SOCIAL PROTECTION & JOBS SPJ POLICY & TECHNICAL NOTE The Gig Economy and the Future of Work: Global Trends and Policy Directions for Non-Standard Forms of Employment 1 Ramy Zeid, Dana Alrayess, Mohammed Ihsan Ajwad, Mehmet Ali Soytas, and Nayib Rivera MAIN MESSAGES The global rise of the non-standard Growth and diversification of NSE forms of employment (NSE) creates require social protection and opportunities and challenges for the employment policy responses to realize labor market. New forms of work have the benefits and mitigate the adverse both positive and adverse impacts on effects of the emergence of NSEs and firms, workers, and the economy. gig work. The degree of penetration of NSE vary Harmonizing policies across all significantly across and within regions. employment forms - standard and This is partially attributed to non-standard - is necessary to ensure context-specific features such as the inclusiveness of all new forms of work in policy environment, e.g., labor law. the labor market for the benefit of workers, firms, and the economy. Conventional parameters of standard employment contracts To understand how to define gig work, it is economies, until recently, standard employ- important to recall that in many developed ment was characterized by four attributes: Full-time Subordinate employee-employer relationship Indefinite Mostly on-site 2 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment Non-standard employment in the Gig Economy “Gig Work,” a term coined around 1915 and This brief examines the “Future of Work” more recently popularized by platform work, through the lens of labor contracts governing describes the exchange of labor for money on workers’ rights, social protections, pensions, a short-term and payment-by-task basis. At end-of-service benefits, and active labor present, gig work, flexi-work, on-call work, market programs, the cost of which impacts, freelance, and other future terms describe firms, and workers. The brief aims to help non-standard employment (NSE) forms that de- policymakers navigate some of the challenges viate from the conventional parameters of stan- associated with emerging forms of work. It dard employment. When these forms become provides a summary of global trends, emerg- prevalent, we can talk about a “Gig Economy.” ing evidence, international experiences, and policy directions for interventions targeting NSE can be classified as “Dependent-Em- non-standard work. ployment ” or “Self-Employment.” This clas- sification is required to eliminate gray areas in employment -such as disguised employ- ment2- to develop well-targeted policies for both dependent-employed and self-employed people. This distinction makes examination, or review future work types easier. 3 Global trends in non-standard forms of employment Non-standard employment forms (NSE) are Figure 1 shows the prevalence of wage and arising worldwide, presenting new devel- salary employment across countries. As opment challenges for policymakers. The expected, high-income countries have sig- COVID-19 crisis may have exacerbated this nificantly higher shares of wage employment trend. While new forms of work are a rela- than developing countries. For example, tively new global phenomenon, data suggest countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council that the degree of penetration of NSE into the (GCC) region have some of the highest shares labor market varies significantly across and of wage employment in the world.3 In con- within regions and income levels. This varia- trast, developing countries in the Sub-Sa- tion can be explained by two factors. The first haran Africa region, on the other hand, have is measurement: national accounts and labor some of the lowest rates of wage employ- statistics cover new types of work across ment in the world. This makes it especially countries in incomplete and inconsistent important for developing and emerging econ- ways. Secondly, even if measured correctly, omies with higher shares of non-standard the policy environment, such as the labor law, forms of employment to rethink their strategy can favor some types of employment while to address possible vulnerabilities and cap- making others unattractive or impractical for ture the benefits. firms or workers. 4 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment FIGURE 1: Wage and salaried workers, total (% of total employment) Guinea Benin Burkina Faso Guinea-Bissau Angola India Bhutan Bolivia Senegal Pakistan Vietnam Honduras Mongolia China Sri Lanka El Salvador Eswatini Armenia Mexico Turkiye West Bank and Gaza Chile Bosnia and Herzegovina Kazakhstan Poland Czechia Malta Slovak Republic Switzerland Singapore Iceland Bulgaria Luxembourg Saudi Arabia Qatar 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Source: World Bank, WDI Temporary work is one common feature of regions and income levels. The widespread NSE around the world.4 Figure 2 illustrates use of temporary contracts in developing the prevalence of temporary contracts around countries like Belarus, Rwanda, Indonesia, the world. There is wide variation in the use and Pakistan – making up roughly 80-90% of of temporary contracts between and within total contracts – 5 underscores the need for policymakers to some countries more likely to hold temporary ensure that these contracts are effective and positions compared to permanent ones, while that temporary workers are adequately pro- the reverse is true in others. A deeper analysis tected. Moreover, there are differences in the is required to determine the significance of proportion