCE IS GIVEN Clusters (%) Villages (%) Training Labor Inputs Cash Food Training Labor Inputs Cash Food 1 0.0 0.0 57.9 10.5 31.6 Kandara 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.4 84.6 2 0.0 0.0 95.8 4.2 0.0 Touara 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 3 0.0 0.0 84.6 15.4 0.0 Kondogola 0.0 0.0 33.3 66.7 0.0 4 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Fambougou 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0 64.3 0.0 35.7 Togou 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 6 0.0 0.0 80.0 20.0 0.0 N’Tjila 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 total 0.0 0.0 78.5 7.6 13.9 total 0.0 0.0 78.5 7.6 13.9 Note: Inputs includes seeds, equipment, wood, machinery, bricks, etc TABLE D.3B. TIMES A CERTAIN TYPE OF ASSISTANCE IS RECEIVED AS PERCENTAGE OF THE NUMBER OF THE NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS Clusters (%) Villages (%) Training Labor Inputs Cash Food Training Labor Inputs Cash Food 1 0.0 0.0 15.1 2.7 8.2 Kandara 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 22.0 2 0.0 0.0 65.7 2.9 0.0 Touara 0.0 0.0 68.0 0.0 0.0 3 0.0 0.0 25.6 4.7 0.0 Kondogola 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 4 0.0 0.0 23.5 0.0 0.0 Fambougou 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0 11.5 0.0 6.4 Togou 0.0 0.0 54.0 0.0 0.0 6 0.0 0.0 8.2 2.0 0.0 N’Tjila 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 total 0.0 0.0 21.0 2.0 3.7 total 0.0 0.0 20.7 2.0 3.7 Note: Inputs includes seeds, equipment, wood, machinery, bricks, etc. 98 TABLE D.4. TYPE OF ASSISTANCE INSTITUTIONS ARE GIVING TO THE HOUSEHOLDS National Regional Local Extension International Cooperatives Village Religious Women Micro-finance Authorities (%) Authorities authorities Agency (%) donors NGO (%) Schools Banks community community groups institution Training 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Labor 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Inputs 0 n.a. n.a. 98 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Cash 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Food 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. No. of observ. 1 0 0 62 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 Note: Inputs includes seeds, equipment, wood, machinery, bricks, etc. N = number of observations. C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 99 TABLE D.5. TYPE OF ASSISTANCE HOUSEHOLDS RECEIVE, IF THEY ADOPT A CERTAIN STRATEGY Cash Food Training (%) Labor (%) Inputs (%) (%) (%) N A02 Adapt planting dates 0 0 0 0 0 6 A04 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application 0 0 9.2 0 0 120 A08 Apply different feed techniques, like e.g. zero grazing 0 0 0 0 0 2 A10 Improve food storage facilities 0 0 0 0 0 21 A11 Improved seeds 0 0 0 0 0 233 A13 Change production practices 0 0 0 0 0 58 A15 Use manure of family herd on the field 0 0 0 0 0 206 B03 Use irrigation 0 0 95.8 0 0 48 B09 Drainage 0 0 0 0 0 21 C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 0 0 0 0 0 72 C02 Temporary migration to other rural areas 0 0 0 0 0 40 C05 Home-garden agriculture 0 0 28.6 0 0 7 C07 Handicrafts 0 0 0 60.0 0 10 C09 Start fisheries 0 0 0 0 0 3 C11 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 0 0 0 0 4.3 47 D08 Cereal bank 0 0 0 0 14.5 62 D10 Communal support 0 0 0 0 0 11 100 APPENDIX 3. SUMMARY OF FOCUS have and that in each season whether it is good season in rainfall or not. So they anticipate on the start of the GROUP DISCUSSIONS rainy season does not come time, they shift to crops of short cropping season. A 3. A . A L WATHAN What are the Impacts and Risks Date, time and place: 22/5/2010, 2:30 pm, Al Wathan, Resulted from Climatic Changes? Bilad Ar Rus, Sana’a Soil dryness and soil erosion due to unavailability of Occupation Number vegetation cover. Also, the low availability of water for Civil servant 3 animal feeding and grazing land results in animal Farmer 4 death. In addition, families face high costs for buying Farmer + Warden 1 animal feed and food since they have not harvested Teacher 1 enough grains for own consumption. Families are Total 9 facing theses risks and problems on their own. Some families deepen the wells until the wells dry out, some Which C lim ate or Rai nfal l Rel ated Haz a r d s families sell their animals, and some families immi- do yo u F a ce i n your Dai l y Li fe? grate to other villages. There were no floods during the past decade. Since 2000, Al Wathan experiences increasing periods of low rainfall during rainy seasons and periods of droughts. What are the Solutions Used to Adapt Rainfall in the year 2010 is till now very good. In the to Climatic Changes? past, there were three planting seasons in one year with different crops per season. Currently, there is only one Buying animal feed and family food, take livestock to cropping season. Occasionally, two cropping seasons areas where water and grazing land is good. occur but often the planting seasons do not reach to the end. Families and livestock are more vulnerable to W h i c h O r g a n i z a t i o n s , A u t h o r i t i e s o r P e o p le hazards and crops destroyed during the cold periods. a r e M o s t H e l p f u l t o L e a r n M o r e A b o u t H o w to P r e p a r e f o r t h e s e H a z a r d s ? H o w c a n t h e se What a re th e Acti vi ti es ar e Fami l i es O r g a n i z a t i o n s P e r f o r m t h e r e Ta s k s B e t t e r ? Adapte d to Over come Dr oughts and Low R ain fa ll ? And What the Impact? Local council has helped the people of Al Wathan by planning to construct water cisterns and small dams for All families are practicing all sorts of activities in the collecting water. Social Security Authority is helping the farms with good quality due to the experience. They poor with little amounts of money but that is not enough. