October 2025 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region With case studies from Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, South Africa and Zambia Report with case studies 02 03 © 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be construed or considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522- 2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover design: Kamilia Kulinova Suggested Citation: Canpolat, Ezgi, Lokanc, Martin, Bakx, Jara, Baker, Steven, and Kaplan, Karen. 2025. “Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region.” Washington, DC: World Bank. 04 05 Table of Contents Chapter 6 Recommendations 94 6.1 Key principles 96 Table of contents 04 6.2 Targeted recommendations 97 List of abbreviations 06 Annex 1 Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 110 Acknowledgements 09 Burundi 112 Executive summary 10 Democratic Republic of the Congo 116 Chapter 1 Introduction 22 Malawi 120 Chapter 2 A justice approach to ETM sector development 30 South Africa 124 Chapter 3 Stakeholder relations defining the ETM sector 30 Zambia 128 Chapter 4 Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 44 Annex 2 Research methods 132 Drivers and mitigating factors shaping just 4.1 46 Scope 133 transition outcomes 4.2 Distributional justice considerations 51 Data collection methods 135 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals 4.3 Procedural justice considerations 70 List of interviewed stakeholders 135 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region 4.4 Restorative justice considerations 76 Lines of enquiry 137 4.5 Recognition justice considerations 79 Limitations 146 Chapter 5 Evolutions of the ETM sector 82 References 148 06 List of abbreviations 07 List of abbreviations 3T Tin, tantalum, tungsten EIA Environmental Impact JET-IP Just Energy Transition PASA Programmatic Advisory Services Assessment Investment Plan and Analytics 3TG Tin, tantalum, tungsten, gold EITI Extractives Industry JET-P Just Energy Transition PGM Platinum group metal AFE Eastern and Southern Africa Transparency Initiative Partnership PWYP Publish What You Pay AMCU Association of Mineworkers and ESD Enterprise and Supplier KCM Konkola Copper Mines Construction Union REE Rare earth element Development LGBTQI+ Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, AMV African Mining Vision RISE Resilient Initiative for ESF World Bank Environmental and queer, intersex, and others Sustainable Environment ARSP Regulatory Authority for Social Framework LNOB Leave No One Behind Subcontracting in the Private SADC Southern African Development ESG Environmental, Social, and Sector LSM Large-scale mining Community Governance ASM Artisanal and small-scale mining MACUA Mining Affected Communities SAFAL Southern Africa Ferro Alloys ESIA Environmental and Social Impact United in Action Limited ATI Access to Information Assessment MINHEM Ministry of Hydraulic, Energy, SDGs Sustainable Development Goals B-BBEE Broad-Based Black Economic ETM Energy transition mineral and Mines Empowerment SEZs Special Economic Zones EU European Union MMC Manganese Metal Company BEV Battery Electric Vehicle SGBV Sexual and gender-based FCV Fragility, conflict, and violence MMRA Mining and Minerals Regulatory violence BHRRC Business & Human Rights FDI Foreign direct investment Authority Resource Centre SIRGE Securing Indigenous Peoples’ FPIC Free, prior, and informed consent MPRDA Mineral and Petroleum Resources Rights in the Green Economy BMM Burundi Mining Metallurgy Development Act International GDP Gross Domestic Product SLAPP Strategic litigation against public MVA Manufacturing Value Added participation CAMI Mining Cadaster HDP Historically Disadvantaged Person MWEITI Malawi Extractive Industries SLP Social and Labour Plan CDA Community development Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Transparency Initiative agreements ICGLR International Conference on the UN United Nations Great Lakes Region NACP National Anti-Corruption Policy CEJ Centre for Environment Justice UNECA United Nations Economic IEA International Energy Agency NDP National Development Plan Commission for Africa CMV Country Mining Vision Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region IISD International Institute for NEMA National Environmental UNGPs UN Guiding Principles on COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Sustainable Development Management Act Business and Human Rights Southern Africa ILO International Labour NRGI Natural Resource Governance UNIDO United Nations Industrial CSDDD Corporate Sustainability Due Organization Institute Development Organization Diligence Directive IMF International Monetary Fund NRJN Natural Resources Justice WWF World Wide Fund for Nature CSO Civil society organization Network IPILRA Interim Protection of Informal ZEA Artisanal Exploitation Zone CSR Corporate social responsibility Land Rights Act OHS Occupational health and safety ZMERIP Zambia Mining Environmental DNH Do No Harm IRH International Resource Holdings OHSI Occupational Health and Safety Remediation and Improvement DRC Democratic Republic of the Institute Project iTSCi International Tin Supply Chain Congo Initiative EGPS Extractives Global Programmatic Support 08 Acknowledgements 09 Acknowledgements This report was prepared by a team jointly led by Ezgi Canpolat and Martin Lokanc of the World Bank, who shaped the project’s conceptual framework and methodology, oversaw its implementation, drafted the content and guided the editorial process, with support from Varalakshmi Vemuru, David S. Warren, Bekele Debele, and Ganesh Rasagam. The research was carried out in close collaboration with the DT Global and Levin Sources research teams, led by Jara Bakx and Steven Baker. The main writing team consisted of Jara Bakx and Karen Kaplan, who authored the initial draft and led the revision and refinement of the final report, drawing on insights and contributions from a wider team that included Nyundo Armitage (Zambia), Steven Baker, Chiko Manda (Malawi), Gregory Mthembu-Salter, Espérant Mwishamali Lukobo (DRC), Nellie Mutemeri (South Africa), Nydia Ponnan (South Africa), and Aline Providence Nkundibiza (Burundi). The draft was reviewed by Steven Baker, Rachel Brass, and Rosanna Tufo, whose thoughtful feedback helped strengthen the final version. Special thanks are due to peer reviewers Henriette Kolb, Erik Caldwell Johnson, Lindsey Jones, and Angelique Ikuzwe Gatsinzi. Their insights helped sharpen the study’s analysis and broaden its relevance across sectors and regions. Several colleagues provided invaluable feedback at various stages of the study, including Joanna de Berry, Bandita Sijapati, Dario Zanardi, Daniel Owen, Julia Baena De Mesquita, Tanya Lynn D’Lima, Callie Phillips, Nicholas Meitiaki Soikan, Brandon Enrique Carter, and Janna Dakini Tenzing. The team is grateful to the many interviewed stakeholders, researchers and practitioners who shared their expertise and perspectives, enriching the depth and scope of the work. Their contributions have been essential in shaping the findings and recommendations presented in Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals this report. This research would not have been possible without financial contributions from the Extractives Global Programmatic Support (EGPS) program and the RISE Partnership. This research contributes to the World Bank’s PASA initiative on leveraging green minerals for Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region economic transformation, under the EGPS Multi-Donor Trust Fund. © Angela Jorns / Levin Sources. Further permission required for reuse. 10 Executive summary 11 Executive Introduction The global energy transition is generating rising demand for energy transition minerals (ETMs), such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and copper, which are essential for renewable energy summary technologies like solar panels, wind turbines, and battery storage systems. The International Energy Agency projects that demand for some of these minerals will triple by 2030 and quadruple by 2040. This surge in demand presents significant opportunities for economic transformation in ETM-rich countries, including in the Eastern and Southern African (AFE) region. With substantial reserves of key minerals, the region is playing an increasingly important role in global ETM value chains, amid growing geopolitical competition to secure these resources. At the same time, this moment of expansion raises important questions about how the benefits of ETM sector growth will be distributed, and whether it will help address, or inadvertently reinforce, existing patterns of social exclusion, potentially intensifying extractive pressures in mineral-rich regions. Historically, mineral wealth has not always translated into inclusive or sustained development, as many countries remain concentrated in lower-value segments of the value chain and communities often facing limited participation or benefit. However, if managed equitably and strategically, ETM sector development also presents an opportunity to advance more just and inclusive value chains and generate peaceful outcomes. As demand for ETMs grows, ensuring that resource development contributes to a just transition – one that is socially inclusive, minimizes adverse impacts on marginalized groups, and drives peace – remains an important priority. This study explores the national dimensions of this transition by analyzing how the growing global demand for ETMs is expected to interact with patterns of social exclusion and fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV) in the AFE region, and under what conditions this may instead foster more inclusive and peaceful outcomes along the upstream, midstream and downstream value chain segments. It focuses on five countries: Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Malawi, South Africa, and Zambia. These countries reflect a diversity of ETM sector trajectories, political economies, and social and FCV dynamic s, offering insight into a range of current trends and future scenarios. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region The study’s primary objective is to assess how manifestations of social exclusion and FCV in ETM value chains are evolving, or are expected to evolve, in response to growing global demand, and what the opportunities are to strengthen inclusion and justice and reduce conflict risks through deliberate policy and programming responses. Anchored in a justice-oriented approach, the analysis explores key social justice considerations that require attention to foster such inclusive and peaceful ETM sector development. It draws on four interrelated justice principles (distributional, procedural, restorative, and recognition justice) to assess how patterns of power, participation, benefit-sharing, and redress shape social dynamics in ETM- producing areas. This framing complements existing World Bank frameworks, including the Environmental and Social Framework (ESF), the FCV Strategy, and the Extractive Industries Value Chain framework, by offering a lens to better understand the social foundations of equitable and sustainable mineral development. 12 Executive summary 13 The research was conducted through a combination of literature review and key stakeholder CORE THEMES CONSIDERATIONS FOR DRIVING SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE ETM SECTOR interviews across the five focus countries. Although the study considers the entire ETM value chain, the analysis primarily focuses on the upstream stage of ETM production, particularly Labor conditions and Working conditions observed in ETM value chains highlight how different exploration and extraction, where exclusion-related grievances and entry-points for betterment human rights concerns categories of workers, including subcontracted, migrant, informal, and are more readily observed and documented. In the five focus countries, midstream and child laborers, experience both opportunities for improvement and downstream segments remain at early stages of development, with fewer lived experiences vulnerabilities. identified. However, the structural dynamics explored here also offer relevant insights for Procedural justice considerations anticipating and addressing justice concerns as these value chain stages evolve. Meaningful community Community engagement in decision-making around ETM production engagement projects is shaped by the timing, depth, and inclusiveness of engagement Social justice considerations processes, and influences perceptions of fairness and legitimacy. in the ETM sector Land acquisition and How land access and resettlement processes linked to ETM sector resettlement development are managed influences the extent to which outcomes are ETM sector growth can either entrench social exclusion and FCV or help perceived as transparent, equitable, and responsive to community needs. shift these dynamics. Using the four interrelated justice principles, this study distils the enabling conditions and opportunities for more inclusive, Worker representation Workers’ ability to organize and engage in collective bargaining in the ETM just, and conflict-sensitive pathways. The table below summarizes these: sector shapes their influence over workplace decisions and protections. Restorative justice considerations CORE THEMES CONSIDERATIONS FOR DRIVING SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE ETM SECTOR Access to remedy and The availability and effectiveness of grievance mechanisms in ETM- Distributional justice considerations effective grievance producing areas reflect both ongoing barriers and emerging opportunities mechanisms to address harms, support redress, and rebuild trust among affected Distribution of economic ETM production shapes the distribution of revenues, skilled and high- rightsholders. benefits paying jobs, infrastructure, and public services, and the conditions under which these translate into tangible and inclusive benefits for different Continued impacts of Unaddressed past and ongoing harms linked to ETM production continue social groups. unresolved harms to influence levels of trust and shape how stakeholders engage with current and future projects. Livelihood impacts Shifts in land use and access to natural resources linked to ETM production affect existing livelihoods and local economies, and reveal where resilience Recognition justice considerations Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals can be supported. Acknowledgement and ETM sector governance illustrates how different social groups are seen, Community health and The expansion of ETM activities influences occupational safety and public legitimization of diverse valued, and included, with implications for whether diverse identities, Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region safety health in affected areas, with impacts shaped by the presence or absence perspectives and knowledge systems, and lived experiences are meaningfully acknowledged. of effective regulation and public services. knowledge systems Demographic and social Migration and settlement dynamics around ETM production operations fabric changes reshape local demographics and social relations, with both opportunities and challenges for service delivery, cohesion, and community well-being. Artisanal mining and Evolving regulatory priorities and rising demand for ETMs shape its role in the broader the position of ASM in ETM value chains, influencing access to mining landscape resources and formal markets, interactions with LSM, and pathways to professionalization. 14 Executive summary 15 These justice considerations reflect stark lived realities across the AFE in policy frameworks that treat mining as inherently male-dominated. Similarly, region, where the gap between policy frameworks and practice remains traditional ecological knowledge about land use and environmental management is rarely incorporated into mining planning, representing missed opportunities for wide. more sustainable approaches. ș Distributional injustices are most visible in the persistent gap between mineral wealth and community development. Despite significant ETM reserves, communities across the region report seeing few tangible benefits from nearby Stakeholder dynamics shaping the operations. In the DRC’s copper-cobalt belt, one stakeholder noted that in sector Kambove, Haut-Katanga, where several copper mining operations are located, “the people are still poor and there’s no visible impact on the social well-being of the Understanding patterns of exclusion requires examining the power population.” Even where benefit-sharing mechanisms exist, implementation often relationships that define ETM sectors. Six key stakeholder dynamics emerge falls short: in the DRC, companies must allocate 0.3% of turnover to community as particularly influential: development, yet only an estimated 10% of allocated funds reach intended communities. Gender disparities compound these inequities. Across formal mining ș Strategic alliances between large-scale mining companies and public authorities sectors, women remain severely underrepresented – comprising just 4% of the often prioritize revenue generation and technical expertise over broader large-scale workforce in the DRC and 12-13% in South Africa, where they earn up to social and environmental interests. While these partnerships reflect legitimate 40% less than male counterparts. However, there are examples of LSM companies economic development goals, civil society ac tors consistently raise concerns that adopting targeted gender-responsive recruitment, training, and other measures community voices are not given equal weight in decision-making processes. that, if sustained and scaled, could reduce barriers and offer practical models for ș Civil society organizations face mounting constraints that weaken their ability more inclusive workplaces. to advocate for inclusive development. Limited funding, bureaucratic challenges, ș Procedural injustices manifest in decision-making processes that consistently safety risks, and shrinking civic space have reduced CSOs’ capacity to serve as sideline affected communities. Mining-affected communities in Malawi describe intermediaries between mining-affected communities and decision-makers. In being excluded from Community Development Agreements signed without their some contexts, CSOs report facing strategic litigation against public participation input, while consultations often occur after licenses are already granted, depriving (SLAPP suits) and other forms of intimidation. communities of meaningful influence. As one community advocate in Malawi ș Hybrid governance systems involving formal and informal authorities create noted: “When the community and ASM are not engaged from the start, they complex dynamics around land access, meaningful consultations, and dispute feel neglected, which builds anger in them, and later that anger transforms into resolution. While traditional leaders often serve as key interlocutors between violence.” By contrast, in South Africa, the 2018 Maledu judgment affirmed that miners and affected rightsholders where state presence is limited, their roles and communities are lawful occupiers of land who must be consulted before mining Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals accountability mechanisms vary significantly, sometimes leading to agreements proceeds, creating a legal pathway for procedural justice (although enforcement that do not reflect broader community interests. challenges remain). ș Competition between large-scale and artisanal mining operations has intensified ș Restorative justice concerns center on the persistence of unaddressed harms. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region due to increased ETM demand. Governments and buyers prioritize LSM as better Environmental contamination from mining operations continues affecting aligned with national and ESG goals. While ASM sustains many livelihoods, communities long after initial damage occurs, while formal grievance mechanisms operators often lack the finance and technical capacity to meet environmental, often remain inaccessible or ineffective. In Malawi, for instance, affected labor and due-diligence requirements at scale. Where conditions permit, peaceful communities reportedly struggle to access remedies due to the prohibitive costs of co-existence arrangements between LSM and ASM can reduce tensions and litigation. And in the DRC, concerns were raised about limited independence and improve outcomes. capacity within oversight bodies, which can affect the credibility and effectiveness of complaints procedures. ș Recognition injustices operate through systematic failure to acknowledge diverse knowledge systems and contributions. Women’s significant participation in ASM, comprising up to 40% of artisanal miners in some areas, remains largely invisible 16 Executive summary 17 ș Mid- and downstream actors’ influence shapes upstream dynamics through communication around fiscal policy changes and revenue-sharing commitments sourcing decisions and practices, investment flows , and due diligence can help maintain constructive relationships between governments, companies, requirements. While responsible sourcing measures have brought important and rightsholders. attention to human rights and environmental issues, they have sometimes created ș Implementation of sustainable development policies and projects: Expanding unintended barriers for ASM operators who lack resources to meet complex infrastructure and investment linked to ETM production may support broader requirements. development goals, particularly where aligned with inclusive planning and ș Entrenched discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual local needs. Strategic coordination can help extend benefits beyond mining orientation, and other identities continues to shape who benefits from ETM sector areas, improve public service delivery, and strengthen resilience. In parallel, development. Historical patterns of exclusion persist, with marginalized groups growing energy demands present opportunities to invest in more diversified, facing structural barriers to meaningful participation in decision-making, resource climate-resilient energy systems that serve both ETM production operations and access, and economic opportunities. surrounding communities. As individual countries pursue ETM development trajectories, opportunities for regional Evolutions of the ETM sector coordination are expanding but remain largely unrealized. Transport corridor investments like the Lobito Atlantic Railway create opportunities for integrated value chain development As global demand for ETMs continues to grow, the manifestations of social across multiple countries, while shared infrastructure projects could reduce costs and improve exclusion and FCV identified in this study are expected to evolve. These competitiveness for the entire region. dynamics may unfold across upstream stages of the ETM value chain in the Regional economic integration initiatives provide frameworks for coordination but require following ways: strengthening to address ETM sector governance challenges. Harmonizing regulatory ș Award of contracts and licenses: Licensing processes are projected to become frameworks across countries could reduce compliance costs while improving oversight, while faster and more competitive. This may present opportunities to integrate more coordinated approaches to benefit-sharing and community engagement could prevent harmful inclusive practices, particularly where access to mineral rights can be broadened, competition between neighboring countries for investment. but also risks limiting transparency and participation. Growing competition for Cross-border challenges including mineral smuggling, human trafficking, and environmental land highlights the importance of integrated land use planning. degradation require coordinated responses that no single country can provide effectively. ș Regulation and monitoring of operations: While government policies and Joint law enforcement initiatives, shared monitoring systems, and integrated databases could international pressure on ESG standards may support stronger regulation, significantly improve governance outcomes while reducing costs for individual countries. implementation gaps are likely to persist. When regulatory bodies lack resources, skills, or independence to enforce labor, environmental, and safety standards Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals consistently, it creates space for illicit actors to expand their influence in mineral supply chains. ș Collection, management, and allocation of revenue: Rising revenues Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region create potential for improved service delivery, infrastructure, and economic diversification. Fiscal reforms and value addition efforts, including through local skills development, may help retain more benefits domestically. Yet, transparency, equitable revenue sharing, and effective public financial management remain key to ensuring broad-based gains and maintaining trust in governance systems. Enhancing subnational participation in budgeting and strengthening public financial management systems can help ensure benefits are widely shared. Clear 18 Executive summary 19 Recommendations TARGETED RECOMMENDATIONS The research provides strategic recommendations for multilateral 1. Fostering social inclusion through multi-stakeholder partnerships institutions, donor agencies, the private sector and other actors in their Multi-stakeholder partnerships that bring together governments, private sector, engagement in the ETM sector in the AFE region. The recommendations civil society, and affected communities can catalyze concrete initiatives for inclusive are structured into two sections: key principles, which should guide governance and economic transformation. These partnerships should facilitate co- all interventions, and targeted recommendations, which outline design of community development plans aligned with local priorities, implement joint specific measures to address risks and promote inclusive and peaceful environmental remediation projects, and develop capacity-building programs that equip development. marginalized groups with skills and resources for meaningful participation. Catalytic financing and well-designed public-private partnerships can help de-risk KEY PRINCIPLES investments and crowd in private capital for value-added processing, local enterprise development, and community infrastructure. However, external partners must play Conflict sensitivity beyond “do no harm” should aim not only to prevent exacerbating enabling rather than dominant roles to avoid undermining local ownership and exclusion and fragility but also to actively reduce conflict drivers and strengthen local institutional legitimacy. peacebuilding capacities. Understanding local power structures and exclusion dynamics enables interventions to redistribute benefits more equitably and foster trust between Strengthening community-company partnerships through robust Community citizens, companies, and the state. Development Agreements can formalize relationships, improve predictability, and create foundations for long-term accountability. Supporting participatory decision- Leave no one behind means ensuring measurable inclusion gains for marginalized making in benefit-sharing mechanisms ensures communities have meaningful voices in groups (women, youth, ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, LGBTQI+ individuals) determining how mineral revenues are allocated and managed. in jobs, procurement, and decision-making processes—so that reforms translate into tangible improvements in income, representation, and wellbeing. 2. Supporting workforce development and local content policies Breaking institutional silos means recognizing that no single intervention can address Technical and vocational training programs should be co-designed with governments, complex risks of social exclusion and FCV. Legal reforms, institutional capacity-building, private sector, and educational institutions to align with evolving ETM sector demands economic development strategies, and civil society strengthening must work in while addressing structural barriers that prevent marginalized groups from accessing complementary and reinforcing ways. The desired outcome is integrated programming education and employment. that delivers both immediate social protection and long-term resilience. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Comprehensive diversity and inclusion frameworks for both private companies Balancing short-term and long-term objectives means that while immediate priorities— and public institutions should include employee resource groups, mechanisms for such as livelihood restoration and safety—are addressed, interventions also build monitoring workplace culture and equity metrics, and visible leadership accountability institutional and market systems capable of sustaining inclusive growth, local value for creating safer, more supportive work environments. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region addition, and adaptive governance. Targeted procurement strategies can incentivize companies to source from domestic suppliers, particularly small and medium-sized enterprises, through supplier development programs, access to finance, capacity-building on industry standards, and streamlined regulatory processes. These efforts must be intentionally inclusive. 20 Executive summary 21 3. Investing in infrastructure and energy for value addition Supporting civil society organizations through legal aid, digital and physical security training, emergency support, and long-term institutional strengthening enables them to Renewable energy solutions that reduce costs for ETM producers while expanding access amplify community voices, monitor conduct, and advocate for inclusive mineral sector to underserved communities can support both industrial and social inclusion goals. governance. Strategic infrastructure planning that integrates transport, energy, water, and digital connectivity can stimulate broader economic development beyond mining sectors. 6. Bringing artisanal and small-scale mining into the formal economy Countries considering export restrictions or domestic supply obligations should be Rather than reinforcing punitive approaches that push miners into informality, supported to assess comparative advantages and combine such measures with strategic supporting inclusive and realistic ASM regulatory frameworks means promoting investments in skills development, clean energy, and reliable transport to ensure local affordable licensing systems, improving access to formal markets, and linking ASM value addition is commercially viable and socially and environmentally beneficial. This operators to technical and financial support. includes designing fiscally sound incentive packages and embedding inclusion goals to ensure marginalized groups benefit from employment and procurement opportunities. Geological mapping and participatory land-use planning can help identify and allocate viable ASM zones through participatory processes grounded in environmental and 4. Strengthening regulatory enforcement and governance economic sustainability, reducing conflicts between ASM and LSM actors. Building technical and operational capacity of labor, environmental, and regulatory Gender-responsive ASM strategies should enhance women's participation through bodies through technical assistance and financial resources enables effective oversight of collaboration with women's mining networks, gender-responsive policy design, and ETM sectors. This includes equipping inspectors with tools and skills for independent site investments in capacity building, financial literacy, and leadership development that visits, compliance monitoring, and corrective actions when violations occur. increase women's representation in ASM organizations and governance institutions. Improving integrity requires both anti-corruption initiatives and broader accountability Expanding access to financial and technical support through responsible finance mechanisms, including public disclosure of mineral contracts, revenue streams, and mechanisms and capacity-building programs can help ASM operators meet regulatory, beneficial ownership information. Investments in open-data platforms and digital tools labor, and environmental standards while building sustainable business practices. can enhance transparency and empower civil society to track developments and engage constructively in public debates. Comprehensive due diligence frameworks can enhance corporate accountability throughout ETM value chains, while sustained support for civil society organizations enables them to play crucial advocacy roles in policy engagement, monitoring, and Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals public awareness campaigns. 5. Driving meaningful community consultation and grievance redress Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Establishing clear, enforceable legal frameworks that provide affected rightsholders with substantive roles in shaping decisions requires integrating international best practices, reinforcing free, prior, and informed consent principles, and establishing iterative, two- way engagement mechanisms that extend beyond one-off consultations. Developing inclusive and accessible grievance mechanisms that align with UN Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights ensures affected rightsholders understand their rights and have means to pursue fair and timely redress. This includes addressing cultural and structural factors that impede access to remedy, particularly for marginalized groups. 22 Introduction Chapter 1 | Introduction 23 CHAPTER 1 Introduction The global energy transition marks a structural shift away from fossil fuel-based energy systems toward renewable energy sources. This transformation is driven by the need to mitigate climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.1 While the transition to renewable energy reduces carbon emissions, it also generates an extraordinary need for minerals essential to the production of renewable energy technologies – the so-called “energy transition minerals” (ETMs).2 This study examines how the growing demand for ETMs interacts with existing patterns of social exclusion and FCV in the AFE region, identifying key considerations, mitigating factors, and opportunities for fostering more inclusive and peaceful ETM value chains across upstream, midstream, and downstream activities, using the ‘just transition’ framework to guide the analysis. Estimates suggest that 3 billion tons of minerals and metals will be needed to deploy the demand for renewable energy by 2050.3 Solar panels, wind turbines, and battery storage Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals systems rely heavily on minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, manganese, and rare earth elements (REEs).4 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that demand for some of these minerals will triple by 2030 and quadruple by 2040 under net-zero emissions scenarios (see Figure 1).5 24 Introduction Chapter 1 | Introduction 25 Historically, Africa’s mineral resource wealth has played a decisive role in shaping its economic trajectory. During past commodity booms, resource-rich African countries experienced periods of rapid economic growth driven by rising global demand and high mineral prices.13 However, resource wealth has not always translated into sustained and broad-based poverty reduction. 14 This paradox present opportunities to further strengthen equitable development outcomes through enhanced governance frameworks, strategic investments, and greater local participation in value chains. FIGURE 1: Growth in demand for key ETMs in the net-zero emissions scenario. Figures for copper are based on refined copper. Those for REEs are for magnet rare earth elements only. Growth rates (blue) are between 2023 and 2040.6 This growing demand creates substantial opportunities for resource-rich countries to move beyond extraction and develop value-added industries such as mineral processing, component manufacturing, and integration into global clean energy supply chains. These shifts could support broader economic transformation in societies through industrialization and skills development. While price volatility, shifting technologies, and value chain disruptions FIGURE 2: Share in world production and reserves of some ETMs in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2022.15 present vulnerabilities for export-dependent economies, strategic and equitable approaches to value chain development can help mitigate some of these factors.7 One key reason for this disparity is that the wealth generated from mineral production has, since the outset of industrial mining in the region, been concentrated among political elites Africa holds vast reserves of ETMs, making it a key source of the raw materials needed and multinational corporations.16 Resource rents have not been consistently reinvested in for clean energy technologies (see Figure 2).8 The continent holds an estimated 75% of the essential public goods such as infrastructure, energy access, education, and social protections, world’s cobalt, 68% of its manganese, and 59% of its graphite, along with substantial, largely thereby limiting their contribution to sustainable development.17 At the same time, limited undeveloped, lithium reserves.9 Global revenues from the production of just four major ETMs Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals investment in refining, processing, and manufacturing has meant that many ETM-rich (copper, nickel, cobalt and lithium) are estimated at USD 16 trillion over the next 25 years, with countries, particularly on the African continent, remain confined to the lowest-value segments sub-Saharan Africa expected to capture over 10% of these total revenues.10 At the same time, of mineral value chains, curbing opportunities for industrialization and long-term economic rising global competition to secure reliable supplies of these minerals has introduced new transformation.18 In the AFE region specifically, countries continue to process only a fraction of Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region geopolitical pressures, with governments and major multinational companies vying for long- minerals, instead exporting mostly raw materials to be refined abroad, while importing finished term access, influencing investment flows and shaping national policy priorities in the region. products.19 In 2020, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) estimated For example, in the DRC, President Tshisekedi’s proposal to grant the United States access to that Africa’s manufacturing sector generated just 2% of global Manufacturing Value Added (MVA). strategic ETMs in exchange for security support has tied mineral governance directly to regional peace negotiations and foreign policy alignment. This also risks further entrenching the DRC Previous resource booms have also been associated with increased environmental into the upstream segment of ETM value chains).11 And as China has secured access to many degradation, loss of livelihoods and adverse local economic impacts, and intensified land-use ETM resources across the African continent, positioning itself as a central player in the global conflicts.20 In countries where agriculture and traditional livelihoods depend on land and water energy transition, the European Union and United States pursue a strategy of reducing their access, mining expansion has frequently resulted in displacement and loss of productive land.21 dependence on China by rapidly forging new partnerships. These dynamics escalate geopolitical Some research predicts that by 2030, the share of the global extreme poor living in Sub-Saharan tensions and ETM-rich countries find themselves caught between competing economic powers.12 Africa’s resource-rich economies will rise dramatically – from just 13% in 2000 to 62% in 2030, highlighting the importance of inclusive approaches to resource development. 22 Furthermore, 26 Introduction Chapter 1 | Introduction 27 significant parts of ETM production take place in fragile and conflict-affected settings where This report focuses on the AFE regioni, and five countries in particular: Burundi, the DRC, institutional capacity, law enforcement, resource governance, security provision, public services Malawi, South Africa, and Zambia. These five countries were selected by the World Bank and social protections, societal cohesion, access to justice, and market conditions are uneven.23 because they represent a diverse cross-section of ETM-producing nations, ranging from These fragile settings shape who participates and has the power to influence decisions, how established global suppliers to emerging players, with varying levels of resource endowment, benefits and harms are distributed, and how rapidly expanding activity interacts with pre- policy approaches and political economies. Each of these countries already plays, or may play existing vulnerabilities. Recent investigations by Global Witness also shows that violence and in the future, a critical role in supplying ETMs. The DRC, for instance, is responsible for over protests are increasingly widespread in countries where most ETMs are mined – between 2021- 70% of global cobalt production and is Africa’s largest copper producer35, while Zambia ranks 2023, 334 incidents of violence or protests linked to the mining of copper, cobalt, lithium, and second in African copper output.36 South Africa dominates the global supply of platinum group nickel were reported.24 metals (PGMs) and is the world’s largest manganese producer, essential for battery and steel production.38 However, these countries also largely continue to export minerals in their raw These dynamics highlight the need for thoughtful approaches to how the current ETM states, to be refined abroad: the DRC reportedly refines about 7% of copper products locally, boom might unfold in the AFE region.25 Recognizing the urgency of these challenges, the while Zambia refines an estimated 1.3%.38 South Africa possesses more advanced midstream United Nations (UN) Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals has made capacity, particularly in PGM refining, yet downstream manufacturing remains limited.39 the “just transition” a central priority, developing seven key principles to guide responsible Meanwhile, Malawi and Burundi, though smaller ETM producers and currently not considered mineral governance.26 These include: placing human rights at the core of mineral value chains, “resource-richii” due to their low mineral export revenues,40 are increasingly attracting interest safeguarding environmental integrity, ensuring justice and equity in resource governance, to develop their mining capacity for their lithium, nickel, graphite, and REE deposits.41 Malawi fostering local economic development, promoting responsible finance and trade, strengthening and Burundi have minimal ETM value addition capacity, with investment in mineral processing transparency and anti-corruption measures, and advancing multilateral cooperation to support infrastructure still at an early stage.​Annex 1 provides ETM sector country profiles. peace and security.27 Despite the growing body of research on the risks and impacts associated with ETM Embedding justice in ETM value chains is thus recognized as a necessity to ensure production, critical gaps remain in understanding the underlying drivers of social exclusion that increased mineral demand does not perpetuate historical patterns of social and and FCV and the opportunities to mitigate how these issues manifest. While numerous studies environmental harm but instead generates shared prosperity for workers and communities have documented issues such as labor exploitation, human rights abuses, and environmental in resource-rich countries.28 If managed effectively, the rising demand for ETMs presents degradation in ETM value chains, these are often the symptoms of deeper systemic inequalities opportunities for poverty alleviation and fostering social inclusion and peace. Increased mineral rather than their root causes. Such studies also often fail to present a balanced understanding of extraction and domestic value addition could generate substantial government revenues, both the risks and opportunities ETM sector growth presents. Understanding these interactions improve infrastructure, and stimulate investment in education, health, and social protection between ETM sector expansion, social exclusion, and FCV is therefore essential for identifying systems.29 The energy transition opens pathways for industrialization, including mineral pathways toward an inclusive and peaceful transition. The primary objective of this study was as processing, battery manufacturing, and renewable energy infrastructure, which could help AFE follows: countries move up the value chain, reduce dependence on raw exports, and secure more stable, Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals long-term economic benefits.30 Such investments could significantly increase fiscal revenues, Assess how manifestations of social exclusion and FCV associated with improve trade leverage, and create employment opportunities in both extractive and adjacent ETM value chains are currently evolving or expected to evolve due to sectors. McKinsey estimates that a shift toward value-added, low-carbon manufacturing on the changing or growing demand for ETMs in five AFE countries, and provide Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region African continent could generate up to USD 2 billion in annual revenues and 3.8 million jobs.31 recommendations to capture opportunities for programmatic responses Crucially, these economic gains will only translate into inclusive and sustained development that promote positive impacts. if they are accompanied by deliberate efforts to remove structural barriers to benefitting and participation.32 Ensuring that women, youth, migrants, Indigenous groups, and other historically marginalized groups can access decent, skilled employment and participate in decision-making processes is essential. Educational and technical training systems must align with emerging The AFE region includes: Angola; Botswana; Burundi; Co- i the definition from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) industrial needs, while gender-responsive and inclusive labor policies can help broaden access moros; Congo, Democratic Republic of; Eritrea; Eswatini; as “low-income, lower-middle-income, or upper-middle to opportunities. At the same time, fair and transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms, such as Ethiopia; Kenya; Lesotho; Madagascar; Malawi; Mauritius; income countries that had either natural resource revenue Mozambique; Namibia; Rwanda; Sao Tome and Principe; or exports equating to at least 20 percent of total fiscal locally managed development funds and community co-investment schemes, can ensure that Seychelles; Somalia; South Africa; South Sudan; Sudan; revenue or exports, respectively, over the period 2006–10”. local communities tangibly benefit from mineral wealth.33 34 Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe. Source: World Source: Cust, J. and Zeufack, A. (eds.) (2023). Africa’s Bank (n.d.). The World Bank in Eastern and Southern Af- Resource Future: Harnessing Natural Resources for Eco- rica. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/ nomic Transformation during the Low-Carbon Transition. afr/eastern-and-southern-africa Africa Development Forum. Washington, DC: World Bank, ii Cust & Zeufack classify a resource-rich country by using p.XXXV). 28 Introduction Chapter 1 | Introduction 29 Although this study aims to shed light on issues and opportunities across ETM value chains, the midstream and downstream segments in the five focus countries remain, for the most part, at an early stage of development. As such, few lived experiences could be identified related to exclusion or FCV in these parts of the value chain. The analysis and findings in this report therefore primarily focus on the upstream stage of ETM production, particularly exploration and extraction, where risks and grievances are more readily observed and documented. However, as countries increasingly pursue strategies for in-country value addition, including refining and processing, there is a risk that exclusionary dynamics and governance deficits seen upstream could be replicated or even intensified downstream if not proactively addressed. The dynamics explored in this study also offer relevant insights for the development of more inclusive midstream and downstream sectors, where proactive planning and inclusive and conflict- sensitive governance could prevent the reproduction of existing patterns of exclusion and FCV, and offer guideposts for further research. This study was conducted using a combination of literature review and key stakeholder interviews in the five countries in scope. Annex 2 presents a detailed account of the research methods employed in this study, including scope, data collection methods, research limitations, interviewed stakeholders and lines of enquiry. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region © World Bank Caption 30 Chapter 2 | A justice approach to ETM sector development 31 CHAPTER 2 A justice The concept of a just transition emphasizes the need for fairness and inclusivity in transitioning to renewable approach to energy systems. Rooted in the International Labour Organization’s (ILO) ETM sector framework, a just transition calls on governments and their “social partners” —including workers’ organizations, employers, and civil society groups—to ensure that sustainable development creates decent work opportunities development for all.42 Justice in a transition to green energy systems extends beyond merely managing negative socio-economic and environmental impacts. It necessitates reconfiguring systemic power imbalances, addressing intersecting inequalities such as racism and gender discrimination, and ensuring that benefits from mineral sector development are distributed equitably. While difficult, striving to ensure that the benefits from mineral sector development are more equitably distributed remains a critical goal, particularly to avoid deepening existing patterns of exclusion and grievance. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region 32 Chapter 2 | A justice approach to ETM sector development 33 At the core of the just transition framework are four interconnected principles of justice:43 or other irregular entities, with a political purpose or motivation.51 This definition is extended in this study to include non-political conflict, for example, grievance-based conflicts held by systemically socially excluded groups. Finally, violence is defined as the intentional use of Distributional justice focuses on the fair allocation of benefits, costs, and responsibilities physical force or power, threatened or actual, against another person or against a group or associated with the production and trade of ETMs. This includes addressing disparities in community that results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological revenue management, social and environmental impacts, and ensuring equitable access harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation.52 Critically, these dynamics create reinforcing cycles to economic opportunities. This critiques global inequalities that disproportionately where violence and conflict further entrench social exclusion, deepening fragility and creating affect marginalized groups while benefiting the more powerful.44 conditions for renewed grievances. In the context of ETM development, understanding these Procedural justice involves ensuring fair, inclusive, and transparent decision-making interconnected relationships is essential for designing interventions that address root causes of processes in all phases of ETM production and trade. It encompasses due process, exclusion rather than merely managing their symptoms, thereby breaking cycles that perpetuate good governance, and the rule of law, while emphasizing the importance of engaging instability and injustice. a diversity of social groups, especially those most marginalized. This principle seeks to Linking social exclusion and FCV dynamics back to the just transition framework, this enhance trust, accountability, and long-term acceptability of decisions impacting these study highlights how the four justice principles (distributional, procedural, restorative, and groups.45 recognition justice) provide a useful lens for identifying and addressing the overarching Restorative justice seeks to repair harms caused by past and present injustices in ETM trends driving or mitigating social exclusion and FCV in the ETM sector. Each principle carries production. It addresses, for example, environmental degradation, displacement, and distinct but interconnected considerations that should be taken into account to promote social economic disruption through mechanisms such as livelihood restoration, responsible inclusion and peace across ETM value chains. project decommissioning, and reparations for historical damages. Restorative justice underscores the need to acknowledge and mitigate legacy issues tied to extractive industries.46 Recognition justice emphasizes acknowledging and valuing the rights, identities, and cultural practices of all social groups, particularly those historically marginalized. This principle seeks to address systemic misrecognition, fostering inclusive practices that counter discrimination and respect diverse identities.47 Social exclusion is a fundamental challenge to achieving a just transition, and contributes to dynamics of FCV by directly undermining equitable participation, benefit-sharing, and Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals societal cohesion. Rather than treating social exclusion and FCV as separate phenomena, this study recognizes their deeply interconnected and often cyclical relationship, where exclusion both generates and is reinforced by fragility, conflict, and violence. The UN defines social Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region exclusion as “a state in which individuals are unable to participate fully in economic, social, political, and cultural life, as well as the process leading to and sustaining such a state”.48 This exclusion arises from the systemic denial of access to rights, resources, and opportunities, which disproportionately affects specific social groups defined by characteristics such as ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, or geographic location.49 The World Bank defines fragility as a systemic condition or situation characterized by an extremely low level of institutional and governance capacity which significantly impedes the state’s ability to function effectively, maintain peace and foster economic and social development.50 However, importantly, not all fragility arises from capacity deficits; in some cases, institutional unwillingness to govern inclusively may contribute to fragility. Conflict then refers to a situation of acute insecurity driven by the use of deadly force by a group, including state forces, organized non-state groups, 34 Chapter 3 | Stakeholder relations defining the ETM sector 35 CHAPTER 3 Stakeholder The ETM sector is profoundly shaped, and indeed in part constituted by, the relationships among stakeholders relations across the value chain. These interactions reveal important patterns of influence and opportunity defining that determine how benefits and risks of ETM sector development are distributed. Historically, decision-making authority in mineral sectors has been concentrated among government entities and large companies, creating the ETM dynamics where certain priorities may receive greater attention than others. These dynamics become particularly visible in contexts where multiple stakeholders have different objectives regarding the development of valuable and finite mineral resources. sector Understanding these stakeholder relationships – both established patterns and emerging shifts – is essential for identifying opportunities to create more balanced development outcomes. This analysis helps reveal which groups currently benefit from ETM sector development, which face barriers to participation, and which bear disproportionate risks. This chapter explores six key stakeholder dynamics shaping the ETM sector in the AFE region: Alliances between large-scale mining companies and public Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals authorities The roles and constraints of civil society; Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Hybrid governance involving formal and informal community-level authorities; Complex dynamics between large-scale mining and artisanal and small-scale mining operations; The influence of mid- and downstream actors in upstream dynamics; Entrenched discrimination and marginalization of social groups. 36 Chapter 3 | Stakeholder relations defining the ETM sector 37 Alliance between large-scale mining have highlighted perceptions that LSM companies appear to benefit from more government support, such as in access to land or licensing, relative to other sectors like ASM or agriculture.64 companies and public authorities Another point of tension seen in the context of Malawi, is the limited extent to which community development agreements (CDAs) – which mining companies are legally required to establish Collaborative relationships between government authorities and LSM (Large-scale mining) with communities in a 20-mile radius of operations – are implemented in practice, in part due to companies play a central role in shaping the ETM sector across the AFE region. These the absence of a standardized framework for CDAs (see Annex 1).65 partnerships reflect shared interests in leveraging mineral resources for economic development while navigating complex trade-offs. Government authorities and LSM companies often establish Across the region, LSM companies are also understood to play a role – both formally and strategic partnerships aimed at achieving complementary objectives. Public authorities work to informally – in shaping regulatory environments. In the DRC, for instance, observers have harness mineral resources for national development priorities, including revenue generation, pointed to instances where limited institutional capacity and political constraints may hinder the infrastructure development, and employment creation. Mining enterprises contribute technical consistent enforcement of requirements such as Environmental and Social Impact Assessments expertise, capital investment, and global market access that can support these national (ESIAs). In such contexts, civil society actors have raised concerns about whether all actors development goals.53 While this relationship reflects legitimate economic development goals, are operating on a level playing field and whether communities are sufficiently informed and civil society actors and community representatives across the region consistently raise concerns consulted.66 that broader social and environmental interests are not always given equal weight.54 In resource-rich states in the AFE region, mining revenues from the LSM sector often form The roles and constraints of civil a substantial portion of government income.55 Across all five countries under study, legal frameworks exist to promote equitable benefit-sharing from mineral production, though results society have been uneven. Both the DRC and Burundi have provisions for revenue redistribution, CSOs play a critical role in promoting transparency, accountability, and inclusive through the DRC’s 2018 Mining Code and Burundi’s ad valorem tax, with the aim of directing development along ETM value chains. Alongside advocating for equitable resource distribution a share of mining revenues to provincial and local development. However, delayed transfers, and responsible business practices, CSOs often support communities in navigating complex mismanagement, and weak transparency have limited their impact.56 57 Malawi’s 2023 Mines and interactions with state and corporate actors.67 They also help mediate between stakeholders, Minerals Bill and Zambia’s mining legislation include provisions to enhance social responsibility contributing to constructive dialogue and conflict prevention in mining areas.68 Across the of mining companies, but the lack of clear implementation guidelines or binding requirements region, CSOs provide information to affected communities and other stakeholders on, e.g., has resulted in varied outcomes and limited accountability.58 59 community rights, benefit-sharing mechanisms, land access, and relocation processes, thereby strengthening local voices and improving engagement. 69 At the same time, civil society is In South Africa, the mining sector has long been a pillar of economic growth. Government institutionally diverse, encompassing a broad spectrum of actors with varying mandates, policies have supported the sector through incentives and investment frameworks, and capacities, and degrees of autonomy. In some cases, CSOs operate under significant resource mining continues to contribute significantly to gross domestic product (GDP).60 Initiatives such Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals constraints or rely on partnerships that may influence their priorities and scope of action. as the Mining Charter and Social and Labour Plans (SLPs) have aimed to promote equitable Recognizing this complexity is essential to understanding the varied roles CSOs can play in development (see Annex 1). However, some analysts argue these mechanisms have not shaping more inclusive and accountable mineral sector governance. consistently delivered the intended results, particularly with respect to community participation Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region and the redistribution of benefits.61 As the ETM sector expands rapidly across the AFE region, CSOs are navigating a growing number of responsibilities while reportedly facing a range of constraints to realize their Furthermore, in the DRC and Zambia, public-private relations in the mining sector have similarly objectives.70 These include limited access to funding, bureaucratic challenges, and, in some drawn attention. Civil society organizations (CSOs) and academic observers have expressed contexts, challenges in engaging with state and corporate stakeholders. In the DRC, for instance, concern about overreliance on LSM companies in these countries, describing them as holding individuals raising concerns about governance or environmental impacts linked to ETM mining considerable influence over regulatory decisions.62 In Zambia, for example, the relatively have encountered safety risks that underscore the importance of strengthened protections for flexible approach to corporate social responsibility (CSR) has resulted in a variety of practices. community voices and local advocates.71 In Malawi, certain CSO efforts to promote transparency Some CSR initiatives, perceived by some stakeholders to be developed without sufficient and community engagement in the ETM sector have been met with skepticism by some community consultation, are viewed as not consistently addressing concerns around land stakeholders, who view these initiatives as insufficiently aligned with broader development access, compensation, or environmental protection.63 goals.72 Similarly, in Zambia, some advocacy organizations report issues in gaining recognition Similar concerns have emerged in Malawi, where civil society and community representatives as constructive partners.73 This perception has made it challenging for these organizations to 38 Chapter 3 | Stakeholder relations defining the ETM sector 39 establish collaborative relationships with government institutions and industry actors.74 their direct involvement and influence in ETM mining governance at the local level.82 In Malawi, for instance, district-level institutions are expected to address issues such as mining- Limited access to reliable and up-to-date data is another obstacle experienced by CSOs across induced community displacement, resettlement, and compensation but reportedly lack the the region. In Zambia, for example, CSOs note that information on production figures, licensing, mandate, authority, or resources to do so effectively.83 In Burundi, the limited presence of and revenue allocation is often unavailable or outdated, constraining the effectiveness of national agencies in remote, ASM-dominated areas reportedly also has made it challenging evidence-based advocacy.75 to consistently translate national mining policy reforms into local practice.84 In such contexts, informal or traditional leaders may take on important governance functions, although their roles In South Africa, CSOs are navigating a shifting legal landscape. Some organizations have raised and capacities vary across regions.85 concerns about the increasing use of strategic litigation against public participation (commonly referred to as “SLAPP suits”), including defamation cases brought by ETM mining companies Traditional and informal leaders thus often serve as key interlocutors in areas where state against environmental advocates and public interest lawyers. These legal actions are perceived presence is limited. In Malawi, traditional leaders and village mining committees are involved by some stakeholders as potentially discouraging public dialogue and critical engagement on in resolving land access and resource-related disputes.86 In Burundi, local landowners, including mining-related issues.76 some political elites, play influential roles in determining access to mining sites.87 Furthermore, access to consistent funding is often quoted as a pressing issue for many In South Africa, traditional authorities officially recognized by the state are frequently involved CSOs, particularly those working in rural or under-resourced areas. Limited financial support in land negotiations with mining companies.88 However, the interaction between formal restricts their ability to scale operations, recruit skilled personnel, or engage in technical and governance structures and traditional leadership can be complex, particularly regarding land regulatory dialogue.77 In some cases, funding shortages may leave CSOs vulnerable to external tenure and community consultation. Historically, traditional leaders in South Africa have at pressures. In the DRC, for example, there have been reports of strained community trust due to times entered into agreements with mining companies without broad-based community perceptions that some CSOs may be too closely aligned with company interests or have even consent.89 The 2018 Maledu judgment marked an important step forward by affirming that accepted financial incentives.78 Such dynamics underscore the importance of transparency and communities are lawful occupiers of their land and must be consulted before mining can accountability within civil society itself, to maintain credibility as legitimate representatives. proceed.90 While this ruling strengthened community rights, there remain ongoing debates about how best to ensure that traditional authorities represent collective interests and facilitate Trade unions, particularly in South Africa, also play an important role in advocating for inclusive decision-making.91 Similarly, in Zambia, traditional leaders also hold an important role mine workers’ rights. In addition to wage advocacy, unions frequently raise concerns over the in mining governance, including the provision of land consent. While these leaders are central to lack of comprehensive just transition planning along ETM value chains. For instance, South land management systems, some community members express concerns that the consultation African trade unions opposed the closure of coal-fired power stations in 2018 and the rollout processes do not always reflect the full diversity of community perspectives. In certain cases, of renewable energy contracts, citing the absence of adequate worker protections.79 However, local leaders have reportedly entered into agreements with mining investors that, according unions report facing ongoing challenges in maintaining influence and securing long-term policy to affected community members, did not adequately compensate for the long-term impacts of engagement.80 displacement or land loss.92 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Hybrid community-level mining Complex dynamics between large-scale governance of formal and informal Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region mining and artisanal and small-scale authorities mining operations Community-level governance in the AFE region’s mining sector is shaped by a hybrid system The growing demand for ETMs has added complexity to the relationship between LSM involving formal public authorities alongside traditional and informal leaders. These actors companies and ASM operators in the AFE region.93 Public authorities and value chain actors, often play complementary roles in overseeing mining-related activities such as land access, including mid- and downstream companies, frequently view LSM as better aligned with compensation negotiations, and dispute resolution. They also often serve as intermediaries national development goals and international ESG standards.94 In contrast, ASM, though critical between LSM companies, ASM operators, and mining-affected communities.81 to local livelihoods, often lacks the technical capacity, financial resources, and institutional Formal local authorities operate within nationally centralized systems for licensing, support needed to comply with environmental, labor, safety, and due diligence standards revenue collection, and policy oversight. These centralized systems can, however, limit at scale. Consequently, LSM enterprises are typically granted preferential access to land, 40 Chapter 3 | Stakeholder relations defining the ETM sector 41 licenses, financing, and markets, while ASM operators face systemic barriers to formalization Where conditions permit, cooperation between LSM and ASM has the potential to deliver and professionalization. These structural constraints, such as limited access to permits, better social outcomes for workers and communities while creating operational benefits for finance, and technical assistance, not only marginalize ASM from formal value chains but also both sectors. Structured co-existence can reduce incursions and tensions, improve safety and reinforce reliance on informal channels through which ASM-sourced ETMs continue to reach environmental performance, raise ASM professionalization and formal market access, and lower global markets.95 Building on the World Bank’s recognition that sustainable ASM development LSM security risks and community grievances. This model is not universally feasible, but can be hinges on securing legitimacy, through legal recognition and secure resource access, there is a legitimate and impactful where key foundations are in place, e.g., legal recognition and land and critical opportunity to strengthen formalization strategies that center ASM actors as legitimate permit rights for ASM, technical and inclusive support for ASM professionalization, alignment economic participants rather than peripheral actors in the energy transition.96 with government policy, and trusted, accessible grievance mechanisms.108 In many countries, growing LSM activity has placed pressure on ASM operators’ access These tensions between ASM and LSM also carry gendered and to productive mining areas. In the DRC, for example, ASM activity is officially restricted to designated artisanal exploitation zones (ZEAs) under the 2018 Mining Code (see Annex 1).97 generational consequences. Women and youth, who are often more reliant However, the number and quality of these ZEAs are reportedly insufficient to accommodate on informal ASM-related livelihoods, face disproportionate risks when all ASM actors and to meet growing demand for ETMs.98 Many ZEAs are apparently located in ASM access is restricted or displaced. These patterns are explored in low-yield areas, while higher-grade deposits are largely designated to LSM operations. This has further detail in the gender analysis section, as well as in the sections on contributed to tensions between LSM and ASM actors, particularly in the copper-cobalt belt of entrenched discrimination and marginalization of social groups and on southern DRC.99 distributional justice considerations. Similar dynamics were observed in Malawi, where ASM operators indicate they encounter procedural and administrative challenges when seeking permits and land access. Negotiations with LSM companies over overlapping claims can be difficult to navigate, contributing to Mid- and downstream actors influence uncertainty for ASM organizations.100 In the absence of clear frameworks for dialogue and dispute resolution, some civil society and community representatives have noted that unresolved issues in upstream dynamics may contribute to frustration among ASM stakeholders and could potentially lead to heightened Mid- and downstream value chain actors, such as traders, refiners, manufacturers, and tensions.101 investors, also play a significant role in shaping the social dynamics of upstream ETM value chains. Their sourcing decisions and practices and investment flows help determine trade The policy landscape focus on encouraging LSM-led development has led to limited patterns, pricing mechanisms, and the distribution of value across the chain.109 Furthermore, institutional attention and tailored support for the ASM sector. In Burundi, for example, access responsible sourcing frameworks and due diligence regulations, such as the OECD Due Diligence to finance reportedly remains a significant constraint for ASM cooperatives. ASM is generally Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas, perceived as a high-risk investment by financial institutions, and mining licenses are generally Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals the U.S. Dodd-Frank Act (Section 1502), the European Union (EU) Conflict Minerals Regulation, not accepted as collateral for loans.102 As a result, many ASM actors operate without the financial and the EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD), have brought welcome tools needed to invest in improved (more efficient and safer) technologies or adopt more attention to issues such as human rights abuses and conflict financing in mineral value chains.110 sustainable practices.103 Despite the constraints on ASM stakeholders and sector development, However, their implementation has at times also introduced practical challenges for upstream Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region ASM organizations continue to play an important socio-economic role in many communities actors, particularly ASM operators, who may lack the resources or support systems to meet across the region supporting local economies through the circulation of income and stimulation complex compliance requirements.111 In the DRC, for example, early compliance efforts led of small-scale trade and services.104 to unintended economic impacts, as some international buyers withdrew from sourcing from The broader dynamics of coexistence between ASM and LSM reflect the complex realities of the country altogether to avoid regulatory and reputational risk. This had ripple effects on ETM demand and supply. ASM can reportedly play a growing and complementary role in ETM local trade and income generation in mining communities.112 Moreover, in some cases, smaller value chains, particularly in high-value, low-volume ETMs such as cobalt, lithium, copper, and operators were unable to access formal markets due to administrative (documentation) and platinum.105 ASM operations can typically mobilize rapidly and respond quickly to changing financial barriers, leading to concerns around their exclusion from formal markets, instead market demands, whereas LSM projects often require extensive lead times, averaging over 15 further pushing ASM actors into informality.113 years, to move from exploration to production.106 However, the two sectors rely on different Downstream industries, such as automotive, electronics, and battery manufacturers, also extraction approaches. ASM normally targets high-grade and easily accessible ores, often leaving shape ETM value chain dynamics through evolving demand trends and sourcing decisions. behind lower-grade material that may later prove uneconomical to recover. LSM, by contrast, seeks to maximize overall resource extraction across a deposit.107 42 Chapter 3 | Stakeholder relations defining the ETM sector 43 For example, China is the largest single buyer of cobalt from the DRC, with Chinese companies although data on these dynamics remains limited. In the DRC, local chiefs reportedly play a refining a substantial portion of the cobalt used in EV batteries.114 However, changes in battery gatekeeping role in employment, often prioritizing their ethnic networks for lucrative mining technology have reduced reliance on cobalt, affecting demand forecasts in cobalt producing jobs.127 In Zambia, preferential hiring practices may favor those with political connections, often countries.115 sidelining poorer populations.128 This can result in uneven access to employment or business opportunities across different communities. Investors, particularly from China and the Global North, play a growing role in financing large-scale ETM extraction and processing. In Zambia, for instance, industrial investments Young people, who make up a large proportion of the population in many ETM-producing have expanded copper and manganese production, while ASM operators report challenges countries, face high unemployment rates (e.g., in South Africa, 59.7% of youth between 15-24 accessing formal financing.116 Similar observations are seen in Malawi, where local communities years are unemployed129) and limited entry points into the formal mining sector. In some cases, sometimes feel bypassed in resource allocation processes linked to investment decisions.117 this has led to participation in informal ETM mining activities where decent work conditions may be harder to guarantee.130 Older persons, especially in rural areas, may face exclusion from At ASM sites, traders and intermediaries serve as important links between miners and mining-related employment or income-generating opportunities due to physical demands or a markets. In contexts such as Burundi and the DRC, however, stakeholders have raised concerns lack of support services.131 Persons with disabilities also face practical and structural barriers, about transparency in pricing and mineral grading practices. Some miners report limited including limited accessible infrastructure and few inclusive employment pathways in the bargaining power or access to market information, which may affect their ability to negotiate fair mining sector.132 terms of sale.118 Labor and community relations in the LSM sector have, in some cases, been shaped by Entrenched discrimination and perceptions of unequal treatment between local and expatriate workers, at times driven by racialized tensions. In the DRC and Zambia, stakeholders have reported concerns about marginalization of social groups differences in wages, job security, and working conditions between national employees and expatriate staff, particularly in foreign-owned operations.133 These perceptions have occasionally Stakeholders across the AFE region have emphasized the importance of ensuring that the contributed to tensions in mining areas.134 In South Africa, the legacy of apartheid-era policies growth of the ETM sector benefits all segments of society. However, a number of social groups also continues to shape socio-economic dynamics in the mining sector. During that period, the continue to face barriers to meaningful participation in, and benefit from, mineral sector- mining industry both contributed to and benefited from a system of racial segregation, including related decision-making, resource access, and economic opportunities.119 These dynamics are the forced displacement of Black communities from ancestral lands to make way for mining shaped by a range of historical, structural, and social factors that influence how governance and activities. These historical injustices have had long-term impacts, contributing to persistent value distribution unfold within the sector.120 disparities in economic opportunity, land ownership, and environmental exposure. Today, many communities located near mining operations are predominantly composed of historically Groups such as women, youth, people with disabilities, LGBTQI+ individuals, and ethnic and disadvantaged groups (see Annex 1).135 religious minorities may encounter specific challenges in engaging with or benefiting from Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals the growing ETM economy due to entrenched discrimination.121 In many contexts, historical patterns of labor organization and land access continue to shape the present-day distribution of especially mining-related opportunities. Colonial mining economies in the AFE region, and Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region especially South Africa, Zambia and the DRC, relied on racialized labor hierarchies.122 Women and gender minorities remain underrepresented in formal mining employment. Many are engaged in mineral processing, trading, or services, which are often lower-paid and less protected.123 Barriers such as access to land and finance, caregiving responsibilities, and restrictive social norms continue to influence their economic participation.124 In addition, LGBTQI+ individuals are known to face stigma in mining contexts, which can affect their safety and access to formal employment.125 In the DRC, reports of wage or payment withholding by mine site owners, and violence, forced evictions, and so-called “corrective” practices targeting LGBTQI+ individuals in mining communities highlight the risks they face.126 Ethnic and religious minorities may also experience barriers to employment or land access, 44 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 45 CHAPTER 4 Social justice Chapter 4 examines the key social justice considerations that require attention to foster a just transition in the considerations ETM sector across AFE countries. It begins by identifying structural drivers and potential mitigating factors that in the ETM influence patterns of social exclusion and FCV, drawing on existing insights from the just transition, social justice, and peacebuilding fields. This framing helps to clarify the enabling conditions under which more inclusive and peaceful outcomes can emerge along ETM value chains. sector Emerging from these broader patterns, the chapter then explores how justice concerns manifest in particularly upstream ETM-producing contexts, structured around four key justice principles: distributional, procedural, restorative, and recognition justice. By unpacking these dimensions, the chapter deepens understanding of how various factors shape access to resources, participation in decision-making, access to remedy, and recognition of diverse experiences and perspectives. Crucially, the drivers and mitigating factors identified are not only conditions that shape justice outcomes but are themselves shaped by the extent to which justice considerations are addressed – making these dynamics mutually reinforcing (see Figure 3). Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Central to this analysis are the perspectives of local stakeholders and marginalized social groups, particularly affected community representatives, ASM sector representatives, women in mining, and civil society actors. Annex 2 provides a list of stakeholders interviewed. Their insights are critical in Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region capturing lived experiences of injustice and identifying opportunities for change. While these perspectives are inherently subjective, their influence on social exclusion and FCV is real. The chapter also highlights several case studies of good practice interventions that are advancing social inclusion and peace. While these examples primarily remain exceptions rather than the norm, they offer valuable insights into tested approaches that could inform future programming. By identifying the factors behind their success, these cases can help guide the design of scalable and adaptable strategies along ETM value chains. 46 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 47 4.1 Drivers and mitigating factors Recognizing systemic patterns with the potential to drive or mitigate social exclusion and shaping just transition outcomes FCV in the ETM sector is essential for understanding how justice considerations manifest in different contexts (see Figure 3), highlighting both the risks and opportunities for social inclusion and peace as global demand for ETMs intensifies. It allows practitioners to anticipate where future pressures or tensions may emerge, design interventions that target root causes rather than symptoms, and identify entry points for supporting more inclusive and peaceful outcomes across the value chain. The analysis is structured around seven interrelated dimensions: 1) resource generation and management, 2) transparent and accountable governance, 3) rule of law and access to justice, 4) public participation, 5) sustainable livelihoods, 6) social norms and values, and 7) development expectations. 1. Resource Firstly, the way in which public and private institutions manage generation and resources generated from ETM production can act as a structural driver management of either inclusion or exclusion across the AFE region. When resource generation and management are approached in ways that broaden participation and distribute value more equitably, they can help mitigate exclusion and contribute to more just and sustainable development outcomes. For instance, structuring land access, licensing, and procurement systems to include local businesses and community enterprises can increase local economic participation.136 Similarly, fostering domestic linkages across the value chain, such as by supporting small-scale processors or service providers, can spread economic benefits more widely.137 When resource revenues are unequally distributed or managed through opaque systems, they may reinforce existing power imbalances and fuel perceptions of injustice. This is particularly the case in settings marked by Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals regulatory ambiguity, limited enforcement capacity, and entrenched governance challenges, where “capture economies” are more likely to emerge. In such contexts, economic benefits are captured by connected elites, while the broader population sees few improvements in public services or infrastructure. These patterns can erode trust in institutions and generate Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region grievances that increase the risk of tension and instability.138 The immediate economic returns for a powerful few and supply security are hereby prioritized over sustainable and broad-based development considerations.139 48 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 49 2. Transparent Secondly, transparency and accountability in ETM sector governance When perceived injustices arise, access to formal justice systems or informal dispute and accountable can impact institutional effectiveness and trust in public resource resolution mechanisms provide legitimate channels for redress. Access to justice relates to governance management. Enhancing transparency and accountability requires the ability of individuals and organizations to access avenues of redress for perceived injustices. both the supply, or increased visibility, of governance actions, and the However, implementation gaps in the rule of law may also limit access to administrative demand for accountability by oversight mechanisms and citizens. When and legal processes of redress, particularly for stakeholders with limited resources. In some decision-making and resource allocation actions are publicly accessible, this transparency can contexts, informal leaders, e.g., community elders or religious and traditional leaders, offer form the basis of robust participatory governance, where citizens, civil society, and oversight valuable informal dispute resolution alternatives to formal justice systems. However, in many mechanisms can view government performance, have a voice in resource allocation discussions, of the countries reviewed for this study, these leaders are increasingly perceived as co-opted and ultimately hold governments accountable. by powerful interests or as placing their individual interests before justice and community benefits (see Chapter 3).145 Traditional systems may also place the interests of some segments Governance integrity —referring to the degree to which public institutions uphold principles of society over others, offering benefits to powerful groups in a community, while leaving of accountability, transparency, fairness, and responsiveness—influences multiple aspects of more marginalized segments of society with limited access to justice.146 Limiting channels for ETM sector development, from resource allocation to regulatory implementation. Resource expressing grievances can discourage public participation. Feelings of powerlessness at times governance becomes less responsive to public interests when institutional systems operate contribute to people seeking alternatives to formal and informal channels of redress, including without sufficient accountability measures. And when transparency mechanisms are weakened, protests and even violence.147 decision-making processes may also become less aligned with broader development objectives and citizen priorities, potentially diverting resources from essential public investments.140 This misalignment can diminish government capacity to deliver services and infrastructure needed for inclusive growth.141 4. Public Furthermore, public participation is another critical component of Furthermore, challenges related to transparency may create conditions that allow the participation transparent and accountable governance. The ability of individual involvement of unauthorized actors in the ETM sector, particularly in fragile areas affected citizens and civil society to engage in monitoring and decision-making by conflict or weak enforcement capacity.142 Even if a country or region is not in the midst of dialogues at all governance levels contributes to a government that is violent conflict, proximity to countries or regions that are inherently unstable increases the risk responsive to the concerns and priorities of the public they serve. When civic space and public of spreading FCV. Transparent and accountable governance can play a role in mitigating the participation are constrained by regulation, fear, or other factors, it may translate into less public impact of geopolitical influences, including the engagement of conflict and criminal actors and engagement, dampening participatory governance in the ETM sector. This could have profound their operations in adjacent countries or regions. implications for communities and workers attempting to pursue their rights.148 Globally, increased securitization and limitations on rule of law have dampened public participation and contributed to making the upstream mineral value chain the deadliest sector for environmental Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals and land defenders in 2024.149 Human rights defenders are also at risk, with 630 allegations of human rights abuses associated with ETMs documented over a 13- year period.150 3. Rule of law and Thirdly, when the rule of law, including policies, laws, and access to justice regulations designed to safeguard communities and nature, Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region is applied transparently and consistently, it provides a clear reference point for identifying and assessing ETM-related actions or impacts that may be perceived as unfair or misaligned with expected standards by individuals, communities, or companies. However, implementation gaps may arise when enforcement mechanisms lack adequate capacity, resources, or independence to perform their roles. In such contexts, compliance with social and environmental standards may be inconsistent, allowing operations to continue without sufficient protections.143 This may leave those without powerful connections with few protections and limited access to recourse. For example, in the AFE, legislation dictating standards for community consultations and requirements for revenue sharing, community development funds, or CSR, are rarely enforced.144 50 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 51 5. Livelihoods Fifth, access to sustainable livelihoods has the potential to ameliorate 7. Expectations for Finally, promised development gains – such as permanent social exclusion and FCV. ETM value chains may offer increased development employment, improved infrastructure, and better service livelihoods options for some people in the form of direct employment and services that delivery – during the exploration and construction phases of support mineral production activities. Others, though, risk losing their livelihoods to ETM production can help establish a foundation for mutually ETM production, for instance due to pollution of productive land and water sources or beneficial partnerships between communities and ETM companies. However, displacement.151 Women and youth disproportionately rely on land-based livelihoods, once operations commence, communities may sense that such benefits do placing them at heightened risk of economic displacement due to mining or other value chain not fully materialize or are short-lived. For example, although community operations.152 The loss of sustainable and formal livelihood options may contribute to greater development funds may be established, the resources allocated might not engagement in informal or illegal activities either for survival or by choice. For those displaced systematically deliver sustained improvements.156 As large companies begin to or forced to migrate, exclusion deepens as they may lose access to essential public services and profit from mineral production while communities see few tangible gains, this gap protections and social networks. Displaced or migrating populations may find themselves in between expectation and reality can reinforce feelings of exclusion and injustice, overcrowded urban centers or informal settlements, where they can face heightened risks of erode trust, and heighten social tensions.157 trafficking, SGBV, and labor exploitation.153 From the perspective of receiving communities, the additional influx of people can strain public resources and service delivery, creating tensions The below sections in this chapter describe, in more concrete terms, how that could result in violent conflict.154 the patterns of social exclusion and FCV described above influence the manifestations of distributional, procedural, restorative, and recognition justice. When the patterns that drive or mitigate social exclusion and FCV can be shifted, considerations for a just transition can be altered. Likewise, when just transition considerations are altered, patterns of social exclusion and FCV can also 6. Social norms Sixth, deeply ingrained social and cultural norms and values be modified. Understanding this interconnected system and projecting its future and values may shape ETM sector governance and decision-making, trajectories as global demand for ETMs continues to rise (Chapter 5) enables policy determining who is seen as a legitimate actor and who is not. makers and practitioners to anticipate opportunities to foster increased social Such norms and values affect gender roles, labor hierarchies, inclusion and justice and mitigate dynamics of FCV (Recommendations, Chapter 6). perceptions of informal livelihoods, inclusion of diverse world views and many other dynamics. In some contexts, prevailing norms and values may help foster cohesion, trust, and shared responsibility in resource management. For instance, strong community ties and traditional governance systems may facilitate dispute 4.2 Distributional justice considerations resolution or collective benefit-sharing arrangements. However, in other settings, deeply embedded hierarchies may lead to unequal participation or exclusion Distribution of economic benefits Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals of certain groups. For example, the dominance of patriarchal social norms may LOCAL ECONOMIC IMPACTS perpetuate narratives that exclude women from everything but the most menial jobs in ETM production. Other examples of social norms affecting social inclusion If well governed, ETM sector development could serve as a powerful engine for local economic transformation. Investments in value addition, infrastructure, and local supply chains present Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region are those that determine who is and is not seen as a legitimate economic actor in ETM value chains. For example, the value placed on formalization of the ETM opportunities to generate employment, support small and medium-sized enterprises, and mining sector excludes many ASM operators unable to meet the increased fees and expand access to public services. Evidence from the ETM mining sectors in the countries of requirements, such as documentation and licensing, required for formalization.155 focus for this study indicates that such opportunities have largely remained aspirational, with communities often seeing few concrete improvements linked to nearby industrial mining operations. Community members indicate they typically struggle to enjoy economic benefits, such as (permanent and fulltime) employment, improved local infrastructure and public services, or local procurement opportunities. In the DRC, the majority of respondents emphasized that communities living near industrial copper-cobalt mining projects rarely experience the promised development.158 For example, one stakeholder noted how in Kambove, Haut-Katanga, where there are several copper mining operations, “the people are still poor and there’s no visible impact on the social well-being of the population”.159 Spotlight 1 52 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 53 Limited effectiveness of mining royalties and other revenue-sharing mechanisms in reaching local communities has contributed to concerns about unequal benefit distribution and Spotlight 1 unmet development needs. In the DRC, companies are mandated to allocate 0.3% of their turnover to community development (referred to as CSR).160 However, these funds are reportedly CBG’s Local Content often mismanaged, with respondents noting that “the 0.3% (…) was supposed to improve the Model for Economic community’s social situation. But instead of this money helping the local population, only a few individuals benefit from it”.161 In some cases, only an estimated 10% of the allocated funds Inclusion in Guinea169 reach the intended communities, while most residents are left without access to basic services.162 In Malawi, the absence of effective CDAs has allegedly also hindered the distribution of Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée (CBG), teams. This includes open calls for supplier mining revenues.162 These challenges highlight the need for stronger enforcement of existing one of the world’s largest bauxite producers, registration, transparent vetting processes, regulations, coupled with enhanced capacity support to key actors such as local government has developed a local content model to and mentorship from experienced operators. officials, community committees, and oversight bodies to ensure that mandated requirements promote inclusive economic development A core component of the program is its focus are implemented transparently and accountably. In parallel, improved surveillance, auditing, in the Boké region of Guinea. As part of on women’s economic participation: targeted and public reporting mechanisms are essential to track disbursements, identify leakages, and its broader commitment to sustainable training modules and mentorship pairings bolster community trust. Without these governance safeguards, even well-intentioned benefit- development, CBG launched a Local are designed to help women entrepreneurs sharing frameworks risk perpetuating exclusion rather than addressing it. Economic Development (LED) program navigate gendered barriers to market aimed at strengthening local supply chains, entry and grow their enterprises in male- Efforts of companies in southern DRC to carry out CSR projects are similarly regarded supporting entrepreneurship, and fostering dominated sectors. with criticism by mining-affected communities, as they are reportedly designed without long-term community resilience in a context meaningful community consultation and impact assessments.164 For instance, local community By 2020, the initiative had enabled more than historically marked by limited formal representatives noted that while large-scale copper-cobalt mining companies undertake token 250 local firms to be registered as suppliers employment and deep socio-economic projects such as constructing small schools or health centers, these efforts lack long-term to CBG, with 150 local contracts awarded, exclusion. impact, as the facilities often remain unequipped with necessary resources, such as medicines.165 amounting to approximately USD 11 million Central to CBG’s approach is the creation in local spending. Notably, 50 women-led In Malawi, similar sentiments were echoed, albeit not in relation to ETM projects (as there is of a structured local supplier development businesses were supported through tailored no active industrial ETM production in the country yet). Experiences with a uranium mine system. The company partnered with the capacity-building efforts, and 30 women- showed how the mining project boosted the government’s GDP contributions but left local International Finance Corporation (IFC) and owned enterprises successfully secured communities with minimal visible benefits.166 CSR initiatives, such as building a football field, Global Affairs Canada to implement targeted contracts within the CBG supply chain. were seen as “imposed on the community” without addressing more pressing needs like interventions that help small and medium Beyond procurement, the program also education or health care.167 Tensions erupted over the failure of these CSR projects to meet Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals enterprises (SMEs) meet procurement supports local job creation, with 180 new community expectations, with one incident leading to protests in which locals dug up a road to standards in health, safety, and quality. jobs generated, including 60 for women, force a mining company out.168 These efforts address systemic barriers such contributing to the broader goal of shared as limited access to finance, inadequate prosperity in Guinea’s mining regions. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region infrastructure, and technical knowledge gaps that often exclude local businesses, This model demonstrates how a large- particularly those led by women and youth, scale mining operation can meaningfully from mining sector opportunities. contribute to inclusive economic development when local content is treated CBG’s LED program supports local business not as a compliance requirement but as owners through a combination of technical a strategic opportunity to embed equity, assistance, business training, and facilitation resilience, and partnership into core business of linkages with the mine’s procurement operations. Spotlight 2 54 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 55 Industrial mine employment generation also reportedly remains limited and uneven. During the construction phases of mining operations, there are typically opportunities to Spotlight 2 employ local community members as labor. Money floods into the surrounding communities. Ivanplats’ local Once construction is finished, the influx of cash to local communities often ceases. When operationalization begins, LSM reportedly tends to recruit skilled workers from outside local inclusive partnership communities, rather than training community members to fill some of these positions. This leaves many local job seekers unemployed or confined to low-wage, temporary labor.170 In in South Africa178 certain contexts, this has led to frustrations.171 For example, in Lualaba, DRC, mining activities have provided job opportunities for some local residents, contributing to localized economic Ivanplats, a mining company developing a mentorship, structured procurement growth.172 However, respondents noted that many skilled positions are reserved for workers large palladium-rhodium-nickel-platinum- processes, and prioritization of women from outside the region, creating tensions between local and non-local employees.173 This copper-gold mine in Limpopo Province, entrepreneurs. phenomenon was observed in Malawi and Zambia as well, where mining employment South Africa, has established a local opportunities often appear to disproportionately favor migrant workers, leading to grievances inclusive partnership model aimed at Once a national partner is identified in among local populations.174 Although evidence from the mid- and downstream segments of fostering sustainable economic participation the Ivanplats value chain, an intensive ETM value chains is lacking, these sectors may replicate the same patterns observed in the for host communities. The mine, set to negotiation and planning process follows, upstream mining sector. As mid- and downstream industries develop, local workforce may begin production in 2025, is 64% owned covering ownership structures, safety similarly struggle to secure permanent, well-paid jobs, with skilled positions often reserved for by Ivanplats, with a 10% share held by a requirements, and business diversification non-local or foreign workers. Japanese consortium and 26% allocated to strategies. The recruitment of local partners Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment is then facilitated through an open request for In some cases, communities have reported experiencing economic setbacks linked to the expression of interest, ensuring transparency (B-BBEE) partners, including 20 host establishment or expansion of mining projects, particularly where existing livelihoods were and accessibility. Although not exclusively communities. This structure aligns with disrupted or not adequately compensated. One recurring issue mentioned is inflation in local focused on women, the program actively South Africa’s legislative framework, which markets, driven by an influx of mining-related income that raises prices beyond what many local recruits and trains female entrepreneurs, mandates economic inclusion, particularly residents can afford. In Lualaba, DRC, for example, respondents noted that while “money is aligning with South Africa’s regulatory for historically marginalized groups such as circulating, life is expensive,” as rising demand for goods and services outpaces supply, making priorities. Black South Africans and women. basic necessities unaffordable for many.175 Building on this foundation, Ivanplats has Since its inception, 11 partnerships have been Another significant impact is the displacement of ASM operations, which has traditionally been established, creating 24 direct permanent implemented an Enterprise and Supplier a primary livelihood source in the Congolese Copperbelt. In Huat-Katanga, DRC, respondents jobs, two-thirds of which are held by women. Development (ESD) initiative that actively described how industrial mining operations restricted access to mineral-rich areas, forcing Additionally, 18 women have acquired direct Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals facilitates partnerships between its value thousands of artisanal miners out of work and removing a key source of income for the broader shares in businesses, and Ivanplats has spent chain and qualifying local entrepreneurs. community.176 As a result, local businesses that depended on ASM workers, such as restaurants over USD 24.5 million on women-owned Recognizing structural barriers – including the and transport services, collapsed due to the loss of their primary customer base.177 local enterprises in 2024 alone. These efforts lack of experienced local suppliers and the Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region prevalence of “fronting” (misrepresentation demonstrate a tangible shift toward inclusive of Black ownership for compliance purposes) economic development, ensuring that host – Ivanplats directly supports local businesses communities benefit not just from short-term to ensure that economic benefits remain CSR projects but from sustained economic within the community. This includes training, integration and ownership opportunities. 56 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 57 GENDERED ECONOMIC DISPARITIES GENDER REPRESENTATION IN MINING SECTOR BY COUNTRY AND TYPE Gender-responsive ETM sector development holds potential to promote women’s economic empowerment. If well-designed, it could expand access to skilled employment, entrepreneurship, and leadership roles for women in both industrial and artisanal mining economies. In practice, early evidence from AFE c ountries suggests that gender-inclusive outcomes are modest. Instead, the aforementioned limited or adverse local economic impacts are further pronounced for women in mining and mining-affected communities. While LSM projects have the potential to create direct and indirect employment opportunities, such as service sector jobs and small business growth, women’s ability to benefit from these economic shifts remains limited. Research found that mining communities experience a 50% increase in women employment in the service sector and a 16% rise in women earning cash income.179 However, without gender-responsive policies, persistent barriers – including restricted access to formal employment, wage disparities, and the displacement of ASM livelihoods (of which women often rely) – continue to limit women’s ability to equitably share in the sector’s benefits.180 In the ASM sector across the region, women have historically been confined to precarious, FIGURE 4: Binary gender representation in the mining sectors of Burundi, DRC, Malawi, South Africa, low-paying roles such as washing, sorting, or trading minerals.181 These roles are physically and Zambia. Due to a general lack of gender-disaggregated data in primarily the ASM sector, these demanding and offer limited financial returns, thus excluding women from more profitable percentages are estimates.189 For Burundi and Malawi, no data on women representation in the LSM opportunities.182 A Burundian respondent noted “on average, women might earn at least 5,000 sector is publicly available. Furthermore, data on other marginalized genders is also not available. FBU [approx. 1.7 USD] per day, while men can earn up to 10,000 FBU [approx. 3.4 USD] per day”.183 Similar wage disparities are evident in Zambia and South Africa, where women are Women also encounter barriers, such as caregiving responsibilities or limited education, to largely excluded from higher-paying ASM activities.184 In Zambia, women make up approximately accessing formal employment in the LSM sector (see Figure 4).190 In South Africa, for example, 41% of the ASM workforce but mine ownership within ASM is heavily skewed toward men, with women represent just 12-13% of the LSM workforce, with few pathways to leadership or 83% of mine site owners being men.185 decision-making roles.191 At the leadership level, only 8% of board members in South African mining companies are women, and women in the sector earn up to 40% less than their male The expansion of LSM operations has reportedly also disproportionately disrupted women’s counterparts.192 However, gender parity in LSM is slowly improving in South Africa, with a 4% informal livelihoods, particularly in regions where ASM historically provided essential economic uptick of women’s representation in LSM between 2012-2019.193 Data from 2020 in the DRC opportunities to women.186 In the DRC, industrial mining concessions have displaced ASM showed how women represented only 4% of the LSM workforce; a number that was even activities that supported women through ancillary roles, such as running food stalls, transport lower in Chinese-owned mining companies.194 And in Zambia, women make up 11% of the LSM Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals services, and small-scale trading. This has led to the elimination of crucial income streams for workforce, despite the sector generally being a key employer nationally.195 Similar challenges women, forcing them into greater economic vulnerability.187 Similar patterns were observed in were reported in Malawi, where women are rarely considered for positions in emerging mining Zambia and Malawi, where women dependent on ASM-related activities faced reduced economic operations due to their low education levels, further restricting their ability to benefit from Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region security as industrial mining expanded its footprint.188 the sector’s economic opportunities.196 Although the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) reported in 2023 that the global representation of women in LSM is gradually increasing, there is insufficient data from AFE countries, aside from South Africa, to determine whether this trend is mirrored in the region.197 Spotlight 3 58 Spotlight 3 Gender inclusion initiative at Kamoa Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector DELAYED DEVELOPMENT AND OPPORTUNITY COSTS The limited development of the ETM sectors in countries such as Malawi and Burundi points to the socio-economic opportunity costs associated with regulatory frameworks that are still evolving to fully support effective and inclusive mineral sector governance.199 In these two countries, local communities harbor high expectations for the benefits of mining projects, 59 Copper, DRC198 yet these aspirations appear to remain unfulfilled due to delays in project progression and systemic barriers to development.200 In Malawi, graphite exploration projects have created a sense of both optimism and disillusionment among community members. While residents Kamoa Copper SA, a copper mining operation members, over 50% of whom are women. anticipate improvements in employment opportunities, infrastructure, and basic services, in the Lualaba Province of the DRC, has made the lack of progress beyond exploration has eroded trust.201 Community members in Lilongwe notable strides toward gender inclusion and Kamoa also runs a Mining Career Preparation district report that only very few local laborers are currently employed in graphite exploration workforce development in a sector where Program, a one-year intensive course that activities, offering little economic benefit to the region.202 The limited impact has fueled concerns women are significantly underrepresented. A prepares 40 students annually for further about whether equitable benefit-sharing mechanisms will materialize.203 Raised expectations, subsidiary of Ivanhoe Mines and Zijin Mining, education in mining-related careers. The particularly when linked to promises of jobs, roads, and schools, can be a trigger for unrest. Kamoa began copper production in 2021 and biggest challenge for women’s participation While mining projects may offer some temporary benefits during early construction phases, the has since undergone rapid expansion. The is the requirement to pass secondary school subsequent decline in visible improvements can breed frustration, resentment, and, in some company directly employs approximately with over 60%, a hurdle many female cases, violent tensions. 5,800 workers, with an additional 12,000 students struggle to overcome due to socio- contractors, and impacts 35 villages near economic disparities. Despite this, in 2024, 8 Livelihood impacts Kolwezi through its social development out of 10 bursary recipients for international programs. studies were women. RESETTLEMENT PROCESSES AND COMPENSATION Additionally, Kamoa reserves general worker The expansion of ETM mining presents an opportunity to align mineral development with Kamoa’s multi-layered gender inclusion roles for local community members, and strengthened protections for land tenure and improved frameworks for compensation and strategy focuses on skills development, over the past five years, 1,650 local residents livelihood restoration. However, forced relocations due to mining projects continue to be a structured career pathways, and prioritizing have been hired, with women comprising critical issue in ETM-rich areas, with mining-affected communities often facing inadequate local employment. The company’s efforts to 30% of these roles. This exceeds the or no compensation. This challenge is prominent across the region, with systemic issues integrate more women into its workforce are female employment benchmarks of most around land ownership, governance, and enforcement of compensation and livelihood demonstrated through targeted training and multinational mining companies operating in restoration mechanisms.204 These relocations have also been shown to frequently result in career preparation programs, which address the DRC, where sustaining a female workforce violent confrontations, as displaced communities resist forced evictions or protest inadequate Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals key barriers such as education gaps and lack above 10% remains a challenge. compensation, destabilizing mining regions.205 of technical skills. By integrating gender inclusion into its In the DRC, relocations in areas with significant LSM activity have been a recurring issue. Reports One of the flagship initiatives is the Cadetship Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region workforce strategy, training pipelines, indicate that copper-cobalt mining operations have resulted in the displacement of thousands Program, which trains 30 candidates and local employment policies, Kamoa of households, with concerns raised around the adequacy of compensation and the conditions annually, including women, through hands- Copper sets a precedent for advancing under which these relocations have taken place.206 The involvement of public and private on experience in mining operations such women’s participation in the mining sector, security forces in enforcing evictions has, in some instances, contributed to tensions between as instrumentation, machinery operation, demonstrating how targeted initiatives can companies and affected communities.207 and mineral sampling. Since its launch in 2019, the program has led to permanent create sustainable socio-economic impacts In Burundi, ASM activities have been associated with the displacement of farming communities, employment for 228 local community for women in mining-affected communities. leading to reported tensions over land use and compensation.208 In Malawi, stakeholders noted challenges in past relocation processes linked to a large uranium mine, including concerns 60 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 61 about inadequate compensation and limited support for affected households.209 Perceptions of agricultural land and the ensuing environmental impacts intensifies communities’ vulnerability insufficient transparency and accountability in these processes have contributed to mistrust to food insecurity and climate change.223 Women are disproportionately affected, as water and posed challenges for maintaining the social license to operate.210 resource depletion forces them to walk longer distances to fetch water.224 In South Africa, land ownership structures further complicate compensation for displaced Community health and safety communities. Traditional leaders, often recognized by the state, negotiate land use agreements with mining companies, at times bypassing the needs and rights of community members. This OCCUPATIONAL AND COMMUNITY HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS dynamic has led to reports of forced displacement, for instance in the Kalahari Manganese Field ETM sector development offers the potential to improve health and safety conditions through mining area, where displaced communities allegedly received inadequate compensation or strengthened regulation, improved occupational standards, and enhanced public services none at all.211 Recognizing the challenges associated with mining-induced relocations, the South in mining-affected areas. Findings from the AFE region reveal that current mining practices, African government publicized the Mine Community Resettlement Guidelines in March 2022.212 particularly in ASM and in communities located near mining operations, continue to pose These guidelines emphasize meaningful consultation with affected parties, protection of existing serious health and safety risks, which remain insufficiently addressed.225 rights, and the provision of appropriate compensation. They also outline the responsibilities of mining right holders or applicants, including developing resettlement plans, providing financial In ASM operations, hazardous conditions have long stemmed from inadequate occupational support, and ensuring livelihood restoration programs. However, despite these guidelines, health and safety (OHS) standards and a lack of protective equipment. In the DRC, cobalt ASM challenges persist. The Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA), particularly miners are exposed to toxic dust and frequent tunnel collapses, with conditions deteriorating Section 54, addresses compensation when lawful occupiers or landowners prevent mining as demand pushes miners into more dangerous areas.226 In Burundi and Malawi, miners have operations.213 Yet, it does not include detailed provisions on determining compensation, often also long reported chronic health issues, such as respiratory illnesses caused by poor ventilation leaving negotiations to the parties involved without clear directives.214 and cold underground conditions,227 injuries, and disease outbreaks like malaria.228 ASM copper miners in Zambia face similarly hazardous conditions, with recent incidents such as the collapse In Zambia, tensions over land dispossession also emerged.215 The current Mining Act enables of an open-pit mine in Chingola in October 2024, killing eight miners, and another collapse investors to acquire licenses from Lusaka, reportedly bypassing local authorities and community earlier the same month in Mumbwa, which killed 10 informal miners.229 consent. This practice has resulted in instances where license holders arrive in rural areas and claim land that has historically been occupied by local farmers, triggering resistance Communities near mining sites face health and safety risks as well. In South Africa, the from affected communities.216 This has reportedly led to widespread displacement of rural legacy of asbestos mining in the Kalahari Manganese Field has caused the occurrence of communities.217 widespread respiratory illnesses due to residual asbestos in soil and building materials230. Manganese mining operations and transportation also generate dust and blasting noise, causing LAND USE CHANGES anxiety and trauma among residents.231 Limited access to healthcare services in many mining With careful planning, ETM sector development could contribute to rural resilience by communities exacerbates these risks, as illnesses and health conditions often go undiagnosed investing in climate-smart land use strategies and ensuring that mining activities are Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals and untreated.232 In the DRC, respiratory problems, miscarriages, and birth defects are balanced with the protection of agricultural livelihoods. The loss of access to land and frequently reported in mining-affected communities exposed to pollutants of industrial mining livelihoods associated with ETM mining is reportedly a pervasive issue in the AFE region, companies.233 Communities near copper-cobalt mining projects in the DRC area also report how disproportionately affecting rural and agricultural communities and increasing community their “homes are regularly pierced by mining projectiles. (…) Children who study in schools Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region vulnerability to the impacts of climate change and exposure to water and food insecurity and close to the mine are forced to flee every time explosives are used“.234 In Zambia, communities disease.218 In the DRC, cobalt mining has drastically reduced access to arable land, as industrial near copper mining sites are exposed to water and air pollution, increasing their susceptibility to mining activities take place in areas previously used for subsistence farming.219 Environmental health issues and diseases linked to environmental degradation.235 degradation further compounds this loss, with pollution from mining operations rendering farmland unproductive and water sources unsafe.220 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS Responsible ETM sector development presents opportunities to strengthen environmental In South Africa, the expansion of mining operations has similarly displaced agricultural stewardship by promoting climate-smart mining practices, improving regulatory frameworks, livelihoods, particularly in rural areas reliant on farming. Mining activities for manganese and and enhancing community resilience to environmental stressors. Yet, across the AFE region, PGMs depleted land and water resources, diminishing agricultural activities and increasing food environmental pollution and degradation linked to both ASM and LSM operations remain insecurity.221 The loss of farmland also limits communities’ ability to engage in climate-resilient persistent challenges, with limited enforcement of safeguards resulting in widespread agricultural practices.222 In Zambia, the encroachment of copper and manganese mining on ecological harm and heightened community vulnerability.236 While some impacts, such as Spotlight 4 62 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 63 deforestation or soil erosion, can be mitigated through stricter enforcement of environmental regulations and rehabilitation efforts, others are inherent to mining and can only be managed Spotlight 4 rather than fully prevented. Effective mitigation strategies, such as improved waste management Civil society action addressing manganese and stricter monitoring of effluent discharge, are crucial to reducing long-term damage.237 toxicity in Serenje, Zambia245 Mining operations reportedly often fail to comply with environmental regulations, leading to unchecked pollution and land degradation. In the DRC, companies allegedly tend to bypass The Centre for Environment Justice (CEJ), with workers had dangerously high manganese levels. requirements for ESIAs or neglect to fully implement mitigation measures outlined in their support from Brot für die Welt (Bread for the Despite this, SAFAL continued operations without environmental management plans238. As a result, rivers are contaminated with mining effluents, World), has been implementing the Resilient consequences, exposing workers and nearby causing the disappearance of aquatic species and leaving communities reliant on imported Initiative for Sustainable Environment (RISE) communities to ongoing harm. fish.239 Similarly, in Burundi, inadequate feasibility studies and unplanned and informal ASM project, a three-year initiative aimed at improving operations result in widespread land degradation. Many mining sites are abandoned without In response, CEJ demanded immediate environmental sustainability and livelihoods in rehabilitation, leaving the government or communities to address the environmental fallout.240 compensation for the 271 affected workers, mining communities in Zambia’s Sinazongwe and Serenje Districts. As part of this effort, CEJ including medical care, long-term health support, The depletion and contamination of water resources are critical issues associated with has been addressing the severe health and and fair compensation for income loss and ETM mining. For example, in the DRC, pollution from industrial copper-cobalt mines renders environmental impacts of manganese toxicity in permanent disability. Additionally, CEJ called for: rainwater unsafe, leaving communities without adequate water sources for drinking or irrigation.241 These trends also disrupt ecosystems and heighten climate vulnerability. In Zambia, Serenje, a district with rich manganese deposits • The evacuation of 35 critically affected victims copper mining encroaches on forested areas, fragmenting habitats and undermining the but limited regulatory oversight. for specialized treatment. resilience of local ecosystems to climate change.242 In South Africa, a critical environmental issue • The suspension of SAFAL’s operations until Manganese exposure can lead to manganism, a associated with mining is acid mine drainage, where water draining from mines becomes highly stringent safety compliance is ensured. permanent neurological disorder with symptoms acidic and laden with toxic chemicals. This phenomenon has led to serious degradation of water • A comprehensive environmental clean-up of resembling Parkinson’s disease, including quality, affecting aquatic ecosystems and posing health risks to humans.243 The management contaminated areas. tremors, loss of balance, and impaired speech. In of environmental risks related to mining in South Africa is perceived by some as reactive, • Financial and material support for affected Serenje, unregulated manganese processing has responding to community grievances, rather than preemptively preventing impacts.244 communities. left both mine workers and local communities exposed to dangerously high levels of the metal. CEJ set a December 20, 2024 deadline for SAFAL During an investigative journalism project, CEJ to comply with these demands, warning of gathered medical and testimonial evidence, legal action if the company failed to act. CEJ’s revealing that 271 out of 281 tested workers at persistent advocacy, investigative efforts, and public engagement have played a key role Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals the Southern Africa Ferro Alloys Limited (SAFAL) manganese plant had manganese levels far in bringing national attention to industrial exceeding safe limits. The workers suffered from manganese poisoning in Zambia. By documenting severe neurological damage, yet no immediate the scale of the issue and amplifying the voices of Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region action was taken by authorities. affected workers, CEJ contributed to government recognition of the problem and increased Following CEJ’s investigation and public pressure, pressure on SAFAL to take responsibility. While the Zambian government acknowledged the challenges remain in ensuring full accountability outbreak of manganese poisoning in Parliament and compensation, this case demonstrates how in September 2022. The Ministry of Health, civil society action can help drive institutional alongside the Occupational Health and Safety responses and push for stronger protections for Institute (OHSI), confirmed that 96.4% of tested mining-affected communities. 64 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 65 Demographic and social fabric changes In the DRC, ASM operators are restricted to ZEAs, which often lack high-yield deposits and are inaccessible (without substantial investment) due to the need for extensive overburden As ETM sector development attracts investment and migration, it has the potential to removal.257 This has forced many ASM miners to encroach on LSM concessions, creating frequent stimulate and diversify rural economies. But without adequate planning and service conflicts.258 The lack of viable alternatives for ASM has intensified tensions, as miners feel they provision, rapid demographic shifts and resource competition can place pressure on local are left with no choice but to operate informally and risk violent reprisals when entering LSM infrastructure and disrupt social cohesion. The expansion of ETM mining in the AFE region sites.259 LSM security measures here have simultaneously become increasingly securitized, is reportedly exacerbating long-standing social disruptions. In-migration to mining areas making incursions into industrial mining zones by ASM workers potentially deadly. Reports typically surges in response to employment opportunities, but often outpaces infrastructure and indicate that some miners attempting to enter LSM concessions have been fatally shot, social services.246 This is, for instance, seen in South Africa, where unplanned population growth heightening tensions between companies and displaced artisanal miners.260 around mining sites has strained housing, water, and sanitation systems.249 This dynamic has led to increased competition for resources and, in some cases, conflicts between host communities In Malawi, LSM companies allegedly hold concessions for extended periods without commencing and migrant workers.248 operations, barring ASM access to potentially productive areas.261 This is seen both in the graphite and copper mining areas. Respondents highlighted that unresolved disputes over A rise of ASM operations in rural areas has seen increased access to more disposable income land access have fueled resentment, with ASM groups advocating for unauthorized mining to contributing to behavioral changes that, at times, undermine social cohesion.249 The influx of secure livelihoods.262 ASM stakeholders highlight a policy gap stemming from the lack of clarity informal miners in South Africa has been associated with increased prostitution and substance regarding procedures when LSM operators do not permit ASM activities, even on concessions abuse and the straining of community resources and social structures.250 In Burundi, the financial that have remained inactive for extended periods.263 opportunities provided by ASM have been linked to rising alcoholism and increased rates of adolescent pregnancies.251 In the DRC and Zambia, mining-affected communities have seen In South Africa, the absence of consistent oversight and support for ASM actors is seen as having an uptick in drug and alcohol abuse, transactional sex, and associated health risks, including contributed to tragic incidents. Most recently, in Stilfontein, an abandoned gold mine became sexually transmitted infections.252 Women and girls are particularly vulnerable to exploitation in a site of conflict between informal miners and authorities. A government operation cutting these settings, as economic disparities and power imbalances force many into survival strategies off supplies to informal miners resulted in at least 78 deaths and 246 rescues.264 Furthermore, that may perpetuate cycles of dependency and inequality.253 increasing encroachment of ASM on LSM company concessions in South Africa presents a growing challenge. At the same time, stakeholders have noted that limited government Artisanal mining and its role in the broader mining landscape engagement on ASM-related security issues has made it more difficult for companies to respond effectively.265 CHALLENGES IN ACCESSING MINING RESOURCES AND RIGHTS Furthermore, while intermediaries play a crucial role in ASM mineral value chains by As global demand for ETMs accelerates, governments and industries are increasingly facilitating market access, providing liquidity, and enabling trade networks, particularly exploring diverse sources to secure ETM value chains. This includes the ASM sector, which in remote areas where miners would otherwise face logistical and financial barriers, their already contributes significantly to global supplies of many critical minerals. While not all Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals influence over pricing and transaction structures can sometimes lead to imbalances that ETMs are easily sourced through ASM, the sector holds untapped potential to play a greater role limit miners’ bargaining power and fair earnings.266 ASM operators of ETMs in the AFE region in supporting the shift toward low-carbon energy and digital technologies. ASM is predominantly are reportedly often subjected to exploitative practices by intermediaries and buying houses, labor-intensive and embedded in local economies, offering important livelihood opportunities. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region leaving them with minimal returns for their labor.267 As a result, profits are concentrated among With appropriate support and integration, ASM could contribute meaningfully to more inclusive intermediaries and foreign buyers, while ASM miners receive minimal returns for their labor. and responsible ETM value chains.254 This inequity is reportedly particularly pronounced in Burundi and the DRC, where opacity in However, despite its potential, ASM actors across the AFE region face growing structural pricing mechanisms disproportionately benefit powerful actors at the expense of ASM miners.269 barriers to participating in ETM value chains. The surge in demand has heightened competition In both countries, buyers often manipulate pricing systems to undercut ASM miners. In the between ASM and LSM, limiting access for ASM operators to productive resources.255 As discussed DRC, one miner recounted how a cobalt product graded at 15% was intentionally misvalued at in Chapter 3, governments and value chain actors increasingly prioritize LSM, citing its alignment 5%, significantly reducing earnings: “the scales and metorex [mineral testers] are rigged. The with economic and ESG goals. However, this approach is reportedly exacerbating inequalities quantity of cobalt or copper that should bring $100 ends up earning $20 or $30”.269 and entrenching the exclusion of ASM miners from resource access.256 Spotlight 5 66 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 67 The struggles of ASM stakeholders to benefit from the increased demand for ETMs are further pronounced in the DRC, where industrial copper-cobalt mining companies benefit from Spotlight 5 mechanisms unavailable to ASM operators.270 As one respondent explained, “when the price Supportive legal frameworks of cobalt falls, the [industrial mines] have a stockpiling strategy. They will continue to buy artisanal miners’ [minerals] at too low a price, and they’ll stockpile them in their depots, and enabling ASM access and when the price rises, they earn a lot.”271 This issue is compounded by increased monopolistic control over mineral markets, particularly by foreign buyers. In the DRC, Chinese entities play a rights in Tanzania273 prominent role in cobalt purchasing. Some observers have raised concerns about the nature of relationships between buyers, ASM cooperative leaders, and political actors, noting that these Tanzania illustrates how an ASM-supportive Targeted instruments also address capability dynamics may influence how the sector is governed.272 legal framework can expand artisanal and gaps. The Mineral Development Fund small-scale miners’ access to resources and and the Mineral Revolving Fund supports rights, offering relevant lessons for ETM- ASM operators’ access to equipment and rich contexts. In Tanzania, ASM includes mercury-free processing technologies, while several ETMs such as copper, though gold government efforts to broker partnerships and gemstones continue to dominate the with banks seek to ease financing constraints. subsector. The Mining Act (Cap. 123, R.E. More recently, the Bank of Tanzania has 2019) of Tanzania formally recognizes ASM introduced a rule obliging exporters to sell a and provides a dedicated licensing pathway minimum of 20% of their production to the through Primary Mining Licenses (PMLs). Central Bank, creating a new pathway for Establishment of the Mining Commission market-based pricing and offering potential (2017) streamlined licensing and reduced gains for formalized small-scale producers. delays, while creation of government-run mineral trading centers (from 2019) improved Remaining challenges in Tanzania include price transparency, curtailed smuggling, governance of PML tenure (e.g., informal and connected miners to fairer markets. leasing), limited access to finance for Complementary measures, such as lower tax geological investigations, uneven progress on rates for artisanal and small-scale miners, mercury phase-out, and the enduring need designated ASM zones to reduce conflict for stronger dialogue platforms between ASM, with LSM, and environmental requirements LSM, government, and communities. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals aligned to impact-assessment guidelines, supported more responsible operations. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region © World Bank 68 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 69 Labor conditions and human rights concerns children into mining activities.284 In Malawi and Burundi, similar dynamics are seen. Children in ASM communities transport materials and process ores, driven by economic necessity.285 WORKING CONDITIONS AT INDUSTRIAL MINES As ETM demand rises, value chain operations across the AFE region are expected to expand, Economic distress in ASM households often leads families to rely on children’s contributions creating opportunities for employment and skills development. In principle, the growth of the to household income, particularly when access to formal employment, education and ETM sector could support decent work and promote labor rights through formal employment accessible child care provisions is limited.286 For example, respondents in Burundi reported channels, especially in countries with current high levels of informal labor and unemployment. that children are often drawn into mining during school holidays to earn money, but many do not return to school afterward, reinforcing cycles of poverty and exclusion.287 The DRC has Findings from the AFE region suggest that the expansion of industrial mining has not historically illustrated how economic hardship pushes children into hazardous mining tasks, consistently translated into improved working conditions for local labor forces.274 Despite such as transporting and washing ores. These conditions place children at risk of long-term some improvements in OHS measures, broader labor standards reportedly remain inadequate, health complications, educational deprivation, and economic exploitation.288 In Zambia, children with industrial mine workers frequently subjected to exploitative practices, fear of reprisal, and are also increasingly withdrawn from school to participate in hazardous labor in the mining limited protections across several countries.275 sector due to economic pressures on their families, including in manganese ASM. Because these mining operations are often located in remote areas, regulatory oversight and enforcement are In the DRC, Congolese workers in LSM operations report enduring excessive workloads and limited.289 In South Africa, recent incidents have also highlighted the involvement of children stagnant wages despite increased production targets driven by heightened demand for ETMs. in illegal mining activities. In 2024, during operations at the Stilfontein gold mine, authorities Although workers’ safety has reportedly been improving,276 the pressure to meet production detained nearly 100 children from neighboring countries, raising concerns about human goals has led to double shifts without corresponding wage increases, a practice criticized for trafficking and the exploitation of minors in mining operations.290 placing significant strain on workers and undermining their well-being.277 Labor unions in the DRC, while present, are largely ineffective in advocating for better conditions due to the fear of This issue creates a reinforcing cycle of marginalization of a new generation. However, existing retaliation. Workers fear dismissal if they demand their rights, and union representatives are interventions in the DRC cobalt sector have shown that removing children from hazardous often seen to prioritize the interests of company management over those of employees.278 mining conditions without addressing broader socio-economic realities can lead to unintended consequences, whereby children who leave mining end up in other hazardous or exploitative Wage instability is another issue often quoted by stakeholders. In the DRC, some companies forms of work, such as street vending, domestic labor, or illicit activities, necessitating a adjust worker salaries based on production outcomes, leaving employees financially structured remediation approach for vulnerable children that provides long-term support.291 vulnerable.279 Wage disparities are also evident in Zambia, where low-level workers in the LSM This underscores the need for a structured remediation approach that not only removes children sector often earn below the cost of living, despite unionized miners securing higher wages.280 from harmful work environments but also invests in their long-term human capital development, through access to education, psychosocial support, and family livelihoods assistance. Without Ownership patterns appear to influence labor conditions. In both Zambia and the DRC, such a holistic strategy, child labor continues to paralyze the future potential of affected children Chinese-managed mines have drawn scrutiny from some stakeholders over reported limitations and reinforces broader patterns of exclusion. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals on union activity and concerns about the adequacy of training and protective measures, which are seen as contributing to increased workplace risks.281 Forced labor is also present, including in Zambia’s ASM sector, particularly in the Copperbelt region. Exploitative practices by labor brokers, withholding of pay and benefits, and lack of CHILD AND FORCED LABOR Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region health protections reflect systemic issues in addressing forced labor.292 Furthermore, in South The expansion of ETM value chains offers a potential avenue for strengthening labor rights Africa, it is widely reported that many miners, including foreign nationals, are coerced into protections across the AFE region. ASM professionalization and responsible sourcing informal mining under false pretenses, especially in the gold sector. Reports indicate that some initiatives could help reduce reliance on hazardous and exploitative labor practices in individuals are forced to work in hazardous conditions without proper compensation, reflecting ASM, including child and forced labor. However, evidence from the region indicates that elements of forced labor and human trafficking.293 these human rights concerns persist, and in some contexts, may be worsening as economic pressures grow alongside global demand for ETMs.282 While historical data highlights significant SEXUAL AND GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND DISCRIMINATION child labor in the sector (with estimates ranging from 25,000 to 40,000 children working in cobalt Responsible sector governance and gender-responsive interventions can help address long- mining in the DRC283), recent trends suggest a potential increase in vulnerability. The adverse standing patterns of marginalization and violence. Yet, in practice, ETM sector expansion economic impacts of the rapidly expanding copper-cobalt sector in the DRC, as described earlier, in the AFE region has been closely linked with sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) are expected to heighten the economic pressures on ASM communities, potentially driving more and discrimination in both ASM and LSM contexts, reflecting deeply entrenched gender inequalities.294 Although ETM sector-specific data remains limited, evidence suggests that 70 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 71 women working in mining, regardless of mineral type, are at heightened risk of violence and As also discussed in Chapter 3, in South Africa and Zambia, mining companies often engage exploitation. In South Africa, for example, a 2020 GIZ study reported that 31% of women primarily with traditional leaders who hold authority over rural land, though this does working in LSM companies were abused by colleagues, referring to documented cases of not always include broader community consultation or participation in decision-making sexual harassment, coercion, and even physical violence in especially underground work processes.307 CSOs like Mining Affected Communities United in Action (MACUA) in South Africa environments.295 argue that, as a result, mining permits are granted without proper consultation.308 Procedural injustices are further compounded for marginalized groups, particularly women, who are In the DRC, women living in ASM communities without male relatives or other financial support disproportionately excluded from consultations.309 often resort to transactional sex, which exposes them to risks of exploitation, harassment, and physical harm.296 Reports indicate that some women exchange sexual favors for safer working DEPTH AND INCLUSIVENESS IN COMMUNITY CONSULTATION PROCESSES conditions or protection, highlighting the power imbalances in these environments.297 These When conducted meaningfully and early, community consultation processes can serve as a dynamics are compounded by the broader social and economic exclusion of women, which powerful tool to ensure that ETM projects reflect local priorities and reduce the likelihood limits their ability to escape exploitative relationships or access meaningful protections, as well of social conflict. In practice, consultations conducted by LSM companies have, in some as the remoteness of mining communities.298 cases, been described by stakeholders as limited in depth or timing, with concerns that community input may be sought too late in the process or not fully incorporated into The concentration of male workers in mining areas has been linked to increased incidents of decision-making. This was seen in several cases in Malawi and the DRC,310 where consultations sexual violence against women both within and outside mining operations.299 Women living are regarded as “tick-the-box” exercises, with companies and governments reportedly falling near mining operations frequently experience increased SGBV. The arrival of mining projects short in incorporating community concerns into decision-making processes. For instance, often exacerbates tensions within households and communities, with women bearing the brunt where community consultations on a large niobium mining project occurred in Malawi, they of resulting violence. For example, in South Africa, a survey of women in mining communities allegedly often came too late to have meaningful impact, particularly as engagements took found that 73% of respondents reported receiving no benefits from nearby mines, and all place after licenses were already granted.311 This deprived communities of the opportunity to reported that their communities experienced substantial violence, including rape, murder, and express opposition or shape decisions that affected their lives.312 Similar concerns were raised by abuse.300 85% of the women linked the increase in violence to the development of the mines.301 community representatives in Lilongwe and Karonga with regard to the absence of timely and Inadequate gender-responsive frameworks and enforcement leave women particularly exposed, meaningful consultations in recent graphite and copper exploration projects.313 while the shift to cash-based economies further destabilizes traditional family dynamics, often increasing household violence.302 Even when consultations include wider participation, community members in both Malawi and the DRC shared concerns that these processes can feel symbolic, as their views are not 4.3 Procedural justice considerations always reflected in final decisions.314 In Malawi, community members expressed frustration with consultations held by a mining company.315 In the DRC, community proposals for infrastructure improvements, such as road construction, were allegedly dismissed in favor of less impactful Meaningful community engagement Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals projects, such as a drilling well.316 One community member stated that consultations were ACCESS TO DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES designed to pacify dissent with ongoing issues, rather than genuinely and proactively addressing needs.317 This perception of token engagement fuels tensions. Transparent and meaningful consultation processes can help align ETM sector development Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region with local priorities and reduce the risk of grievances. However, decision-making in ETM production appears to remain primarily a top-down process, frequently sidelining local communities.303 In Malawi, mining-affected community members described being excluded from critical agreements, such as CDAs, which are allegedly signed without their input on community needs.304 A stakeholder in Karonga shared how there are copper exploration activities ongoing, but thus far, the local community has not been engaged by the exploration license holder.305 In certain instances, the exclusion from decision-making processes also triggered violence: “When the community and ASM are not engaged from the start, they feel neglected, which builds anger in them, and later that anger transforms into violence to protect their social rights”.306 Spotlight 6 72 Spotlight 6 Strengthening community consent in South Africa’s Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND MEANINGFUL PARTICIPATION Transparent information-sharing and sustained dialogue between companies, governments, and communities are essential foundations for civic engagement in the ETM sector. When these are in place, communities are better equipped to participate in decisions that affect their lives, advocate for their rights, and contribute to equitable and sustainable project 73 mining sector318 outcomes. However, a reported lack of transparency and ongoing communication between mining companies and affected communities currently undermines procedural justice.319 Communities often express they feel kept in the dark about critical aspects of mining South African courts have increasingly the right to consultation alone is insufficient projects, including operational activities and timelines, environmental impacts, and financial emphasized the necessity of genuine when communities risk losing their land. contributions, which prevent meaningful engagement and perpetuate mistrust. In Malawi, community consent in mining projects, affected communities report being left uninformed about the scope and implications of mining setting a precedent for more inclusive and The decision built on previous rulings, projects.320 Residents near a uranium mine noted that they were unaware of production volumes accountable consultation processes. A such as Maledu and Others v Itereleng or even the identity of the company operating on their land.321 Another community member landmark case, Baleni and Others v Minister Bakgatla Mineral Resources (2019), where in copper-rich Karonga stated “we hear that several copper exploration licenses exist [in our of Mineral Resources and Others (2019), the Constitutional Court reinforced that area]. We don’t know the companies behind them or how they got the licenses (…). The lack underscored that mining companies must mining companies must respect customary of transparency is a very big concern for the community”.322 This lack of information deprives obtain community consent, rather than land rights and engage meaningfully with communities of the ability to participate meaningfully in decision-making processes and leaves merely conducting consultations, before affected communities. These cases have them feeling powerless and excluded.323 In the DRC, communities face similar challenges, mining rights can be granted on communal reshaped South Africa’s legal landscape, including regarding the allocation of royalties and community development benefits.326 The land. This decision represents a shift toward compelling companies to move beyond token lack of communication about operational practices and environmental impacts reinforces local stronger protections for landowners and consultations and work toward genuine frustration.325 community members affected by large-scale community partnerships. mining operations. Limited transparency also contributes to limited civic engagement and awareness of rights. While challenges remain in enforcing these Communities lack the foundational knowledge necessary to advocate for their interests or In Baleni, a community in Xolobeni opposed rulings, particularly in ensuring that mining participate in decision-making processes.326 In the DRC and Zambia, civil society reports that the granting of a mining right, arguing that companies comply with free, prior, and communities are often unaware of the legal frameworks governing licensing processes as it would deprive them of their traditional informed consent (FPIC) principles, these well as royalties or the benefits they are entitled to.327 In Malawi, low literacy levels and the land, which was central to their livelihoods, legal victories signal a growing recognition technical complexity of ETM agreements compound the issue, leaving many unable to grasp the cultural heritage, and subsistence farming. of community rights in the extractive sector. implications of mining activities or understand their rights.328 By setting a legal precedent for stronger Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals The court ruled that the community, holding informal land rights under the Interim consultation requirements, South Africa’s Protection of Informal Land Rights Act courts have provided mining-affected (IPILRA), had to actively consent before their communities with a critical tool to advocate Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region land could be used for mining. This marked for their rights and challenge extractive a significant legal shift by recognizing that projects that do not serve their interests. Spotlight 7 74 Spotlight 7 Advancing transparency in Malawi’s extractive sector through Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector Land acquisition and resettlement When approached inclusively and transparently, land acquisition and resettlement processes linked to ETM development can offer opportunities for improved livelihoods and land tenure security. But current processes reportedly exacerbate procedural injustices, as the legal 75 the Access to Information law329 and regulatory frameworks do not consistently ensure equitable and inclusive resettlement processes. Limited legal protections, inadequate consultation mechanisms, and systemic inequalities in land governance contribute to the marginalization of affected communities.330 For example, customary land ownership in Malawi and Zambia, which dominates rural areas, poses In Malawi, CSOs have played a critical companies provided little to no engagement challenges for equitable land acquisition. Land under customary law is managed by traditional role in advocating for transparency in the with local stakeholders. CSOs identified these chiefs and household heads, often leaving women with little decision-making authority.331 And extractive sector, particularly in ensuring that gaps and mounted a decade-long campaign in Zambia, when chiefs negotiate land transfers with mining companies, community members affected communities have access to crucial demanding the right to public information, report feeling being pressured into accepting inadequate compensation under threat of information about mining operations. A leading to the ATI Bill’s passage in 2016 and eviction.332 landmark achievement in this effort was the its implementation in 2020. passing and implementation of the Access to Even where legal frameworks for fair land acquisition and resettlement are in place, Information (ATI) Law, a milestone driven by The law has since empowered communities challenges in implementation continue to limit their effectiveness. In the DRC, relocation sustained advocacy from CSOs, including the to request and obtain key information on practices reportedly frequently fail to meet fair standards, with complaints of inadequate Natural Resources Justice Network (NRJN). mining contracts, environmental impact compensation and limited community involvement in decision-making.333 And in South Africa, NRJN, a coalition of over 50 organizations assessments, and government oversight despite the existence of guidelines aimed at ensuring fair resettlement, such as the Department advocating for transparency, accountability, mechanisms. In particular, CSOs have of Mineral Resources’ Resettlement Guidelines, challenges persist in their implementation. and equitable resource governance in leveraged the ATI Law to demand greater These guidelines emphasize meaningful consultation with affected parties, protection of existing Malawi’s extractive sector, is a member of transparency in oil and gas exploration land rights, and the provision of appropriate compensation. However, reports indicate that many both the Extractives Industry Transparency around Lake Malawi, ensuring that resettlement agreements fail to adequately address critical issues, including loss of livelihoods, Initiative (EITI) and Publish What You Pay communities and civil society actors can the needs of vulnerable persons, security of tenure, and broader community development.334 (PWYP) Malawi, further strengthening its role monitor and challenge extractive projects in pushing for reforms. Member organizations that could threaten livelihoods and The absence of strong mechanisms to ensure community participation is further complicated of the NRJN also organize community legal biodiversity. by limited oversight and governance challenges, including limited accountability. In Zambia, clinics in mining areas to raise awareness of concerns have been raised about accountability in land-related decision-making by traditional The ATI Law represents a significant step citizens’ rights. authorities, while national legislation, such as the Mines and Minerals Act, does not clearly define toward accountability and equitable resource Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals requirements for resettlement compensation.335 Before the law’s adoption, mining-affected governance. However, challenges remain, as communities struggled to obtain information is further illustrated in this report, including In Malawi, women face additional barriers tied to land ownership, which limits their on environmental, health, and economic weak enforcement, government resistance, participation in and benefits from mining. While some matrilineal systems allow women to Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region risks linked to mining projects. Government bureaucratic hurdles, and inadequate funding inherit land, decision-making power often resides with male relatives, diminishing women’s agencies withheld impact assessments, and for oversight institutions. control over land use and income.336 In patrilineal communities, where women are largely excluded from ownership or sale rights, land acquisitions for mining frequently sideline women from compensation negotiations, exacerbating their economic vulnerability.337 Worker representation Where effectively implemented, labor unions and collective bargaining mechanisms can enhance workplace conditions. ETM mining in the AFE region reveals gaps in worker representation, including weak enforcement of labor laws and limited opportunities for 76 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 77 collective bargaining, with particularly significant impacts on already marginalized groups.338 In South Africa, past challenges in ensuring accountability within the mining sector have Despite the formal existence of labor unions in countries such as the DRC, South Africa and contributed to concerns about whether current mechanisms are fully equipped to respond Zambia, their effectiveness is undermined by fear of retaliation and collusion with management. to the evolving impacts associated with ETM production.350 A well-known example there is In the DRC, workers report that union representatives often prioritize company interests over the experience of the Amadiba community in the Eastern Cape, particularly in relation to those of employees.339 Subcontracted workers, who make up nearly half of the LSM workforce in the proposed Xolobeni titanium mining project.351 Community members faced considerable the DRC, are especially vulnerable, often lacking access to freedom of association and collective challenges in raising concerns and seeking redress, especially around issues of land rights and bargaining rights.340 participation in decision-making. While company-led grievance mechanisms were established, they were primarily designed to address internal labor disputes and did not adequately respond In South Africa, despite the legal provisions for collective bargaining and strike action under to broader community concerns. As a result, many in the community felt that their voices were the Labour Relations Act, collective bargaining in the sector has not consistently achieved not meaningfully heard.352 its intended outcomes. Strike action is frequent and often involves unprotected and violent demonstrations.341 The reasons for these collective bargaining issues are apparently Companies are sometimes perceived as addressing community concerns through political multifaceted, including employers deliberately stalling the process, exploiting workers’ channels rather than through direct engagement and resolution. In the DRC, one community vulnerabilities, and undermining the effectiveness of bargaining agreements. Furthermore, large advocate suggested that some companies may rely on political connections to manage groups of workers, particularly in subcontracted or informal sectors, are often excluded from complaints, which can contribute to perceptions of inadequate responsiveness to community these agreements.342 Some scholars have raised concerns about the dynamics of the bargaining grievances.353 process, noting tensions between parties. Trade unions have been described in certain accounts as adopting firm positions, which some view as limiting the potential for compromise.343 This Cultural and structural factors further impede access to remedy, particularly for marginalized prolongs strikes, which eventually fail to address core issues at the workplace level, as collective groups. In Burundi, survivors of SGBV face significant barriers to reporting incidents due to bargaining is used to resolve problems outside its original scope.344 Furthermore, a 2024 study cultural stigmas and fears of social or economic reprisal. Respondents acknowledged that SGBV highlights persistent labor issues in the South African mining sector, emphasizing the need to incidents likely exist in the mining sector but remain largely unreported.354 Similarly, in South better protect workers’ rights.345 The existing labor law framework reportedly fails to address Africa, fear of retaliation and a culture of silence contribute to significant underreporting of SGBV historical injustices as Black South African workers remain excluded from ownership of the incidents in the LSM sector.355 This silence perpetuates harm and denies victims the opportunity means of production, and the surplus value is allegedly not equitably shared.346 for justice. 4.4 Restorative justice considerations Access to remedy and effective grievance mechanisms Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Accessible and trusted grievance mechanisms are a cornerstone of responsible ETM sector development, enabling communities and workers to seek redress, hold duty-bearers accountable, and build long-term trust. But across multiple countries, systemic barriers Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region limit access to remedy for rights-holders negatively affected by mining operations. A lack of accessible and impartial grievance mechanisms undermines efforts to address historical and ongoing injustices.347 In Malawi, for instance, communities reportedly struggle to access remedies due to the prohibitive costs of litigation, often requiring pro bono support from civil society or lawyers.348 In the DRC, concerns have been raised about limited independence and capacity within oversight bodies, such as labor inspectorates, which can affect the credibility and effectiveness of complaints procedures.349 These challenges have contributed to a perception among some community members that accountability processes do not always function as intended. Spotlight 8 78 Spotlight 8 Community-led resource governance at Royal Bafokeng Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector Continued impacts of unresolved harms A just transition offers an opportunity to redress historical harms and rebuild trust between ETM sector stakeholders and affected communities. By addressing past injustices, governments and companies can lay the foundation for more inclusive and durable development outcomes. 79 Nation, South Africa356 The unresolved harms of ETM mining, such as environmental degradation, displacement, economic marginalization, and human rights abuses, remain an obstacle to achieving restorative justice.357 Addressing past damages is essential for ensuring fairness and equity in the energy transition. All the previously outlined injustices appear to remain largely The Royal Bafokeng Nation (RBN) in South managed a portfolio with a Net Asset Value unresolved, continuing to shape the lived realities of mining-affected communities and other Africa represents one of the most successful of ZAR49 billion (approximately USD2.6 groups. Without redress for historical injustices, current initiatives risk perpetuating existing examples of community-led resource billion), demonstrating the potential scale of inequities and undermining trust.358 In the DRC, for instance, forced displacements due to mining governance and intergenerational wealth community-controlled resource wealth. operations have left families without land or livelihoods, while resettlement plans have often management in the mining sector. Through The RBN model operates on core principles failed to restore economic stability or provide adequate support for affected populations.359 strategic foresight dating back to the late of intergenerational wealth management, Similarly, environmental remediation initiatives often neglect the legacy of decades of pollution, 19th century, when Kgosi Mokgatle led combining immediate community benefits leaving communities reliant on contaminated water sources and infertile farmland.360 Efforts the community to purchase land using with long-term asset building. Strong to enhance environmental, social and labor protections today cannot fully succeed without missionaries as proxies during the colonial leadership, transparent governance addressing these historical harms. Communities previously excluded from benefit-sharing era, the Bafokeng people secured territorial structures, and clear vision have proven mechanisms remain marginalized, even as new policies aim to distribute resources more rights to land containing part of the world’s crucial to preventing the mismanagement equitably.361 largest platinum group mineral deposits along the Merensky Reef. and corruption that have plagued other The community’s approach centers on resource-rich communities in the region. 4.5 Recognition justice considerations converting short-term resource extraction The success of this approach becomes into long-term sustainable wealth through evident when contrasted with less successful Acknowledgement and legitimization of diverse perspectives and institutional innovation. Two decades cases. The Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela, a sister knowledge systems ago, the Royal Bafokeng Trust (RBT) made tribe, has faced asset depletion due to leadership disputes, while battles for control Recognition justice in the ETM sector involves acknowledging and respecting the diverse a transformative decision to convert its at Richards Bay Minerals among four local identities, knowledge systems, and contributions of all stakeholders.362 This includes platinum royalty rights into equity stakes tribes have contributed to destabilization and recognizing the value of traditional, Indigenous, and local knowledge alongside technical Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals in mining companies like Impala Platinum. violence, requiring court intervention for new expertise. In several countries, stakeholders have noted that local knowledge about This strategic shift diversified income sources governance rules. environmental conditions and land use is not always incorporated into mining planning and beyond fluctuating royalties, granted greater management, representing missed opportunities for more holistic approaches. This form of influence in corporate decision-making, and Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region By demonstrating how communities can injustice is particularly difficult to identify and measure, as it is deeply embedded in societal created valuable “dealmaking currency” for transform mineral wealth into sustainable norms and values rather than in overt policies or tangible actions.363 Recognition injustice expanding investments beyond mining. development through strategic planning and operates at an implicit level, shaping who is seen as legitimate, whose voices are heard, The community’s interests are managed institutional innovation, the Royal Bafokeng and whose knowledge is valued.364 As a result, data and research rarely address recognition through a dual structure: the Royal Bafokeng model offers valuable lessons for ETM-rich injustice directly, instead capturing its effects in the form of, for instance, exclusion from Trust serves as custodian of the nation’s communities across the AFE region seeking governance structures, the absence of inclusive labor policies, or the lack of legal recognition for wealth and mineral rights, while Royal to maximize long-term benefits from resource informal livelihoods like ASM. Because it functions through deeply ingrained perceptions and Bafokeng Holdings (RBH) functions as the extraction while maintaining community institutional biases, it often remains invisible until it manifests in tangible inequalities.365 investment arm. As of December 2023, RBH control and intergenerational equity. One example of recognition injustice in the ETM sector is the systematic failure to acknowledge women’s roles, risks, and contributions in mining. Across the AFE region, gender- 80 Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector 81 blind policiesiii persist, reinforcing the misconception that mining is inherently a men’s domain. Women’s participation, particularly in ASM, is both significant and structurally marginalized.366 However, this reality is rarely reflected in policy frameworks, which continue to lack gender- sensitive provisions addressing women’s specific vulnerabilities and constraints.367 In Malawi and Zambia, for example, OHS regulations do not account for the distinct risks faced by women miners.368 Meanwhile, ASM professionalization efforts, ostensibly aimed at improving conditions for all miners, often exclude women by failing to recognize the gendered barriers they face. The costs of securing ASM licenses, meeting documentation requirements, and paying formal sector taxes disproportionately disadvantage women, many of whom lack capital and access to financial services.369 As a result, policies designed to increase the legitimacy and security of ASM may inadvertently push women further into informality. Many other forms of erasure of the participation of certain social groups exist, such as the marginalization of LGBTQI+ individuals, Indigenous communities, migrants, ethnic minorities, displaced communities, and people with disabilities. For example, in the AFE region, Indigenous peoples face systemic misrecognition, as most governments do not legally recognize them as distinct groups with specific rights, leading to their exclusion from resource governance and benefit-sharing in the mining sector.370 Moreover, migrants in several countries studied are excluded from operating formally in ASM due to restrictions in legal frameworks (e.g., in Malawi and Zambia, ASM is limited to citizens and citizen-owned entities, while in the DRC and Burundi, ASM cooperative members must be nationals).371 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region This may include: “a lack of prioritizing women’s iii processes to report malpractices at sites being sanitation and hygiene infrastructure at mine sites, governed by the very people who commit the abuses child care provisions, or lighting that could improve against women”. Source: World Bank (2023c). 2023 security and OHS; the introduction of mechanization State of the Artisanal and Small Scale Mining Sector. and simple technologies that increase productiv- Washington, D.C. Available at: https://www.delveda- ity but inadvertently take jobs away from women tabase.org/uploads/resources/Delve-2023-State-of- without re-deployment elsewhere; structures and the-Sector-Report-042324-Compressed.pdf, p.2). © World Bank 82 Chapter 5 | Evolutions of the ETM sector 83 CHAPTER 5 Evolutions The chapter identifies the potential future trajectories of the manifestations of social exclusion and inclusion, and of the ETM FCV and peace in the ETM value chain. While each country context is distinct, common patterns sector emerge. The analysis traces how these patterns interact, producing reinforcing cycles of exclusion and instability, while also identifying conditions under which the expansion of the ETM sector could help resolve existing grievances and strengthen social inclusion and peace. Although the findings focus primarily on the upstream stage of the ETM value chain – reflecting the current stage of ETM sector development in the five focus countries – they also offer insights relevant to midstream and downstream activities. As these countries pursue industrialization and value addition strategies, many of the same drivers and mitigating factors are likely to shape social justice outcomes across all segments of the value chain. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region 84 Chapter 5 | Evolutions of the ETM sector 85 TRIGGERS AND WINDOWS OF OPPORTUNITY Natural and man-made disasters It is worth noting that the trajectories of social exclusion and FCV will not necessarily evolve in a linear or predictable way. Sudden shifts in political, economic, environmental, or social conditions Events such as tailings seepage, wall collapses, floods, or droughts, not only displace communities and can rapidly escalate existing tensions, or, alternatively, open space for transformative change. disrupt livelihoods, but also expose weaknesses in social cohesion and infrastructure. These events Identifying these potential triggers and windows of opportunity is important for anticipating often prompt urgent investment in climate resilience, social protection systems, and more inclusive future developments and designing timely, targeted responses. Triggers refer to events or turning land and resource planning. Crucially, they also bring into sharp focus the standards we accept for points that may accelerate exclusion and FCV, such as abrupt changes in commodity prices, major safety, environmental stewardship, and corporate accountability, raising fundamental questions about governance failures, or large-scale unrest. However, under the right circumstances, many of these which types of companies should be permitted to operate in vulnerable contexts. same events can also serve as entry points for reform, dialogue, or inclusive policy shifts, creating windows of opportunity to address grievances, strengthen institutions, and build more equitable outcomes along ETM value chains. Some examples include: Two key assumptions underpin the projections: ș Political will to move away from fossil fuels will continue under a climate mandate in most countries, and demand for most of the ETMs explored in this Drop in ETM commodity prices research will increase over the next five years as technological innovations Price crashes can destabilize economies reliant on mineral revenues, especially affecting ASM and consumer consumption for these technologies continue to grow. Individual operators and mining-affected communities. But downturns can also prompt long-overdue discussions countries may also experience impacts of commodity price changes, such as the on economic diversification, improved social protection, and more equitable fiscal policies. impact of the plummeting price of cobalt on the DRC or PGMs in South Africa. ș While international discourse continues to emphasize responsible mineral Strike actions sourcing and governance reform, significant shifts in domestic political While strikes may disrupt production and heighten tensions, they can also catalyze negotiations that commitment to ETM sector governance, transparency, and inclusive decision- improve labor conditions and promote fairer employment practices, especially where unions and civil making may be limited in the short term. In many cases, entrenched interests and society actors are empowered. institutional dynamics reduce the incentives for reform, particularly where existing arrangements concentrate decision-making power and resource control. Passage of new legislation To assess current and projected evolutions, this chapter applies the World The passing of laws aimed at, for instance, attracting investment or improving transparency, Bank’s Extractive Industries Value Chain framework.372 This structured community participation, or environmental protections can act as a trigger, raising public expectations. approach helps to examine how the justice considerations, as discussed in If backed by implementation and enforcement, these moments can serve as powerful windows of Chapter 4, may manifest differently across four key stages of the upstream Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals opportunity for reform and dialogue. However, when new legislation is not followed by visible change, ETM value chain: it may instead intensify frustration and reinforce perceptions of exclusion or tokenism. ș Award of contracts and licenses focuses on the legal and regulatory frameworks High-profile corruption cases Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region governing the allocation of mineral production rights. It assesses, for instance, Revelations of elite capture or resource mismanagement can inflame public anger and fuel unrest. the transparency and integrity of licensing processes, and the security of land and However, peaceful protests may also create a window of opportunity for negotiation and momentum resource tenure. for accountability reforms and strengthen civic oversight of the ETM sector. ș Regulation and monitoring of operations examines the institutional capacity and effectiveness of regulatory bodies in overseeing mineral production activities. Deaths of protesters at the hands of security actors It assesses enforcement of environmental, labor, and safety regulations and the mechanisms for holding companies accountable for their impacts. There are several instances where activists, protesters, and community members risk injury or death when, for example, resisting forced relocation or protesting pollution and other mining related harms. ș Collection, management, and allocation of revenue focuses on fiscal governance, The death of activists or protesters by security forces could trigger wider violence and worsen dynamics analyzing how mineral revenues are collected, managed, and distributed. It of social exclusion. Alternatively, there is an opportunity to work transparently through justice examines taxation structures, revenue-sharing mechanisms, and financial institutions and hold the perpetrators accountable, beginning to dismantle cultures of impunity. transparency to determine whether revenues are used for inclusive development. 86 Chapter 5 | Evolutions of the ETM sector 87 ș Implementation of sustainable development policies and projects evaluates how Award of contracts and licenses mineral revenues and investments contribute to long-term economic and social development. It assesses the effectiveness of, for instance, infrastructure projects, As global demand for ETMs continues to grow, licensing processes in the AFE region are community development programs, environmental rehabilitation efforts, and expected to become more competitive and fast-paced. While this may present important economic diversification strategies.373 economic opportunities, there are also concerns that accelerated licensing could reinforce existing inequalities in resource access and decision-making. Governments aiming to attract investment in the ETM sector may face pressure to expedite approvals, which, if not accompanied by adequate safeguards, could limit transparency, inclusive engagement, and Evolutions of social justice along ETM value chains in the AFE procedural consistency.374 Past mineral booms have shown that, under conditions of heightened global competition, there is a tendency for licensing and permitting systems to become more centralized. This can Award of contracts and Regulation and Collection, Implementation lead to reduced oversight and limited avenues for inclusive participation. In several contexts, licenses monitoring of management and of sustainable public institutions and politically influential actors have continued to play a significant role in operations allocation of revenue development policies shaping access to mineral rights. For instance, in the DRC, issues such as regulatory ambiguity and projects and uneven enforcement have at times influenced public perceptions of the licensing process.375 Licensing processes Regulatory Increased revenues Development Similarly, in Burundi, gaps in licensing procedures for ASM have contributed to an environment accelerate, sometimes enforcement may from ETMs may investments may where informal arrangements play a significant role, which affect consistency and predictability reducing procedural remain limited; reform heighten fiscal not fully meet in how licenses are granted.376 transparency processes can be management local expectations, The continued engagement of international actors, including multinational corporations gradual challenges potentially reinforcing Ambiguities in and foreign investors, is also likely to shape how licensing frameworks evolve. For instance, perceptions of regulation may lead to Gaps in oversight Capacity gaps in public China plays a significant role in global ETM value chains, including through investments in exclusion perceived favoritism mechanisms may affect financial management mining and infrastructure in AFE countries.377 While such investments can provide much-needed or reduced clarity in environmental and can contribute to Underutilized assets capital and technical expertise, their impact on resource governance and public participation in allocation social safeguards public dissatisfaction may attract interest decision-making will depend on the strength of accompanying accountability and transparency and regional disparities from concentrated mechanisms.378 At the same time, international forums such as the G20 are beginning to Stakeholder Informal and ownership groups spotlight the importance of local value addition in resource-rich countries. South Africa’s G20 engagement may be unregulated activities Tensions may agenda, for example, calls for more equitable participation of ETM-producing countries in the deprioritized during may increase emerge around Local hiring and mid- and downstream value chains. If these ambitions gain traction, they could influence Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals rapid sector expansion intergovernmental benefit-sharing upstream licensing strategies by prompting governments to prioritize operators that commit In areas of limited state coordination and provisions may be to domestic beneficiation or integrated project models, potentially reshaping who is granted Land-related tensions presence, non-state revenue-sharing introduced, but access to mineral rights and under what conditions.379 may intensify in the actors may expand Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region arrangements broader structural absence of robust their influence over barriers could limit Consultation processes with affected communities, already identified as an area of concern safeguards operations their impact in some countries, face additional strain under accelerated licensing. In Malawi, for example, ETM exploration licenses have at times been issued with limited community input, despite legal provisions for consultation.380 In Zambia, the absence of accessible information on mining FIGURE 5: Evolutions of social justice along ETM value chains. Source: authors. agreements and limited opportunities for local engagement has also contributed to concerns about community-level exclusion.381 Without proactive measures to strengthen transparency, accountability and participation, these trends will likely contribute to growing mistrust in state institutions and mining governance. 