of women and men on temporary these differences and uncover the root causes contracts across countries, with women in driving these disparities. FIGURE 2: Workers on temporary contracts, by sex, age 15-64, lat- est available year (% from total number of contract workers) 100% Male Female 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Pakistan-2021 Paraguay-2021 Kenya-2019 Yemen-2014 Nicaragua-2012 Belarus-2021 Rwanda-2021 Mali-2020 Kosovo-2020 Mexico-2021 Seychelles-2020 Cyprus-2021 Cameroon-2014 Denmark-2021 Germany-2021 Argentina-2021 Japan-2019 Congo-2020 Jordan-2019 Fiji-2016 Brunei Darussalam-2014 Spain-2021 Liberia-2017 Tunisia-2014 Mauritania-2019 Eswatini-2016 New Caledonia-2020 Croatia-2021 Ghana-2017 Maldives-2019 Slovenia-2021 Guyana-2019 Lao-2017 Malta-2021 Sierra Leone-2014 Tonga-2018 Hungary-2021 United Kingdom-2019 Samoa-2017 Bulgaria-2021 Moldova, Republic of-2021 Russian Federation-2021 Lithuania-2021 Source: ILO 6 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment Evidence on the impact of the non-standard employment forms With the growth of NSE in many economies, tection and may lead to involuntary part-time policymakers must consider the benefits work traps, particularly for women. Therefore, and drawbacks of these new forms of work. the Netherlands’ model is crucial to examine Proactive policy measures can help manage the as it demonstrates how policymakers can not growth of the gig economy sustainably. only control the growth of NSE but also im- prove its quality. Global experiences suggest that changes in regulations and other institutions governing The literature provides a useful framework the labor market are driving the growth of for understanding the benefits and chal- NSE. The Netherlands, for example, has had lenges of growing NSE adoption. Literature the highest rates of part-time employment in on the pros and cons of the expansion of the world for many years.5 With the increase these occupations can be divided into two in the frequency of part-time work, the Neth- categories: for the firm and the worker. Box 1 erlands introduced new regulations to ensure provides a summary of the implications asso- that part-time workers are entitled to basic ciated with NSE for both workers and firms. protections and benefits.6 It’s worth noting that part-time work often lacks worker pro- 7 BOX 1 PROS & CONS OF NON-STAN- DARDS FORMS (NSE) OF WORK Advantages Disadvantages • Flexibility to hire by task • Firm-specific skills not accumulated • Quicker response to shocks • Combining tasks can be challenging • A wider pool of talent of and may result in overwork and more specialized labor mismanagement • Lower labor costs • High turnover rates For firms • Low barriers to entry • Higher risk of unemployment and job • Potential pathway to full- insecurity compared to their standard time job opportunities counterparts • Highly flexible, allowing • Less opportunities for professional individuals to customize development due to lack of training their schedule, location, and feedback and level of commitment. • Lower earnings in some occupations For workers or jobs of certain skill levels The rise of NSE poses both challenges and hand, relying too heavily on NSE can have ad- opportunities for firms. On one hand, NSE verse effects on the firm. Studies have shown can reduce labor costs for firms while provid- that it may lead to the low development of ing a more robust pool of qualified and readily skillsets within the firm,9 reduce the incentive available workers for the firm to recruit from. to invest in training, research and develop- This offers employers more organizational ment (R&D), and productivity-enhancing tech- flexibility to meet short-term needs or sea- nologies10 and resource allocation. Therefore, sonal demand at lower costs and enables it is important for firms to strike a balance businesses to access more specialized labor between utilizing NSE to their advantage and otherwise unavailable in-house.7 Moreover, investing in the long-term growth of the firm. non-standard workers can be an efficient Workers in NSE also face certain tradeoffs. source of motivated and productive labor NSE can be a gateway into the workforce and under the right circumstances.8 On the other a way to gain valuable work experience. It also 8 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment offers a pathway to re-enter the labor market The rise of NSE and new forms of work pres- after a period of unemployment.11 In addi- ent new questions for the labor market and tion, it provides unprecedented flexibility for the economy. Its proliferation has effects on various segments of the workforce that may the dimensions of the labor market, including need it the most, including vulnerable groups working conditions, individual worker profile, often at the margins of the labor market, such firms, industry, country setting, and more. It as the elderly, persons with disabilities, care- also affects the adoption of new technologies, takers, and women with child-care responsi- innovation,15 the efficiency of labor relocation, bilities. However, non-standard workers are labor productivity, and, therefore, an effect on more likely to be concerned about job secu- aggregate productivity and economic growth. rity,12 transitioning to full-time work, and the Studies have shown a negative correlation potential loss of income-generating work (Box between productivity and the number of tem- 1).13 These concerns are more prevalent in porary laborers within a firm.16 This has been certain groups, such as women.14 Additionally, attributed to the decline in firm-specific skill, work in NSE is mainly outside the protection of and reduced productivity of temporary workers social safety nets, especially social insurance given the labor conditions they face. It can lead schemes that protect workers in the event of to unemployment, create segmentation in the income shocks such as unemployment, work labor market, affect productivity growth and injury, or disability. It is important to enact innovation, and ultimately lead to negative so- policies that expand access and coverage of cial outcomes such as labor market exclusion, traditional social insurance schemes to the vulnerable work, and poverty. most vulnerable segments of the workforce. 