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 101 A 3. B . A RRAHEEBAH • Hand drilling of wells for drinking and deepened from period to period due to drought, which led to Date, time and place: 17/5/2010, 4:00 pm, Arraheebah, an increase of salinity of water. Dimnat Khadeer, Taiz • Low per capita income led to inability to teach chil- dren in schools because children had to work to pro- Occupation Number vide a living necessary for the family. The families Farmer 4 disintegrated due to the low per capita income. Laborer 2 • The people had to sell land and savings to provide Preacher 1 necessary sustenance for the family. Student 3 • Land Desertification led to decrease of tourism. School Head 1 Citizens of the city used to visit the village due to Teacher 2 tourist attraction are not in more now. Total 13 S e c o n d : T h e S t a t e o f t h e C l i m a t e ( We a t h er ) What is the Cl i mate Changes that Occ u r r e d i n th e R e gio n Dur i ng the Ten Pr evi ous Ye a r s ? Increase of the cold in the winter period had deployed diseases among children and the elderly that over expen- Due to the lack of rain, there is diture for the purchase of medicines from the pharmacy without going to the doctor also spoke of some cases of • a spread of diseases among the citizens, plants and death. Remaining crops were used as fuel for heating. animals; Increase of the heat in the summer, diseases spread among • a change in the timing and parameters of children will increase the expenditures for the purchase of agriculture. medicines, agricultural crops existing combustion, evapo- ration of water because of the high heat of the sun, exces- What a re th e Effects and Consequence s sive water consumption, drought and water scarcity and (R isks) R esu l ti ng fr om These Changes fetch water from remote areas outside the region. in C lim ate ? Third: Diseases First: the lack of rain: - The spread of diseases such plague in animals, led to • Drought of springs resulted in loss of livestock. The diseases such as malaria, schistoso- a. low production of agricultural crops; miasis, respiratory diseases, infections and allergies b. diminishing number of cropping seasons per year spread among children. In addition, the gynecologic (season of corn, season of millet and sorghum diseases spread in women. The diseases spread in and season barley throughout the year). agricultural crops such as aphids and scabies. c. lack of cultivation of vegetables such as toma- toes, cucumber, potato and leek. What are the Solutions that have been • Lack of vegetation cover for grazing: Animals die used to Adapt to Climate Change? due to starvation or people sell their animals such as cows and sheep at low price. Food and grain is S o l u t i o n s A d o p t e d t o C o p e w i t h L a c k o f Rai n bought from the market at high prices. • The people lost their source of livelihood or home • Digging of artesian wells; products (ghee - milk - yoghurt - eggs - cheese) • Bring water from outside the area by tankers, cars • The transition from region to another for grazing and bikes; sheep. • Prevent the irrigation from wells to maintain the • There is a high unemployment rate among young drinking water; people. People migrate from rural to urban areas in • Internal and external migration; search of work. • Sale of livestock; • Get rid of all means of tillage. • The sale of savings, such as gold and other; and 102 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S • Some citizens resort to the governmental jobs and What are the Reasons that Led to the militarism, while others resort to professional occu- Non-Existence/Success of Institutions pations such as construction and the drive and the in Providing Assistance to Adapt to others sell qat. Climate Change and Overcome the Risks? The reclamation of home gardens for the cultivation of some basic home vegetables. The use of fertilizers and • Personal conflicts between the influential figures of pesticides, Reduce family expenses, Birth control. the region. • Citizens do not know the donor communities that Young people are reluctant to get married. Buy seeds are implementing development projects and building from markets outside the region, Children stop going to the capacity of local communities. schools. Buy food and vegetables from the city. Tilling the land by plowing. Requests the official authorities for the implementation of water projects, without success. What are the Benefits/Strengths that Possession of a small number of sheep (goats) instead of you Found in the Solutions for Adaptation cows to take advantage of their milk for children. to