88 Chapter 5 | Evolutions of the ETM sector 89 Heightened competition for mineral-rich land is also likely to intensify tensions over land use. These constraints are expected to become more pronounced as ETM production expands. In particular, the interface between industrial-scale mining and ASM operations remains a source Without adequate institutional support, oversight agencies face growing pressure, limiting of friction. As governments seek to maximize revenue from large-scale projects, ASM operators their ability to carry out inspections or follow up on violations. In such settings, communities will continue to face growing difficulties accessing mineral deposits, particularly in high-value and workers will remain vulnerable to exclusion from decision-making, unsafe conditions and zones.382 This challenge is especially seen in countries such as Zambia, the DRC, and Malawi, environmental degradation, while companies operating in good faith may struggle with unclear where legal uncertainty and limited recognition of ASM often contribute to disputes over land or inconsistently applied regulations. and resource access.383 In some contexts, concerns have also been raised regarding governance practices that limit the independence and effectiveness of regulatory institutions. These include challenges such Regulation and monitoring of operations as undue influence, limited transparency, and gaps in accountability, which can affect public As global demand for ETMs grows, shifting consumer and investor expectations are playing trust and the perceived fairness of enforcement processes.392 As ETM prices rise, improving the an increasingly influential role in governance reforms and responsible business practices integrity and capacity of regulatory systems will be key to ensuring that resource development in resource-rich countries. Ethical consumerism, combined with regulatory and investor benefits are shared more equitably. pressure, has been shown to drive meaningful governance improvements in upstream producing Furthermore, as ETM sector expansion accelerates, CSOs across the AFE region are shown countries, though its impact depends on enforcement mechanisms, value chain transparency, to face mounting constraints that are weakening public participation as a mitigating factor and the responsiveness of producers and buyers.384 Institutional investors and corporations face of exclusion and FCV. As described in Chapter 3, in an increasingly securitized and politically mounting pressure to comply with ESG standards, which mandate due diligence in responsible sensitive operating environment, CSOs involved in advocacy, transparency, and accountability mineral sourcing.385 The EU’s Conflict Minerals Regulation (2021) and the U.S. Dodd-Frank Act are encountering heightened legal, financial, and reputational risks. These include limited (Section 1502) have set a precedent for value chain transparency in tin, tantalum, tungsten, gold recognition by public institutions, shrinking civic space, and, in some cases, direct intimidation. (3TG), a model that could extend to ETMs.386 Growing demand for carbon-neutral and “green” As a result, their ability to engage in evidence-based advocacy, facilitate community input value chains has further pushed companies to integrate responsible sourcing into business into regulatory processes, or serve as intermediaries between mining-affected communities practices, with EV manufacturers such as Volkswagen and BMW adopting due diligence policies and decision-makers is declining. Where protections for public interest actors remain weak to prevent human rights abuses and environmental harm.387 or contested, the risk grows that civil society’s role in monitoring and oversight will be further While these measures have encouraged progress in some areas, their impacts remain uneven. diminished, weakening institutional checks and balances. In the absence of meaningful Upstream actors, especially ASM operators, often face difficulties meeting the compliance participation and scrutiny, opportunities to identify and respond to early signs of tension are expectations of downstream partners due to financial and technical constraints.388 This can lead more likely to be missed. to exclusion from formal supply chains and reinforce existing disparities in access to markets At the same time, the continued growth of high-value ETM sectors may increase incentives and governance processes. Despite growing awareness of sustainability among consumers, for actors to operate outside formal governance systems. ASM professionalization efforts affordability continues to shape purchasing decisions. Studies from other sectors suggest that Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals face significant challenges, with complex licensing requirements and high costs limiting many voluntary standards may have limited impact unless supported by regulatory enforcement and ASM operators from formal recognition.393 In Burundi, regulatory gaps have already pushed stronger institutional mechanisms.389 miners into informal leasing arrangements, increasing reliance on illicit mineral trade.394 These Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Looking ahead, growing international scrutiny may encourage additional reforms, including dynamics will likely escalate as ETM demand surges, incentivizing actors to bypass formal greater transparency in ETM value chains and broader adoption of responsible sourcing governance mechanisms in favor of informal networks where regulations are unenforced. Such standards. However, meaningful progress will depend on domestic political will and institutional increases in off-budget systems undermine states legitimacy and exacerbate state revenue capacity to implement and enforce such standards. In several countries, including Malawi and leakage. Zambia, environmental and social safeguard policies are in place, but their implementation is Malign actors, including criminal and armed, are likely to continue exploiting regulatory constrained by limited resources, technical expertise, and enforcement capacity.393 In the DRC, weaknesses, particularly in fragile and conflict-affected states. In the DRC, armed groups for example, labor inspectors have highlighted difficulties in conducting regular site visits, often have long relied on the mineral trade as a funding source.395 With global ETM demand rising, due to logistical and resourcing challenges.391 90 Chapter 5 | Evolutions of the ETM sector 91 competition for control over mineral-rich territories is projected to intensify, increasing risks of Efforts to expand and improve taxation frameworks are expected to continue. In Zambia, violent conflict, human rights abuses, and illicit financing of armed groups.396 In South Africa, for example, discussions around the taxation of ASM are ongoing, but implementation is abandoned mines are already being repurposed for illicit extraction, fueling cross-border complicated by limited professionalization support and data gaps.404 As ETM production grows, smuggling of minerals such as copper and manganese.397 developing systems that can effectively capture revenue from a wider range of actors, including ASM operators, may become a priority. Yet, reliable data on earnings, production volumes, and Collection, management, and allocation of revenue exports remains essential to support equitable and consistent tax collection.405 As global demand for ETMs increases, producing countries across the AFE region are likely Revenue allocation remains a critical issue in ensuring that mineral wealth supports local to see a rise in revenues from the sector. This presents a significant opportunity to finance development. In Malawi, for instance, mineral revenues are centrally managed, limiting the broad-based development, strengthen public service delivery, and enhance economic resilience. ability of local governments to respond to community needs in mining-affected areas.406 However, translating this potential into inclusive and sustained benefits will depend on the Similarly, in Burundi, attempts to decentralize aspects of mining governance have not yet robustness of revenue collection systems, as well as the effectiveness and transparency of public translated into meaningful local participation in revenue planning or spending.407 As revenues financial management and a strengthened role for civil society. grow, ensuring that communities benefit directly, whether through infrastructure, services, or social investment, will be important for managing expectations and maintaining trust. Governments may also (continue to) pursue fiscal renegotiations with ETM production companies to enhance the public share of resource rents, particularly given the strategic Finally, concerns over accountability and transparency in revenue management remain. importance of ETMs. In some contexts, governments have already taken steps to revisit fiscal In several countries, institutional capacity constraints, limited oversight or political will, and arrangements where revenues were perceived as insufficient. In Burundi, for instance, low perceived lack of transparency will continue to undermine public confidence in how mineral returns from mineral extraction prompted a suspension of industrial mining licenses in 2021, revenues are spent.408 Continued efforts to strengthen public financial management systems, with the government expressing concerns over the proportion of value retained within the including disclosure of mining revenue data, community monitoring mechanisms, and country.398 In countries such as the DRC and Zambia, shifts in royalty rates, taxation structures, or equitable budgeting processes, will be essential to ensure that rising ETM revenues contribute ownership stakes are part of broader efforts to align mining revenues with national development meaningfully to inclusive and sustainable development. priorities.399 However, an increasingly combative stance by some governments in seeking greater shares of mining revenues, often through abrupt fiscal policy changes or renegotiation of equity Implementation of sustainable development policies and projects stakes, risks eroding stability and investor confidence.400 As global demand for ETMs rises, the potential for mining revenues to drive sustainable In parallel, several AFE governments are intensifying efforts to promote in-country value development is increasing. However, unless governance and investment priorities shift, existing addition as a means to capture greater economic benefits from their mineral resources, patterns of exclusion in affected communities may persist. Governments and companies may including through fiscal policy. For instance, Zambia has committed to developing frameworks seek to expand sustainability initiatives, but systemic challenges, such as weak institutional for mineral value addition, facilitating access to modern value-addition technologies, and frameworks, speculative asset trading, asset-based deals rather than consistent coordinated Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals providing opportunities for capacity development for local participation in the mineral value- long-term regional economic development frameworks and limited local content policies, are addition process.401 Meanwhile, Zambia and the DRC are establishing Special Economic Zones expected to hinder long-term development outcomes. (SEZs) for battery EV production, offering tax incentives to attract investment and support the Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region development of an integrated value chain - from battery precursor materials to finished electric Investment in infrastructure and public services tied to mineral production revenues has vehicles, as well as other clean energy renewable technologies.402 These fiscal, trade, and historically been sporadic and poorly aligned with local needs. This is expected to continue industrial policy shifts aim to retain more value domestically, create jobs, and stimulate broader and potentially even worsen. Infrastructure and public service improvements are often economic transformation. However, their success will hinge on inclusive industrial policies, concentrated in urban centers or areas prioritized for mineral production operations, creating strong implementation, and targeted investments in infrastructure and skills. Without these, “islands of prosperity” while leaving many nearby communities without tangible benefits.409 there is a real risk that benefits will be captured disproportionately by foreign firms or elites, With ETM sector growth comes rising demand for infrastructure, such as energy, transport, sidelining local workers, communities, and small businesses from meaningful participation in and water systems, to support upstream, midstream, and downstream activities. This the green industrial transition.403 expansion could offer communities new opportunities through improved access to shared- use infrastructure. However, past experience shows that such investments have often been poorly planned, delayed, or of low quality.410 Furthermore, in Zambia, where the energy system is heavily dependent on hydropower and increasingly affected by climate-induced droughts, 92 Chapter 5 | Evolutions of the ETM sector 93 the expansion of energy-intensive mining and processing operations risks further straining the grid.411 This could reduce energy availability for households and other sectors, compounding existing vulnerabilities. If infrastructure development is poorly coordinated or captured by elite interests, the benefits are unlikely to reach local populations. However, if governments and partners effectively align mineral revenues, concessional financing, and industrial policy to invest in diversified, climate-resilient energy infrastructure (such as solar and mini-grids), this could both meet ETM sector needs and expand energy access in underserved communities.412 The frequent turnover of mining assets due to speculative trading is expected to remain a major barrier to long-term development. If supply does not keep pace with the surging demand for ETMs, prices will remain volatile. Such market volatility creates more opportunities for short- term gains, attracting speculators who try to profit from rapid ups and downs. This includes traders betting on price spikes or crashes, investors seeking arbitrage opportunities, and companies hoarding or offloading minerals to exploit price movements. In Zambia, for example, mining assets still tend to frequently change ownership due to ambiguities in tenure systems, restrictive licensing, and inadequate geological data, delaying economic and social benefits for mining communities.413 This cycle of ownership changes prevents long-term community investment and job creation, while also excluding ASM operators from viable mining areas, as seen in the copper-rich areas of Malawi.414 In some cases, dormant mineral assets may sit idle for extended periods, leading to economic stagnation and heightened tensions over land use. Limited employment and local content opportunities will likely remain a challenge, as ETM production continues to rely heavily on foreign expertise and imported inputs. Despite growing demand, mineral-related job creation in the AFE region has remained minimal, and this pattern is expected to persist without stronger commitments to local hiring and skills development.415 In South Africa, labor market constraints have limited workforce integration, leaving mineral producing regions with persistently high unemployment.416 In Malawi and Zambia, local populations already report exclusion from employment in large mining projects, a trend that is unlikely to change unless mandatory local hiring and upskilling policies are enforced.417 Although some positive examples exist of ETM production companies setting Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals ambitious local hiring goals, and some have introduced workforce development programs, such as at the Kamoa Copper mine in the DRC 418, these initiatives often appear to be aspirational rather than fully implemented, with limited evidence of wide-spread effective implementation. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Marginalized groups will remain underrepresented in mining employment and decision-making processes unless structural barriers mentioned are actively dismantled. © Angela Jorns / Levin Sources. Further permission required for reuse. 94 Chapter 6 | Recommendations 95 CHAPTER 6 Recommendations The recommendations are structured into two main sections: Key principles Foundational approaches that should guide social and economic development interventions in the ETM sector in the AFE region. Targeted recommendations Practical measures multilateral institutions, donor agencies, the private sector and other actors (e.g., philanthropic foundations, CSOs etc.) can support to drive social inclusion and peace in the context of a growing ETM sector. © World Bank Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region 96 Chapter 6 | Recommendations 97 6.1 Key Principles For example, one key risk is gender-blind interventions that fail to account for women’s structural disadvantages in mineral production, employment and decision-making. Even Four key principles establish the foundational framework to ensure that ETM sector development interventions designed to promote inclusivity, such as workforce training programs or contributes to a just transition. These recommendations should inform the design and implementation of local hiring initiatives, may unintentionally reinforce exclusion if they do not address the all interventions, aligning with and complementing the World Bank’s ESF, beginning with Environmental specific barriers women face, such as limited access to education, childcare, or male- and Social Standard 1 (ESS1), which calls for the assessment and management of environmental and dominated hiring practices.423 social risks and impacts.419 Breaking silos – ensuring an integrated approach No single intervention can independently resolve the complex risks of social exclusion Conflict sensitivity – beyond Do No Harm (DNH) and FCV in the ETM sector. A just transition requires a coordinated, multi-sectoral A conflict sensitive approach to ETM sector development requires that ETM sector approach, where governance reforms, institutional capacity-building, economic development not only avoid reinforcing exclusion and fragility, but also proactively seek development strategies, civil society strengthening and other measures are implemented out opportunities to support inclusion and peace. . The key recommendation is to embed in complementary and reinforcing ways. For example, legal and regulatory reforms conflict-sensitive analysis into policy and program design by grounding interventions alone cannot drive meaningful change without strengthened enforcement capacity, in robust contextual and power analysis. This means understanding who benefits from financial resources, and mechanisms for accountability. Many resource-rich countries the flow of revenues, profits, land, or minerals, and how those transfers reshape power have enacted progressive mining laws. However, when enforcement agencies are relations—whether by empowering certain elites, displacing communities, or triggering underfunded, susceptible to political influence, or lack technical expertise, these reforms conflict over control and access.420 To put this into practice, policy-makers and project remain largely ineffective. Similarly, without independent oversight and functioning teams need to integrate inclusive political economy assessments that trace how social grievance mechanisms, legal frameworks fail to prevent resource capture or address exclusion and fragility are experienced by different groups. They also need to monitor grievances. Civil society plays a crucial role in holding governments accountable, but how “resource transfers” affect these dynamics, particularly in places where tensions where civic space is shrinking, opportunities for scrutiny and redress are increasingly already exist. The ultimate aim is to make conflict-sensitive planning a formal part of limited.424 ETM sector strategies, especially in fragile or high-risk areas, so that interventions can be tailored to local realities, unintended consequences can be minimized, and the broader Balance short-term and long-term objectives social contract can be strengthened in mining-affected communities. While addressing immediate needs and concerns is important, ETM development strategies should also consider long-term sustainability and resilience. This includes Leave No One Behind – Targeting the most marginalized planning for post-extraction economic transitions, investing in human capital Leave no one behind (LNOB) is one of the United Nations’ universal values. This requires development, and establishing governance frameworks that can adapt to changing Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals the integration of targeted measures that aim to combat discrimination and rising circumstances. By balancing short-term and long-term considerations, interventions can inequalities as well as their root causes in policymaking.421 LNOB emphasizes deliberately contribute to more sustainable, inclusive development pathways. reaching and empowering excluded groups so they can meaningfully participate in Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region and benefit from ETM sector development interventions.422 Without intentional design, interventions in the ETM sector risk reinforcing existing disparities, as marginalized 6.2 Targeted recommendations groups often lack the resources, political leverage, or institutional support needed to benefit from sector reforms. A LNOB approach ensures that ETM sector development The targeted recommendations provided below will require further assessment and customization to efforts actively address structural issues, rather than superficial symptoms of exclusion. adapt to different country contexts and specific manifestations of social exclusion and FCV dynamics. Given this is a scoping study, these recommendations outline medium- to long-term strategic action areas rather than immediately operational interventions, signaling priorities for further design, piloting, and resourcing. Preliminary assessments will also need to explore the systemic incentives that facilitate access to benefits by powerful actors and enable “capture economies” to flourish. 98 Chapter 6 | Recommendations 99 Recommendation 1 It is important to acknowledge that while multi-stakeholder platforms can foster transparency and dialogue, they often face challenges in addressing underlying Fostering social inclusion and peace through power imbalances. In many cases, these platforms emphasize procedural multi-stakeholder dialogue, partnerships and participation rather than enabling meaningful influence over resource governance or equitable distribution of benefits. Some existing initiatives in the region have civic action along ETM value chains made important contributions to sectoral transparency and collaboration, yet they continue to grapple with limitations in shifting decision-making power or ensuring Multi-stakeholder dialogues and partnerships, as well as civic action, can play a crucial role in fostering local voices translate into concrete policy and economic outcomes.425 social inclusion and peace by ensuring that affected communities have a meaningful voice in shaping ETM sector-led development. Development partners could contribute to these efforts by supporting 1.2 Mobilize ethical investment Mechanisms that encourage ethical financers to co-invest multi-stakeholder coalition-building that brings together governments, civil society, companies, or support initiatives that reduce risks and foster inclusive through catalytic financing and investors, and affected groups along ETM value chains. This could involve convening platforms led by ETM sector growth could be supported and expanded. public-private partnerships ministries of mines or planning, supported by regional partnerships (e.g., Southern African Development Catalytic funds, blended finance structures, and well- Community (SADC) or International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) and facilitated by designed public-private partnerships (PPPs) can help international or local CSOs. However, bringing parties with vastly unequal resources and influence to the de-risk investments, crowd in private capital, and accelerate innovation in value- table can reproduce existing power dynamics rather than transforming them. added processing, local enterprise development, and community infrastructure. However, it is essential that external development partners play an enabling – not POTENTIAL STRATEGIC ACTION AREAS dominant – role to avoid undermining local ownership, institutional legitimacy, and economic sovereignty. National and local governments should lead by co- financing strategic initiatives, strengthening regulatory frameworks, and ensuring 1.1 Convene and encourage Beyond facilitating dialogue, multi-stakeholder partnerships – bringing together government, private sector, civil society, transparent and equitable benefit-sharing arrangements. multi-stakeholder partnerships and affected communities – catalyze the design and for inclusive governance, Ethical investors in Europe and Africa are increasingly interested in the ETM sector implementation of concrete initiatives that drive inclusive economic transformation and but often face barriers such as limited credible local partners, investable projects and sustainable development in mineral production- social cohesion or clear governance mechanisms. Development partners can help bridge this gap affected regions. These partnerships should not only by offering technical assistance for structuring inclusive investment platforms, promote equitable governance and social cohesion, but also providing early-stage or concessionary capital, and supporting efforts to improve actively support economic transformation and value addition through domestic transparency, accountability, and environmental and social safeguards, thereby beneficiation and local content development. This could include co-designing building the conditions for responsible, long-term investment. community development plans that are aligned with local priorities, implementing Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals joint environmental remediation and climate resilience projects, and developing capacity-building programs that equip local actors (particularly women, youth, 1.3 Strengthen community- Robust partnerships between companies across the ETM company partnerships value chain and host communities are essential to ensure and marginalized groups) with the skills, knowledge, and resources to participate Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region that sector development aligns with local needs and rights. meaningfully in decision-making and mineral sector governance. Example Development partners can play a catalytic role in supporting initiatives include the Zambia Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (ZEITI) the design, negotiation, and implementation of CDAs that clearly outline mutual Multi-Stakeholder Group and the Fair Cobalt Alliance in the DRC. commitments, timelines, monitoring frameworks and dispute resolution Moreover, partnerships can play a critical role in supporting the growth of local mechanisms. This could include collaboration with local authorities, traditional supply chains, facilitating access to finance for SMEs engaged in upstream and leaders, and community-based organizations to ensure CDAs are context-specific downstream mining services, and ensuring technology transfer and workforce and trusted. When well-structured, CDAs help formalize relationships and create a development for long-term industrial diversification. By embedding these foundation for accountability between companies and communities. objectives in multi-stakeholder approaches, there is greater potential to build shared value, reduce socio-economic inequalities, and foster long-term peace and stability in regions impacted by ETM production. 100 Chapter 6 | Recommendations 101 1.4 Strengthen civic Support should be directed toward initiatives that POTENTIAL STRATEGIC ACTION AREAS engagement and inclusive promote participatory decision-making in the design and implementation of benefit-sharing mechanisms, ensuring 2.1 Strengthen technical Technical and vocational training programs should be decision-making in benefit- communities have a meaningful voice in determining how co-designed with governments, private sector actors, sharing mechanisms training and skills development mineral revenues and social investment funds are allocated technical institutions, and universities to align with evolving across the value chain and managed. This can include technical assistance to demands of ETM production, processing, manufacturing, governments for developing transparent, equitable revenue-sharing models; and associated services. However, closing skills gaps facilitation of participatory budgeting processes at the local level; and capacity- alone is not sufficient. Effective workforce development requires addressing the building for CSOs to monitor implementation and hold actors accountable. structural barriers that prevent marginalized groups from accessing education and employment. These include discriminatory social norms, mobility constraints, Existing transparency and accountability coalitions, such as national EITI inadequate childcare support, and other constraints that shape unequal labor platforms or regional civil society networks, can serve as entry points for market participation. Embedding technical training within broader gender enhancing governance. Importantly, partners could support efforts to strengthen equality, social inclusion and empowerment strategies can help ensure that such communities’ right to withhold consent or negotiate terms, reframing engagement programs are accessible, equitable and transformative across the value chain. from mere consultation to genuine power-sharing. This shift can lay the groundwork for more balanced and just mineral sector governance. In addition, aligning workforce development initiatives with national just transition strategies can create pathways for displaced workers and support long-term social resilience. For example, South Africa’s Just Energy Transition Recommendation 2 Investment Plan (JET-IP) seeks to align decarbonization with new opportunities Supporting workforce development and in ETM sector development, including retraining and reskilling coal workers for employment in renewable energy and critical minerals industries.427 local content policies for a green economy Realizing the full development potential of ETM sector growth requires deliberate efforts to strengthen 2.2 Develop inclusive While there has been some progress in advancing diversity workforce participation and local economic linkages across upstream, midstream, and downstream employment policies for within the ETM sector, marginalized social groups continue to face exclusion, particularly in male-dominated, segments of the value chain. However, access to decent work in ETM-producing countries remains recruitment and retention uneven, contributing to perceptions of limited economic benefits of ETM sector development for local remote, or hazardous work environments. In upstream communities. Women, youth, and communities in rural and historically underserved areas often face operations, for example, many individuals from these employment barriers linked to unequal access to education and technical training. Meanwhile, skilled groups exit the workforce prematurely due to a combination of limited career advancement, absence of mentorship, cultural exclusion, and persistent workplace Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals employment in the ETM sector, including in mineral processing, engineering, and renewable energy technologies, is frequently filled by external or international talent, limiting local economic spillovers and discrimination.428 429 reinforcing perceptions of exclusion.426 Strengthening local content policies, inclusive hiring frameworks, To support sustained and meaningful change, both private companies and and vocational and technical training systems are needed to ensure that the transition to a green Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region public institutions should adopt comprehensive diversity, inclusion and equity economy generates broad-based benefits. These efforts should be designed to account for structural frameworks, create employee resource groups, and establish mechanisms for inequalities and to expand opportunity beyond the mining stage alone, enabling more inclusive regularly monitoring workplace culture, equity metrics, and staff satisfaction. participation in a wider range of value chain activities. Leadership commitment and visible accountability at the executive level are critical to driving these changes and ensuring safer, more supportive, and inclusive work environments. Such efforts must be tailored to local socio-cultural contexts and developed in partnership with different marginalized social groups to ensure they are both relevant and effective. 102 Chapter 6 | Recommendations 103 2.3 Strengthen inclusive local Currently, many upstream ETM companies rely heavily POTENTIAL STRATEGIC ACTION AREAS content creation on foreign suppliers for goods and services, limiting opportunities for local businesses and reducing economic 3.1 Expand energy and Renewable energy solutions, such as industrial-scale solar, spillovers. By designing targeted procurement strategies, wind, and hydropower, can reduce energy costs for ETM infrastructure investments to governments can incentivize companies to source from domestic suppliers, producers while also expanding access to underserved support ETM processing and particularly small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and support the communities. Strategic infrastructure planning that development of local supply chains across the ETM value chain. This can be local economic development integrates transport, energy, water, and digital connectivity achieved through a mix of supplier development programs, access to finance for can stimulate broader economic development, including local enterprises, capacity-building on industry standards and compliance, and agriculture, trade, and manufacturing. the streamlining of regulatory processes, such as business registration, licensing, and procurement certification, that often hinder SME participation. These efforts Development partners can support governments in designing integrated should be intentionally inclusive, ensuring that women- and youth-led enterprises, infrastructure investment plans that combine industrial objectives with clear informal businesses, and rural suppliers are not left behind. A notable example is social inclusion and peacebuilding goals. This could involve partnerships between Ivanplats’ local inclusive procurement strategy in South Africa which demonstrates ministries of energy and infrastructure and power utilities to align investment how structured partnerships and clear targets can increase local economic priorities. Opportunities also exist to align with ongoing regional infrastructure participation, strengthen community-company relations, and contribute to initiatives, such as power pools or cross-border corridors, to improve economies of broader national development goals.430 scale and regional competitiveness. 3.2 Encourage coherent policy While policies like export bans and domestic supply Recommendation 3 frameworks that incentivize in- obligations are increasingly used to encourage in-country processing, they must be part of a comprehensive and Investing in infrastructure and energy country value addition feasible value addition strategy. Isolated policy instruments to enable in-country value addition and often fall short. Experiences from the gold sector and other mineral value chains highlight the importance of policy coherence. For example, in retention Ghana, the introduction of gold export restrictions was paired with tax incentives and investment in refining facilities, but limited feasibility planning and market Multi-stakeholder dialogues and partnerships, as well as civic action, can play a crucial role in fostering analysis led to underutilized infrastructure.431 In contrast, Indonesia’s success in social inclusion and peace by ensuring that affected communities have a meaningful voice in shaping expanding nickel smelting capacity reflects a more holistic approach and was ETM sector-led development. Development partners could contribute to these efforts by supporting driven by a combination of strong demand, significant resource reserves, and Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals multi-stakeholder coalition-building that brings together governments, civil society, companies, a coherent policy package supported by long-term investments.432 Countries investors, and affected groups along ETM value chains. This could involve convening platforms led by considering export bans or domestic supply obligations should be supported to ministries of mines or planning, supported by regional partnerships (e.g., Southern African Development assess their comparative advantages and combine such measures with strategic Community (SADC) or International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) and facilitated by investment, for instance in skills development, clean energy, and reliable Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region international or local CSOs. However, bringing parties with vastly unequal resources and influence to the transport, to ensure local value addition is commercially viable, sustainable, and table can reproduce existing power dynamics rather than transforming them. socially beneficial. This includes providing technical assistance for: ș Designing fiscally sound incentive packages, ș Investing in supporting infrastructure (e.g., transport, power, logistics), ș Developing workforce skills aligned with midstream and downstream activities, and ș Embedding inclusion goals to ensure marginalized groups benefit from employment, entrepreneurship, and procurement opportunities. 104 Chapter 6 | Recommendations 105 Recommendation 4 4.3 Improve data systems and Publicly accessible and reliable data is critical to enabling civic oversight and evidence-based policy decisions. public access to information Strengthening regulatory enforcement and Partners could support governments in modernizing data governance mechanisms collection and management systems related to licensing, production volumes, tax payments, environmental compliance, and community development agreements. Investments in open-data platforms and digital tools Robust governance and effective regulatory enforcement are essential for ensuring that ETM sector would enhance transparency and empower civil society, media, and communities development delivers inclusive and sustainable benefits. Development partners can play a key role in to track developments, report violations, and engage constructively in public supporting efforts to build institutional capacity, enhance transparency, and improve accountability debates. Emphasis should be placed on building data literacy and use capacity at mechanisms across the ETM value chain. In some contexts, weak enforcement is not always due to local levels to ensure data drives accountability. technical or financial constraints – in some cases, it reflects deliberate policy choices to preserve regulatory flexibility and attract or retain foreign investment. Identifying strategic entry points, such as reform-minded agencies, new legislation, or public pressure moments, can provide traction for advancing 4.4 Promote responsible Comprehensive due diligence frameworks can enhance meaningful governance improvements. Without credible enforcement and implementation mechanisms, sourcing and strengthen civil corporate accountability and promote responsible mineral sourcing throughout the ETM value chain. Encouraging legal and policy reforms will struggle to deliver real impact, and may instead entrench elite capture, society advocacy deepen public disillusionment, or provoke social unrest. governments to adopt and enforce mandatory due diligence requirements, aligned with international norms such as the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals POTENTIAL STRATEGIC ACTION AREAS from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas, would lead to more consistent standards and disclosure. At the same time, CSOs require sustained support to 4.1 Strengthen institutional Building the technical and operational capacity of play their advocacy roles effectively. This includes building CSO capacity for policy capacity of enforcement labor, environmental, judicial, and regulatory bodies is engagement, monitoring, and public awareness campaigns, as well as creating essential for ensuring effective oversight of the ETM sector. agencies safe and enabling environments for civic participation in the governance of the Development partners, such as specialized CSOs or donor ETM sector. agencies and research centers, can provide support through technical assistance and specialized training programs tailored to enforcement mandates. This includes equipping inspectors with the tools and skills needed to conduct independent site visits, monitor compliance, and initiate corrective Recommendation 5 or punitive actions when violations are identified. Support could also focus on strengthening coordination between enforcement agencies to ensure a coherent Driving meaningful community consultation and grievance redress Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals and consistent regulatory approach. A just transition in the ETM sector requires the full and meaningful participation of communities in 4.2 Advance transparency and Improving integrity across the ETM sector requires decisions that affect their rights, resources and livelihoods. Too often mineral value chain projects raise reinforcing both anti-corruption initiatives and broader Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region accountability frameworks expectations of economic development that go unmet, leading to disillusionment, erosion of trust, and accountability mechanisms. Efforts may include at times social unrest. Many affected communities lack effective mechanisms to influence decisions collaboration with national and subnational authorities to or seek recourse when harm occurs, or expectations go unmet. Addressing these gaps is essential to design and implement targeted transparency reforms, including public disclosure strengthening legitimacy, ensuring equity, and reducing conflict risks. of mineral contracts, revenue streams, and beneficial ownership information. These efforts should be aligned with international standards and initiatives, such as the EITI, while also promoting context-specific innovations that respond to local governance challenges. 106 Chapter 6 | Recommendations 107 POTENTIAL STRATEGIC ACTION AREAS Recommendation 6 5.1 Strengthen legal and To ensure meaningful consultation, countries must Bringing ASM into the formal economy institutional frameworks for establish clear, enforceable legal frameworks that provide Building on the World Bank’s “Achieving Sustainable and Inclusive Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining” affected communities with a substantive role in shaping community consultation framework,433 development partners can support countries in transitioning ASM from the margins of decisions. While public participation is legally mandated informality into productive, regulated, and responsible value chains. Historically, ASM governance in in many resource-rich countries, enforcement is often parts of Africa’s ETM-rich regions has leaned toward restrictive or punitive models, which often deepen weak or inconsistent. Development partners, such as donor-funded governance informality and undermine safety, rights, and environmental sustainability. Effective professionalization programs, human rights institutions, and parliamentary committees, can support requires gradual, inclusive approaches that start with securing rights and protections before imposing governments in closing this implementation gap by integrating international best regulatory compliance. practices, reinforcing free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) principles, and establishing iterative, two-way engagement mechanisms. Support should also extend to parallel systems of accountability that extend to customary institutions POTENTIAL STRATEGIC ACTION AREAS and traditional conflict resolution practices, helping ensure that communities can access justice through multiple, culturally appropriate pathways. 6.1 Support inclusive and Rather than reinforcing punitive approaches, such as realistic ASM regulatory criminalization or excessive fees that push miners into informality, development partners, including multilateral 5.2 Develop inclusive Many company-led grievance mechanisms are often viewed frameworks as inadequate or inaccessible by affected communities, agencies, can assist governments in developing practical, and accessible grievance particularly those that are remote, linguistically diverse, or enforceable regulations that incentivize professionalization. mechanisms This includes promoting affordable licensing systems, improving access to formal socially marginalized. According to UN Guiding Principle 25, countries have duty to ensure that victims of business- markets, and linking ASM operators to technical and financial support. Moving related human rights abuses have access to remedy via judicial, administrative, or away from criminalization and high entry costs, reforms should focus on improving alternative means. Development partners, including legal aid organizations and health, safety, and environmental standards while maintaining ASM livelihoods. CSOs working on access to justice, could work with governments and companies to design and operationalize grievance mechanisms that align with UNGP standards 6.2 Strengthen geological Many governments prioritize high-value deposits for and ensure that affected groups understand their rights and have the means to mapping and participatory LSM concessions, which can result in limited formal pursue fair and timely redress. opportunities for ASM miners. To help address this, land-use planning development partners, such as geological surveys and academic institutions, could provide technical assistance 5.3 Support CSOs in advocacy CSOs play a vital role in amplifying community voices, Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals monitoring corporate and government conduct, and and financial support for geological surveys, land-use assessments, and zoning and civic engagement advocating for just and inclusive mineral sector governance. strategies to identify and allocate ASM zones. These efforts should be participatory However, many face legal, political or security threats, and grounded in environmental and economic sustainability, helping to reduce Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region particularly in high-stakes mining contexts. Given the limitations of state conflict between ASM and LSM actors and increase formal opportunities. protection, development partners, such as multilateral organizations and international NGOs working to support media freedom and civic rights, can help 6.3 Promote gender-responsive Women, migrants, and other marginalized groups face establish protection networks for CSOs, human rights defenders, and journalists. and inclusive ASM strategies disproportionate barriers in ASM, including limited access These networks could offer legal aid, security training, emergency support, and to land rights, licenses, capital, and representation. long-term institutional strengthening. In parallel, investments could be made Development partners, including multilateral agencies in building CSOs’ capacity for community organizing, policy engagement and and CSOs working towards societal cohesion and equality, and national women’s lobbying, and constructive dialogue with public and private sector actors. mining associations, could support targeted programs that enhance diverse participation by supporting gender-responsive and inclusive policy design, and investing in capacity building, financial literacy, and leadership development. Inclusive interventions should be intersectional and context-specific, addressing barriers faced by a wide range of marginalized social groups. 108 Caption Chapter 6 | Recommendations 109 6.4 Expand access to financial ASM operators often lack the resources to meet regulatory, and technical support labor, or environmental standards. To bridge this gap, development partners, such as donor agencies, can promote responsible finance mechanisms, such as partnerships with commercial banks or microfinance institutions, and support capacity-building programs that improve business management, environmental practices, and value chain integration. 6.5 Tackle child labor through Efforts to eliminate child labor in ASM must go beyond sustainable prevention and enforcement and address the underlying drivers, such as poverty and lack of education. Development partners such remediation as CSOs supporting child’s rights can support governments and communities to embed child protection safeguards into ASM professionalization processes, while scaling interventions that improve access to education and livelihoods. 6.6 Leverage emerging New technologies offer opportunities to increase technologies to improve transparency and financial inclusion in ASM. Pilot initiatives could test tools like blockchain for traceability, AI for governance and inclusion compliance monitoring, and digital payment systems for sales and taxes. However, interventions must guard against exclusionary or costly systems by promoting accessible design, cost-sharing, and digital literacy training. Supporting inclusive innovation can help bring more ASM operators into formal, responsible value chains. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region © Angela Jorns / Levin Sources. Further permission required for reuse. 