9 Recommended policy directions The “Future of Work” will be shaped by the policy environment in which the labor mar- » Differentiate between an employee (dependent ket operates. A package of recommended employment) and a freelancer policy directions can be grouped into three (self-employment) areas: 1) harmonizing rules for standard and non-standard employment; 2) updating social The first building block to harmonizing the protection systems; and 3) supporting life- rules is tackling the misclassification of long learning (Box 2). These policy directions, workers. This is crucial for ensuring that all drawing from international experiences, aim workers have access to labor and social protec- to update the policy environment to realize tions. This is crucial for ensuring that all workers the benefits and mitigate the adverse effects have access to labor and social protections. of the NSE. (Box 3). Governments tend to achieve this by setting a criteria that differentiates between a dependent employee and a self-employed.17 The criteria Policy direction 1: Harmonizing examines several aspects such as the degree of rules for standard and independence of the worker (over how, where, and when they complete their work), ownership non-standard work of the tools of work, opportunity of profit as- Harmonizing employment contract rules sociated with the performed task, and degree creates an integrated labor market that uti- of integration of the worker in the employer’s lizes NSE through incentivizing workers to business as standard employees would be join the labor force and giving firms access more integrated than self-employed. In some to a larger talent pool. Non-uniform costs or countries, there is a presumption of an employ- benefits across types of labor contracts can ment relationship; that is, the burden of proof is skew the hiring process away from meeting a placed on the employer (rather than the em- business’s needs. Regulations should classify ployee) in disputes about employment status.18 workers correctly as under dependent-em- ployment or self-employment, harmonize contribution costs across dependent-employ- ment contracts, and incorporate flexible ar- rangements in dependent-employment. This ensures the hiring process meets business needs and worker preference. 10 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment BOX 2 PACKAGE OF POLICY INTERVENTIONS Policy Direction Policy Target Harmonize rules for standard and non- Correct No segmentation in Firms have wider standard works classification of the labor market options to hire workers people Update social protection system Allow workers to Extended Encourage entry to insure this income protection to all the labor market streams workers Lifelong learning Enhance Career Path and Productivity » Harmonize costs of contributions across various the costs, countries also restrict the use of NSE such as putting a limit on percentage of dependent employment workers to be hired on NSE contracts in a firm contracts or setting a maximum duration or number of NSE contract renewal with one employer. » The second building block to harmonizing the rules is adjusting the costs and ben- Incorporate telework rights and efits across various forms of dependent flexible work arrangements employment.19 Regulations should aim to minimize the incentives for businesses and The third building block to harmonizing the workers to change employment contract type rules is incorporating flexible work arrange- to avoid tax and social contribution liabilities ments such as telework into the labor law. or shift work costs to the workers.20 Coun- Teleworking can be across different types of tries regulate NSE to reduce unfair business employment contracts and work arrangements. practices and pave the way toward good jobs However, working off-premises (unlike the or entrepreneurship. Other than harmonizing conventional standard employment) makes it a 11 non-standard form of employment that has new One important way in which rules can be challenges. Countries have been implementing harmonized is by extending protection to telework regulations that assign employer and non-standard workers from income shocks employee responsibilities and liabilities. Policies due to unemployment. However, traditional should ensure that new arrangements increase eligibility criteria and thresholds might prevent productivity without shifting operating costs to NSE classified as dependent employees from employees or interfering with the employer’s accessing their benefits or the social insurance business needs.21 system altogether. Countries are experimenting to create new tools for the dependent employ- ees in NSE and tools to expand coverage to the Policy direction 2: Update self-employed with a history of consistent, sta- social protection systems ble earnings with mechanisms to mitigate moral