Climate Change? Solu tions Ex i st to Adapt to Cl i mate • Adherence to livelihoods and to preserve the land C h ange (We ather ) from desertification or selling; • Limit the spread of diseases and their prevention; During the cold, people buy blankets and winter cloths • Fighting against unemployment; to keep warm. Some people use the electric heater for • Stability of the family because the costs of marriage; heating water. Use coal for heating during the night. Use and ways to protect children from being infected with a cold • Cooperation among the villagers. by preventing them from playing in the street after five in the evening. In the summer, the expansion of the W h a t i s t h e D a m a g e / We a k n e s s e s t h a t windows, and put wire nets to prevent mosquitoes from you Found in Using of Solutions to Adapt entering homes, the use of clay to cool drinking water to Climate Change? and others use electric refrigerators. • Illiteracy among the male and female evenly; Solu tions Ad opted to Cope wi th the Di s e a s e s • Early marriage of girls; • Bodies of people in the region became emaciated; Purchase of veterinary medicines for treating animals, the • Fires and suffocations are resulting from heating sale of animals at low prices for fear of disease, the trans- coal; fer of animals to other areas to grazing. Purchase of treat- • The high rate of spinsterhood among young people; ment for patients from the pharmacies; use some of the and traditional prescription to cure the disease. People did not • The emergence of some diseases among women use any solutions to address diseases that affect plants. All because of the use of birth control. solutions that have been mentioned were adapted without any help from any agency, institution or organization. How was the Choice of Solutions to What a re th e Insti tuti ons that Assi sted Adapt to Climate Change; is it on the yo u in Sele cti ng and Appl yi ng these B a s i s o f Tr i b a l o r C u s t o m a r y, E c o n o m i c Solu tions to Adapt the Cl i mate Change ? or in General? And What Ki nd of Ai ds wer e gi ven to Yo u ? All solutions that have been used are generally without There are no governmental, civil or support institutions regard to any differences in rank, which resulted in providing assistance to adapt to the climate change. cooperation between the people of the region. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 103 A 3. C. MA G AHEM ASHA’ABI DHI- SHR A Q High temperature in the summer and increasing cold in winter, with the attendant spread of diseases among Date, time and place: 9/5/2010, 5:30 pm, Magahem children, diseases such as malaria and infections of Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, As-Sayyani, Ibb throats and mouths, and other blood infections that leads to increased household expenses in order to buy Occupation Number drugs from the pharmacy without going to the doctor, Civil Servant 2 also spoke of some deaths. Driver 1 Engineer 1 Climatic changes have led to a change agriculture and Farmer 4 harvestings. Burning of agricultural crops, evaporation of water because of the high heat of the sun, excessive Laborer 1 water consumption. Soldier 2 Teacher 1 Third: Diseases Total 12 Spread of disease such as plague, cowpox, foot and What a re th e Cl i mate Changes that mouth disease (Aphthous fever), screwworm, and diar- Occurred in the Regi on Dur i ng the Ten rhea. Alinvah in animals, leading to its death, the Pre vious Year s? animals emaciated due to malnutrition. Diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis, respiratory diseases, infections, Lack of rain, in the case of climate change in the four allergies were spread in children and gynecologic, seasons of the year, the spread of diseases among the cancers, and anemia in women, as well as emaciation due citizens and the plants and animals, a change in the to malnutrition. Spread of disease in agricultural crops timing and parameters of agriculture. such as fly embolism, and termites, aphids and armyworm. What a re th e Effects and C o nse quences ( Ri sks) Resul ti ng What are the Solutions that have been from T hese Changes i n Cl i mate? used to Adapt to Climate Change? First: the lack of rain: - Solutions adapted to cope with lack of rain: • Wells ran dry; • Fetching water from distant areas and at high prices; • Lack of underground water; • Keeping water in steel tanks; • Lack of agricultural crops dependent on rain; • Collecting water from roofs of houses in the rainy • Increase the cost of water; season; • The disappearance of vegetation; • Rationing in water consumption in homes; • Desertification and soil erosion; • Cultivatiing qat as alternative and profitable crop; • Drought springs; • Drilling of wells and deepen from time to time; • Increase the salinity of underground water; • Selling livestock: cattle, sheep and goats; • Non-cultivation of vegetables; • Selling valuables; like gold and others; • Decrease of the level of per capita income; and • Purchasing feed from local markets; • Environmental pollution. • Purchasing cereals, food, and vegetables from local markets; Seco nd: T h e State of the Cl i mate ( Wea t h e r ) • Buying gas ovens; • Admissing to service in military and governmental Emissions from cars and pumps irrigating qat, and jobs; the quarries. The proliferation of remnants of poultry • Selling qat; farms. • Internal and external migration; 104 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S • Using poissons, pesticides and fertilizers; The type of assistance The institution No. • Having benefits from the Social Welfare Cash assistance each Social Welfare Fund 1 Authority; three month • Taking small loans to establish small Integrated water project rural water projects 2 income-generating; Small loans Microfinance institutions 3 • Reclaming home gardens for the cultivation of what school Social Fund for Development. 