110 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 111 ANNEX 1 Country Annex 1 provides high-level contextual background of the current status of and developments in the ETM sectors of profiles - the the five countries in scope, including an overview of key regulatory mechanisms aimed at enhancing compliance with ETM sector the law and fostering equitable benefit- sharing and broad-based sustainable of the AFE development in each country. region Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region © World Bank 112 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 113 Burundi ș The Burundian government expects that investment in nickel will gain more traction as transportation infrastructure improves. The construction of the rail link connecting the Musongati nickel fields to Western Tanzania and the port of Dar Es Salaam would establish essential infrastructure to promote the development of this resource. There is potential for establishing a ‘nickel value chain’ that leverages the nickel deposits near the Tanzanian border.442 ș Burundi also has rich deposits of REEs, concentrated mainly in the western Bujumbura region, with particularly high-quality grades of bastnaesite and monazite. The REEs found in Burundi are noted for their exceptional in situ grades, ranging between 47% to 67%, with an average grade of 55%. These high concentrations make Burundi’s REEs particularly valuable in global markets. However, the volume and tonnage of the bastnaesite veins is often limited. Production of REEs in Burundi commenced in 2017 by the British multinational Rainbow Rare Earths at the Gakara project, with total output reaching 660 tons by the end of 2018. Despite the promise these deposits hold, REE extraction has faced challenges, including the country’s limited infrastructure and processing capacity.443 Rainbow Earth aims to expand production by simultaneously operating multiple mining areas and developing downstream separation capabilities to enhance the value of its concentrate. A cooperation agreement with TechMet, which invests in strategic technology metals, is expected to bolster this growth strategy.444 The government’s National Development Plan (NDP) 2018-2027 outlines mining as a priority for economic diversification. Burundi intends to rely heavily on the mining sector, with a targeted growth rate of 10.7% by 2027.445 The NDP emphasizes the need to formalize Burundi’s ETM production and development mining sector, with a focus on improving regulation, supporting artisanal miners, and increasing domestic mineral processing.446 The government also seeks to attract foreign investment to Burundi is situated within the mineral-rich Karagwe-Ankole Belt, known for its diverse range of develop LSM projects.447 mineral resources, including REEs, vanadium, cobalt, and lithium, as well as niobium and 3Ts.434 Burundi also holds large resources of nickel (6% of global nickel reserves).435 These resources are ETM sector contributions and Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals partly associated with PGMs.436 Moreover, the 3T-hosting pegmatites are known to contain lithium- rich minerals, however, this potential for Burundi has not been explored.437 While the Burundian organization government temporarily paused industrial mining in 2021 to review sector governance, ongoing Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region discussions with LSM companies indicate potential for renewed development.438 Burundi’s mining Before the suspension of LSM projects, the Burundian government reported that mining output is primarily centered on 3T minerals with limited production of ETMs.439 was the leading sector contributing to foreign currency to the country, with more than 50% - largely coming from gold.448 The Burundian mining sector is currently dominated by ASM, which accounts for the majority of 3TG production. Artisanal mining mostly takes place in Burundi’s Recent developments in the ETM sector include: northern provinces.449 Resources estimate that ASM in Burundi directly employs somewhere ș In the southeast Rutana province, the Musongati site is estimated to contain over 150 between 34,000 to 90,000 people.450 Women and girls constitute significant proportions of the million tons of nickel, representing one of the largest known deposits in the country.440 ASM workforce, though gender-disaggregated data is lacking.451 An estimated 160,000 individuals indirectly depend on the sector for their livelihoods.452 ș The Waga-Nyabikere region is believed to hold substantial reserves of nickel, iron, copper, and cobalt, with estimates placing their combined value at approximately USD 30 billion. In addition, the nearby Mukanda area hosts deposits of vanadium.441 114 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 115 Instability stemming from national and regional conflicts has significantly hindered foreign more efficient mining techniques.462 These efforts have led to a modest reduction direct investment (FDI). The 2020 elections resulted in a peaceful transfer of power to a new in the loss of mineral revenues, although the overall impact remains limited due government.453 But the suspension of industrial mining contracts has reportedly delayed to continued informal operations.463 It is also unsure what the long-term effect has progress in developing the country’s ETM sector, with mining companies reluctant to engage been of the promotion of cooperatives, as more recent data and analysis is missing. until a more stable environment is in place.454 The country’s growth has also been slowed by ș Revenue redistribution mechanisms: The Mining Code includes provisions for a governance challenges and limited infrastructure, which has undermined both local and foreign portion of mining revenues, including the ad valorem tax, to be redistributed to investor confidence.455 Furthermore, Burundi’s ETM value chains are reportedly underdeveloped, local communities. However, the implementation of this policy has apparently with limited local beneficiation and processing of minerals.456 Most of the country’s mining been inconsistent. Local authorities frequently do not register revenues in the output is exported in raw form, particularly from the ASM sector.457 community budget, and transparency in revenue management is lacking. In some cases, community taxes are collected by informal actors, leading to discrepancies Burundi’s ETM sector presents opportunities for value chain development beyond extraction. between the amounts collected and those reported. For example, in some The country’s strategic location offers potential for regional integration in processing and provinces, miners are required to pay a community tax per kilogram of minerals trading. While current ETM value chains are primarily focused on extraction, with most produced, but there is little oversight or accountability in the actual collection or output exported in raw form, there are opportunities to develop processing capabilities that distribution of these funds.464 could serve both domestic and regional markets. The government’s emphasis on increasing domestic mineral processing aligns with broader objectives for economic diversification ș Stimulating decentralization of mining administration: Administrative roles are and industrialization.458 With appropriate investment in infrastructure, technology, and skills divided among provincial authorities, local administrators, and traditional leaders. development, Burundi could develop processing capabilities for its nickel, REE, and other Decentralization of mining administration was intended to empower provincial mineral resources, creating additional employment and economic value. authorities to manage mining revenues to drive local development. However, execution has reportedly been inconsistent and has excluded these authorities Governance and equitable benefit from artisanal mining management, leaving informal local administrators and landowners to lease subsoil for mining activities.465 sharing mechanisms ș Traceability systems for the 3Ts: Compliance and traceability mechanisms in the sector face significant challenges. Illicit mineral trade has historically been described Burundi’s mining sector operates under the oversight of the Ministry of Hydraulic, Energy, as rampant, with local elites, administrators, and police officers implicated in and Mines (MINHEM), with the 2013 Mining Code, revised in 2023, serving as the primary legal informal activities. Gold, in particular, has been subject to high levels of fraud.466 framework.459 The 2023 revisions aim to encourage private investment, enhance socio- economic benefits, and address governance gaps, including by increasing government shares in industrial mining operations from 10% to at least 16%.460 International frameworks, such as Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals the U.S. Dodd-Frank Act and EU Conflict Minerals Regulation, also influence Burundi’s mining sector, driving traceability initiatives like the International Tin Supply Chain Initiative (iTSCi). However, investigative reports have highlighted loopholes in these systems, enabling minerals linked to armed conflict, child labor, and illicit trade to enter value chains.461 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Efforts to enhance compliance, equitable benefit-sharing, and social inclusion and peace in Burundi’s ETM sector have produced mixed outcomes: ș Promoting ASM formalization: One of the primary formalization efforts has been the promotion of mining cooperatives, supported by government initiatives since 2009. Cooperatives are required to apply for artisanal exploitation permits under the Mining Code, and areas where cooperatives operate have, as reported in 2015, seen improvements in environmental protection, labor conditions, and the use of © World Bank 116 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 117 Democratic The government also aims to increase the provision of electricity for mining projects. The Grand Inga Dam project in the DRC is envisioned by its proponents as the world’s largest hydroelectric project, with a potential capacity of 44,000 MW.476 Proponents argue it could provide electricity to half of Africa, promoting regional integration and development.477 However, Republic of the project faces significant challenges, including environmental and social risks, governance issues, and potential conflicts between national and regional energy security.478 Critics argue that benefits may primarily serve corporate mining interests rather than local populations. Despite being proposed in the 1960s, the project remains unrealized.479 the Congo ETM sector contributions and organization The DRC’s economy is highly dependent on the extractive industries, which accounted for 46% of government revenue and over 95% of recorded exports in 2021.480 Despite this, the sector’s contribution to GDP has been volatile, with cobalt price fluctuations causing a decline in its contribution to GDP.481 The dropping price, which lost 60% in 2023 compared to 2019, presents a significant challenge to the Congolese cobalt sector. Despite cobalt demand expecting to increase in the near future, the IEA expects the downward price trend to continue.482 Furthermore, there is growing interest in reducing cobalt use in EV batteries to mitigate risks associated with sourcing it from the DRC and to secure alternative supplies, such as through Indonesia.483 LSM dominates the production of copper and, to a lesser extent, cobalt, mostly in Lualaba and Haut-Katanga provinces. LSM generates an estimated 40,000 direct jobs and an additional ETM production and development 22,000 indirect jobs.484 ASM employs between 500,000 and 2 million people across all mineral commodities, indirectly providing livelihoods to 8 to 10 million people, or roughly 10% of the The DRC holds the world’s largest share of known cobalt reserves, primarily located in the population.485 Women represent between 20% and 40% of ASM miners. ASM remains largely southern provinces of Lualaba and Haut-Katanga.467 The DRC dominates the global cobalt informal, and its economic contribution to the ETM sector is lower compared to LSM.486 supply, accounting for 70% of worldwide production. Of this, 80% comes from LSM operations, Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals with four primary mines producing nearly half of the country’s cobalt.468 Cobalt extracted in the The DRC’s position in global ETM value chains is evolving, with increasing attention to DRC is primarily used in the automotive industry for electric vehicle batteries.469 Moreover, the opportunities for local processing and manufacturing. While currently most cobalt is exported DRC is currently the world’s third largest producer of copper.470 The country also has smaller as concentrate or crude hydroxide, notably to China,487 there are growing investments in local Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region deposits of lithium and manganese.471 Additionally, the eastern regions of the DRC are known for refining and processing capabilities.488 The government’s emphasis on local value addition, the presence of other minerals, like the 3TGs.472 coupled with international partnerships, presents opportunities for the DRC to capture more of the economic benefits associated with its mineral resources. Regional cooperation, particularly Recent initiatives are geared toward increasing the value added to ETM production within with Zambia and other neighboring countries, offers potential for integrated value chain the DRC. The US, DRC, and Zambia have formed a trilateral partnership to promote responsible development. Cross-border infrastructure projects, harmonized regulatory frameworks, and mineral production and trade, committing over USD 500 million to infrastructure, regulatory collaborative approaches to workforce development can help create more competitive and reforms, and vocational training.473 This partnership aims to build an integrated value chain for inclusive regional value chains. EV batteries and improve local beneficiation and capacity-building efforts.474 Additionally, the DRC signed a strategic partnership with the EU and Zambia in October 2023 to develop cross- border transport infrastructure, including the Lobito Corridor, facilitating ETM exports and enhancing socio-economic benefits.475 118 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 119 if the royalty increase was the sole factor behind the decline in investments. Governance and equitable benefit sharing Notably, despite these challenges, no operating companies at the time halted their mechanisms production.499 ș Royalty distribution for local development: The 2018 Mining Code also stipulates The DRC’s mining sector operates within a legal framework established by the Constitution specific shares for the distribution of mining royalties: 25% of royalties are of 2005 and the Mining Code of 2002, revised in 2018. Oversight is primarily handled by allocated to provincial authorities, 15% to the decentralized territorial entity the Ministry of Mines and the Mining Cadaster (CAMI), which manages mining licenses and hosting the extractive project, 10% to the Mining Fund for future generations, cadastral registrations.489 CAMI, funded through document filing fees and surface rights and the remaining 50% to the central government.500 In addition, the government payments, contributes to land management transparency.490 The 2018 revision of the Mining introduced a community development royalty of 0.3% specifically for cobalt Code sought to increase state revenues and local equity by raising royalty rates, shortening production.501 However, lack of transparency in revenue management and other license durations, and requiring Congolese nationals to hold at least 10% of mining company governance issues reportedly hinder the equitable distribution of royalties. Local shares.491 However, investors have raised concerns about higher tax rates and reduced authorities and decentralized entities frequently do not receive their allocated stabilization periods, which have been criticized for creating regulatory uncertainty.492 shares, and even when they do, funds are reportedly often mismanaged or misappropriated.502 Despite this framework, significant institutional capacity and ș Export ban on unprocessed minerals: The government banned the export of governance challenges persist.493 Key mechanisms aimed at unprocessed minerals to encourage domestic beneficiation. Over approximately addressing these issues include: eight years, this policy resulted in greater in-country processing of mineral concentrates.503 Nevertheless, the success of this export ban remains uneven, with ș Promoting ASM value chain formalization: The 2018 revision of the Mining Code certain high-value minerals, like cobalt, continuing to face significant challenges introduced several mechanisms aimed at formalizing ASM, including mandating in domestic refining capacity. Dependence on China, the DRC’s largest buyer of that ASM miners must be part of a cooperative in order to engage in legally cobalt, further complicates the enforcement of this policy. Chinese demand heavily designated ASM mining zones - ZEAs. Additionally, the government introduced influences whether export waivers or adjustments are granted, reflecting the DRC’s options for ASM to legally cooperate with LSM operations. Under this arrangement, vulnerability to external market dynamics.504 ASM miners could exploit non-economically viable deposits that were part of LSM licenses but could be efficiently worked using rudimentary methods.494 The ș Official requirement that all subcontractors, particularly within the mining government also aimed to consolidate and formalize the ASM mineral trade industry, be over 50% Congolese-owned: This legislation is implemented and by establishing a single formalized mineral trading market. This initiative was enforced by the L’Autorité de Régulation de la Sous-Traitance dans le secteur Privé designed to streamline taxation practices and promote greater transparency within (ARSP). The initial impetus for the law and creation of the ARSP was to end the the sector.495 However, the limited availability of ZEAs in the southern DRC has left prevalent practice in many Chinese-owned mining operations of using exclusively Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals many ASM miners with no choice but to operate informally.496 Chinese subcontractors. However, the ARSP has over time come to understand its brief as encompassing the country’s entire economy. The ARSP has been given ș Corporate social responsibility: The Mining Code also specifies that mining rights substantial powers to enforce its mandate but is critically short on institutional holders are bound to develop concrete frameworks of social responsibility towards Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region capacity, and there have been complaints about the conduct of many of its agents mining affected communities, at least six months before extraction commences. from the private sector.505 These frameworks need to be approved by the provincial government.497 However, these CSR frameworks are often criticized for being superficial and failing to address deeper socio-economic issues in mining communities.498 ș Increase royalty taxes: In 2018, when cobalt prices spiked, the DRC increased the royalty tax on cobalt to 10%. This was the highest cobalt royalty tax globally at the time, significantly surpassing rates in other cobalt-producing countries. However, cobalt prices fell soon after this increase, creating challenges for LSM companies to meet the high royalty payments. While the higher tax rate contributed to a 40% reduction in exploration budgets for copper and cobalt in the DRC, it is unclear © World Bank 120 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 121 Malawi ș Malingunde Graphite Project: NGX Ltd manages this project with 9.5% total graphitic carbon across 9.5 million tons, in the feasibility stage.512 ș Kangankunde Rare Earths Project: Developed by Lindian Resources, this project features 2.2% total rare earth oxides over 261 million tons, in the development stage.513 ș Songwe Rare Earth Project: Operated by Mkango Resources, currently in the feasibility stage.514 ș Chimimbe Nickel Cobalt Project: Explored by Lancaster Exploration Ltd (Mkango Resources subsidiary), featuring nickel (0.37%), chromium (0.59%), and cobalt (0.03%) mineralization, in the exploration stage.515 ș Mchinji Rutile-Graphite Project: Spanning 434.35 km², this Mkango Resources license targets multiple minerals, including rutile, gold, and graphite, driven by strong rutile market demand and ongoing mineralogical analysis.516 These flagship projects position Malawi to emerge as a major ETM supplier, with a June 2024 estimate by Benchmark Source517 projecting the country could account for 30% of Africa’s REE supply by 2029.518 However, Malawi’s potential is reportedly constrained by technological limitations, inadequate infrastructure, and a nascent chemical industry that restrict its ability to add value to minerals domestically.519 To address these gaps, Malawi has aligned its mineral sector with the African Mining Vision (AMV) through a Country Mining Vision (CMV) workshop and the Mines and Minerals Policy (2013), aiming to integrate the sector into the national economy via infrastructure development, local content promotion, and skills training. Additionally, Mining Development Agreements with companies such as Mkango Resources and Lotus Resources seek ETM production and development to attract investment.520 Malawi is a landlocked country bordered by Mozambique, Zambia, and Tanzania. Its economy has traditionally relied on agriculture, but its mineral resources include critical ETMs such as ETM sector contributions and REEs, graphite, and copper, alongside uranium, titanium, niobium, vermiculite, and tantalum.505 organization Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Evidence suggests that Chimimbe Hill mines in western Malawi have potential for copper and nickel mineralization.507 However, claims of significant copper deposits in Karonga district ASM holds a substantial role within Malawi’s mining sector, particularly for minerals like have been disputed by some industry experts.508 Interviews also indicate artisanal miners are gemstones, gold, and other non-ETMs.521 Although exact production data is difficult to ascertain Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region producing copper in some areas.509 due to the sector’s informal nature and remoteness of ASM operations, ASM is considered a vital livelihood source, employing a significant share of the workforce. Women make up an estimated 40% of artisanal miners. This contrasts with the formal mining sector, where women account Most ETM activities in Malawi remain focused on exploration, for only 5-10% of the workforce.522 There are also reports of migrants and refugees involved in with progress over the past decade revealing significant reserves ASM.523 of REEs and graphite.510 Several major deposits are currently being explored or under development by international mining Despite the country’s rich mineral deposits, the mining sector contributed less than 1% to companies: the national GDP in 2021, a figure in stark contrast to other countries in the region.524 However, Malawi’s government envisions scaling up the sector’s contribution to 10-15% of GDP by 2030. ș Kasiya Rutile-Graphite Project: Feasibility study by Sovereign Metals, with reserves containing 1.01% rutile and 1.32% graphite over 1,809 million tons.511 122 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 123 The mineral sector’s strategic importance is further underscored in Malawi’s first 10-year ș Community Development Agreements: Mining companies in Malawi are implementation plan under Vision 2063, which identifies mining as a pillar of industrialization legally required to establish CDAs with communities within a 20-mile radius and inclusive economic growth.525 of operations.533 However, the absence of a standardized framework for these agreements has reportedly led to arbitrary terms and limited transparency.534 Malawi’s ETM sector presents opportunities for value chain development beyond extraction. ș Improved transparency and data management: Malawi has introduced a mining While current mining activities are primarily focused on extraction, there is potential to develop cadaster system, designed to streamline the issuance of mineral rights and processing capabilities that could serve both domestic and regional markets. The country’s improve data management, ultimately supporting better regulatory compliance membership in regional economic communities such as the SADC and the Common Market and licensing practices.535 The establishment of the Malawi Extractive Industries for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) offers potential for regional integration in mineral Transparency Initiative (MWEITI) also aims to increase transparency in fiscal processing and trading. With appropriate investment in infrastructure, technology, and skills policy and resource management, encouraging engagement with civil society, development, Malawi could develop processing capabilities for its graphite, rare earth elements, government, and local communities.536 and other mineral resources. This would create additional employment opportunities and economic value while also supporting the country’s industrialization objectives. ș Provisions for social responsibility: The Mines and Minerals Bill of 2023 incorporates provisions for social responsibility, aiming to enhance oversight and Governance and equitable benefit facilitate more inclusive wealth distribution. However, without clear guidelines for implementation, these provisions risk being underutilized or inconsistently sharing mechanisms applied.537 The Ministry of Mining and its associated entities, including the Mining and Minerals Regulatory Authority (MMRA) and the Geological Survey Department, govern Malawi’s extractive sector under the Mines and Minerals Act of 2023. The Act aims to align the sector with international socio-economic development standards, incorporating sustainable practices and requiring compensation for landowners impacted by mining activities.526 However, it does not specify detailed community-benefit sharing percentages or direct financial transfers beyond royalties.527 Malawi has introduced several mechanisms to promote compliance, improve transparency, and ensure equitable benefit-sharing: Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals ș Formalization of ASM: The ASM Policy, recently submitted to the Office of the President and Cabinet, emphasizes the need for responsible ASM practices. It seeks to improve safety standards, enhance local livelihoods, and provide a stronger institutional framework.528 As of January 2023, 32 groups of ASM Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region operators were formed, and 17 had completed the formalization process.529 Despite these advancements, issues such as limited regulatory oversight and insufficient access to finance hinder ASM’s ability to contribute more substantially for Malawi’s economy.530 ș Regulating land ownership and community engagement: The 2022 amendments to Malawi’s land laws introduced restrictions on foreign ownership of undeveloped freehold land and prohibited the sale of customary estates. These amendments also granted the Minister of Lands the authority to appropriate undeveloped freehold land.514 The objective of these changes is to protect local land rights and ensure that land resources are used effectively for development purposes.532 © World Bank 124 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 125 South battery manufacturing or recycling.544 Challenges allegedly include inadequate infrastructure, skilled labor shortages, unreliable electricity, and a lack of collection systems for battery recycling, with most recycled batteries exported to Europe or Asia.545 Africa Coal remains a significant component of South Africa’s mining sector, accounting for approximately 20% of mining’s gross value added in 2019.546 Despite its economic importance, the coal industry contributed only 1% to national gross value added in 2019.547 The ongoing global transition to renewable energy sources necessitates a careful balancing act between phasing out coal while limiting the socioeconomic impacts. This phase-out puts over 200,000 jobs at risk in the coal value chain.548 Balancing the growth of the ETM sector with the need for a just transition away from coal is considered a crucial challenge for the country’s policymakers and economic planners.549 Foreign investment in ETMs has been limited due to policy implementation issues and community unrest.550 Civil society has criticized foreign investments, particularly from China, for favoring external stakeholders over local communities.551 Domestically, the JET-IP seeks to address some of the challenges in the minerals sector. With USD 80 billion over five years, the plan aims to stimulate ETM exploration and production, align with decarbonization goals, and bolster infrastructure.552 The initiative complements the broader Just Energy Transition Partnership (JET-P), established at COP26, between South Africa and key global partners, including the EU and US.553 Furthermore, initiatives like the 2022 UK-South Africa partnership aim to enhance value chain resilience and mitigate community impacts during the energy transition, with GBP 5 million invested through 2025.554 ETM production and development ETM sector contributions and South Africa is crucial to global ETM value chains due to its extensive mineral reserves. It is organization the largest producer of manganese, accounting for 36% of global output in 2022, with 75% of the world’s resources located in the Kalahari Basin, Northern Cape province.538 While a small The mining sector is a crucial pillar of South Africa’s economy, contributing approximately Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals portion is refined domestically, 97% of battery-grade manganese is processed in China, with 6% to the national GDP in 2023.555 The industry reported an industry turnover R1.1 trillion limited local value addition through the Manganese Metal Company (MMC) in Mpumalanga.539 (approximately 59.5 billion USD).556 However, it has been estimated in recent years that The country also holds 90% of global PGM reserves, with the Bushveld Complex being the largest approximately R2 billion (approx. 114 million USD) is lost to the national economy annually due Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region source of platinum, palladium, and iridium. South Africa produces 83% of the world’s iridium.540 to informal ASM activities.557 Additionally, it is a leading vanadium producer, with 45% of global reserves, alongside significant The mining sector in South Africa is predominantly characterized by LSM, with an estimated deposits of copper, cobalt, zinc, nickel, and lithium.541 500,000 direct and 800,000 indirect jobs.558 ASM serves as a vital livelihood for especially Despite these resources, ETM production faces challenges. In January 2023, mining output marginalized groups, including migrants, women and children, who work in abandoned recorded a year-on-year decline: -6.2% for copper, -4.9% for manganese, -30% for nickel, and mines, particularly in Johannesburg.559 ASM is often focused on industrial and construction -15.2% for PGMs.542 Contributing factors reportedly included energy instability, industrial minerals, as well as precious minerals such as gold and diamonds. The precarious nature of strikes, falling profit margins, an unstable fiscal regime, infrastructure deficits, and regulatory ASM is exacerbated by systemic issues such as rising unemployment and poverty, coupled with inefficiencies.543 restrictive immigration policies. Notably, about 70% of those arrested for informal mining are migrants.560 The drivers of ASM in South Africa reportedly include the direct loss of formal mining The processing and refining of ETMs domestically remains largely underdeveloped. Most jobs, narrowed employment pathways for migrants, and broader socio-economic conditions. lithium and graphite are exported as ore or concentrates, with limited capacity for lithium-ion These factors, as well as the rising gold price, contribute to the rise of ASM as a survival strategy 126 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 127 for many urban poor and migrants, which has reportedly led to an increase of criminalization Charter’s mandate for women to constitute at least 10% of the mining workforce and excessive policing of ASM sites.561 has reportedly had minimal impact, as gender-specific barriers and entrenched cultural norms limit progress.568 The Charter also obligates mining companies to South Africa has, comparatively, the most developed industrial base in the region, providing prioritize local procurement and invest in research and development, fostering a foundation for expanding into midstream processing and downstream manufacturing local economic participation and innovation in the sector.569 of ETM-based products. The country already has processing capabilities for PGMs and base ș Community development and social responsibility: Mining companies are metals,562 and there are opportunities to further develop these to serve growing markets required to allocate at least 1% of net profits to socio-economic development for clean energy technologies. The government’s industrialization strategy emphasizes the initiatives. These include infrastructure projects, income-generating activities, development of manufacturing capabilities in strategic sectors, including those related to the and education programs for communities in mining-affected areas.570 However, energy transition.563 With appropriate investment in research and development, skills, and there are allegedly many cases where development projects fail to reach intended infrastructure, South Africa could develop manufacturing capabilities for products such as fuel beneficiaries due to corruption, mismanagement, or lack of follow-through.571 cells, catalysts, and battery components, creating additional employment opportunities and Furthermore, SLPs are mandatory for all mining companies under the MPRDA economic value. and NEMA. These plans outline commitments to local economic development, human resource development, and retrenchment planning. Public consultations Governance and equitable benefit are required to align SLPs with municipal Integrated Development Plans, ensuring sharing mechanisms community input.572 Despite being legally binding, SLP compliance is reportedly inconsistent.573 ș Land rights and community consent: The IPILRA mandates that the consent of South Africa’s mining sector operates under a robust legal and holders of informal land rights be obtained before they can be deprived of their institutional framework designed to enhance compliance, property. Recognizing that many informal land rights are held communally, the promote equitable benefit-sharing, and address socio-economic IPILRA requires communal consent before granting a mining right on relevant land. imbalances. This provision goes beyond the requirements of the MPRDA, which only stipulates that mining companies must “consult” with the community.574 ș Formalization of ASM: In March 2022, the Draft ASM Policy was approved, aiming to formalize and regulate ASM activities. Under the policy, artisanal miners are issued permits and licenses, allowing them access to markets and resources while ensuring compliance with safety and environmental standards.564 The policy introduces investment thresholds of R1 million for artisanal mining and R10 million for small-scale mining, enabling these permits to be used as collateral Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals for financing operations.565 While this represents progress, implementation reportedly remains slow and legislative changes still need to be made to enable the implementation of the ASM policy.566 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region ș Broad-Based Socio-Economic Empowerment Charter: The Broad-Based Socio- economic Empowerment Charter for the Mining and Minerals Industry (or, in short, the Charter), established under the MPRDA of 2002, aims to address historical injustices in the mining industry by promoting equitable ownership, employment, and procurement opportunities for Historically Disadvantaged Persons (HDPs)iv.567 Companies are required to meet quotas for HDP representation within their workforce and governance structures. However, for instance, the iv HDPs includes a category of individuals who, before definition. Available at: https://www.lawinsider.com/ the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, dictionary/historically-disadvantagedpersons#:~:tex- 1996, came into operation, were disadvantaged by t=HDP%E2%80%9)%20%E2%80%93%20means%20 unfair discrimination on the basis of race, gender, women%2C,%2C%20sexual%20orientation%20 disability, sexual orientation or religion. Source: Law or%20religion%E2%80%9D) Insider (n.d.). Historically disadvantaged persons: © World Bank 128 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 129 Zambia Resource Holdings (IRH) acquired a 51% shareholding in Mopani for a total investment of USD 1.1 billion in February 2024.587 Both these mines required new investment and determined effort to secure their social license to operate amidst complex community relationships.588 Chinese state-owned enterprises have taken ownership stakes in many large-scale mines due to investments in exploration between 2016 and 2020. China also serves as a major creditor for Zambia’s international loans.589 Additionally, Zambia has seen a rise in nickel and manganese production, reaching 4,059 metric tons of nickel and 161,611 metric tons of manganese in 2022.590 Although lithium production remains limited, the ongoing exploration suggests that Zambia could potentially increase lithium output in the future.591 In response to the growing global demand for ETMs, Zambia has launched a Critical Minerals Strategy in 2024 aimed at maximizing the country’s resource potential. The strategy includes high-resolution geophysical mapping to improve mineral resource assessment and guide strategic decision-making. The government also plans to establish a state-owned investment company that will hold at least 30% equity in future critical mineral projects, ensuring greater local participation in resource governance. Additionally, a production-sharing mechanism will reserve a portion of output from new mining projects for domestic economic development. The strategy emphasizes value addition and local beneficiation, with policy measures ETM production and development being introduced to restrict the export of unprocessed minerals. Moreover, at least 35% of procurement costs in the critical minerals sector will be allocated to local suppliers, reinforcing Zambia is endowed with a range of ETMs, particularly copper, cobalt, manganese, nickel, Zambia’s commitment to economic diversification and inclusive growth.592 and lithium (recently discovered).575 These minerals are geographically distributed across the country in distinct regions. Notably, copper-cobalt deposits are concentrated in the The United States has partnered with Zambia and the DRC, committing over USD 500 million Copperbelt and North-Western Provinces.576 Manganese deposits are predominantly found in to infrastructure and capacity-building initiatives aimed at establishing a regional EV battery the northwestern part of the country in Luapula Province, while lithium resources have been value chain.593 The EU has signed partnerships for the development of transport corridors recently identified in the Southern Province.577 Nickel deposits are also present in the North- and the enhancement of Zambia’s mineral value chain.594 Additionally, the UAE and Saudi Western Province578 and the Southern Province579. In addition to ETMs, Zambia hosts deposits of Arabia have entered the market, investing in the mining sector to support renewable energy other valuable minerals, including lead-zinc, precious gemstones, coal, industrial minerals, tin, technologies.595 South Africa remains a vital regional partner, supplying equipment and expertise Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals and gold.580 essential for Zambia’s mining operations, while also serving as an important market for Zambian minerals, particularly copper.596 Zambia is a prominent player in the global copper market. Zambia extracts around 770k metric Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region tons of copper and processes approximately 350k metric tons annually.581 However, production levels have seen a decline in recent years, attributed to factors such as the liquidation of KCM in ETM sector contributions and 2019 and the disinvestment of Glencore from Mopani in 2021, a sovereign debt default in 2020, and reduced investment in the sector.582 Cobalt, produced as a by-product of copper mining, is organization also significant for Zambia, which is currently the 14th largest global cobalt producer.583 The mining sector, including ETM production, has been a cornerstone of Zambia’s economy for over a century. In 2023, mining and quarrying activities contributed approximately 14% to Investment in Zambia’s mining sector, including ETMs, continues to grow, with committed Zambia’s GDP, according to third-quarter data from the Zambia Statistics Agency.597 Copper is investments reaching USD 3.4 billion in 2023, though still short of the USD 9 billion annual a key economic driver for Zambia, accounting for 72% of its export earnings and representing investment required to meet the government’s 3Mt copper production target by 2032.584 Major 10-15% of the country’s GDP.598 The mining sector also plays a vital role in providing employment mining companies such as First Quantum Minerals and Barrick have committed to expanding and supporting livelihoods, indirectly benefiting an estimated 60 million people.599 Despite their operations.585 Pledging billions of dollars of investment, KCM has been returned to Vedanta recent declines in copper production, forecasts suggest an expected increase in output.600 (who have made significant re-investments to restart operations at KCM),586 and the International Manganese production has consistently grown, showing promising potential for the future.601 130 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region 131 Mining in Zambia has traditionally been dominated by LSM operations, but recent years have compliance, enforcing license conditions, and overseeing mining activities. This seen a notable increase in ASM activity.602 ASM in Zambia was traditionally concentrated on development delineates the Ministry of Mines’ role in policy formulation, leaving the production of colored gemstones, primarily emeralds and amethysts. However, in recent the Commission to focus on implementation and regulation. However, the years, ASM has increasingly moved to the extraction of gold, as well as ETMs such as manganese Commission currently operates in only two of Zambia’s ten provinces, limiting its and copper-cobalt.603 Copper-cobalt mining in Zambia involves both LSM and ASM. However, oversight capacity, though plans are underway to expand its reach.614 The Minerals manganese and lithium mining activities primarily rely on ASM.604 The LSM sector provides direct Regulation Commission Bill of 2024 proposes enhanced government participation employment to approximately 60,000 people, making it the fifth-largest sector in Zambia’s in the minerals sector and emphasizes local content, further strengthening the employment index. Of this workforce, 92.2% are men.605 In contrast, ASM provides livelihoods to regulatory framework.615 Furthermore, to address systemic transparency issues, an estimated 500,000 people, with women constituting about 41% of this workforce.606 Despite the Ministry of Mines temporarily suspended the issuance of all mining licenses the uniquely high levels of formalization (in terms of miners operating with a legal title) in the in 2022, including for ASM operations, as part of an anti-corruption audit. This Zambian ASM sector - explained by the sector’s historic focus on gemstones, which were mined investigation uncovered excessive license holdings by certain LSM companies, in restricted zones as areas under license - this has reportedly done little to fully unlock the often linked to entities with overlapping beneficial ownership.616 The National Anti- benefits that are often claimed as the outcomes of formalization. In contrast, artisanal miners Corruption Policy (NACP) was introduced in 2009 to counter corruption in mining extracting ETMs are characterized by high levels of informality.607 governance. However, corruption remains a pervasive issue.617 ș Corporate social responsibility: The Act includes provisions requiring mining Zambia currently has some ETM processing capacity, especially for copper and manganese. companies to consult local communities before operations and to compensate However, the majority of raw concentrates are still exported without added value.608 The landowners for damages caused by mining activities. However, it reportedly lacks country is therefore pursuing investment in processing facilities, exemplified by initiatives like specific percentages or formal mechanisms for benefit-sharing, leaving affected Megamillion’s planned USD 400 million copper foil facility and Jubilee Metals’ and Mopani’s communities reliant on ad hoc arrangements.618 Furthermore, the Act appears plans to expand copper and cobalt refining.609 Moreover, Zambia and the DRC are collaborating to falls short in mandating FPIC, specifying only that landowner consent “should with the African Export-Import Bank (Afreximbank) and the United Nations Economic not be unreasonably withheld,” raising concerns about adequate community Commission for Africa (UNECA) to establish SEZs for battery EV production.610 These initiatives representation in decision-making processes.619 Although the Act aligns with reflect a strategic focus on moving up the value chain to capture more economic benefits from international socio-economic development conventions and emphasizes health, mineral resources. With appropriate investment in infrastructure, technology, and skills, Zambia safety, and local community welfare, CSR initiatives in Zambia remain largely could develop additional processing and manufacturing capabilities related to its ETM resources. voluntary. The lack of legally binding requirements for CSR practices has led to inconsistent implementation and limited accountability. Unlike neighboring Governance and equitable benefit countries like Ghana and Tanzania, which have introduced enforceable CSR sharing mechanisms policies, Zambia has not adopted similar measures.620 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals ș Environmental compliance: Zambia has partnered with the World Bank on the Zambia Mining Environmental Remediation and Improvement Project (ZMERIP) Zambia has introduced a range of regulatory and policy to address the environmental and health impacts of mining. The project focuses initiatives to enhance compliance, equitable benefit-sharing, and on reducing lead exposure and remediating contaminated sites in mining-affected Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region sustainable development in its mining sector. municipalities such as Kabwe and Kitwe.621 Additionally, ZMERIP aims to build capacity for environmental governance and promote sustainable practices within ș Formalization of ASM: The Zambian government has allocated 50 million Zambian the mining sector. While ZMERIP has made progress in mitigating environmental Kwacha (approximately USD 2 million) to the ASM sector through the 2023 National risks, enforcement of environmental standards across the sector reportedly Budget, aiming to address informality and associated challenges.611 This funding remains inconsistent. The Environmental Management Act (2011) mandates is directed toward formalization initiatives, such as capacity-building for ASM Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for mining projects, with provisions operators, streamlining licensing procedures, and improving access to markets for public consultation. However, community engagement in the EIA process is and resources.612 often limited, reducing the effectiveness of these measures in addressing local ș Strengthening institutional oversight and transparency: Zambia’s mining sector concerns.622 is governed by the Mines and Minerals Development Act of 2015 (“the Act”), ș Royalty reforms: The government increased royalty rates on cobalt to 8%, complemented by amendments in 2016 and 2022.613 Recent restructuring efforts signaling a move to capture additional revenue from the sector.623 led to the creation of a Mining Commission, which is responsible for monitoring 132 Annex 2 | Research methods 133 ANNEX 2 Research Scope The selection of the five countries in the AFE region offers a valuable comparative basis due to their differing stages of ETM sector development. These countries range from those with methods mature ETM industries and established global value chain roles to those in the nascent phases of sector development or primarily dominated by ASM. This variation provided an opportunity to examine how distinct stages of ETM sector development interact with local and national socio- economic dynamics, governance frameworks, and challenges related to social exclusion and FCV. This section sets out the material and geographic scope of the study, highlighting the selected minerals and locations for secondary and primary research. The study considered ten key ETMs identified as critical for the global energy transition: copper, lithium, nickel, cobalt, graphite, manganese, REEs, aluminum, PGMs, and vanadium.624 Although all ten minerals were analyzed during the literature review to understand their significance within the five countries and associated dynamics, the scoping nature of this research required prioritization of max two minerals per country for stakeholder engagement and field study. The mineral selection process involved multiple criteria, including economic significance, relevance to global ETM value chains, and data availability. Furthermore, the study focused on specific regions within the selected countries to enable more detailed, context-specific analysis and stakeholder selection. The regional selection process accounted for the availability of existing data, accessibility of stakeholders, and the significance of each region for national ETM production. See Table 1 for an overview of the selected minerals and locations, including a justification for selection and description of the primary research. Our study collected data on the social risks, impacts and opportunities associated with the Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals entire value chains of ETMs in the countries of focus, encompassing the upstream, midstream and downstream stages. However, given this research’s focus on social exclusion and FCV, we prioritized the mining stage for the case studies. The mining stage often has the most direct and immediate impact on various social groups, particularly in terms of land use, displacement, Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region labor practices, gender relations and community interactions. These factors made the mining stage particularly relevant for exploring issues of social exclusion and FCV, where the risks and opportunities for particularly marginalized groups are most pronounced. 