Retrofitting the social protection system hazard and adverse selection.23 is critical for the future of work. Today’s social protection systems were designed to provide employment protection through the » Design portable benefits savings schemes conventional standard employment relation- The social protection system can expand to ship model. Innovation is needed to offer cover NSE by utilizing savings as a tool. Im- protection to the NSE and to update the rules portant elements of the social protection system of eligibility. Governments around the world – such as pensions and unemployment insur- are attempting to extend protections such as ance – are generally unavailable to NSE. This is occupational hazard, update unemployment largely due to contribution mechanisms or eli- insurance, and design portable benefits sav- gibility thresholds. Hence, incentivized portable ings schemes to utilize savings as a tool for saving accounts can help extend those benefits social protection. » to more people.24 Governments can encourage savings accounts through incentives such as Extend occupational hazard matching contributions or tax exemptions.25 protection Occupational hazard protection could be Policy direction 3: overlooked for NSE and provide limited options for freelancers. Amending labor Lifelong learning laws and designs of the social insurance The future of work will require constant system to extend protection for the NSE that learning, for the employees to remain em- are classified as dependent employees while ployable in a constantly changing labor innovating options for the self-employed en- market. Because of gig work, more people sures income protection for workers suffering can enter the labor market on their own terms, work-related injuries.22 giving them more control over their profession- » al lives. However, this autonomy requires more Updating unemployment individual responsibility from workers to ac- insurance schemes quire skills and advance their careers on their own, as firms tend to have disincentives to 12 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment invest in the skills development of gig workers. Given the importance of lifelong learning in the » Expand access to high-quality training and adaptable support modern economy, governments are increas- ingly implementing policies to encourage train- Skills development and employment support ing for a growing number of people who work policies must be adaptable to accommodate in the gig economy through tax incentives, the the many non-traditional forms that gig work provision of career guidance, the provision of can take. As new forms of work emerge and adaptable support, the expansion of access to workers have more agency and flexibility, they high-quality training, and the enhancement of also bear the responsibility to continue retrain- labor market data. ing and improving their skills to meet the needs » of a constantly changing labor market. 27 Career guidance and improved Government can incentivize skills development labor market data for workers in NSE through tax incentives and savings accounts for training.28 Many tools, such Career guidance helps find the right opportu- as scholarships and grants, can be used to nities according to their abilities. Labor mar- incentivize workers to pursue their training and ket information and career guidance are critical education. However, these resources must be elements of the labor market intermediation inclusive of all types of work.29 system, as it helps address information asym- metries between employers and workers in the job-matching process. However, as the labor market continues to evolve and NSE become more prevalent, the traditional functions of labor observatories and career guidance can be enhanced to help improve the matching process for workers in non-standard con- tracts, like freelancers and gig workers.26 Conclusion The global rise of NSE and gig work creates op- of NSE to maximize its positive effects. Public portunities and challenges for the labor market policy should aim to harmonize rules for stan- and requires public policy responses to realize dard and non-standard employment, update their benefits and mitigate their adverse ef- social protection systems, and support lifelong fects. Evidence on the NSE impact on firms and learning to ensure workers are able to manage workers reaffirms the need for a policy environ- transitions and better navigate a constantly ment that balances the benefits and challenges changing world of work. 13 14 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment BOX 3 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES Policy Directions Examples of policy interventions from international experiences • Canada rolled out an IPG (Interpretations, Policies, and Guidelines) to ensure a uniform national application to determine the existence of an employer/employee relationship. • In the United States, more than 20 states adopted the ABC test to Harmonizing rules determine whether an individual should be classified as an employee or an independent contractor to cover employment laws (Rhinehart et for standard and al. 2021). non-standard • In the Netherlands, the labor and social security laws that apply work to employment contracts with fixed working hours also apply to those with variable hours. This includes protection against unsafe or unhealthy working conditions, rules for holidays, vacation days, and holiday allowances, and the same hourly minimum wage and youth minimum wages (OECD 2018). • France established certain protections for platform