WAT E R G L O B A L P R A C T I C E C A S E S T U D Y Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Saa Dittoh About the Water Global Practice Launched in 2014, the World Bank Group’s Water Global Practice brings together financing, knowledge, and implementation in one platform. By combining the Bank’s global knowledge with country investments, this model generates more firepower for transformational solutions to help countries grow sustainably. Please visit us at www.worldbank.org/water or follow us on Twitter @WorldBankWater. About GWSP This publication received the support of the Global Water Security & Sanitation Partnership (GWSP). GWSP is a multidonor trust fund administered by the World Bank’s Water Global Practice and supported by Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade; the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; the Netherlands’ Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the Rockefeller Foundation; the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency; Switzerland’s State Secretariat for Economic Affairs; the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation; the U.K. Department for International Development; and the U.S. Agency for International Development. Please visit us at www.worldbank.org/gwsp or follow us on Twitter #gwsp. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Saa Dittoh © 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Please cite the work as follows: Dittoh, Saa. 2020. “Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights​ @­worldbank.org. Cover photo: Hamish John Appleby / IWMI. Cover design: Bill Pragluski, Critical Stages, LLC. Contents Executive Summary v Abbreviations vii Chapter 1  Introduction 1 The Purpose and Scope of the Report 1 Definition, Technologies in Use, and Typologies 2 Note 3 Chapter 2  Assessment of the Status of Farmer-Led Irrigation in Ghana 5 The Extent of FLID in Ghana 5 Estimates of FLID Areas and Number of Farmers, Sources of Water, and Types of Crops by Region 6 Notes 8 Chapter 3  Market Assessment of the FLID Expansion Potential 9 Water Availability 9 Land Availability and Suitability for Irrigation 10 Labor Availability 10 Energy Availability 11 Notes 11 Chapter 4  Enabling Environment for FLID 13 Policy Framework 13 Laws and Regulations 13 Government Incentives and Subsidies 14 Institutional Arrangements for FLID 14 Chapter 5  Supply Chain Analysis 15 Supply Chain for Equipment, Accessories, and Inputs Used in FLID and Post-Sale Maintenance of Equipment 15 Availability of Financial Services and the Role of Development Partners 15 Key Private- and Public-Sector Participants in FLID 15 Notes 16 Chapter 6  Support Institutions and Advisory Services 17 Irrigation Training, Research, and Extension in Ghana 17 Information on Surface Water and Groundwater Availability, Output Market, Input-Output Price Information, and More 17 Note 18 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana iii Chapter 7  Challenges and Constraints to FLID 19 Water Availability Challenges and Constraints 19 Land Availability Challenges and Constraints 19 Policy and Institutional Challenges to FLID 20 Socioeconomic and Inclusiveness Concerns 21 Financial Services Challenges and Constraints 21 Constraints of Input and Output Markets and Pricing 21 Hard and Soft Infrastructural Challenges 21 Notes 22 Chapter 8  Assessment of Business and Financing Models 23 Typologies of Business or Financing Models and Their Relative Performance 23 FLID Business and Financing Models That Can Be Scaled Up 26 Irrigated Production Business Models 26 Irrigation Service Provision Business Models 28 Mixed Production/Service Provision Model 29 Possible Sources of Financing 29 The Role of the Ghanaian Government and NGOs in Expanding FLID 30 Examples of Attempts at FLID in the rest of Africa 30 Appendix A 31 References 35 Tables 2.1. Prevalence of Irrigation Techniques in Ghana 6 2.2. Summary of Areas under Different FLID Typologies by Region in Ghana 7 8.1. Relative Total Costs and Net Revenues by Irrigation Type in Bawku-West and Talensi/Nabdam Districts (Upper East Region) 24 8.2. Investment Costs and Net Annual Returns (Profits) (in US$) for Affordable Micro-Irrigation for Vegetables (AMIV) Systems per 0.05 Hectares (500 Square Meters) 24 8.3. Income from Irrigated Farms in the Volta and Ashanti Regions of Ghana 25 8.4. Revenue Generated in Different Farming Systems in Kumasi, 2002 26 A.1. Typologies and Their Characteristics by Locations in the Upper East, Upper West, and Northern Regions of Ghana 31 A.2. Typologies and Their Characteristics by Location in the Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, and Eastern Regions of Ghana 32 A.3. Typologies and Their Characteristics by Location in Volta, Greater Accra, Central, and Western Regions of Ghana 32 A.4. Examples of Medium- and Large-Scale FLID in Ghana 33 A.5. Profitability Analysis of Shallow Wells Groundwater Irrigation Technologies in the Upper East Region 34 iv Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Executive Summary Adequate agricultural production for food and nutrition security as well as better incomes for farmers and rural inhabitants represent key development objectives of many nations, and they are most crucial in Africa. Water is critical in food production, and its use now and in the future is a major determinant of whether the stated objective