4 are necessary from vegetables; and cows Foreign organization 5 • Establishing water projects. The related governmental and private institutions did not provide any assistance to adapt to climate change. Solu tions Ad apted to Cl i mate C h ange (We ather ) What are the Reasons that led to the Non-Existence/Success of Organizations Buying Blankets and clothing in the winter, use the i n P r o v i d i n g A s s i s t a n c e t o A d a p t t o C l i m a te heater and electric stove by some people for heating Change and Overcome the Risks? water and rooms, the use of coal for heating during the night. Expanded windows when the heat becomes • Lack of awareness among citizens about the essen- intense, install nets on the windows to prevent tial duties of government institutions, and (mosquitoes) from entering homes, the use of clay to • Lack of knowledge of the donor organizations that cool drinking water and others are using refrigerators, implement development projects and is building the electric fans, electric use, planting trees alongside capacity of local communities. houses. What are the Benefits/Strengths that you Solu tions Ad opted to Cope got when you used Solutions to Adapt to w ith th e D iseases Climate Change? • Buy veterinary treatment of animals, the sale of • Stay at the region to preserve the land from deserti- animals at low prices for fear of diseases. Buy fication or sale; the treatment for patients of people; use some of • Limit the spread of diseases and their prevention; the popular prescription for overcoming the • Fighting against unemployment; disease. • Family stability resulting of increase the costs of • Consulting some agronomists from the region, to marriage; describe the techniques needed to protect crops • The villagers Cooperate among themselves; from damage or extinction. • Get a steady income from employment; • There are some solutions has been with participa- • Availability of education for children; tion of some institutions and the rest are solu- • There are some projects that provide small tions created by the local community and income-generating; without any assistance from any institution or • The availability of schools for boys and girls; and organization. • Career Level from inside the region, especially female teachers. What a re th e Insti tuti ons that Assi sted yo u in Sele cti ng and Appl yi ng these W h a t i s t h e D a m a g e / We a k n e s s e s o f A p p l yi ng Solu tions to Adapt to the Cl i mate the Solutions to Adapt to Climate Change? C h ange, a nd any Ki nd of Ai d was Given to You? • Illiteracy among families that have sold all their sav- ings and their land. Institutions that provided assistance for the community • Early marriage of girls. to adapt to climate change are:- • Bodies of the people of the region became emaciated. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 105 • Fires and suffocations resulting from using coal for What are the Impacts and Risks Resulted heating from Climatic Changes? • The emergence of some diseases among women because of the use of birth control. Deterioration of seeds of grains and the production • The spread of diseases: cancers, kidney failure and become very low. Animal reproduction is also low. cancers of the gum. Grazing land is decreasing because of the deteriora- • Qat cultivation overshadowed all agricultural crops. tion of vegetation cover due to low rainfall. Random • Abandonment of terraces and left them without and increase use of chemical fertilizers and reduction reclamation. in local animal manure, immigration to other villages and nearby cities. The cropped land and livestock do H o w w as the Choi ce of Sol uti ons to Ad a p t t o not produce good revenues to farmers and as a result C lim ate C h ange; i s on the Basi s of Tr i b a l o r low economic return. Increase in labor costs, increase C u stom a ry, Economi c or i n Gener al ? pressure on water for drinking affecting the water resources. Agricultural land and terraces are deterio- All solutions that have been used were in general with- rated due to input costs are higher than production out discrimination of race or tribal, economic, or social costs. Some families have immigrated from the rank. The participation of the people of the village have village. Low care of the land caused the spread of an effective interest in the topic, which has emerged undesired vegetations that cause disease to animals through participation, asking questions and listening to and plants. everything going on with respect for