134 Annex 2 | Research methods 135 FIGURE 1: Selected minerals and locations for primary research in the five countries in scope. Code₁ Country Minerals₂ Locations₃ Justification and description Data collection methods BDI Burundi 3TG Bujumbura ETM production is currently absent; 3TG mining This study employed a combination of literature review and stakeholder interviews. The Gitega dominates ASM activities. Bujumbura and Gitega host literature review formed the foundation of this study, providing a comprehensive overview of Kirundo key stakeholders and regulatory institutions; Kirundo existing knowledge on the social dynamics underpinning ETM value chains. This secondary data Ngozi and Ngozi host ASM sites. Insights into governance collection involved peer-reviewed research papers, reports from multilateral, international and issues and social dynamics in 3TG mining provide national organizations, reporting and articles that appeared in the press, and industry reports a foundation for understanding future ETM sector from market research firms and industry associations. A Background Report was prepared development. Fieldwork research took place between and submitted to the World Bank by the study team. This Background Report presented the 16 – 20 December 2024 with few remote (follow-up) key findings that emerged from the literature review. On the basis of this, the methodology for interviews. primary research was refined. DRC DRC Copper Lualaba Global leading producer in cobalt and copper To complement the secondary data, in the second stage of the research, we conducted Cobalt Haut- production. Lualaba and Haut-Katanga represent primary data collection through stakeholder interviews in Burundi, the DRC, Malawi, South Katanga major hubs for both copper-cobalt ASM and LSM. Africa and Zambia. Due to resource constraints, these interviews were predominantly remote, Fieldwork research took place in early December 2024 with limited visits to mine sites or face-to-face interviews. with few remote (follow-up) interviews. The primary data collection was organized as follows: MWI Malawi Copper Karonga Copper ASM in Karonga is emerging. Lilongwe Graphite Lilongwe is projected to host one of the largest graphite ș Interviewees were strategically selected based on their involvement in and operations globally. These minerals reflect Malawi’s knowledge of ETM value chains, social exclusion and FCV. The selection process transition towards developing its ETM sector. prioritized diversity in perspectives, ensuring representation from various Fieldwork research took place in mid-December 2024 stakeholders. Additionally, a snowball sampling technique was employed where with few remote (follow-up) interviews. initial interviewees suggested further respondents. Further below, a list of stakeholder categories interviewed in the five AFE countries in scope is shared. ZAF South PGMs Bushveld South Africa is the largest global producer of Africa Manganese Complex manganese and holds 74% of global iridium reserves. ș The interviews were semi-structured, allowing for a balance between guided Kalahari Recent fluctuations in the PGM market, including price inquiry and open-ended responses. Further below, the key lines of enquiry used by Manganese volatility and demand shifts, directly impact labor national researchers during the interviews are presented. relations, local economies, and sector sustainability, Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals To enhance the reliability and validity of the primary data, findings from stakeholder interviews making them critical for understanding socio- were triangulated with the insights gained from the literature review. This process involved economic and governance challenges in established cross-referencing and comparing the qualitative data collected from interviews with secondary ETM sectors. Remote interviews took place in sources to identify consistencies, discrepancies, and emerging patterns. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region December 2024 - February 2025. BDI Zambia Copper Manganese Copperbelt Luapula Copper is Zambia’s cornerstone mineral, with decades of established LSM and ASM operations driving List of interviewed stakeholders significant contributions to GDP and export revenues. In contrast, manganese, predominantly mined by Reference Stakeholder category Reference Stakeholder category ASM, is an emerging sector. This dual focus highlights the opportunities for economic diversification and Burundi Democratic Republic of the Congo the challenges posed by informality in the manganese BDI-1 Government DRC-1 Civil society sector. Remote interviews took place in December 2024 - February 2025. BDI-2 Government DRC-2 ASM cooperative Country code as often used by UN and other multilateral 1 2 Minerals selected for the primary research. institutions. These codes will be used further down the 3 Locations selected for the primary research. report when referring to stakeholder interviews. 136 Annex 2 | Research methods 137 BDI-3 Government DRC-3 LSM worker Lines of enquiry BDI-4 Civil society DRC-4 ASM cooperative These lines of enquiry served as guidance during stakeholder interviews. BDI-5 ASM cooperative DRC-5 Researcher Government stakeholders BDI-6 ASM cooperative DRC-6 Community representative Policy and regulatory fr ameworks: BDI-7 LSM representative DRC-7 Community representative ș Explore the effectiveness of current policies and regulations governing the ETM sector, particularly in relation to social inclusion and conflict prevention. BDI-8 ASM individual DRC-8 Civil society Governance and institutional capacity: BDI-9 ASM individual ș Discuss the challenges of government institutions to enforce laws, ensure compliance, and promote community benefit sharing, local socio-economic development, and social inclusion. Reference Stakeholder category Reference Stakeholder category Economic development priorities: ș Understand the government’s priorities for leveraging the ETM sector for broader socio- Malawi South Africa economic development, including equitable distribution of benefits. MWI-1 LSM company ZAF-1 Research institute Community benefit-sharing: MWI-2 Civil society ZAF-2 Research institute ș Investigate government mechanisms to ensure that communities affected by mining activities receive fair compensation and benefits. MWI-3 Community representative ZAF-3 Civil society ș Discuss the government’s view on the effectiveness of these mechanisms – what works and MWI-4 Researcher ZAF-4 ASM association what does not work well. Where is there room for improvement. MWI-5 Government ZAF-5 Multi-stakeholder initiative Stakeholder engagement: ș Discuss the government’s approach to engaging with various stakeholders, including MWI-6 ASM cooperative Zambia communities, private sector, and civil society, in decision-making for the ETM sector. MWI-7 ASM association ZMB-1 Civil society Social inclusion and equity: Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals ș Gather insights of what the government considers marginalized / vulnerable groups in the MWI-8 Government ZMB-2 Research institute ETM mining sector, i.e., who do they prioritize in their efforts to ensure everyone can benefit MWI-9 Community representative ZMB-3 Civil society equitably. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region ș Examine government initiatives (including specific programs) aimed at promoting social MWI-10 Civil society ZMB-4 Research institute inclusion within the ETM sector, especially for marginalized groups. MWI-11 ASM miner ZMB-5 ASM association Conflict and violence prevention: MWI-12 Researcher ZMB-6 ASM association ș Gather insights into the prevalence of specific incidents of violence surrounding a particular mine site or mining region. MWI-13 Multi-stakeholder initiative ZMB-7 Research institute ș Explore government perspectives on the main sources of tension and conflict within the ETM MWI-14 Government sector ș Explore government strategies to mitigate them, i.e., are police or military sent to these sites periodically for security purposes or are they posted there in a sustained manner. 138 Annex 2 | Research methods 139 ș Explore the perspective on relations between public security forces and the local communities ș Examine the company’s approach to ensuring fair labor practices and safeguarding human / artisanal miners. rights within its operations, with a focus on protection and inclusion of marginalized groups. ș Explore the perspective on relations between their private security forces and the local Future projections: communities / artisanal miners. ș Assess government expectations regarding the future trajectory of the ETM sector and potential socio-economic impacts. ș Explore whether they foresee any events that could trigger violence or open opportunities to enhance collaboration with all stakeholders. ș Explore whether they foresee any events that could trigger violence or open opportunities to enhance collaboration with all stakeholders. Community benefit programs: ș Investigate how the company structures and implements programs aimed at benefiting local International cooperation: communities and whether these are perceived as effective. ș Explore the role of international partnerships and assistance in supporting the government’s management of the ETM sector. Risk management: ș Explore whether there have been any instances of violence, and if yes, how this was caused Challenges and opportunities: and handled. ș Identify key challenges and opportunities the government perceives in balancing economic development with social inclusion and peace. ș Discuss the company’s approach to managing risks related to social exclusion and FCV in its operational areas. Private sector (LSM company) stakeholders Future challenges and opportunities: Corporate social responsibility: ș Understand the company’s view on future challenges and opportunities in the ETM sector in the context of global demand, particularly focused on social inclusion opportunities. ș Discuss the company’s CSR policies and how they address social inclusion and community benefit-sharing in mining areas. Collaborative initiatives: ș Discuss how the company aligns their CSR strategies with community priorities. ș Explore the company’s involvement in multi-stakeholder initiatives or partnerships aimed at ș Stakeholder relations: promoting social inclusion and mitigating conflict in the ETM sector. ș Explore how the company engages with local communities, governments, and other stakeholders International organization / Civil society stakeholders ș How it manages conflicts and tensions Advocacy and impact: ș Discuss who the CSO represents, who it advocates for. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals ș How it seeks engagement with and inclusion of marginalized groups in its stakeholder outreach. Explore who they consider groups that are particularly vulnerable or at risk of being ș Discuss the role of CSOs in advocating for social inclusion, human rights, and equitable left behind by CSR of community development programs. benefit-sharing in the ETM sector. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Environmental and social impact management: ș Investigate civil society efforts to address human rights abuses and labor exploitation within the ETM sector. ș Understand the company’s practices for managing the environmental and social impacts of mining, focused on measures to reduce harm to marginalized groups. ș Discuss which initiatives the organization is aware of that attempted to improve equitable benefit-sharing from mining. What is their perception of the effectiveness of these initiatives Workforce diversity and inclusion: what worked and what did not work. ș Explore the company’s efforts to promote diversity and inclusion within its workforce. Community engagement and representation: ș Human rights, security and labor practices: ș Explore how CSOs engage with and represent marginalized groups affected by ETM activities. ș Explore the greatest challenges of the CSO in advocating on behalf of communities, and opportunities for support. 140 Annex 2 | Research methods 141 Learnings of social exclusion and FCV: ș Discuss what hampers effectiveness, what does not work. ș Investigate the CSOs’ observations and learnings regarding social exclusion and FCV dynamics within the ETM sector. Social exclusion and vulnerability: ș Investigate experiences of social exclusion related to ETM activities within the community, ș Gather insights into who is at greatest risk of exclusion, who is most vulnerable. particularly among marginalized groups, and the factors contributing to it. Perceptions of corporate and government actions: ș Explore who they consider as most vulnerable. ș Understand CSOs’ perspectives on the actions of mining companies and government agencies in terms of social inclusion, equity, and conflict prevention. Conflict and tensions: ș Gather insights as to whether instances of violence have occurred and what triggered that. Conflict resolution and peacebuilding: ș Understand the sources of conflict and tension within the community related to ETM activities, ș Discuss civil society’s role in conflict resolution and peacebuilding within the ETM sector, and how these are being managed or exacerbated particularly in areas with heightened tensions or violence. Access to justice and participation: Monitoring and accountability: ș Discuss the community’s perception of access to justice, their ability to participate in decision- ș Examine the role of CSOs in monitoring the activities of governments and private sector making processes, and the fairness of these processes. actors, and holding them accountable for social impacts. ș Discuss who they consider as their legitimate authorities (formal or informal leaders). ș What complicates the efforts of the CSO to monitor and hold them accountable. What are the challenges they face. ș In the case of the absence of functioning mechanisms to access justice, explore how communities seek justice. Future challenges and opportunities: Livelihoods and economic opportunities: ș Understand the CSOs view on future challenges and opportunities in the ETM sector in the context of global demand, particularly focused on social inclusion opportunities. ș Explore the impact of ETM activities on local livelihoods, employment opportunities, and economic conditions. Involvement in interventions: Expectations for the future: ș Gather concrete insights into the programs and projects they run / are involved in, including partnerships, implementation of programs, and collaboration with other stakeholders. ș Investigate the community’s expectations regarding the future of ETM activities in their area, and what they hope to see change. ș Discuss their experiences, challenges, and the outcomes they have witnessed through these efforts. Engagement with stakeholders: Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals ș Explore the perception of community consultation and consent before and during mining Community representatives exploration. Community impact perceptions: ș Discuss the nature and effectiveness of the community’s engagement with mining companies, Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region government agencies, and CSOs. ș Explore community members’ perceptions of the social and economic impacts of ETM activities in their areas. Support and advocacy needs: Benefit sharing and compensation: ș Identify areas where the community feels it needs more support or advocacy to protect its interests and rights in the ETM sector. ș Discuss which initiatives the community members are aware of that attempted to improve equitable benefit-sharing from mining. ș Explore whether the community believes it is safe for human rights and environmental defenders to speak up and seek remedy, or if they face any threats. ș Discuss the perception of effectiveness of these benefit-sharing mechanisms. What worked and what did not work. ș Discuss the perception of the effectiveness of compensation provided by mining companies and governments to affected communities. 142 Annex 2 | Research methods 143 Trade unions stakeholders Future outlook for workers: ș Understand the trade union perspective on the future of employment and labor rights in the Labor rights and conditions: ETM sector, particularly in the context of global demand and industry changes. ș Discuss the state of labor rights and working conditions within the ETM sector, including any specific issues related to worker exploitation and safety. ASM cooperative and association stakeholders ș Gather insights as to whether instances of violence have occurred and what triggered that. Role and mission of the association: Worker inclusion and diversity: ș Discuss who the association / cooperative represents, who it advocates for. ș Gather insights into who the trade union considers most vulnerable. ș Discuss the role and objectives of the association / cooperative in supporting miners within ș Discuss the inclusion of marginalized workers (e.g., women, ethnic minorities) within the ETM the ETM sector. workforce. ș Explore how the association / cooperative, particularly those focused on women miners, advocates for their members’ rights and opportunities. Wage equity and benefits: ș Investigate issues related to wage equity, benefits, and compensation for workers in the ETM ș Explore who they consider most vulnerable and if there are risks of certain groups being left sector. behind as the ASM sector changes. Health and safety concerns: Advocacy and policy influence: ș Explore the key health and safety issues faced by workers in the ETM sector, and how trade ș Explore the association’s / cooperative’s efforts to influence policies and regulations related to unions address these concerns. the ASM sector. ș Discuss how the association / cooperative promotes formalization of ASM activities, addresses Collective bargaining: gender-specific barriers, and advocates for fair practices. ș Understand the role of collective bargaining in improving working conditions and ensuring fair ș Discuss how whether the association / cooperative sees any risks of certain people being treatment in the ETM sector. excluded or left behind because of formalization efforts Union representation and advocacy: Responsible mining: ș Explore the role of trade unions in representing workers in the ETM sector, including their ș Explore the association’s / cooperative’s role in promoting responsible mining practices within successes and challenges in advocating for fair treatment. the ASM community. ș Explore whether the union believes it is safe for them to speak up and seek remedy, or if they ș Discuss how these practices are communicated and implemented, particularly with respect to face any threats. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals equity and social inclusion. Challenges faced by unions: Understanding social exclusion in ASM: ș Discuss the challenges trade unions face in advocating for workers’ rights in the ETM sector, ș Explore the association’s / cooperative’s knowledge of social exclusion dynamics within the Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region including any barriers to effective representation. ASM sector. Impact of automation and technological change: ș Discuss how social exclusion manifests among ASM miners, including marginalized groups. ș Explore how the shift towards automation and technological advancements in the ETM sector Explore the association’s / cooperative’s observations on how exclusion affects miners’ access is affecting workers and union strategies. to resources, opportunities, and support. Engagement with other stakeholders: FCV dynamics in ASM communities: ș Discuss the interaction between trade unions, government bodies, and private companies in ș Gather insights as to whether instances of violence have occurred and what triggered that. addressing labor issues within the ETM sector. ș Investigate the association’s / cooperative’s insights into FCV dynamics in ASM communities. ș Understand the sources of conflict, the role of power dynamics, and how these issues impact miners and the wider communities. 144 Annex 2 | Research methods 145 Training and capacity building: ș Understand the association’s / cooperative’s initiatives to provide training, capacity-building, interventions for addressing social exclusion and FCV. and resources to its members. ș Discuss lessons learned and their applicability to other contexts. ș Discuss programs aimed at improving social inclusion and peace. Knowledge gaps in social dynamics: Lessons learned from interventions: ș Investigate what the research institute identifies as key knowledge gaps regarding social ș Discuss what the association / cooperative has learned from past interventions or programs exclusion and FCV. aimed at addressing social exclusion and FCV. Explore perceived successes, challenges, and ș Discuss areas where further research is needed to better understand and address these issues. areas for improvement. Role of research in addressing social issues: Policy and regulatory gaps: ș Discuss how research findings have influenced policies and practices related to social ș Explore the association’s / cooperative’s views on existing policy and regulatory and exclusion and FCV in the ETM sector. enforcement gaps related to social exclusion and FCV in the ASM sector. ș Explore the effectiveness of these changes in addressing the issues. ș Discuss any recommendations for policy improvements or new regulations. ș Discuss examples of research-driven interventions or policy changes. Collaboration with other stakeholders: Collaboration with stakeholders: ș Discuss the association’s / cooperative’s collaboration with government bodies, mining ș Explore how the research institute collaborates with other stakeholders (e.g., government, companies, CSOs, and international partners. civil society, private sector) to address social exclusion and FCV. ș Explore how these collaborations address sector-wide challenges and support the needs of ș Discuss the effectiveness and impact of these collaborations. ASM members. Future research directions: Strategic priorities and future outlook: ș Identify future research directions that could contribute to a better understanding of social ș Identify the association’s / cooperative’s strategic priorities for the coming years, particularly exclusion and FCV in the ETM sector. in addressing challenges related to social inclusion and ensuring a just transition for ASM. ș Explore how emerging research could inform more effective strategies and interventions. ș Discuss the association’s / cooperative’s vision for the future of ASM, considering global demand trends and opportunities for socio-economic development. Research / education stakeholders Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Insights into social exclusion and FCV dynamics: ș Explore the research institute’s knowledge of social exclusion issues within the ETM sector. Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region ș Gather insights as to whether instances of violence have occurred and what triggered that. ș Discuss how social exclusion affects different social groups, particularly marginalized groups. ș Discuss the root causes, manifestations, and impacts of FCV on communities and mining operations. Lessons learned from case studies: ș Discuss which initiatives the institute is aware of that attempted to improve equitable benefit- sharing from mining. What is their perception of the effectiveness of these initiatives – what worked and what did not work. ș Review case studies or examples from research that highlight successful strategies or 146 Annex 2 | Research methods 147 Limitations Sample size and validation of recommendations: The research involved a relatively small sample size of stakeholders in the AFE region, which may limit the generalizability of findings This section outlines the limitations of this scoping study. and the robustness of the conclusions drawn. Moreover, the findings are deeply context- specific, reflecting the unique socio-economic and political conditions of the studied regions and mineral value chains, which may not be universally applicable. This limitation Data availability limitations necessitates caution in interpreting the results and making broad recommendations and The study’s investigation into ETM value chains faced limitations due to the scarcity of highlights the need for validation of the recommendations. Future research may aim to qualitative data available from secondary sources, particularly in Malawi and Burundi. For expand the sample size and employ methods that can validate and refine these initial these countries - the ETM sectors of which are relatively less studied compared to the other findings. This could include triangulation with other data sources, further stakeholder countries - detailed qualitative analyses and context-specific data are sparse. The team engagement, and additional fieldwork to ensure that the recommendations are well- identified key information gaps during the literature review phase and complemented the grounded and applicable across different contexts. findings through comparatively more stakeholder interviews, primarily in-person. Uncertainty in forecasting: The ability to project future trajectories of social exclusion Data availability limitations and FCV dynamics in response to changing demand for ETMs is inherently limited by the complexity and uncertainty of forecasting. Given the multifaceted nature of FCV dynamics, Sensitivity of the topic: The subject matter of this study is sensitive with many competing including the interplay of various social, economic, and political factors, accurately interests. This sensitivity may have impacted the openness and honesty of stakeholder predicting how these dynamics will evolve in response to potential ETM market fluctuations responses, potentially leading to underreporting or skewed perspectives. Navigating these is challenging. The uncertainty is compounded by the potential for unforeseen events, such sensitivities required careful consideration of the cultural context and ethical guidelines to as sudden political changes, environmental disasters, or shifts in global market trends. ensure that research findings were accurately and respectfully represented. Stakeholder This means that projections should be viewed as indicative rather than definitive, with an interviews were carried out by national researchers that have a strong understanding of and understanding that the actual future dynamics may diverge from anticipated trajectories due experience navigating the cultural and political context. to emerging or unanticipated developments. Bias and misrepresentation: The study’s findings may have implications for ongoing local and national political dynamics. This may have influenced the stakeholders’ willingness to provide candid feedback. This presents a risk of bias in the data collected from stakeholder interviews. Stakeholders may have vested interests that influenced their responses, leading to potential misrepresentation of facts or the omission of critical issues to serve their own agendas. This can be particularly pertinent in contexts where stakeholders may seek to advance their own Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals political, economic, or social objectives. Such biases may have skewed the data, affecting the accuracy and reliability of the insights gathered. Methodological limitations Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Virtual participatory methods: The majority of stakeholder interviews for this study were conducted remotely through telecom and virtual communications, including phone calls or back-and-forth email contact, due to resource constraints and non-permissive environments. Remote interviewing, while practical, may limit the depth of engagement, the ability to capture nuanced perspectives, and the inclusion of stakeholders with limited access to internet connection and / or electronic devices (smartphones, laptops). Furthermore, remote interactions affected rapport-building with interviewees and hindered the collection of rich, context-specific data that could have been obtained through more in-person interviews. Given these limitations, a subsequent research phase involving more extensive community-level fieldwork is essential. Fieldwork would also enable more nuanced understanding of informal sector dynamics and the socio-economic challenges faced by marginalized groups. 148 References 149 References Broad-based Development in Africa: Outcomes of 33 BHRRC, 2023a; BHRRC, 2024 the African Regional Consultative Forum on Critical 34 WEF, 2024a Minerals and Just Transition. Available at: https:// 35 World Bank (2021). Cobalt in The Democrat- pacja.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Briefing-Pa- ic Republic of Congo, Market Analysis. Avail- per-Critical-Minerals-and-Just-Transition.pdf able at: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/ 19 UNDP (2025). Southern Africa Must Process Its publication/documents-reports/document- Own Critical Minerals. Available at: https://www. detail/099500001312236438/p1723770a0f- undp.org/zambia/blog/southern-africa-must-pro- 570093092050c1bddd6a29df Chapter 1 | Introduction cess-its-own-critical-minerals 36 Pistilli, M. (2021). Copper in Africa: DRC, Zambia, Zero Carbon Analytics (2024). Developing Africa’s South Africa and Namibia. Available at: https:// 1 IEA (2024). Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024. lications/REO/AFR/2024/April/English/MineralsNote. mineral resources: What needs to happen. Avail- investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/ Available at: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/ ashx; Cust & Zeufack, 2023 able at: https://zerocarbon-analytics.org/archives/ base-metals-investing/copper-investing/cop- assets/ee01701d-1d5c-4ba8-9df6-abeeac9de99a/ 8 BHRRC, 2023a; Cust & Zeufack, 2023; IEA, 2024 netzero/developing-africas-mineral-resourc- per-in-africa-south-africa-drc-zambia/; GlobalCriticalMineralsOutlook2024.pdf; es-what-needs-to-happen 9 IMF, 2024; Cust & Zeufack, 2023 Reuters (2022). Zambia copper output up 12% last UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy 20 Ibid 10 IMF, 2024 year as key mines recover. Available at: https:// Transition Minerals (2024). Resourcing the Energy 21 IISD, 2018 www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/zam- Transition: Principles to Guide Critical Energy Tran- 11 CSIS (2025). Turning Diplomatic Commitments into 22 Cust, Rivera-Ballesteros & Zeufack, 2022; Cust & bias-2024-copper-production-rises-12-mines-min- sition Minerals towards Equity and Justice. Available Mineral Investments in the Democratic Republic of Zeufack, 2023 ister-says-2025-01-22/#:~:text=Zambia%20is%20 at: https://www.unep.org/resources/report/resourc- Congo. Available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/ Africa’s%20second%2Dlargest,tons%20within%20 ing-energy-transition; turning-diplomatic-commitments-mineral-invest- 23 Cambridge Institute for Sustainability Leadership about%20a%20decade ments-democratic-republic-congo (2025). On conflict, critical minerals and the need Muñoz Cabré, M., & Vega-Araújo, J. (2022). Consid- for renewed global leadership. Available at: https:// 37 Oxfam South Africa (2020). Illicit Financial Flows erations for a just and equitable energy transition. Global Witness (2025). The critical minerals scram- www.cisl.cam.ac.uk/news/blog/conflict-critical-min- in the Mining Industry In South Africa. Available Available at: https://www.sei.org/publications/ ble: How the race for resources is fuelling conflict erals-and-need-renewed-global-leadership at: https://www.oxfam.org.za/wp-content/up- just-equitable-energy-transition/; and inequality. Available at: https://globalwitness. loads/2020/11/oxfam_illicit-financial-flows-report_ org/en/campaigns/transition-minerals/the-criti- Global Witness, 2025 2 IEA (2021). The Role of Critical World Energy Outlook fin_web.pdf; USGS (2022). cal-minerals-scramble-how-the-race-for-resourc- Special Report Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. 24 Global Witness (2024). Critical mineral mines tied 2017-2018 Minerals Yearbook: South Africa. Available es-is-fuelling-conflict-and-inequality/ Available at: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/ to 111 violent incidents and protests on average a at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol3/2017-18/myb3- assets/ffd2a83b-8c30-4e9d-980a-52b6d9a86fdc/ 12 Global Witness, 2025 year. Available at: https://globalwitness.org/en/cam- 2017-18-south-africa.pdf; TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions. 13 Cust, J., Rivera-Ballesteros, A. and Zeufack, A.(2022). paigns/transition-minerals/critical-mineral-mines- USGS (2019b). 2019 Minerals Yearbook: South Africa. pdf; The Dog that Didn’t Bark : The Missed Opportunity of tied-to-111-violent-incidents-and-protests-on-aver- Available at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol3/2019/ BHRRC (2023a). Fast and fair: Achieving a just transi- Africa’s Resource Boom. Available at: https://docu- age-a-year/ myb3-2019-south-africa.pdf tion in Africa. Available at: https://www.business-hu- ments.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-re- 25 Cust & Zeufack, 2023 manrights.org/en/from-us/briefings/fast-and-fair- 38 Andreoni, A. and Avenyo, E. (2023). Critical Minerals ports/documentdetail/099250407062241649/ 26 UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy and Routes to Diversification in Africa: Linkages, achieving-a-just-energy-transition-in-africa/; idu0b75f6a280775e041420816b0734e6d9ed810#:~:- Transition Minerals, 2024 Pulling Dynamics and Opportunities in Medium-High BHRRC (2024). From mining to renewable energy text=The%20commodity%20price%20boom%20 27 Ibid Tech Supply Chains. Background paper commis- lessons learnt from benefit sharing legislation from,same%20resource%2Drich%20countries%20 sioned by the UNCTAD secretariat for the 2023 edi- for a just transition in Africa. Available at: https:// surged; 28 BHRRC, 2023a; UN Secretary-General’s Panel on tion of the Economic Development in Africa Report. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals www.business-humanrights.org/en/from-us/ Cust & Zeufack, 2023 Critical Energy Transition Minerals, 2024 Available at: https://unctad.org/system/files/non-of- briefings/from-mining-to-renewable-energy-les- 29 World Bank, 2019 14 NRGI (2015). The Resource Curse: The Political and ficial-document/edar2023_BP1_en.pdf#page=27; sons-learned-from-benefit-sharing-legisla- Economic Challenges of Natural Resource Wealth. 30 UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy Zero Carbon Analytics, 2024 tion-for-a-just-transition-in-africa/; Available at: https://resourcegovernance.org/sites/ Transition Minerals, 2024; 39 Xun, D., Sun, X., Liu, Z., Zhao, F., & Hao, H. (2022). Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Cust, J. and Zeufack, A. (eds.) (2023). Africa’s Re- default/files/nrgi_Resource-Curse.pdf WEF (2024b). Translating Critical Raw Material Trade Comparing supply chains of platinum group metal source Future: Harnessing Natural Resources for 15 IMF, 2024 into Development Benefits. White Paper. Available catalysts in internal combustion engine and fuel cell Economic Transformation during the Low-Carbon 16 World Bank (2019). Digging Beneath the Surface: An at: https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Translat- vehicles: A supply risk perspective. Cleaner Logistics Transition. Africa Development Forum. Washington, Exploration of the Net Benefits of Mining in Southern ing_Critical_Raw_Material_Demand_2024.pdf and Supply Chain, 4, 100043. DC: World Bank; Muñoz Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022 Africa. Available at: https://openknowledge.world- 31 Zero Carbon Analytics, 2024; 40 Cust & Zeufack, 2023 3 Cust & Zeufack, 2023 bank.org/entities/publication/a54a1389-5d8e-5a4f- Jayaram, K., Kendall, A., Somers, K., and Bouchene, 4 IEA, 2024 41 Sewpershad, S. & Tufo, R. (2024). Country profiles b1ed-f5a26c4d600e; L. (2021). Africa’s green manufacturing crossroads: on the regulatory framework and the artisanal 5 Ibid IISD (2018). Green Conflict Minerals: The fuels of Choices for a low-carbon industrial future. Available mining sector. AfricaMaVal Coordination and Sup- 6 Ibid conflict in the transition to a low-carbon economy. at: https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/ port Action (CSA). Funded by the European Union. 17 Cust & Zeufack, 2023; World Bank, 2019 business%20functions/sustainability/our%20 Available at: https://africamaval.eu/wp-content/up- 7 IMF (2024). “Digging for Opportunity: Harnessing insights/africas%20green%20manufacturing%20 loads/2024/07/D7.2-Country-profiles-on-the-regula- Sub-Saharan Africa’s Wealth in Critical Minerals.” In: 18 Cust & Zeufack, 2023; crossroads/africas-green-manufacturing-cross- tory-framework-and-theartisanal-mining-sector.pdf; Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa-A Nforngwa, E.N., Kilonzo, P. and Mwenda, M. (2014). roads-choices-for-a-low-carbon-industrial-future.pdf Tepid and Pricey Recovery. Washington, DC, April. Vasters, J. & Schütte, P. (2023). D1.4 – Country Leveraging Critical Minerals to Catalyze Inclusive Available at: https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Pub- 32 Carr-Wilson, Pattanayak & Weinthal, 2024 150 References 151 profiles of artisanal and small-scale ECRM mine pro- ActionAid (2014). Joint Baseline Study on Malawi’s Zambia’, in: Addison, T. and Roe. A. (eds), Extractive Politics of New African Resource Discoveries in the duction and processing developments. AfricaMaVal Mining Sector; Industries: The Management of Resources as a Driver Post-Curse Era, 73; Coordination and Support Action (CSA). Funded by Grain, M. (2024). The Minerals Sector in Malawi. Geo- of Sustainable Development. Oxford, 2018; Perks, R. and Hayes, K. (2016). Transparency in Rev- the European Union. Available at: https://africama- mine Services ZMB-1; ZMB-2; ZMB-3 enues from Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining of Tin, val.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/AfricaMaVal_ Tantalum, Tungsten and Gold in Burundi. Washing- 64 MWI-3; MWI-6; MWI-8; ActionAid, 2014 BGR_D1.4_ASM_country_profiles_CRM.pdf; ton, DC: World Bank; 65 ActionAid, 2014 World Bank, 2015; ActionAid, 2014 66 ACIDH, AFREWATCH & PremiCongo, 2021; 82 Perks & Hayes, 2016; World Bank, 2015; ActionAid, Chapter 2 | A justice approach to ETM sector development Amnesty International, 2017; 2014; Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 67 BHRRC, 2023a; 42 ILO (2016). Guidelines for a just transition towards 46 Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022; Bainton et al., 2021 83 ActionAid, 2014 BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF (2025). Dig- environmentally sustainable economies and 47 Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022 84 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 ging into the Problem: How corruption facilitates societies for all. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/ 85 Ibid 48 UN (2016). Identifying social inclusion and exclu- socioenvironmental, human rights, and Indigenous publications/guidelines-just-transition-towards-en- sion. Available at: https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/ Peoples’ rights harms in the mining sector. Available 86 ActionAid, 2014; Tychsen et al., 2018; MWI-2 vironmentally-sustainable-economies rwss/2016/chapter1.pdf at: https://resourcegovernance.org/publications/ 87 Perks & Hayes, 2016 43 Williams, S., & Doyon, A. (2020). The Energy Futures digging-into-the-problem 49 Ritchie, K. (2020). Social structures and the ontology 88 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; ZAF-1; Lab: A case study of justice in energy transitions. of social groups. Philosophy and Phenomenological 68 BDI-4; DRC-1; DRC-8; MWI-10; ZAF-3; ZMB-1; ZMB-3 Environmental innovation and societal transitions, 37, Ubink, J. and Pickering, J. (2024). The mine, the Research, 100(2), 402-424. 69 MWI-2; MWI-10; ZMB-2 290-301 community, and the chief–mining governance and 50 World Bank (2022). Defueling Conflict: environment 70 BHRRC, 2023a; BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF, community representation in conditions of legal plu- 44 Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022; and natural resource management as a pathway to 2025; MWI-2; DRC-8; ZMB-1; ZMB-3 ralism. Legal Pluralism and Critical Social Analysis, McCauley, D., & Heffron, R. (2018). Just Transition: in- peace. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/ 71 DRC-1; DRC-7 56(2), p.236–264 tegrating climate, energy and environmental justice. en/topic/environment/publication/defueling-con- Energy Policy, 119, 1-7 72 MWI-2; MWI-10 89 du Plessis, L. (2023). Mining and land rights in South flict-environment-and-natural-resource-manage- Africa: how has the Maledu judgement empowered 45 Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022; ment-as-a-pathway-to-peace 73 ZMB-3 rural communities? Available at: https://alicenews. Bainton, N., Kemp, D., Lèbre, E., Owen, J. R., & 51 World Bank, 2022 74 MWI-2; MWI-10 ces.uc.pt/?id=38473&lang=1&utm; Marston, G. (2021). The energy‐extractives nexus and 52 USAID (2024). Violence and Conflict Assessment: 75 ZMB-3 Ubink & Pickering, 2024 the just transition. Sustainable Development, 29(4), Analytical Framework 624-634. 76 CER (2019). Mining company’s SLAPP suit against 90 du Plessis, 2023 CER lawyers, activist in court today. Available at: 91 Ibid https://cer.org.za/news/mining-companys-slapp- suit-against-cer-lawyers-activist-in-court-today; 92 ZMB-2 Chapter 3 | Stakeholder relations defining the ETM sector CER (2022). South African Constitutional Court 93 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; IGF, 2024 53 ActionAid, 2014; 57 NRGI, 2022; Global Organized Crime Index, 2023a provides new protection for activists against SLAPP 94 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024; BHRRC, 2023a suits. Available at: https://cer.org.za/news/south-af- 95 IGF, 2024 Rutledge, C. (2019). Mining in South Africa: Whose 58 Ibid rican-constitutional-court-provides-new-protec- benefit and whose burden? Available at: https:// 59 Mondoloka, 2018; Wankhede, 2020 96 World Bank. (2024). Achieving Sustainable and tion-for-activists-against-slapp-suits www.ajol.info/index.php/na/article/view/185502; Inclusive Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): A 60 Minerals Council South Africa (2024). Comprehensive 77 MWI-10; ZMB-3 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals SOMO & ActionAid (2021). Manganese Matters: A Renewed Framework for World Bank Engagement. Facts and Figures 2024. Available at: https://www. metal of consequence for women and communities 78 DRC-1; DRC-7; DRC-8 Washington, DC: World Bank. mineralscouncil.org.za/industry-news/publications; in South Africa affected by mining and the global 79 IndustriALL (2018). South African unions call for a 97 Amnesty International (2016). ‘This is what we die USGS, 2022 energy transition; Just Transition to renewable energy. Available at: for’. Human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic 61 Rutledge, 2019; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region BHRRC, 2023; https://www.industriall-union.org/south-african- of the Congo power the global trade in cobalt. Avail- 62 Phiri, Mantzari, & Gleadle, 2018; unions-call-for-a-just-transition-to-renewable-energy able at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ Oxfam South Africa, 2020; ACIDH, AFREWATCH and PremiCongo (2021). Les 80 Karolia-Hussain, F., & Fourie, E. (2021). The relevance afr62/3183/2016/en/; Phiri, O., Mantzari, E. and Gleadle, P. (2018). Stake- stratégies utilisées par l’entreprise Ruashi Mining and impact of South African labour law in the mining Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; DRC-2; DRC-4; DRC-8 holder interactions and corporate social responsi- pour éviter d’assumer ses responsabilités dans les sector: a Fourth Industrial Revolution perspective. 98 Amnesty International, 2016; Sewpershad & Tufo, bility (CSR) practices: Evidence from the Zambian cas de violations des droits humains. Available at: Obiter, 42(3), 445-469 2024; DRC-2; DRC-4; DRC-8 copper mining sector https://media.business-humanrights.org/media/ 81 Pearson, J. (2024). Reflections on the Role of Tradi- 54 ActionAid, 2014; Rutledge, 2019; SOMO & ActionAid, 99 Amnesty International, 2016; DRC-2 documents/Rapport_Ruashi_Mining_final.pdf; tional Authorities in Land Governance in 21st Century 2021; BHRRC, 2023; Oxfam South Africa, 2020; Phiri, 100 Tychsen et al., 2018; MWI-6 Amnesty International (2017). Time to Recharge South Africa. Available at: https://pari.org.za/wp-con- Mantzari, & Gleadle, 2018; Corporate Action and Inaction to Tackle Abuses in tent/uploads/2024/11/20241125_ReflectionsOnTheR- 101 MWI-6 World Bank (2015). Preventing conflict in resourc- The Cobalt Supply Chain. Available at: https://www. oleOfTraditionalAuthoritiesInLandGovernanceIn21st- 102 BDI-5 es-rich countries amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/7395/2017/en/ CenturySouthAfrica_Pearson_WorkingPaper-.pdf; 103 Ibid 55 Cust & Zeufack, 2023 63 Mondoloka, A. (2018). ‘Approaches to Supporting Ndoricimpa, A., & Achandi, E. L. (2024). The Politi- 104 DRC-2; BDI-2; BDI-5; BDI-6 56 Ibid Local and Community Development: The View from cal Economy of Mining Resources in Burundi. The 105 IGF, 2024 152 References 153 106 Ibid years of the British South Africa Company. University Available at: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/esploro/out- World Bank (2023b). Fostering Climate-Resilience 107 IGF, 2024; Wakiaga & Gankhuyag, 2024; of California Press; puts/graduate/Spaces-of-discrimination-and-multi- and Low-Carbon Growth in the Democratic Republic Hochschild, A. (1999). King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story ple-identities/9913585307691; of Congo through Social Inclusion; Way, S. (2024). Integrating artisanal mining into the formal economy would benefit African miners and of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa Maake, T.B. (2023). “Are there gay men in the mines?” MWI-1; MWI-13 economies alike. Available at: https://www.atlan- 121 Perks, R. et al. (2018). ‘Chapter 10: Resources and Towards unsettling the heteronormative male occu- 133 RAID (2021).The road to ruin? Electric vehicles and ticcouncil.org/blogs/africasource/integrating-artis- resourcefulness: Gender, human rights and resilience pational culture in mining. African Journal of Career workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial anal-mining-into-the-formal-economy-would-bene- in artisanal mining towns of eastern Congo.’, in: Development, 5(1), 9; cobalt mines. Available at: https://raid-uk.org/ fit-african-miners-and-economies-alike Lahiri-Dutt, K. (2018). Between the Plough and the Bakx, J. and Goulet, L. (2023b). LGBTQIA+ Rights post-library/the-road-to-ruin-electric-vehicles-and- 108 World Gold Council (2022). Lessons learned on man- pick: Informal, artisanal and small-scale mining in Are Human Rights: Paving the Way for Inclusion workers-rights-abuses-at-dr-congos-industrial-co- aging the interface between large-scale and artisanal the Contemporary World. Acton, A.C.T: ANU Press; in Responsible Mineral Sourcing Discourse. Levin balt-mines/; and small-scale gold mining. Bakx, J. and Goulet, L. (2023a). Interview with Sources. Available at: https://www.levinsources. Kapesa, R., Mwitwa, J., & Chikumbi, D. C. (2015). Jérémie Safari, Executive Director of Rainbow com/knowledge-centre/insights/lgbtqia-rights-hu- Social Conflict in the Context of the Development 109 Monroy, D. (2024). Fair Due Diligence for ASM: How Sunrise Mapambazuko, on LGBTQIA+ rights in ASM. man-rights-responsible-mineral-sourcing of New Mining Concessions in Zambia. Southern can companies mitigate their ESG risks without excluding mining communities that need support Available at: https://www.levinsources.com/knowl- 126 Bakx & Goulet, 2023a African Peace and Security Studies, 4(2), p.41-62; to comply with standards? Alliance for Responsible edge-centre/insights/lgbtqia-rights-asm; 127 DRC-8 The Guardian (2011). Chinese Mining in Zambia: Mining. Available at: https://www.responsiblemines. GIZ (2020). Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in 128 Mondoloka, 2018 Mistreating Workers? Available at: https://www. org/en/2024/06/fair-due-diligence-for-asm-how- the Mining Sector in Africa. Evidence and reflections theguardian.com/global-development/2011/nov/03/ 129 World Bank (2023a). Unemployment, youth total can-companies-mitigate-their-esg-risks-without-ex- from the DRC, South Africa, Tanzania & Uganda. chinese-mining-zambia-mistreating-workers (% of total labor force ages 15-24) (modeled ILO cluding-mining-communities-that-need-support-to- Available at: https://www.kit.nl/wp-content/up- 134 Mondoloka, 2018 estimate). Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/ meet-standards/; loads/2020/09/SGBV-in-the-Mining-Sector-in-Africa. indicator/SL.UEM.1524.ZS?most_recent_value_de- 135 Amnesty International (2022). Unearthing the Truth: IPIS (2024). Revisiting responsible sourcing: Lessons pdf; sc=true How the Mines Failed Communities in the Sekhu- from the Democratic Republic of Congo. Available at: IISD (2025). Gender-Responsive Mining Policies: Case khune Region of South Africa. Available at: https:// 130 ZAF-1 https://ipisresearch.be/weekly-briefing/revisiting-re- studies on skills, employment, and inclusive gover- amnesty.org.za/research/unearthing-the-truth-how- sponsible-sourcing-lessons-from-the-democratic-re- nance. Available at: https://www.iisd.org/system/ 131 Perks et al., 2018 the-mines-failed-communities-in-the-sekhukhune- public-of-congo; files/2025-01/gender-responsive-mining-policies. 132 Lovell, E. (2021). Gender equality, social inclusion region-of-south-africa/ Bikubanya, D., Arian, H., Geenen, S. and pdf; World Bank (2024c). Achieving Sustainable and and resilience in Malawi. Building resilience and Katz-Lavigne, S. (2023). Due Diligence in Min- Inclusive Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): A adapting to climate change; eral Supply Chains from the Democratic Re- Renewed Framework for World Bank Engagement. public of Congo. Available at: https://www.e-ir. Available at: https://documents1.worldbank.org/ info/2023/01/26/due-diligence-in-mineral-sup- curated/en/099091624103523072/pdf/P1804001c- ply-chains-from-the-democratic-republic-of-congo; 099c40251a6861abb2dbb8b722.pdf Chapter 4 | Social justice considerations in the ETM sector Mancini, L., Eslava, N. A., Traverso, M., & Mathieux, 122 Mondoloka, 2018; 136 BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF, 2025 ActionAid, 2021 F. (2021). Assessing impacts of responsible sourcing Wankhede, V. (2020). Benefit sharing in the mining 137 Zero Carbon Analytics, 2024 145 MWI-6; ZMB-2 initiatives for cobalt: Insights from a case study. sector in Africa. Centre for Science and Environment, 138 BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF, 2025 146 Tychsen et al., 2018; UN Women, 2014; ZAF-5 Resources Policy, 71, 102015; Schouten, P. (2019). New Delhi; Why responsible sourcing of DRC minerals has major 139 GIZ, 2020; Mayuni, 2020; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; 147 MWI-4 Rubbers, B. (2021). Inside mining capitalism: The weak spots. Available at: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ Modise et al., 2024 148 DRC-5; MWI-2 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals micropolitics of work on the Congolese and Zambian crp/2019/09/19/why-responsible-sourcing-of-drc- Copperbelts. 140 NRGI, 2022 149 BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF, 2025 minerals-has-major-weak-spots/ 123 BDI-1; DRC-2; GIZ, 2020; Perks et al., 2018; 141 BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF, 2025 150 Ibid 110 Bikubanya et al., 2023; IPIS, 2024 Hilson, G., Hilson, A., Siwale, A., & Maconachie, R. 142 Regional Centre on Small Arms (2023). An assess- 151 DRC-2; DRC-5; DRC-6; MWI-2; MWI-9; ZAF-2 111 Mancini et al., 2021; IPIS, 2024 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region (2018). Female Faces in Informal ‘Spaces’: Women ment of illicit small arms and light weapons prolifer- 152 Tychsen et al., 2018; UN Women, 2014 112 Bikubanya et al., 2023; Schouten, 2019 and Artisanal and Small-scale Mining in sub-Saharan ation and fragility situations the Democratic Repub- Africa. Africa Journal of Management, 4(3), 306–346 lic of Congo. Available at: https://www.recsasec.org/ 153 MWI-4; ZMB-4 113 IPIS, 2024; Mancini et al., 2021 wp-content/uploads/2023/05/DRC-FRAGILITY-pdf. 154 SAHRC, 2016; Pretorius & Blaauw, 2023; Perks et al., 114 World Bank, 2021 124 GIZ, 2020; pdf; 2018; ZMB-4; BDI-7; GIZ, 2020; SOMO & ActionAid, 115 World Bank, 2021; NRGI, 2022 WILPF (2016). Life at the bottom of the chain: women Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; Manduna, 2024 2021 in artisanal mines in DRC. Available at: https://www. 116 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 143 BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF, 2025 155 Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, 2015; IGF, 2024; Am- peacewomen.org/node/96612 117 MWI-6; Tychsen et al., 2018 nesty International, 2016 125 Bakx, J. (2024). LGBTIQ+ rights in the extractive 144 Phiri, Mantzari, & Gleadle, 2018; Mondoloka, 2018; 118 IPIS (2015). Review of the Burundian Artisanal Gold sector: Scoping analysis. Deutsche Gesellschaft für BHRRC (n.d.). Transition Minerals Tracker: Tracking 156 DRC-6; MWI-2, MWI-3; MWI-8; MWI-11 Mining Sector; BDI-1; DRC-2; DRC-4; Sewpershad & Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Sector Pro- the human rights implications of mining for key min- 157 MWI-2; DRC-6; ZMB-3 Tufo, 2024 gramme Extractives and Development; erals for the transition to a net-zero carbon economy. 158 DRC-1; DRC-2, DRC-3; DRC-4; DRC-5; DRC-6; DRC-7; 119 BHRRC, NRGI, SIRGE Coalition & WWF, 2025; World Available at: https://www.business-humanrights. Maake, T.B. (2019). Spaces of discrimination and DRC-8 Bank, 2015 org/en/from-us/transition-minerals-tracker/; multiple identities : experiences of Black homo- 159 DRC-5 120 Galbraith, J. S. (1974). Crown and charter: the early sexual mineworkers. University of Johannesburg. BHRRC, 2023a; IISD, 2018; Rutledge, 2019; SOMO & 154 References 155 160 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Maps of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. Available 215 ZMB-2; ZMB-4 237 UNEP (2024). Climate Risks in the Metals and Mining 161 DRC-6 at: http://artisanalmining.org/Inventory/ 216 ZMB-4 Sector. Available at: https://www.unepfi.org/word- 190 IISD (2023). Women and the Mine of the Future: Glob- press/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Climate-Risks- 162 Ibid 217 ZMB-1; ZMB-2; ZMB-4 al Report; in-the-Metals-and-Mining-Sector-1.pdf 163 MWI-12; MWI-13 218 World Bank, 2021; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 IISD, 2025 238 DRC-5 164 DRC-1; DRC-2; DRC-5 219 WILPF, 2016; ACIDH, AFREWATCH, & PremiCongo, 191 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; IISD, 2023 239 DRC-4; DRC-8 165 DRC-1, DRC-2 2021 192 Sesele, Marais & van Rooyen, 2021 240 BDI-2; BDI-7 166 MWI-2; MWI-9 220 DRC-4; DRC-7; DRC-8 193 IISD, 2023 241 DRC-1; DRC-8 167 MWI-2 221 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; 194 Rubbers, B. (2020). Mining boom, labour market 242 IFC, 2024; ZMB-3 168 Ibid MEJCN-SA (2017). The voices of South Africa’s mining segmentation and social inequality in the Congolese 243 CER (n.d.). Acid mine drainage. Available at: https:// affected communities must be heard. Available at: 169 CBG and IFC. (2020). CBG Story Book: Stories of Copperbelt. Development and Change, 51(6), 1555- cer.org.za/programmes/mining/environmental-is- https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Min- Change from the Local Economic Development Pro- 1578; sues/acid-mine-drainage; ing-Charter-Intervention-Litigation-MR.pdf; gram in Guinea. International Finance Corporation GIZ, 2020 Rüttinger, L., Ackern, P. V., Lepold, T., Vogt, R., & Olufemi, A. C., Bello, P. O., & Mji, A. (2018). Conflict and Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée. 195 IISD, 2023 Auberger, A. (2020). Impacts of climate change on implications of coal mining and environmental 170 DRC-3; MWI-9; MWI-11 pollution in South Africa: Lessons from Niger Delta, 196 MWI-10; Lovell, 2021 mining, related environmental risks and raw material 171 MWI-9 supply. Final report (No. UBA-FB--000279/ENG). Nigeria. African journal on conflict resolution, 18(1), 197 IISD, 2023 Umweltbundesamt; p.7-35 172 DRC-3 198 IISD, 2025 Glaister, B. J., & Mudd, G. M. (2010). The environmen- 244 ZAF-5 173 Ibid 199 MWI-3; MWI-9; MWI-11; BDI-9 tal costs of platinum–PGM mining and sustainability: 245 CEF (2023). Manganese Toxicity: A Summary Re- 174 MWI-9; ZMB-3 200 Ibid Is the glass half-full or half-empty?. Minerals Engi- port on Manganese Poisoning in Serenje District. 175 DRC-3 neering, 23(5), 438-450; Available at: https://cejzambia.org/wp-content/ 201 MWI-3 176 DRC-6 Matsabu, T. (2022). The “Fuel of the Future” and Wa- uploads/2023/08/CEJ-Summary-Report-on-Manga- 202 Ibid 177 Ibid ter Insecurity in South Africa’s Platinum Belt. Avail- nese-Toxicity.pdf; Mbewe, P. (2024). CEJ demands 203 Ibid justice for victims of manganese poisoning at 178 IISD, 2025 able at: https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2022/05/ 204 Amnesty International (2023). DRC: Powering change fuel-future-water-insecurity-south-africas-plati- manganese plant in Serenje. Available at: https:// 179 Kotsadam, A., & Tolonen, A. (2016). African mining, or business as usual? Available at: https://www. zambianobserver.com/cej-demands-justice-for-vic- num-belt/ gender, and local employment. World Development, amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/7009/2023/en/; tims-of-manganese-poisoning-at-manganese-plant- 83, p. 325-339 222 Rüttinger et al., 2020 DRC-1; DRC-2; MWI-4; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; ZMB-2 in-serenje/ 180 IISD, 2025; Perks et al., 2018; Amnesty International, 223 IFC (2024). Zambia: Country Private Sector Diagnos- 205 DRC-1; ZAF-2; MWI-4 246 SAHRC (2016). National Hearing on the Underlying 2016; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 tic. Available at: https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ Socio-economic Challenges of Mining-affected Com- 206 Amnesty International, 2023; DRC-1; DRC-2; DRC-3; ifc/doc/2024/zambia-country-private-sector-diag- 181 Perks et al., 2018; Amnesty International, 2016; munities in South Africa; DRC-4; DRC-8 nostic-en.pdf; Tychsen et al., 2018; Pretorius, A., & Blaauw, D. (2023). Mining towns and 207 Amnesty International, 2023 ZMB-2; ZMB-4 ZEITI & Oxfam (2019). An Overview of Artisanal and migration: Comparing three South African cases. Small-Scale Mining in Zambia. Available at: https:// 208 BDI-3; BDI-6 224 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 5, 1122193; zambiaeiti.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/An- 209 MWI-4; MWI-9 225 Amnesty International, 2016; Tychsen et al., 2018; Perks et al., 2018; ZMB-4; BDI-7; GIZ, 2020; SOMO & Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Overview-of-ASM-in-Zambia.pdf; 210 MWI-4 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 ActionAid, 2021 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; BDI-6 211 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; ZAF-2 226 Amnesty International, 2016; DRC-8 247 SAHRC, 2016 182 BDI-6; Perks et al., 2018; Tychsen et al., 2018 Modise, K., Ndlovu, S., Moodley, Y., Phomane, M., 227 BDI-9 248 Pretorius & Blaauw, 2023 183 BDI-6 Gumede, T., Lado, P., Plaatjies, A.H., Mdunyelwa,A., 228 Tychsen et al., 2018 249 Perks et al., 2018; ZMB-4; BDI-7 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region 184 ZEITI & Oxfam, 2019; Moussouris, M., Desatnik, M.S., Blomgren, S., and Run- 229 AP Africa (2024). 8 miners are dead and 1 is miss- 250 Manduna, K. (2024). Authoritarianism, State Violence, nerstam, K. (2024). A Gender Just Climate Transition: ing after a mine collapse in Zambia. Available Sesele, K., Marais, L., & van Rooyen, D. (2021). Wom- and Vigilantism: Security Challenges Posed by Illegal case studies from South Africa. Available at: https:// at: https://apnews.com/article/zambia-min- en and mine closure: A case study of policy in South Miners in South Africa. Available at: https://irgac.org/ www.cer.org.za/reports/a-gender-just-climate-transi- ers-mine-deaths-collapse-copper-120270d1ff- Africa. Resources Policy, 72, 102059; articles/authoritarianism-state-violence-and-vigi- tion-report-case-studies-from-south-africa; c318e12ee8f13d1a2f4046 lantism-security-challenges-posed-by-illegal-min- ZMB-3 212 ENSight (n.d.). Mine Community Resettlement 230 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 ers-in-south-africa/ 185 ZEITI & Oxfam, 2019; Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, Guidelines published for implementation. Available 231 Ibid 251 BDI-7 2015 at: https://www.ensafrica.com/news/detail/5525/ mine-community-resettlement-guidelines-publis 232 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; Tychsen et al., 2018 252 Perks et al., 2018; ZMB-4 186 Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, 2015; Tychsen et al., 2018; DRC-6 213 South African Government (2002). Mineral and 233 DRC-6; DRC-8 253 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; ZMB-4 187 DRC-6 Petroleum Resources Development Act. Available at: 234 DRC-8 254 IGF, 2024 https://www.gov.za/documents/mineral-and-petro- 255 IGF, 2024; Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 188 Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, 2015; Tychsen et al., 235 IFC, 2024; ZMB-4 leum-resources-development-act 2018 236 IFC, 2024; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 256 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024; BHRRC, 2023; IGF, 2024 214 Polity, 2022 189 Artisanalmining.org (n.d.). ASM Inventory: World 156 References 157 257 DRC-4 DRC-3; DRC-8 Zama Zamas. Available at: https://globalinitiative. ties-of-consultation-and-public-participation-re- 258 DRC-1; DRC-2; DRC-4; DRC-6 282 Munakamwe, J. (2016). The Informalisation of Work: net/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/ENACT-Policy- quirements-in-the-mining-sector/ Illegal & Informal Mining from a Gender Perspective. Brief-008-Zama-Zama-24Apr1115-WEB.pdf; 319 Mayuni, 2020; MWI-2; MWI-9; DRC-5; DRC-7; Action- 259 DRC-6 African Centre for Migration and Society. University Munakamwe, J. (2017). Zamazama–Livelihood strat- Aid, 2014; ZMB-2; ZMB-3 260 DRC-6 of Witwatersrand; egies, mobilisation and resistance in Johannesburg, 320 Mayuni, 2020; MWI-2 261 MWI-4; MWI-6; MWI-7; MWI-11 South Africa. Mining Africa: Law, environment, so- Tychsen et al., 2018; Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024; 321 Ibid 262 MWI-4 Amnesty International, 2016; ciety and politics in historical and multidisciplinary perspectives, 155-185 322 MWI-9 263 MWI-4; MWI-6; MWI-11 CECC (2023). From Cobalt to Cars: How China Ex- 294 Perks et al., 2018; Amnesty International, 2016; GIZ, 323 MWI-2; MWI-9; MWI-13; DRC-5; DRC-7; ActionAid, 264 Heywood, M. (2025). Stilfontein massacre a stark ploits Child and Forced Labor in the Congo. Available 2020; 2014; ZMB-2; ZMB-3 reminder of South Africa’s ongoing struggle with at: https://www.cecc.gov/events/hearings/from-co- human rights violations. Available at: https://www. balt-to-cars-how-china-exploits-child-and-forced-la- UN Women (2014). Gender assessment of the ex- 324 DRC-1; DRC-2; DRC-5; DRC-7 dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2025-01-27-stilfon- bor-in-the-congo; tractive industries in Malawi 325 DRC-5 tein-massacre-a-stark-reminder-of-south-africas-on- U.S. DoL, Bureau of International Labor Affairs 295 GIZ, 2020; Rutledge, 2019 326 MWI-2; MWI-9; MWI-13; DRC-5; ActionAid, 2014 going-struggle-with-human-rights-violations/; (2021). Zambia: 2021 Findings on the Worst Forms of 296 GIZ, 2020; Perks et al., 2018 327 DRC-7; DRC-8; ZMB-2 Magome, M. and Imray, G. (2025). South African Child Labor. Available at: https://www.dol.gov/sites/ 297 Perks et al., 2018 328 MWI-3; MWI-10 police end mine rescue operation with at least dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2021/Zam- 78 dead and 246 survivors. Available at: https:// bia.pdf 298 Perks et al., 2018; Amnesty International, 2016; 329 MWI-2; apnews.com/article/south-africa-miners-ille- Lovell, 2021 283 Amnesty International, 2016; CECC, 2023 HRW (2017). Malawi: Information Bill Aids Mining gal-gold-mine-trapped-stilfontein-b0efe6ded- 299 GIZ, 2020; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 Communities. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/ 284 Save the Children (2024). DRC: Cobalt mines, child 81f2a96eba7374cff2fe9ca 300 Rutledge, 2019 news/2017/01/25/malawi-information-bill-aids-min- labour and the green transition. Available at: https:// 265 ZAF-5 www.savethechildren.net/stories/drc-cobalt-mines- ing-communities; 301 Ibid 266 Bakx, J., Racionero Gómez, B. and Tufo, R. (2024). child-labour-and-green-transition Masina, L. (2020). Malawi Sweeps Access to Infor- 302 UN Women, 2014; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 Documenting planetGOLD programme experiences 285 Tychsen et al., 2018; Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 mation Law Into Effect. Available at: https://www. 303 GIZ, 2020; voanews.com/a/africa_malawi-sweeps-access-infor- with ASGM supply chain mechanisms. Available at: 286 Amnesty International, 2016; Tychsen et al., 2018; https://www.planetgold.org/documenting-plan- Mayuni, T.N. (2020). Tension over Chitipa’s Illomba mation-law-effect/6195799.html; Save the Children, 2024 etgold-programme-experiences-asgm-sup- Granite Mine. Available at: https://miningtradenews. PWYP (n.d.). Malawi. Available at: https://pwyp. ply-chain-mechanisms#:~:text=This%20report%20 287 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024; BDI-7 net/mobile/view%20article.php?article=437; org/pwyp_members/malawi/#:~:text=PWYP%20 assesses%20the%20efficacy,similar%20ASGM%20 288 Amnesty International, 2016 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; Modise et al., 2024 Malawi%20advocates%20for%20the,for%20sustain- market%20access%20initiatives 289 ZMB-2; ZMB-3; DoL, 2021 able%20and%20equitable%20development 304 MWI-2; MWI-3; MWI-4; MWI-9; MWI-11; MWI-13 267 BDI-1; DRC-2; DRC-4 290 Mntambo, N. (2024). Stilfontein mine: Increase in 330 Kamlongera, P. J. (2013). The mining boom in 305 MWI-9 268 Ibid children arrested sparks further human traffick- Malawi: implications for community development. 306 MWI-4 ing, child labour concerns. Available at: https:// Community Development Journal, 48(3), 377-390; 269 DRC-2 www.ewn.co.za/2024/11/29/stilfontein-mine-in- 307 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; Modise et al., 2024; ZAF-1; USAID (2023). Lessons Learned: Integrating Gender 270 DRC-1 ZAF-5; ZMB-2 crease-in-children-arrested-sparks-further-hu- Equality and Social Inclusion into Customary Land 271 Ibid man-trafficking-child-labour-concerns 308 MACUA, WAMUA and CALS (2022). Open letter on Documentation in Malawi; 272 DRC-2; DRC-4 291 The Centre for Child Rights and Business (n.d.). exclusion of mining-affected communities. Available Barnes, S. (2024). This Beautiful Land: Corruption, Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals The Hub: A Child Labour Prevention and Remedi- at: https://www.wits.ac.za/news/sources/cals- 273 IGF (2025). Transforming Artisanal and Small-Scale discrimination and land rights in Sub-Saharan Africa. ation Network Creating Long-term Impact in the news/2022/open-letter-on-exclusion-of-mining-af- Gold Mining: Progress in Formalization of the Sector. Available at:24.04.09_LO-RES-REV-THIS-BEAUTIFUL- DRC. Available at: https://childrights-business.org/ fected-communities.html Draft IGF Case Study; LAND-LCD-REPORT.pdf (transparencycdn.org); Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 impact/the-hub-a-child-labour-prevention-and-re- 309 GIZ, 2020; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; MWI-12 MWI-3; MWI-13 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region mediation-network-creating-long-term-impact-in- 310 MWI-2; MWI-4; DRC-5 274 DRC-3; DRC-5; DRC-8 331 Kamlongera, 2013; USAID, 2023 kolwezi-democratic-republic-of-congo-drc 275 DRC-3; DRC-5; ZAF-1 311 MWI-2 292 ILO (2008). Investigating Forced Labour and Traffick- 332 Barnes, 2024 276 DRC-3; DRC-5 312 Ibid ing: Do They Exist in Zambia? Available at: https:// 333 DRC-3; DRC-8 277 DRC-5 www.ilo.org/publications/investigating-forced-la- 313 MWI-3; MWI-9 334 Smyth, E., Steyn, M., Esteves, A. M., Franks, D. M., & 278 DRC-5; DRC-8 bour-and-trafficking-do-they-exist-zambia 314 MWI-2; DRC-5 Vaz, K. (2015). Five ‘big’ issues for land access, reset- 279 DRC-5 293 SIHMA (n.d.). Operation Vala Umgodi shows the ties 315 MWI-2 tlement and livelihood restoration practice: findings between irregular migration and irregular mining, of an international symposium. Impact Assessment 280 ITUC (n.d.). Description of the Ratings. Available at: 316 DRC-5 but should migrants be criminalized? Available and Project Appraisal, 33(3), p.220–225 https://www.ituc-csi.org/description-of-the-ratings 317 Ibid at: https://sihma.org.za/Blog-on-the-move/oper- 335 Barnes, 2024; ZMB-2 281 ILO (n.d.). Protecting mining workers’ safety and ation-vala-umgodi-shows-the-ties-between-ille- 318 Tucker, C., McLean, R. and Mandlana, W. (2021). health through South-South Cooperation between 336 USAID, 2023; MWI-12 gal-migration-and-irregular-mining-but-should-mi- South Africa: The rising complexities of consulta- ILO, China and Zambia. Available at: https://www.ilo. grants-be-criminalized; tion and public participation requirements in the 337 Kamlongera, 2013; MWI-12 org/resource/news/protecting-mining-workers-safe- mining sector. Available at: https://bowmanslaw. 338 RAID, 2021; Karolia-Hussain & Fourie, 2021 Martin, A. (2019b). Uncovered The dark world of the ty-and-health-through-south-south-cooperation; com/insights/south-africa-the-risingcomplexi- 158 References 159 339 DRC-3; DRC-5 es/22_PAPER_Framework-for-a-Just-Transition_re- 378 Burrier & Sheehy, 2023 396 Global Organized Crime Index, 2023a 340 RAID, 2021 vised_242.pdf 379 Chime, V. (2025). South Africa’s G20 push for local 397 Global Organized Crime Index (2023b). South Africa. 341 Karolia-Hussain & Fourie, 2021 358 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022; processing of transition minerals faces barriers. Available at: https://ocindex.net/country/south_africa PCC, 2022 Available at: https://www.climatechangenews. 398 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 342 Ibid 359 DRC-3; DRC-6 com/2025/02/17/south-africas-g20-push-for-lo- 343 Ibid 399 NRGI, 2022; cal-processing-of-transition-minerals-faces-barriers 360 DRC-4; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 Vandome, R. (2023). Zambia’s Developing Inter- 344 Ibid 380 ActionAid, 2014; PWYP, 2021 361 DRC-1; MWI-2; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021; Modise et al., national Relations: A New Era? Chatham House. 345 Warikandwa, T. V. (2024). Decolonising labour laws 381 ZMB-2; ZMB-4 2024 Available at: https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/ and repossessing subaltern epistemologies: a review 362 Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022 382 IGF, 2024; Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 default/files/2023-03/2023-03-06-zambias-develop- of South African and Namibian mineworkers’ fight 383 Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, 2015; Amnesty Inter- ing-international-relations-vandome.pdf for labour rights. Obiter, 45(1), 15-37 363 Van Uffelen, N. (2022). Revisiting recognition in energy justice. Energy Research & Social Science, 92, national, 2016; Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 400 Vandome, 2023; NRGI, 2022 346 Warikandwa, 2024 102764 384 Kutaula, S., Gillani, A., Gregory-Smith, D., & Barti- 401 Moira Mukuka Legal Practitioners (2023). Zambia’s 347 BDI-2; BDI-3; DRC-5; DRC-6; MWI-2; SOMO & Action- 364 Van Uffelen, 2022 kowski, B. (2024). Ethical Consumerism in Emerging Mining Sector – Anticipated Regulatory and In- Aid, 2021 Markets: Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of stitutional Reforms Following the Launch of New 348 MWI-2 365 Ibid Business Ethics, p.1-23 Mining Policy. Available at: https://www.afriwise. 349 DRC-5 366 Perks et al., 2018; Amnesty International, 2016 com/blog/zambias-mining-sector---anticipat- 385 Karimzadeh, S., & Boström, M. (2022). Ethical 367 GIZ, 2020; consumption: why should we understand it as a ed-regulatory-and-institutional-reforms-follow- 350 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 social practice within a multilevel framework? Open ing-the-launch-of-new-mining-policy 351 Bench Marks Foundation (2014). Mines’ grievance GIZ (2021). Zambia Gender Report 2017-2019. Available at: https://www.giz.de/en/downloads/ Research Europe, 2; 402 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 mechanisms intimidate stakeholders and are inef- fective. Available at: https://www.bench-marks.org. giz2021_en_Zambia_Gender_Report_2017-2019.pdf; Rafi, 2022; 403 Scurfield T., Salomon, M. and Olan’g, S. (2024). Six za/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/grievance_mecha- ANRC (2023). Gender Equality and Women’s Em- IPIS, 2024 Keys to Unlocking Equitable Value Addition in Min- nisms.pdf powerment in Natural Resources Value Chains – Key ing. Available at: https://resourcegovernance.org/ 386 European Commission (n.d.a). Conflict Minerals Reg- Issues. African Development Bank. Abidjan, Côte publications/six-keys-unlocking-equitable-value-ad- 352 Bench Marks Foundation, 2014 ulation. Available at: https://policy.trade.ec.europa. d’Ivoire. Available at: https://www.afdb.org/en/ dition-mining 353 DRC-6 eu/development-and-sustainability/conflict-miner- documents/policy-brief-gender-equality-and-wom- 404 ZMB-4 als-regulation_en; Congress (2010). 354 BDI-2; BDI-3 ens-empowerment-natural-resources-val- Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer 405 NRGI, 2022 355 Keetharuth, S.B. (2021). What happens underground ue-chains-key-issues Protection Act. Public Law 111–203-July 21, 2010. 406 ActionAid, 2014 stays underground: A Study of Experiences of Gen- 368 UN Women, 2014; GIZ, 2021 Available at: https://www.congress.gov/111/plaws/ 407 IPIS, 2015; Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 der-Based Violence and Sexual Harassment of Wom- 369 Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, 2015 publ203/PLAW-111publ203.pdf en Workers in the South African Mining Industry. 408 NRGI, 2022; Global Organized Crime Index, 2023a Available at: https://lawyersforhumanrights.b-cdn. 370 UN (2013). Indigenous Peoples in the African region. 387 Volkswagen (n.d.). Sustainability in the Supply Available at: https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/ 409 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024; World Bank, 2015; DRC- net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/South-Africa. Chain. Available at: https://www.volkswagen-group. documents/2013/Media/Fact%20Sheet_Africa_%20 6; DRC-8; PWYP, 2021; ZMB-4 Publication.What-Happens-Underground-Stays-Un- com/en/sustainability-in-the-supply-chain-16113; derground.04.2021.pdf UNPFII-12.pdf 410 Scurfield, Salomon, & Olan’g, 2024 BMW (n.d.). Due Diligence in the Supply Chain. Avail- 356 Pangaea Holdings. The Power of Critical Minerals & 371 Konguka, G. O., & Ayugi, S. O. (2022). Formalization able at: https://www.bmwgroup.com/en/sustainabil- 411 International Energy Agency (2021.). Zambia: Energy Natural Resources: Empowering Africans. Presented of Mining Rights in the East African Community; Ca- ity/supply-chain.html? mix overview. Available at : https://www.iea.org/ Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals by Pangaea Holdings, 2024. dastre perspective on artisanal mining rights. African countries/zambia/energy-mix 388 IPIS, 2024 Journal of Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences, 5(5), 412 Scurfield, Salomon, & Olan’g, 2024 357 Cabré & Vega-Araújo, 2022; PCC (2022). A Framework 389 Kutaula et al., 2024 1084-1103 for a Just Transition in South Africa. Available at: 413 IFC, 2024 390 MWI-12; ZMB-2 https://pccommissionflo.imgix.net/uploads/imag- 414 MWI-4; MWI-6 Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region 391 RAID, 2021 415 SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 392 NRGI, 2022; IFC, 2024; ActionAid, 2014 416 Ibid Chapter 5 | Evolutions of the ETM sector OECD (2019). Interconnected supply chains: a 417 ActionAid, 2014; MWI-2; ZMB-3 comprehensive look at due diligence challenges 372 World Bank, 2009; World Bank, 2015 na’s Grip on Transition minerals Can Be a Boon for and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from 418 IISD, 2025 Africa’s Future. Available at: https://www.usip.org/ the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Available 373 Ibid publications/2023/06/challenging-chinas-grip-criti- at: https://mneguidelines.oecd.org/interconnect- 374 BHRRC (2023b). Unpacking clean energy: Human ed-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-dil- cal-minerals-can-be-boon-africas-future rights impacts of Chinese overseas investment igence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-co- in transition minerals. Available at: https://www. 375 BHRRC, 2023b balt-and-copper-from-the-drc.htm business-humanrights.org/en/from-us/briefings/un- 376 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 393 IGF, 2024 packing-clean-energy-human-rights-impacts-of-chi- 377 Gulley, A. L., McCullough, E. A., & Shedd, K. B. (2019). nese-overseas-investment-in-transition-minerals/; 394 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 China’s domestic and foreign influence in the global Burrier, E.A. and Sheehy, T.P (2023). Challenging Chi- cobalt supply chain. Resources Policy, 62, 317-323 395 Regional Centre on Small Arms, 2023 160 References 161 Chapter 6 | Recommendations Ibid 457 positioning%20itself%20at%20the,this%20down- Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 458 ward%20trend%20to%20continue World Bank (2016). World Bank Environmental 419 Available at: https://taicollaborative.org/from-trans- Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 459 483 NRGI, 2022; World Bank, 2021 and Social Framework. Washington, DC. Avail- parency-to-accountability-assessing-how-interna- able at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/ tional-multi-stakeholder-initiatives-are-contribut- Ibid 460 484 RAID, 2021 doc/837721522762050108-0290022018/original/ESF- ing-to-public-governance Global Witness (2022). The ITSCI laundromat: How 461 485 Delve, 2020 Framework.pdf 426 Payton, B. (2024). How bridging the skills gap can a due diligence scheme appears to launder conflict 486 Delve, 2020; Principle to Practice (n.d.). Using Resource Transfers. 420 boost Africa’s green energy transition. Available at: minerals. Available at: https://www.globalwitness. International Crisis Group (ICG) (2020). Mineral Available at: https://www.principletopractice.org/ https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-en- org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/ Concessions: Avoiding Conflict in DR Congo’s Mining wordpress/from-principle-to-practice/using-re- ergy/how-bridging-skills-gap-can-boost-africas- itsci-laundromat/# itsci Heartland source-transfers/ green-energy-transition-2024-11-19/ IPIS, 2015 462 487 NRGI, 2022 UNSDG (n.d.). Leave No One Behind. Available at: 421 427 BHRRC, 2023 Ibid 463 488 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 https://unsdg.un.org/2030-agenda/universal-values/ 428 IISD, 2023 Ibid 464 489 Ibid leave-no-one-behind 429 McKinsey (2021). Why women are leaving the mining Ibid 465 UNSDG, n.d. 422 490 Ibid industry and what mining companies can do about Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 466 491 Ibid IISD, 2025 423 it. Available at: https://www.mckinsey.com/indus- tries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/why-women- RAID, 2021; Delve, 2020 467 492 Ibid CDA Collaborative Learning Projects (2016). Re- 424 flecting on Peace Practice (RPP) Basics. A Resource are-leaving-the-mining-industry-and-what-mining- RAID, 2021; NRGI, 2022 468 493 NRGI, 2022; OECD, 2019; World Bank, 2015 Manual. Cambridge, MA. Available at: https://www. companies-can-do-about-it; RAID, 2021 469 494 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 cdacollaborative.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/ Maake, 2023 USGS (2024). Copper. Available at: https://pubs.usgs. 470 495 Ibid Reflecting-on-Peace-Practice-RPP-Basics-A-Re- 430 IISD, 202 gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-copper.pdf source-Manual.pdf 496 Amnesty International, 2016 431 Scurfield, Salomon, & Olan’g, 2024 Africa Intelligence (2020). Erik Prince wins key 471 TAI (n.d.). From Transparency to Accountability? 425 497 Wankhede, 2020 432 Ibid security contract from Chinese mining giant CNMC. Assessing How International Multi-stakeholder Available at: https://www.africaintelligence.com/ 498 Rubbers, 2021 Initiatives are Contributing to Public Governance. 433 World Bank, 2024c central-africa/2020/06/16/erik-prince-wins-key- 499 NRGI, 2022 security-contract-from-chinese-mining-giant-cn- 500 EITI, 2022 mc,109237564-eve; 501 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Annex 1 | Country profiles - the ETM sector of the AFE region Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 472 502 NRGI, 2022; Global Organized Crime Index, 2023a United States Institute of Peace (n.d.). Challenging 473 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; Vasters & Schutte, 2023 434 able at: https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/ 503 NRGI, 2022 China’s Grip on Transition minerals Can Be a Boon Bloomberg News (2022). Nickel royalty helps Bu- 435 east-africa/canadian-company-to-start-explora- for Africa’s Future. Available at: https://www.usip. 504 Ibid rundi boost its spending plan by 40%. Available at: tion-for-minerals-in-burundi--1378456 org/ 505 ARSP (n.d.). ARSP. Available at: https://arsp.cd/en/ https://www.mining.com/web/nickel-royalty-helps- 442 Ibid United States Institute of Peace, n.d. 474 accueil-english/; Bloomberg News (2019). Miners in burundi-boost-its-spending-plan-by-40/ 443 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024; Perks & Hayes, 2016; EC, 2023 475 Congo face subcontracting limits under new rules. Vasters & Schutte, 2023 436 USGS (2019a). 2019 Minerals Yearbook: Burundi. Available at: https://www.mining.com/web/min- Green, N., Sovacool, B. K., & Hancock, K. (2015). 476 Ibid 437 Available at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol3/2019/ ers-congo-face-subcontracting-limits-new-rules/; Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Grand designs: Assessing the African energy security Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; Nininahazwe, 2021 438 myb3-2019-burundi.pdf Bentham, J. (2024). DRC subcontracting regula- implications of the Grand Inga Dam. African Studies Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; Perks & Hayes, 2016 439 444 World Bank, 2024a Review, 58(1), 133-158. tor announces agreement for more Congolese 445 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 participation at cobalt mine. Available at: https:// BHRRC (2015). Burundi: L’exploitation des gise- 440 Maupin, A. (2014). Energetic Dialogues in South 477 www.globalminingreview.com/mining/08042024/ Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region ments de nickel ne suffira pas à assurer la survie 446 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Africa : The Inga Example drc-subcontracting-regulator-announces-agree- du régime si l’aide internationale est coupée, selon 447 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 Green et al., 2015 478 ment-for-more-congolese-participation-at-co- Agathe Plauchut, chercheuse au GRIP. Available balt-mine/ 448 IPIS, 2015 Warner, J., Jomantas, S., Jones, E., Ansari, M. S., & De 479 at: https://www.business-humanrights.org/fr/ 449 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Vries, L. (2019). The fantasy of the Grand Inga hydro- 506 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; ActionAid, 2014; Grain, derni%C3%A8res-actualit%C3%A9s/burundi-lex- electric project on the river Congo. Water, 11(3), 407 2024 ploitation-des-gisements-de-nickel-ne-suffira-pas- 450 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; Perks & Hayes, 2016; Artis- %C3%A0-assurer-la-survie-du-r%C3%A9gime-si- analmining.org, n.d. EITI (2022). Democratic Republic of the Congo Over- 480 507 AfricanMining, 2024 laide-internationale-est-coup%C3%A9e-selon-ag- view. Available at: https://eiti.org/countries/demo- 451 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 508 247Malawi, 2022 athe-plauchut-chercheuse-au-grip/#:~:text=C’est%20 cratic-republic-congo 452 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; IPIS, 2015 509 MWI-9 dans%20les%20ann%C3%A9es,pendant%20au%20 EITI, 2022 481 moins%2050%20ans 453 World Bank, 2024a 510 Grain, 2024 Mondal, M. (2024). What does a changing cobalt mar- 482 World Bank (2024a). Mining Sector Input to the 441 454 Ndoricimpa & Achandi, 2024 ket mean for the Democratic Republic of the Congo? 511 Grain, 2024; Burundi Climate Change and Development Report 455 Ibid Available at: https://dialogue.earth/en/business/ World Bank (2024b). Political Economy Analysis (CCDR); The EastAfrican (2017). Canadian company what-does-a-changing-cobalt-market-mean-for-the- of Mining and Community Engagement in Kasiya 456 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 to start exploration for minerals in Burundi. Avail- democratic-republic-of-the-congo/#:~:text=By%20 Traction and Growth Poles collaborative assessment 162 References 163 - Draft Terms of Reference 540 Oxfam South Africa, 2020; USGS, 2019b Miningmx, 2022; Creamer, 2017 551 577 Ibid 512 Grain, 2024; World Bank, 2024b 541 Oxfam South Africa, 2020; Department of Mineral BHRRC, 2023 552 578 Copperbelt Katanga Mining (2020). FQM Enterprise 513 Ibid Resources, 2011 European Commission (2021). France, Germany, UK, 553 Project in Zambia. Available at: https://copperbeltka- 542 Stats, S.A (2022). Statistical Release P2041. Mining: US and EU launch ground-breaking International tangamining.com/about-fqm-enterprise-project-in- 514 Ibid production and sales. Available at: https://www. Just Energy Transition Partnership with South Africa. zambia/ 515 Mkango (n.d.a). Chimimbe Hill Ni-Co-Cr. Available statssa.gov.za/publications/P2041/P2041March2025. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/ 579 CNM, n.d. at: https://mkango.ca/news/nickel-cobalt-explora- pdf presscorner/detail/fr/IP_21_5768 580 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 tion-licence-granted-in-malawi/ 543 South African Government (2022). Exploration Strat- FCDO (2023). UK–South Africa development part- 554 581 S&P Global Market Intelligence (2021). Discovery 516 Mkango (n.d.b). Mchinji rutile-graphite-gold. Avail- egy for the Mining Industry in South Africa Paper. nership summary, July 2023. Available at: https:// to production averages 15.7 years for 127 mines. able at: https://mkango.ca/projects/exploration/ Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/ www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-south-af- Available at: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintel- mchinji/ gcis_document/202204/46246gon2026.pdf; rica-development-partnership-summary/21c97855-7 ligence/en/news-insights/research/discovery-to-pro- 517 Benchmark Source (2024). Rise of African rare earths efd-4f45-8543-00280a419645 Reuters (2023). South Africa’s mining output falls duction-averages-15-7-years-for-127-mines bolsters supply pipeline for China and the West. further below pre-pandemic levels. Available at: Minerals Council South Africa, 2024 555 582 S&P Global Market Intelligence, 2021 Available at: https://source.benchmarkminerals. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/ Ibid 556 com/article/rise-of-african-rare-earths-bolsters-sup- 583 Mining Technology (2024). Cobalt production in south-africas-mining-output-falls-further-below-pre- ply-pipeline-for-china-and-the-west Rutledge, 2019; Munakamwe, 2016 557 Zambia and major projects. Available at: https:// pandemic-levels-2023-08-07/#:~:text=PGMs%2C%20 518 Benchmark Source, 2024 Munakamwe, 2016 558 www.mining-technology.com/data-insights/co- gold%2C%20coal%20and%20iron,South%20Afri- balt-in-zambia/ 519 Grain, 2024 ca’s%20budget%20deficit%20target; Ibid 559 584 IFC, 2024 520 Ibid Erero, J. (2023). Impact of loadshedding in South Ibid 560 Africa: A CGE analysis. Journal of Economics and 585 Ibid 521 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Ibid 561 Political Economy 10(2). Available at: https://www. 586 Mfula, C. & Njini,F. (2023). Zambia agrees to hand 522 Ibid researchgate.net/publication/373020416_Impact_ Xun, D., Sun, X., Liu, Z., Zhao, F., & Hao, H. (2022). 562 disputed copper assets back to India’s Vedanta. 523 MWI-4; MWI-9; MWI-10 of_loadshedding_in_South_Africa_A_CGE_analysis; Comparing supply chains of platinum group metal Available at: https://www.reuters.com/markets/com- catalysts in internal combustion engine and fuel cell 524 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; Miningmx (2023). SA is letting mining’s next biggest modities/zambia-agrees-hand-disputed-copper-as- vehicles: A supply risk perspective. Cleaner Logistics thing slip from its grasp. Available at: https://www. sets-back-indias-vedanta-2023-09-05/ HRW (2016). “They Destroyed Everything”: Mining and Supply Chain, 4, 100043 and Human Rights in Malawi miningmx.com/news/markets/54440-sa-is-letting- 587 IFC, 2024 minings-next-biggest-thing-slip-from-its-grasp/ Government of South Africa (2024). Industrial Policy 563 525 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024; Grain, 2024 & Strategy Review. Transforming Vision into Action: 588 Ibid 544 Engineering News (2021). Not viable for South Africa 526 Wankhede, 2020; Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Charting South Africa’s Industrial Future. Available 589 Hampwaye, G., Carmody, P., & Ramaloko, P. M. to invest in li-ion battery recycling. Available at: at: https://www.thedtic.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/ (2023). China-Zambia engagements: is there change, 527 Wankhede, 2020 https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/not-vi- dtic-industrial-policy-review.pdf what has changed and why? Journal of Contempo- 528 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 able-for-south-africa-to-invest-in-li-ion-battery-re- DMRE (2022). Artisanal and small-scale mining pol- 564 rary East Asia Studies, 12(1), 179–198 cycling-2021-08-16#:~:text=Once%20potential%20 529 Ibid icy. Final v1. Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/ 590 Engineering News (2020). Coega-based lithium-ion recyclers%20could%20achieve,ion%20battery%20 530 Grain, 2024 waste%20in%202019 default/files/gcis_document/202203/46124gon1938. battery plant to open its doors this year. Available at: 531 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 pdf https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/coega- 545 Engineering News, 2021 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 565 based-lithium-ion-battery-plant-to-open-its-doors- 532 Kateta, M.W. (2024). Malawi shifts perspective on 546 Modise et al., 2024 this-year-2020-01-20 Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals land reforms in a bid to retain investors. Available DMRE, 2022 566 547 Mudiriza, D., De Lannoy, A., Anda, D. (2024). Youth 591 Engineering News, 2020 at: https://www.devex.com/news/malawi-shifts-per- Bordia Das, M. and Espinoza, S.A. (2020). Inclusion 567 and the just transition – a profile of young NEET in spective-on-land-reforms-in-a-bid-to-retain-inves- Matters in Africa. World Bank, Washington, DC. 592 Zambia24 (2024). Zambia’s Critical Minerals Strategy. Mpumalanga. Cape Town: Southern Africa Labour tors-106409 License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO Available at: https://zambia24.com/2024/08/29/zam- and Development Research Unit, University of Cape 533 PWYP, 2021 bias-critical-minerals-strategy/; Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region Town (SALDRU Working Paper Number 304) Rutledge, 2019; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 568 534 ActionAid, 2014 Kambani, S. (2024). Views on Proposed Develop- 548 Mudiriza, De Lannoy & Anda, 2024 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 569 ment Strategy for Critical Minerals. Available at: 535 Grain, 2024 549 Modise et al., 2024; Mudiriza, De Lannoy & Anda, SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 570 https://diggers.news/guest-diggers/2024/04/29/ 536 Ibid 2024 Rutledge, 2019 571 views-on-proposed-development-strategy-for-criti- 537 Ibid 550 MiningMX (2022). Wesizwe warns of “huge losses” af- cal-minerals-part-1/ CALS, n.d. 572 538 USGS, 2022; SOMO & ActionAid, 2021 ter protests force suspension of Bakubung Platinum 593 Burrier & Sheehy, 2023 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 573 project. Available at: https://www.miningmx.com/ 539 Erasmus, D. (2023). Refiner MMC to expand pro- 594 IFC, 2024 news/platinum/48673-wesizwe-warns-of-huge-eco- Werksmans Attorneys (2021). Mining companies 574 duction of battery-grade material. Available at: required to consult with communities. Avail- 595 Ibid nomic-losses-after-protests-force-suspension-of-ba- https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/companies/ able at: https://www.werksmans.com/legal-up- kubung-platinum-project/; 596 Vandome, 2023 mining/2023-09-11-manganese-refiner-mmc-to-ex- dates-and-opinions/what-is-consultation/ pand-production-of-battery-grade-material/#:~:tex- Creamer, M. (2017). Mining Weekly: Chinese group 597 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 buys auctioned Mapochs mine. Available at: https:// Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 575 t=MMC%20hopes%20to%20have%20the,the%20 598 PMRC, 2023 end%20of%20the%20decade www.miningweekly.com/article/chinese-group- Ibid 576 599 Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, 2015 buys-auctioned-mapochs-mine-2017-09-15 164 References 165 600 IFC, 2024 Ibid 612 601 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Ibid 613 602 Siwale, T. (2019). The current state of artisanal and Mulenga, 2023; Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 614 small-scale mining in Zambia. International Growth Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 615 Centre. Available at: https://www.theigc.org/blogs/ Anyango, 2022; Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 616 current-state-artisanal-and-small-scale-mining-zam- bia NRGI, 2022 617 603 Siwale, 2019 Wankhede, 2020 618 604 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Oxfam America (2018). Free, prior, and informed 619 consent in the extractive industries in Southern 605 PMRC, 2023; Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Africa. Available at: https://www.oxfamamerica. 606 Kapesa, Mwitwa, & Chikumbi, 2015 org/explore/research-publications/free-prior-and- 607 Siwale, 2019 informed-consent-in-the-extractive-industries-in- 608 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 southern-africa/ 609 Engineering News 2020; Mining News Zambia, 2021 Mondoloka, 2018; Wankhede, 2020 620 610 APRI (2024). Navigating Critical Mineral Supply Wankhede, 2020 621 Chains: the EU’s Partnerships with the DRC and Zam- Oxfam America, 2018 622 bia. Available at: https://afripoli.org/ Vandome, 2023 623 611 Sewpershad & Tufo, 2024 Annex 2 | Research methods 624 IEA, 2021; European Commission (n.d.b). Critical raw materials. Available at: https://single-market-economy.ec.euro- pa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/ critical-raw-materials_en; U.S. Department of Energy (n.d.). Critical Minerals and Materials. Available at: https://www.energy.gov/ eere/ammto/critical-minerals-and-materials; IEF (2023). Critical Minerals Outlook Comparison. Available at: https://www.ief.org/focus/ief-reports/ critical-mineralsoutlooks-comparison Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region © Angela Jorns / Levin Sources. Further permission required for reuse. Fostering a Just Transition in the Energy Transition Minerals Sector in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region