is achieved. Because of climate change and associated variability, dependence on rainfed food production is risky and unsustainable. There is a need for substantial increase in irrigated production, particularly farmer-led irrigation development (FLID), in Africa and especially in Ghana. West Africa is often regarded as the water-abundant sub-region of West Africa. That view, to a large extent, is true, and Ghana does have considerable surface water and groundwater available for irrigation. However, there is looming water scarcity in parts of West Africa, including northern Ghana, as demand for water is growing due to its increased use for: (i) agricultural purposes including raising of livestock, (ii) household use; (iii) hydroelectric power production and other industrial uses; along with overarching factors of: (iv) population growth; (v) increasing urbanization; and (vi) climate change. Estimates by different typologies in the 10 regions1 of Ghana show that FLID comprises about 94.4 percent smallholder irrigators (defined as those cultivating fewer than 100 hectares). In addition, approximately 70.4 percent of the area is cultivated by shallow well irrigators, suggesting that about that percentage or more of the farmers cultivate fewer than two hectares. Thus, there is a need for a more comprehensive assessment of the areas under irrigation to better inform policy and farmer-led irrigation development (FLID). However, estimates of areas under FLID in Ghana (and in all of Africa) are not sufficiently thorough for informing relevant decision-makers. Moreover, ongoing effective development of FLID demands that the enabling environment for FLID also be comprehensively assessed. The research undertaken to produce this report primarily aimed at improving availability of information related to FLID in Ghana and assessing the associated production, marketing, financing, legal, and institutional environments, with the goal of developing business and financing models for FLID improvements and expansion in Ghana. This research involved an extensive compilation of information from published and unpublished works; one-on-one discussions with a variety of key informants, including farmers; and some limited field visits. The results of the study showed that about 49.4 percent of FLID takes place in three regions in the Northern Savanna Ecological Zone of Ghana (Northern2, Upper East, and Upper West regions), whereas 25.6 percent is in three regions of the Coastal Savanna Ecological Zone (Central, Greater Accra, and Volta3 regions). The results of the research also highlighted various challenges and constraints facing FLID, particularly with regard to land availability and tenure; availability of energy, finance, research and extension, marketing (including storage and pricing); institutional and regulatory inadequacies; as well as gender and generational concerns. Finally, the research assessed several possible business and financing models and alluded to existing examples of FLID models, including the Ghana Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana v Commercial Agriculture Project (GCAP) model; the National Fadama Development Project model in Nigeria; and the Revitalization of Smallholder Irrigation Schemes model in the Limpopo province of South Africa. Notes 1. Some regions have been split and Ghana now has 16 regions, but in this document, reference will continue to be made to the former 10 regions. 2. Northern Region has now been divided into three; Savanna, Northern and North-East Regions. 3. Volta Region has also now been divided into two; Oti and Volta Regions. vi Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Abbreviations FLI farmer-led irrigation FLID farmer-led irrigation development GAR Greater Accra Region GCAP Ghana Commercial Agriculture Project GIDA Ghana Irrigation Development Authority GW groundwater GWI groundwater irrigation ha hectare NGO nongovernmental organization NR Northern Region PLI private large-scale irrigation PMI private medium-scale irrigation SH-GWI smallholder groundwater irrigation SH-SWI smallholder surface water irrigation SH-UPI smallholder urban and peri-urban irrigation SOD Shai Osudoku District UER Upper East Region VR Volta Region WLE Water, Land and Ecosystems WRC Water Resources Commission Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana vii Photo credit: David Greenwood-Haigh from Pixabay Chapter 1 Introduction The Purpose and Scope of the Report Irrigated agriculture in most parts of the world is now a necessity. With the ongoing trend of climate change and variability, it is becoming obvious that food production will have to depend on irrigated agriculture in several forms if the world population is to be fed. Africa and other developing regions are the most vulnerable to the situation, and it is in these places that the risk of food insecurity is high. However, irrigated agriculture is underdeveloped in Africa (Namara, Horowitz, et al. 2011), and attempts by governments and development partners to develop modern irrigated agriculture have not succeeded to any large extent for several reasons. It is most risky for Ghana to continue to depend on rainfed agriculture alone to feed its population and solve the myriad agricultural problems it faces. However, development of irrigated agriculture in Ghana, which is crucial for its very existence, cannot continue