different views among themselves. None participant showed any domi- What are the Solutions used to Adapt to nating on the debate. Climatic Changes? A 3. D. MU’ ANEET Selling parts or all of the livestock, rent the agricultural land or leave it without agriculture, and change occupa- Date, time and place: 25/4/2010, 3:00 pm, Mu’aneet, Ar tion from agriculture. Farmers also try to cultivate the Rujum, Al mahweet land and do all necessary on farm management during each season and wait for the rain. Occupation Number What are the Reasons that Lead to Accountant 2 the Adaptation of these Strategies Agricultural engineer/technician 3 than Other Ones? Civil servant 3 Director 1 The reasons are: no available of institutions to support Farmer 7 the villagers to better adaptation, no official adaptation IT specialist 1 strategies available especially strategies with the issues of Member local council 1 economical, environmental and social impacts. Total 18 W h i c h O r g a n i z a t i o n s , A u t h o r i t i e s o r P e o p le Which C lim ate or Rai nfal l Rel ated Haz a r d s a r e m o s t H e l p f u l t o L e a r n M o r e a b o u t H o w to do yo u F a ce i n your Dai l y Li fe? P r e p a r e f o r t h e s e H a z a r d s ? H o w c a n t h e se O r g a n i z a t i o n s P e r f o r m t h e r e Ta s k s B e t t e r ? Low rainfall and increasing variability in rainfall were not beneficial for us. In the past we used to crop No institutions are available that have the concern on 4 seasons. Also, we used to irrigate crops from springs climatic change. Recently Groundwater and Soil conser- but in the past decade the springs became dry. Soil vation Project are now interfering in the villages and we fertility has decreased and the rainy seasons have hope to benefit for it especially on the construction and been disturbed. rehabilitation of water cisterns. 106 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S A 3. E . A L MEHRAQ quarries, and the proliferation of remnants of poultry farms, and the high per capita expenditure. Date, time and place: 18/5/2010, 10:00 am, Al Mehraq, Saber Al Mawadim, Taiz S e c o n d : T h e S t a t e o f t h e C l i m a t e ( We a t h er ) Occupation Number The spread of diseases among the citizens, especially Blind man 1 children and the elderly because of bad weather. In the Farmer 3 winter, extreme cold, many deaths are occurred, espe- Farmer, Extensionist 1 cially among patients with heart disease. In the summer Laborer 3 spread malaria, especially among children and cause the Merchant 1 death of many. Increase the family expenses. Climatic Social figure 1 changes have led to a change growing seasons and (Big) Sheik 2 harvests. Evaporation of the water because of the Total 12 increase of the sun heat. Excessive of the water consumption. What a re th e Cl i mate Changes that Oc c u r r e d in th e R e gio n Dur i ng the Ten Pr evi ous Ye a r s ? Third: Diseases Lack of rain, rain in some years, drought in other years, Spread of disease, plague, smallpox and diarrhea in and heavy rains over the past two years. There was animals, leading to her death and the frailty of animals intense heat and extreme cold during the last three because of malnutrition. The spread of diseases like years. Fluctuations in climate were occurred. In one day, malaria, schistosomiasis, respiratory diseases, infections we found spring in the morning, summer at noon time and allergies in children. And gynecological cancers, and an, autumn in the afternoon and winter in the evening. anemia in women, as well as emaciation due to malnu- The emergence of diseases we had not known to the trition. Spread of disease in agricultural crops such as fly people, plants and animals, changes in the timing and embolism, and termites, aphids and armyworm. parameters of Agriculture. What are the Solutions that have been What a re th e Effects and Consequence s used to Adapt to Climate Change? (R isks) R esu l ti ng fr om these Changes in C lim ate ? S o l u t i o n s A d o p t e d t o C o p e w i t h L a c k o f Rai n F irst: T he Lack of Rai n Purchase water from outside the region and at higher prices, keep the water in the tanks of iron and plastic, Lack of water, dry wells, low water table, dry springs, water harvesting from the roofs of the houses in the high salinity in the underground water, rise in the price rainy season, washing every week once. The cleaning of water, environmental pollution, internal and external cooking utensils leftovers water is used for watering migration, lack of agricultural crops dependent on rain, livestock. Cultivating qat as alternative and profitable disappearance of vegetation cover, desertification and crop. Drilling wells and deepening them from time to soil erosion, the low level of per capita income. time. The sale of cattle, goats and sheep. Sale of gold Depending on imported agricultural crops. The cultural and land elsewhere, buy animal feeds from local heritage and knowledge of the rainy seasons agriculture markets, buying wheat, rice, millet and sorghum, corn, periods have been lost, no cooperation exist between tomatoes, potatoes and onions from local markets to people any more, citizens reduced the cultivation of buy cookers gas. Work in factories and on the sale of vegetables that depend on irrigation from wells and Qat. And some have studied and worked in govern- increase the cultivation of Qat as an important high mental jobs, migration to the city and Saudi Arabia for value alternative, use of forbidden fertilizers and pesti- work, use of pesticides and fertilizer, and the poor cides, the use utensils plastic and steel to save drinking received a pension from the Welfare Fund every three water, greenhouse gas emissions from cars and factories, months. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 107 Solu tions in Pl ace to Adapt to Cl i mate and lack of knowledge of the donor community that C h ange (We ather ) implement development projects and is building the capacity of local communities. In winter, people buy (blankets), and wool clothes, and • Lack of cooperation between the people. heating the water, use stoves at night. In the summer • Envy among the people. people sleep in the roofs of houses, burn manure (animal • There are no elders and officials try to help. waste fertilizers) in the night to ward off mosquitoes, we • All the projects owned by the government and cool the water in bottles, water bottle and jars. the citizens did not cooperate between each other. Solu tions Ad opted to Cope wi th Di seas e s What are the Benefits/Strengths that We brand the sick cow with branding kit. When you Found in Applying these Solutions diseases spread, we sell beef, lamb, and mutton at the to Adapt to Climate Change? cheapest price. In the past, we used to buy medicine for the patient from the pharmacy. However, nowa- • Staying in the village so as not to loss the land or be days there is a doctor at the hospital, who gives us the sold. prescription medicine, we buy from the pharmacy, we • Limit the spread of diseases and their prevention. use the soup, fennel, and the total of the glorious • fighting against unemployment. trees of abdominal pain and ironing (traditional • A fixed monthly salary. medicine). Wisdom behind all these things from our • Educating of children. parents and grandparents, no any other one taught us • The availability of school and health center. (without any help from any agency, institution or organization). W h a t i s t h e D a m a g e / We a k n e s s e s t h a t you Found in Applying the Solutions to What a re th e Insti tuti ons that Assi sted Adapt to Climate Change? yo u in Sele cti ng and Appl yi ng these Solu tions to Adapt to Cl i mate Change, a n d • Illiteracy, especially among girls. What Kind of Ai d was Gi ven to You? • Early marriage of girls. • Bodies of people in the region became emaciated. Institutions that provided assistance for the community • The emergence of some diseases among women to adapt to climate change are: because of use of the birth control. • Various diseases spread among the citizens, such No. Institution Type of assistance as infections, whooping cough, and 1 Social Welfare Fund. Cash assistance every schistosomiasis. three months • The qat cultivation overshadowed on the other agri- 2 The local council directorate Health center cultural crops 3 Ministry of Education Build a school How was the Choice of Solutions Other governmental and private organizations, in to Adapt to Climate Change is it on support of the relationship did not provide any valuable t h e B a s i s o f Tr i b a l o r C u s t o m a r y, assistance to the region to adapt to climate change. Economic or in General? What a re th e Reasons that Led to the All solutions that have been used were in general with- N o n-Existe nce/Success of Insti tuti ons out ethnic, tribal, economic, or social distinction. in Pro vidin g Assi stance to Adapt to C lim ate C h ange and Over come the Ri s k s ? A 3. F. A L M A S A J E D • Lack of awareness among parents the essential Date, time and place: 25/4/2010, 4:30 pm, Al Masajed, duties of government institutions, civil or support Banai Matar , Sana’a 108 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Occupation Number A r e t h e r e D i ff e r e n c e s i n C r o p s G r o w n , Civil servant 2 Ti l l a g e Te c h n i q u e s , P l a n t i n g D a t e s , Farmer 5 Activities Performed, Equipment Used? Farmer- civil servant 1 Cares for the land have reduced, planting dates changed Farmer-soldier 1 according to rainfall; animal and machinery are used as Soldier 1 before. Student 1 Total 12 D i d y o u C h a n g e t h e C o m p o s i t i o n o f Yo u r Livestock Owned, Livestock Management? Which C lim ate or Rai nfal l Rel ated Haz a r d s Livestock has been reduced due to selling for more do yo u F a ce i n your Dai l y Li fe? income and low rainfall. Droughts and reduction of rainfall, rainfall seasons are How much do these Changes Cost coming late, springs are becoming dry and groundwater y o u i n Te r m s i n R e s o u r c e s u s e d , L a b o r levels drops very dramatically which in all have affected Requirements, etc.? the agricultural. Costs have increased for example drilling wells increased F o r D ro ught Hazar ds: To What Extent from 10,000YR/m – 150,000/m. Families are cooperat- H a s the Sta r t of the Rai ny Season and t h e ing together to work on the field to reduce the high Am