workers through the El Khomri law, allowing accidental injury or illness coverage Update social for platform operators earning more than 13% of the annual social protection security ceiling. systems • Sweden expanded coverage by introducing features to mitigate moral hazards and adverse selection, such as freelancers having to pause their businesses for a period to receive unemployment insurance. • Iceland’s “NEXT STEP” platform provides information on available jobs in non-traditional forms of employment, detailing alternate forms of work associated with the occupation, such as jobs available for freelancers (Finlex, 2022). • Finland provides training support for adults with more than ten years of work experience who are employed full-time or self-employed and Expand lifelong want to pursue a degree or vocational education (CEDEFOP, 2018). learning • In Malta, the government coordinated an initiative to provide entrepreneurship education by funding entrepreneurship courses at local schools and universities. 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The note benefited from the advice of the World Bank peer reviewers Indhira Santos (Senior Economist, World Bank), Jonathan Stöterau (Economist, World Bank) and Matteo Morgandi (Senior Economist and Global Lead for Labor, World Bank). The World Bank team expresses its appre- ciation for the NLO leadership and guidance in preparation of this note, particularly Dr. Usama A. Al-Gemili (Executive Director, NLO), Eng. Mohammed Alrufaydi (General Manager for Labor Sector Performance, NLO), Eng. Faris Almazyad (Project Manager, NLO), Mr. Pieter Storm (Strategic Advisor, NLO), and Mr. Mehmet Ali Soytas (Advisor - Acting General Manager of Product Management, NLO). 2 A disguised employee is hired as a freelancer or independent contractor to bypass regulations and levies. 3 Wage employment is defined as “wage and salaried workers (employees) are those workers who hold the type of jobs defined as ‘paid employment jobs,’ where the incumbents hold explicit (written or oral) or implicit employment contracts that give them a basic remuneration that is not directly dependent upon the revenue of the unit for which they work.” Data is internationally comparable. 4 According to the ILO, temporary employment, whereby workers are engaged only for a specific period of time, includes fixed-term, project- or task-based contracts, as well as seasonal or casual work, including day labor. 5 The Wassenaar Agreement of 1982 aimed to tackle unemployment by restraining wage growth, while collectively reducing full-time working hours and increasing part-time work opportunities. 6 The reduction in working hours resulted in job redistribution in the form of part- time work. Laws and protections for part-time workers were enacted in the Neth- erlands over the years, including guaranteed minimum wage, safeguards against wrongful termination, pro-rated holidays, and parental leave (Visser, et al. 2004). 7 Gig workers are associated with lower pay and non-wage costs, particularly in coun- tries that do not mandate social security or severance contributions (ILO, 2016). 18 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment 8 When satisfied with their gig work or seeking a permanent position, gig workers are more productive, less fatigued, and may work harder than their standard counter- parts (ILO, 2016; Dunn 2020). 9 Temporary workers are also less likely to transfer knowledge within the organiza- tion (ILO, 2016). 10 A study of Italian firms found that firms with a high proportion of fixed-term work- ers were less likely to adopt new technology, but this effect disappeared when the firms’ investment willingness was factored in, suggesting that appropriate training and an educated workforce can mitigate this negative impact (Cirillo et al. 2021). 11 In countries with strict labor laws like Spain, Italy, and Portugal, gig work can be a more accessible option than traditional employment (Garcia-Cabo, & Madera, R., 2019). 12 In both Spain and Japan, temporary workers are more likely to become unem- ployed compared to their permanent counterparts (ILO, 2016). 13 In addition, temporary workers have more trouble getting credit and housing, ac- cording to European and US studies (ILO, 2016). Research also shows that they have trouble transitioning to permanent jobs and are more likely to delay family planning until they have more stable jobs. 14 Data from the United Kingdom Household Longitudinal Study: Understanding So- ciety (UKHLS) found that women were less likely than men to transition from part- time or temporary work to a permanent job. It also showed they are more likely to transition to care work (Gousia, 2021). Workers who utilize flexible work to accom- modate other activities, such as caregiving, may be more willing to accept lower wages and may face additional wage penalties (Litman L et al, 2020). 15 A study of the economies of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands from 1998 to 2012 found a significant negative relationship between having a relatively higher share of temporary workers and introducing new products (Cetruloa, 2018). 16 Industry-level panel data from European countries indicate that the use of tem- porary contracts has a negative impact on labor productivity growth, with greater harm observed in skilled sectors (Lisi & Malo 2017). 