in the same way that has achieved little over time, hence the urgent need to turn to what is promising despite the lack of attention and support—and that is FLID. Currently, less than 2 percent of Ghana’s cultivated land is irrigated (Mendes et al. 2014). The less-than-satisfactory performance of formal or public irrigation systems has mainly been due to inefficient water distribution, unsatisfactory operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation systems, uncoordinated irrigation support services, non-conducive agricultural marketing system, and a weak extension support system (Laube 2008; Namara, Horowitz et al. 2011; Ofori et al. 2010). FLID is something that has been shown in many countries to have functioned much more successfully than formal irrigation systems. According to Dittoh, Bhattarai, and Akuriba (2013) attempts at “modern” irrigation systems in the West African sub-region have largely failed, but “some of the micro irrigation systems operated by smallholders seem to be performing satisfactorily.” However, national irrigation statistics do not usually include areas developed by using private-sector investments, especially those of individual farmers (Giordano et al. 2012). The result is that policy makers and investors often disregard the more extensive and more successful FLID. However, as stated by Giordano et al. (2012), supporting smallholder agricultural management can leverage an existing farmer-driven trend largely ignored by investors. Thus, an expansion of FLID is required to a point where it can serve nations in multiple ways, including: (a) providing needed food in a more secure and cost-effective way; (b) reducing poverty and inequality across and within regions; and (c) slowing down rural-to-urban distress migration. This report consists of an assessment of FLID in Ghana as well as of associated business and financing models that can be pursued for its further development. Even though Ghana has performed relatively well in terms of reducing poverty and food insecurity over the years, widespread poverty is still observed in addition to growing inequality, youth unemployment, low level of human development, vulnerability to diseases, and other serious developmental problems (Al-Hassan and Diao 2007; Cooke, Hague, and McKay 2016; Dittoh and Steiner-Asiedu 2017; GSS 2011; GSS 2014; World Bank 2007). The specific objec- tives of this study were to assess: (i) the extent of FLID in Ghana both in terms of area and production; Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 1 (ii) the enabling environment, including markets, supply chain, services including advisory and financial services, policies (fiscal incentives), institutions, laws, and regulations; (iii) barriers and constraints to expansion of FLID, including land and water management issues. Moreover, efforts were made to: (a) document the significance of FLID in achieving development goals from the perspective of key policy makers, donors, and institutions; (b) distill relevant lessons and drive public sector operational and policy recommendations for fast-tracking the development of FLID; and (c) develop private-sector business and financing models for pilot testing. The methodology for the study consisted of an extensive review of published and unpublished literature, including scholarly articles, student theses, research and consultancy reports, etc. Discussions were also held with key informants, primarily consisting of: personnel of the GIDA of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture; regional and district directors of agriculture; some small-, medium- and large-scale farmer-led irrigators; relevant nongovernmental organization (NGO) personnel; as well as some irrigation equipment suppliers. Interviews of the directors and farmers were mainly by phone and primarily estimates of areas and types of crops cultivated under FLID in the various regions of Ghana. Attempts were also made to interview personnel of donor agencies, but limited information was obtained. Limited field observations were done; however, the author possesses extensive fieldwork experience in irrigated agriculture in Ghana. Definition, Technologies in Use, and Typologies Farmer-led irrigation development (FLID) is a form of irrigation practice that takes place according to an individual or community initiative. According to Woodhouse et al. (2017), FLID is a process by which farmers assume a driving role in improving their water use for agriculture by bringing about changes in knowledge production, technology use, investment patterns and market linkages, and the governance of land and water. It is a widely observed and multifaceted phenomenon whereby farmers influence the location, purpose, and design of irrigation development. The practice of FLID is not a new phenomenon. It can be small, medium, or large in scale. According to Abric et al. (2011), smallholder private irrigation has been practiced on a small-scale for hundreds of years to cope with low or erratic rainfall. FLID is generally, though not exclusively, undertaken by smallholder farmers and is considered to have great potential for ensuring food security and livelihoods. Thus, small-scale farmers drive the establishment, improvement, and expansion of irrigated agriculture, often in interaction with external actors (SAFI 2018), which include value chain actors, governmental