o unt o f R ai n Fal l en Dur i ng the Rai n y costs of labor. Seaso n Va ri ed over the Last Decades? Which Organizations, Authorities Every year the rainy season comes late than the year or People are most Helpful to Learn before with rainfall amounts also becoming less, however More About how to Prepare for these this year the rainy season on time and is very good. Hazards? How can these Organizations P e r f o r m t h e r e Ta s k s B e t t e r ? D o yo u Adapt Far mi ng Str ategi es i f you Agricultural office is available in the area but has limited have Exp erienced Dr ought Pr obl ems capacities and financial resources. ove r the Past Year s? To W h a t E x t e n t a r e C h o i c e s D e p e n d e n t o n Groundwater well drilling has increased, change to E t h n i c i t y, We a l t h C l a s s , G e n d e r ? specific types of crops, shift to other activities and employment. No choice because no adoption strategies are present. 109 APPENDIX 4. SUMMARY OF INSTITUTIONAL STAKEHOLDER INTERVIEWS QUESTION 1. GENERAL STATISTICS OF RESPONDENTS Site Years person holds Id Code Name District Main activity/position of respondent in the village this position 1 1 Al Wathan Bilad Ar Rus Village Warden, Farmer 8 2 1 Al Wathan Bilad Ar Rus Civil servant, Farmer 8 3 1 Al Wathan Bilad Ar Rus Teacher, Farmer 5 1 2 Arraheebah Dimnat Khadeer Religious man 4 2 2 Arraheebah Dimnat Khadeer School head 12 3 2 Arraheebah Dimnat Khadeer School teacher 2 1 3 Dhi-Shraq As-Sayyani Member of mothers council at girls’ school unknown 2 3 Dhi-Shraq As-Sayyani Member of mothers council at girls’ school unknown 3 3 Dhi-Shraq As-Sayyani Head of girls’ school 3 4 3 Dhi-Shraq As-Sayyani Social expert at girls school 14 1 4 Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Civil servant in health sector 10 2 4 Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Civil servant at the office of teaching and education 23 3 4 Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Director of human resources, health department 17 4 4 Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Accountant 12 5 4 Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Health sector civil servant 15 6 4 Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Teacher 20 7 4 Mu’aneet Ar Rujum Village warden 20 1 5 Al Mehraq Al Mawadim Laboratories <1 2 5 Al Mehraq Al Mawadim Sheik 2 3 5 Al Mehraq Al Mawadim Health doctor 21 4 5 Al Mehraq Al Mawadim Old farmer (80 years) All his live 1 6 Al Masajed Bani Matar Nurse 15 2 6 Al Masajed Bani Matar Teacher of chemistry and Physics 6 3 6 Al Masajed Bani Matar Commercial + property + agriculture 10 4 6 Al Masajed Bani Matar Education and teaching + agriculture 8 5 6 Al Masajed Bani Matar Sheik 40 6 6 Al Masajed Bani Matar Civil servant + other activities + agriculture 20 110 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S QUESTION 2A. HAZARDS FACED BY VILLAGES Importance of hazards (1 = least important; 10 = most important) Animal or Rainfall Damage of Temperature Human crop Decreased Sales High food Village Drought variability Floods heavy rains change diseases pests soil fertility problems prices Al Wathan 9.3 9.7 1.0 3.3 4.7 2.7 7.7 2.7 8.0 7.0 Arraheebah 10.0 7.3 2.0 2.0 3.3 6.3 6.3 4.3 6.7 9.0 Dhi-Shraq 8.0 6.0 2.3 3.3 6.0 7.5 5.5 5.8 4.5 7.8 Mu’aneet 9.4 8.3 1.0 2.3 4.6 2.9 6.9 6.0 6.9 6.4 Al Mehraq 8.8 7.8 3.5 2.5 5.3 8.3 7.8 3.8 3.3 6.8 Al Masajed 9.2 9.5 1.2 1.7 5.7 5.7 6.3 4.5 4.7 4.2 Average 9.1 8.1 1.8 2.5 4.9 5.5 6.7 4.5 5.7 6.8 Rank 1 2 10 9 7 6 4 8 5 3 QUESTION 2B. HAZARDS BECOMING MORE THREATENING FACED BY VILLAGES Have hazards become more or less threatening (1 = a lot less; 5 = a lot more) Animal Rainfall Damage of Temperature Human or crop Decreased Sales High food Village Drought variability Floods heavy rains change diseases pests soil fertility problems prices Al Wathan 5.0 5.0 1.0 2.7 3.3 2.3 4.3 2.3 5.0 5.0 Arraheebah 5.0 4.0 1.0 1.7 2.3 4.0 3.3 3.0 4.7 5.0 Dhi-Shraq 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.8 3.0 2.3 2.8 4.5 Mu’aneet 4.9 4.4 1.3 1.7 3.7 3.1 4.3 4.1 4.9 5.0 Al Mehraq 3.0 3.8 0.8 0.8 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.8 1.8 1.8 Al Masajed 4.7 4.5 1.3 1.7 3.2 3.3 3.7 3.7 4.8 4.5 Average 4.2 3.9 1.1 1.7 2.8 3.1 3.6 3.0 4.0 4.3 Rank 2 4 10 9 8 6 5 7 3 1 QUESTION 3. ORGANIZATIONS PRESENT IN THE VILLAGES (%) Organizations present in the village Village People Local Extension International Village Religious Women’s Microcredit Self-help code interviewed administration agency donor NGO Cooperative School Bank community group group bank group Union 1 3 100 0 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 33 33 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 3 4 25 0 25 0 0 0 100 75 25 100 50 0 0 4 7 100 29 100 0 43 0 100 14 14 0 0 43 29 5 4 100 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 83 17 100 0 17 0 100 0 67 0 0 0 0 Total 27 74 11 63 0 15 0 100 15 22 15 7 15 11 1 Al Wathan, 2 Al Rahaiba, 3 Thy Yashreq, 4 Ma’enet, 5 Al Mehraq, and 6 Al Masajed. Importance of the institutions for helping the population to adapt to climate change (1 = not at all important; 5 = very important) Village People Local Extension International Village Religious Women’s Microcredit Self-help code interviewed administration agency donor NGO Cooperative School Bank community group group bank group Union 1 3 4.7 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 1.7 2 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3 4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.8 3.0 0.0 2.8 0.3 0.0 0.0 4 7 4.7 1.1 5.0 0.0 2.1 0.0 4.7 0.7 0.6 0.0 0.0 2.1 1.3 5 4 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6 6 4.2 0.7 5.