19 17 In the United States, more than 20 states adopted the ABC test to classify a worker as an employee or an independent contractor for the purpose of coverage under employment laws (Rhinehart et al. 2021). The test presumes that an individual providing services to an employer is an employee unless the employer can prove otherwise by satisfying all three parts of the test: (A) The work is done without the direction and control of the employer; (B) the work is performed outside the usual course of the employer’s business; (C) the work is done by someone who has their own independent business in that kind of work. 18 Canada’s “Interpretations, Policies, and Guidelines” standardizes employer-em- ployee relationship status. 19 In the Netherlands, labor and social security laws for fixed working hours also ap- ply to those with variable hours, providing equal protection, hourly minimum wage, benefits and pension rights, and dismissal procedures (OECD 2018). The UK is considering a higher minimum wage for flexible forms of employment, and Finland mandates provisions for sick pay and termination compensation (OECD 2019). 20 For instance, if hourly or remote work is cheaper than full-time or on-site work, the company may hire workers on cheaper contracts depriving them of certain benefits. 21 In the UK, employees have the legal right to request flexible working after 26 weeks of employment, and employers must handle requests in a reasonable man- ner by assessing the advantages and disadvantages of the request and holding a meeting to discuss the request. In the Netherlands, employees of over a year can request a change in working hours and the employer must grant the request unless there are significant business reasons for denying it. Since COVID-19, more govern- ments have rolled out regulations and guides regarding teleworking, such as Argen- tina, Belgium, Portugal, Spain, and Saudi Arabia, among others. 22 The French government established protections for platform workers through the El Khomri law, which requires platform operators to provide insurance for acci- dental injury or illness for workers earning over 13% of the annual social security ceiling and to contribute to their professional training. In the US, platform workers in NYC transport are covered by a collectively managed insurance fund called “The Black Car Fund” which provides workers’ compensation insurance and is paid by passengers via a 2.5% surcharge on trips originating in the state. 23 Some policies support unemployed individuals to pursue non-traditional work or entre- preneurship while retaining some access to unemployment insurance, while others, like Sweden, require freelancers to pause their businesses to receive unemployment insur- ance to address issues like moral hazard and adverse selection (Pollack 2018). 20 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment 24 These accounts are distinguished as they 1) are linked to workers rather than spe- cific jobs, allowing benefits to be transferred from project to project or job to job; 2) support of contributions from multiple employers or clients that are proportionate to dollars earned, jobs completed, or time worked; 3) can cover all types of work- ers, including independent contractors and other non-standard employees; and 4) hold funds that are not always accessible by the employee, but can be used in a variety of social contingencies. 25 For example, New Zealand’s KiwiSaver scheme or the UK’s National Employment Savings Trust (NEST). 26 Funding for state labor market information systems can help workers make in- formed career decisions by providing information on in-demand skills, training courses, and non-traditional employment options. Iceland’s “NEXT STEP” platform offers job information and resources on skills, qualifications, and educational path- ways for different careers and details alternate forms of work associated with the occupation, such as being able to do this work as a freelancer. 27 The government of Malta funds entrepreneurship education in schools and uni- versities. Italy provides business plan development and management training for women and young people. In Luxembourg self-employed individuals must join a sector-specific professional association, which provides guidance and expertise for self-employment projects, such as the Chamber of Trade or the Chamber of Agri- culture (EEOR, 2010). 28 Singapore offers “individual learning accounts” for citizens over 25, funded with a $500 government subsidy (more for mid-career professionals) to pay for cours- es from approved providers. This allows citizens access to education and training regardless of employment status (Fitzpayne, Alastair, and Ethan Pollack, 2018). In Belgium, the government supports unemployed individuals who want to start self-employment by providing up to a year of benefits while they complete training (Spasova, S. et al. 2017). 29 In Finland, adults with more than 10 years of work experience who are employed full-time or self-employed and want to pursue a degree or vocational education can receive state-funded contributions to the costs of education and training (CEDE- FOP, 2018). Upper Austrians with a gross monthly income of less than EUR 2,200, including part-time, freelance, and self-employed workers, who have not complet- ed high school, are eligible for a 50% co-funding share of the costs of professional development training and re-training (CEDEFOP, 2018). Another example is the widespread use of temporary contracts due to deregulation, which can widen the cost gap associated with terminating a permanent worker and hiring a temporary worker, leading to higher shares of temporary employment. 21 22 The Gig Economy And The Future Of Work: Global Trends And Policy Directions For Non-Standard Forms Of Employment