and nongovernmental agencies, development partners, and others. Yet it has not been given due attention by African governments and investors alike (de Fraiture and Giordano 2014). In Ghana, FLID has been extensive and there are many variants of FLID technologies that can be distinguished based on combinations of water sources and lifting devices used, crops cultivated, land sizes utilized, ownership of the irrigated lands, and so on. The following represents one of the ways of categorizing existing FLID technologies in Ghana. •• Use of small motorized (diesel and petrol) pumps to lift water from surface water sources such as rivers, streams, and natural dams (or dugouts) in valley bottoms as well as from constructed dams. With this method, water is distributed directly onto the field through water hoses, buckets, watering cans, calabashes or by narrow furrows (gravity). 2 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana •• Large diesel and electric pumps are also used to supply water from surface water sources such as rivers and dams onto relatively large farms of about 10 hectares or more. In this case, water is distributed to the farms primarily by gravity through furrows. Some farmers also use center pivot systems. Most of the farmers cultivating 100 hectares and more have available markets within or outside the country (see chapter 7) and are thus operating profitable irrigated enterprises. •• Additionally, water fetching from shallow dug wells using buckets, calabashes, watering cans, and other containers comprises another category of water supply to farms. The source is typically ground- water (GW) and it is distributed onto the farms mostly by hand. •• Lastly, pumping of GW from deep wells and boreholes into overhead tanks for distribution on farms by gravity represents another category. Based on the above categorization, the following common FLID typologies are observed in Ghana (the first seven pertain to small-scale systems)1: •• Small-scale pump irrigation systems sourcing from rivers and streams; •• Small-scale pump irrigation systems using dams and dugouts; •• Shallow wells (in valley bottoms) systems using GW; •• Deep wells and borehole systems using GW; •• Community-managed small-scale dam or dugout irrigation systems (initially farmer-led and later assisted by government and donor support); •• Peri-urban irrigation using wastewater, pipe-borne water, and streams; •• “Unplanned” irrigation around reservoirs (dams) using excess surface water and seepage from dams; •• Medium-scale private irrigation systems (drawing from rivers); •• Large-scale private irrigation systems (using rivers or constructed dams); •• Public-private irrigation partnerships – such as the Ghana Commercial Agricultural Programme (GCAP) model – using small-, medium-, and large-scale systems (only includes systems initiated by individual farmers or the private sector). Note 1. Both medium- and large-scale FLID schemes are very few in the country. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 3 Photo credit: Hamish John Appleby / IWMI Chapter 2 Assessment of the Status of Farmer-Led Irrigation in Ghana The Extent of FLID in Ghana Surface and ground water (GW) sources are both used in farmer-led irrigation development (FLID) in Ghana. The country is drained by several rivers, the biggest one being the Volta River and its tributaries, stretching from the north to south of the country. About 70.1 percent of Ghana’s land area (about 165,011 square kilometers) is within the Volta River basin, and about 35.5 percent of the population is found in the basin area (Mul, Kasei, and McCartney 2016). Other river basins include the Ankobra, Bia, Pra, and Tano. All are sources of surface water for irrigation and of recharge to aquifers1; thus, they are also important as GW sources, indicating that both surface water and GW irrigation (GWI) can be undertaken in most parts of the country. However, FLID is much more prominent in water-deficient areas such as the Northern Savanna Ecological Zone (Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions) and Coastal Savanna Ecological Zone (Central, Greater Accra, and Volta regions). It has also been noted that “surface-water-pumping-based private and communal irrigation systems are particularly abundant in the Eastern, Ashanti, Brong- Ahafo, and Volta regions” (Namara et al. 2010). The Keta area of the Volta Region is especially well- known for subsurface and GWI (Ocloo 1996). The Northern Savanna Ecological Zone experiences a unimodal rainfall regime with an annual aver- age of about 1,000 millimeters. The Coastal Savanna Ecological Zone experiences a bimodal rainfall regime,2 but the average annual rainfall is about 800 millimeters. These averages are not bad com- pared to some other parts of Africa, but there is also considerable runoff and evapotranspiration. Other parts of the country receive considerably higher amounts of rainfall, but because of climate change and variability, and the resulting increasingly erratic nature of rainfall, FLID is gaining ground in many other parts of the country, especially the Ashanti and Brong Ahafo3 regions in Central Ghana. There have been several assessments of surface- and GW-irrigated areas in Ghana over time (GIDA 2011; Gumma et al. 2011; McCartney et al. 2012; Namara, Gebregzlabher et al. 2013; Obuobi and Barry 2011; Obuobi et al. 2013). There