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 4.5 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 27 3.4 0.4 3.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 4.6 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.0 0.7 0.5 1 Al Wathan, 2 Al Rahaiba, 3 Thy Yashreq, 4 Ma’enet, 5 Al Mehraq, and 6 Al Masajed. 111 112 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S QUESTION 4A. WHICH ORGANIZATION(S) ARE IN YOUR OPINION MOST HELPFUL OR BEST TO HELP THE POPULATION ADAPTING TO THE RISKS OF WEATHER VARIABILITY? Village 1 • Health and agricultural authorities 2 • World Health Organization, and agricultural cooperative organization • Multible agricultural cooperative union 3 • No organization available • Women’s organizations • Development organizations 4 • Irrigation and agricultural authorities • Agricultural, industrial, public works and health authorities • Agricultural, water and water harvesting authorities • Agricultural, and health authorities • Agricultural, environment and health 5 • Health authorities • Health and environmental organizations 6 • Health and agricultural authorities • Agricultural authorities, but are not available in reality 1 Al Wathan, 2 Arraheebah, 3 Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, 4 Mu’aneet, 5 Al Mehraq, and 6 Al Masajed. QUESTION 4B. WHAT TYPE OF ASSISTANCE DO HOUSEHOLDS NEED IN ORDER TO ADAPT TO THE RISKS OF WEATHER VARIABILITY? TRAINING, KNOWLEDGE, INPUTS, FINANCIAL AID, COMMUNAL PROJECTS ON E.G. IRRIGATION, SOIL EROSION PREVENTION OR WATER HARVESTING Village 1 • Training, knowledge, inputs, financial aid, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, soil erosion prevention or water harvesting 2 • Training, knowledge, inputs, financial aid, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, soil erosion prevention or water harvesting 3 • Need financial support from development organizations • Training, knowledge, inputs, financial aid, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, soil erosion prevention or water harvesting • Knowledge, financial, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, and community water harvesting 4 • Training, soil erosion, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, and community water harvesting • Communal projects on e.g. irrigation, and community water harvesting • Knowledge, input, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, and community water harvesting • Soil erosion, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, and community water harvesting 5 • Inputs, irrigation, soil erosion prevention or water harvesting • Financial support, soil erosion prevention and water harvesting • Training, knowledge, inputs, financial aid, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, soil erosion prevention or water harvesting 6 • Training, knowledge, inputs, financial aid, communal projects on e.g. irrigation, soil erosion prevention or water harvesting 1 Al Wathan, 2 Arraheebah, 3 Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, 4 Mu’aneet, 5 Al Mehraq, and 6 Al Masajed. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : Y E M E N 113 QUESTION 4C. WHAT KIND OF PROBLEMS HAMPER TO YOUR OPINION THE ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATIONS WHO ARE ASSISTING THE POPULATION TO ADAPT TO CHANGING WEATHER VARIABILITY Village 1 • Education and awareness 2 • Water scarcity problems and unavailable of funds • Some social figure, Influential people, local authorities • Local Council does not cooperate with people in the village 3 • No knowledge about organizations, no cooperation among people 4 • Sheiks, wardens and directors of authorities • No organizations available. • No organizations available so no problems. 5 • Local people are not cooperative 6 • Education and awareness, difficult roads, financial constraints • We do not know the problems since activities are not available • Recently no organizations are avialble 1 Al Wathan, 2 Arraheebah, 3 Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, 4 Mu’aneet, 5 Al Mehraq, and 6 Al Masajed. QUESTION 4D. WHAT KIND OF EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE OR HELP DO ORGANIZATIONS WHO ARE WORKING IN THIS FIELD NEED IN ORDER TO IMPROVE THEIR RESULTS? FINANCIAL HELP, KNOWLEDGE/TRAINING, INPUTS/MATERIAL, BACK-UP FROM GOVERNMENTAL OR INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, . . . . .? Village 1 • Not available 2 • No local or international organizations available in the village 3 • Not available 4 • Not available 5 • Not available 6 • Not available 1 Al Wathan, 2 Arraheebah, 3 Magahem Asha’abi Dhi-Shraq, 4 Mu’aneet, 5 Al Mehraq, and 6 Al Masajed. the world bank 1818 h Street, nw washington, d.C. 20433 USa tel: 202-473-1000 Fax: 202-477-6391 Internet: www.worldbank.org/sdcc