is, however, yet to be a comprehensive assessment of irrigation areas, espe- cially with regard to FLID, in the country. Estimates by the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) have mainly reported with respect to formal systems. Gumma et al. (2011) estimated “private irrigated area in Ghana” to be about 721,000 hectares by using remote sensing. Namara, Gebregzlabher et al. (2013), however, said that in Ghana, “nearly half a million smallholders irrigate about 185,000 hectares using buckets, watering cans and small pumps, compared to 11,000 farmers in the public irrigation schemes,” and the AgWater Solutions Project also provided estimates (as shown in table 2.1). Categories 3, 4, and 5 (in table 2.1) comprise approximately 100 percent of FLID, and about 50 percent of category 2 could also be farmer-led. Thus, about 189,000 hectares are under FLID as opposed to 7,500 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 5 TABLE 2.1. Prevalence of Irrigation Techniques in Ghana Number of Area under Investment costs Category Technology farmers irrigation (hectares) (US$ per hectare) Main crop 1 Public irrigation schemes 11,000 7,185 10,000–15,000 Rice 2 Small reservoirs 25,000 6,000 6,000–15,000 Rice/vegetables 3 Motorized pumps 160,000 120,000 500–1,000 Vegetables 4 Buckets and watering cans 335,000 66,000 <25 Vegetables 5 Treadle pumps <100 <20 500 Vegetables Source: Based on surveys carried out under the AgWater Solution Project in 2010. hectares under public irrigation systems. The divergence among these estimates is worrying and shows a need for a comprehensive estimation of FLID in African countries in general and Ghana in particular. Most of the estimates in the table above do not distinguish between FLID that uses surface water ver- sus groundwater (GW). Public irrigation schemes in Ghana mainly consist of surface water systems, but a considerable proportion of FLID draws its water supplies from aquifers. Indeed, more than 90 percent of groundwater irrigation (GWI) in Africa can be characterized as farmer-led. Relatedly, several studies have shown that GWI has been growing rapidly in Africa and in Ghana since the late 1990s (Abric et al. 2011; Dittoh, Awuni, and Akuriba, 2013; Namara, Gebregzlabher et al., 2013; Shah, Verma, and Pavelic 2013; Villholth, 2013). For several decades, buckets, calabashes, and watering cans had been the means by which water was lifted from shallow groundwater wells until the 1990s, when small motorized pumps became popular. According to Abric et al. (2011), GWI has been more attractive to smallholder farmers mainly because of the individual mode of uptake and operation. Siebert (2010) has estimated that the area irrigated by groundwater in all of Ghana was about 12,000 hectares as opposed to 42,700 hectares of surface water irrigation. This study also attempted to improve upon existing estimations in terms of typology, areas cultivated, geographical location of the systems, and other characteristics. Moreover, it has estimated areas under medium and large establishments that are farmer-led, including some public-private irrigation partner- ships. More robust estimation procedures should be used to further improve such statistics. There may also be a need for a FLID census in Africa, similar to the Minor Irrigation Census that takes place in India every five years. Estimates of FLID Areas and Number of Farmers, Sources of Water, and Types of Crops by Region Tables A.1, A.2, and A.3 in the appendix give FLID typologies and their characteristics in the 10 regions of the country. Various estimates were drawn from an extensive literature search (provided in the References section) and by key interviews and discussions. The Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) stipulates the nationally-accepted classification into small-, medium-, and large-scale irrigation. Small-scale irrigation, in this case, refers to cultivated areas of fewer than 100 hectares, medium-scale is for irrigated farm areas 6 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana TABLE 2.2. Summary of Areas under Different FLID Typologies by Region in Ghana Estimate of area of farmer-led irrigation (in hectares) SH-SWI (rivers SH-SWI (dams Region and streams) and dugouts) SH-GWI SH-UPI PMIa PLIa Total % of total Upper East 29,200 7,500 9,400 6 560 750 47,416 21.11 Upper West 18,500 2,200 4,100 3 320 0 25,123 11.19 Northern 30,300 3,200 2,850 12 880 1,250 38,492 17.14 Brong Ahafo 15,150 2,400 1,540 0 0 0 19,090 8.50 Ashanti 5,500 1,500 1,350 25 250 0 8,625 3.84 Eastern 14,450 1,250 3,020 3 320 0 19,043 8.48 Volta 17,600 1,550 4,500 0 350 4,200 28,200 12.56 Greater Accra 15,500 2,500 3,050 90 1,100 2,600 24,840 11.06 Central 4,500 1,250 0 0 0 0 5,750 2.56 Western 7,500 500 0 5 0 0 8,005 3.56 Total 158,200 23,850 29,810 144 3,780 8,800 224,584 100.00 % of total 70.44 10.62 13.27 0.06 1.68 3.92 100.00 Source: Above estimates are based on several published and unpublished documents, field visits as well as discussions and interviews of key informants, which implies that there is need for caution in the interpretation of the information. A more comprehensive estimation of the areas is necessary. Note: FLID = farmer-led irrigation; PLI = private large-scale irrigation; PMI = private medium-scale irrigation; SH-GWI = smallholder groundwater irrigation; SH-SWI = smallholder surface water irrigation; SH-UPI = smallholder urban and peri-urban irrigation; SWI = smallholder surface water irrigation. a. Several of these “medium” and “large” irrigated farms are areas that are intended for irrigation and not areas that are already being irrigated. There is need to physically verify the claims. between 100 and 500 hectares, and large-scale schemes refer to irrigated farms of more than 500  hectares. However, it seems that the GIDA-based its classification on only public (formal) irrigation systems. Of the total estimated FLID area of 224,584 hectares in Ghana, 212,004 hectares (more than 94 percent) are small in scale (table 2.2). There are few large-scale farmer-led irrigated schemes in the country, and even the medium-scale irrigated farms are few. The crops grown by farmers are mainly high-value horticultural crops for domestic use and export as well as green maize and rice. Staple crops such as maize and sorghum are irrigated in only a few cases. Irrigated maize is mostly cultivated for seed or as green maize. Irrigated sorghum is primarily used for seed in the rainy season. Estimation of crop output from these areas is ongoing. The typologies considered for area and farming type in each of the 10 regions of the country are as follows: •• Smallholder surface water irrigation (SH-SWI) (rivers and streams); •• SH-SWI (dams and dugouts); •• Smallholder groundwater water irrigation (SH-GWI); •• Smallholder urban and peri-urban irrigation (SH-UPI); Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 7 •• Private medium-scale irrigation (PMI); •• Private large-scale irrigation (PLI). As seen in table 2.2, the largest area under FLID is in the Upper East Region, followed by the Northern Region, with the least in the Western Region. The climatic, environmental, and demographic challenges of the Upper East Region are the driving factors for the prominence of FLID. There is a minor category of FLID that uses seepage water as well as overflows from constructed dams. Estimates of seepage have been added to groundwater irrigation, and overflows have been added to surface water (dugouts) irrigation. This category can become important in the future (see de Fraiture et al. 2014). Several of the medium- and large-scale irrigated farms are claiming areas that they intend to irrigate and not the areas that are already being irrigated. Hence, there is a need to physically verify the claims. Notes 1. GW recharge is determined by many factors, including the frequency and intensity of rainfall, geology, soil characteristics, depth of water table, vegetation, and several others (Obuobi, Barry, and Agyekum 2016). 2. Characterizes a wet season with two rainfall peaks that are separated by at least one dry month. 3. Brong Ahafo Region has also been divided into three; Brong, Bono-East and Ahafo Regions. 8 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Chapter 3 Market Assessment of the FLID Expansion Potential Water Availability As stated earlier, 70.1 percent of Ghana’s land area (about 165,011 square kilometers) is situated in the Volta River Basin (Biney 2013). The Volta River and its tributaries (particularly the White and Black Volta rivers and the Oti River) represent large reservoirs of surface water. Ghana also constructed the Akosombo Dam and created the largest manmade lake in the world. Although Ghana has substantial surface water resources, their availability is determined by a variety of factors, including: (i) amount of rainfall; (ii) evapotranspiration rates; (iii) patterns of water use, especially for agricultural purposes; (iv) changes in land use and cover; and (v) climate change. It has been shown that climate variability in West Africa has significant consequences for surface water availability (Mahe et al. 2013). According to Mul, Kasei, and McCartney (2016), projections for future water resource availability in the Volta Basin are uncertain and cover a wide range of futures. Population growth, continued deforestation, increasing use of water for agriculture, farm practices that result in silting of rivers and pollution of water bodies, and several other developments point to an eminent water scarcity in parts of Ghana. Eguavoen (2009) has shown that northern Ghana is already experiencing it. Since the 1940s, small-scale water storage infrastructure has been constructed in Ghana, especially in the densely populated Upper East Region. There is a significant number of storage structures there, as well as in the other northern regions. Many of the structures have undergone rehabilitations, yet many have serious functional defects that lead to a lot of seepage and complete destruction in some cases. Water availability can be greatly improved if the small-scale storage systems and irrigation systems (blue water) are adequately maintained and managed. It can also be improved if green water is properly (that is, scientifically) managed. Moreover, simple technologies can ensure higher water productivity and include various types of drip irrigation, which are particularly suitable for smallholder irrigators in arid and semiarid environments characterized by high evapotranspiration (ET) rates. Drip irrigation improves water productivity significantly, especially when combined with improved management of green water. FLID technologies are well-known by farmers, so it is not a matter of “technology transfer” but instead of improving upon existing technology. Given the relatively abundant GW resources of the country, Ghana has more than 56,000 GW abstraction systems. Their use represents less than 5 percent of the average annual GW recharge in most of its river basins (IWMI 2010). Additionally, Anayah et al. (2013) have shown that the aquifer system in Ghana, especially in the relatively dry northern areas, is “sufficiently recharged” to allow further development of GW resources. Lastly, Obuobi et al. (2013) have found that in northeastern Ghana, GW abstractions for all uses are small compared to recharge, and the quality of GW is suitable for irrigation. They concluded that there is potential in northeastern Ghana to expand GWI 14- to 18-fold. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 9 There is, however, a need to guard against GW overexploitation.1 For example, drying-up of shallow wells after a couple of months of water extraction for irrigation has been common in the Upper East Region (ILSSI Project 2017). The Volta River Basin is characterized by complex hydrogeology, and parts of it are dominated by rocks (Obuobi, Barry, and Agyekum 2016). The potential for GW extraction in those parts is limited. In parts of the Northern Region of Ghana GW recharge is also inadequate and aquifers are low-yielding. More-localized estimations of GW are necessary for critical decision-making, especially in northern Ghana, to be able to estimate where and how much GW can be sustainably abstracted (IWMI/WLE 2017). Land Availability and Suitability for Irrigation The potential irrigable area in Ghana has been estimated as substantial given the expanse of land area covered by its river basins. According to an Agricultural Water Management National Situation analysis, if Ghana’s mean annual runoff of 39.4 billion cubic meters is adequately managed, it would be “enough to support domestic and irrigation uses” (IWMI 2010). Also, according to Namara, Horowitz, et al. (2011), Ghana’s irrigation potential ranges from 0.36 million to 2.9 million hectares, depending on the degree of water control, so water management is an important determinant of land availability and suitability. However, the physical availability of irrigable areas does not automatically translate into availability of land that can be put under cultivation at any time by potential investors. The land tenure system has served as a constraint. Farmers who own the land may not wish to or have the ability to undertake irrigation practices, which typically means that irrigable land would first need to be acquired by those who can undertake irrigation. Dittoh, Awuni and Akuriba (2013) have stated with respect to the Upper East Region of Ghana that “complexities in land use and land tenure need to be explicitly considered in attempts to develop irrigated agriculture in the area.” FLID seems to be a way out of the commonly-cited land insecurity problem, as acquiring land for smallholder irrigation is less cumbersome. Since smallholder farming does not face the same land insecurity problems as those of large-scale farming, it is one of the reasons smallholder farming continues to thrive much more than large-scale farming in most parts of Africa—even more so with regard to irrigated agriculture. In a survey of 800 smallholder irrigator households in four African countries, on average, 60 percent of the respondents said they possessed security of land tenure – 90 percent in Ethiopia, 40  percent in Ghana, 30 percent in Kenya, and 70 percent in Tanzania (Shah, Verma, and Pavelic 2013). Labor Availability Most FLID activities are undertaken during the dry season when labor is relatively available because there is less farm work. Moreover, need for irrigation (among other factors) prevents migration out of the main irrigable areas in northern Ghana to the southern parts of the country during the dry season. The main challenge with respect to labor in irrigation is lack of relevant skills. There are several potentially irrigable areas where locals do not have the requisite irrigation skills and people must migrate from other areas to undertake irrigation.2 10 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Energy Availability Dittoh, Awuni, and Akuriba (2013) have stated that irrigators in the Upper East Region of Ghana regard motorized pumps as “saviors” because they save them from having to lift water for irrigation by the tedious “bucket and calabash” technology. However, lifting of water – from rivers, dams, or wells – requires energy, the availability of which has also served as a major constraint in FLID in Ghana. Farmers in Ghana have often complained about the expensive fossil fuel and electric power sources, and how it is not profitable to use any of them for irrigation. The availability of relatively cheap energy would significantly promote FLID. Solar energy seems to be the lowest-cost energy source for irrigation if basic investment capital were to be obtained. According to IWMI (2017), solar panels offer farmers a cheap and renewable source of power for pumping water, whether from GW or surface water bodies. Otoo et al. (2018) have also undertaken business model analyses of smallholder solar pump–based irrigation in Ethiopia to show that FLID can significantly benefit from use of solar energy for irrigation. Shah et al. (2016) have shown that investing in solar energy for irrigation by smallholder farmers is cost-effective compared to other sources of energy. However, solar energy is not yet well developed in the country. Notes 1. History also offers some examples in this regard, as it has been concluded that a rapid expansion of smallholder irrigation systems in Asia was largely driven by the availability and affordability of motorized pumps. 2. A case in point is the cultivation of onions in the Ashaiman area of the Greater Accra Region, where most irrigators are from the Bawku area of the Upper East Region. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 11 Photo credit: Hamish John Appleby / IWMI Chapter 4 Enabling Environment for FLID Policy Framework The current Ghana National Irrigation Policy states that “the philosophy under-pinning the entire policy concept is the transformation of GIDA into a pro-active promoter of both public and private irrigation development with much more effective, functional links within the agricultural sector” (GIDA 2017). The private sector referenced includes smallholder irrigators who dominate the FLID sector, and one of the five “business lines” of GIDA is “non-state funded schemes producing high-value horticultural or industrial crops.” The other major actor in the water sector of Ghana is the Water Resources Commission (WRC). Its mandate is to regulate and manage the country’s water resources (both surface water and groundwater). The WRC’s strategy for the sustainable utilization of the country’s water resources is through the adoption of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principles. Licensing for drilling of boreholes and issuance of water use permits are clearly stated in WRC policy guidelines. There are, however, licensing exemptions for smallholder agricultural water users. The guidelines regarding GW use are related to regulation rather than promotion, as observed by Chokkakula and Giordano (2013). However, enforcement of relevant regulations is a challenge. Laws and Regulations The law that established GIDA also identifies it as the institution overseeing all forms of irrigation in the country, including FLID. In the past, GIDA did little to promote FLID. However, its new strategies and regulations outlined in the updated National Irrigation Policy clearly indicate that FLID as one of the main business areas for promotion (GIDA 2017). The first of GIDA’s five business lines is “individual micro and small-scale irrigation” (GIDA 2017). As a result, the regulation explicitly includes FLID in its planning and production processes. One of the seven strategic thrusts of the Irrigation Policy and Regulations is to “improve socio-economic engagement with land and water resources” and the policy and regulations expect small-scale farmers to benefit “as a result of irrigation-led socio-economic transformation.” One of the problems of FLID is the use of irrigated lands by non-landowners (landowners who are not irrigators or do not use all their land rent some of it to tenants). The arrangements in the use of the land are informal; thus, conditions attached to use are known only to the respective landowners and tenants. Correspondingly, development agencies, as well as officials of GIDA, lack information on these land tenure arrangements because neither the landowners nor the tenants readily disclose agreements. Tenants who share some of the information with “outsiders” are often denied access to land the following season. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 13 Government Incentives and Subsidies The government of Ghana does not provide any incentives for FLID. Even subsidies on inputs given to rainfed farmers do not extend to dry-season production. According to Mendes et al. (2014), most irri- gated crops do not qualify for the government’s fertilizer subsidy, and those that do qualify (such as rice) are subsidized only during the wet season. Institutional Arrangements for FLID The main formal governmental institution involved in FLID is GIDA. There are hardly any organized intergovernmental organizations that are involved in smallholder FLID, but several governmental organizations and NGOs are involved in medium- and large-scale FLID. Even some foreign organizations provide financial services to some of these enterprises and off-takers of the produce. Improved coordination of land and water resource management is needed in Ghana. Competition for water increases as multiple demands from other sectors also grow. Integrated approaches are required to understand the nature of the competing demands and to assess tradeoffs between different uses. In addition, in this era of climate change and variability, institutional arrangement for early warning signs is important. Oftentimes, farmers are not consulted in the interventions planned for them, although they must be involved at the onset in order to improve agricultural production. For farmers to benefit from interventions, they must be well-organized. Thus, there is a need for adequate institutional arrangements at the farmer level. A model of irrigation organizations in which the smallholder is making key decisions is important if FLID is to be effectively developed. As stated by Shah, Verma, and Pavelic (2013), the issue is not the size of land irrigated but the ownership-management model. 14 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Chapter 5 Supply Chain Analysis Supply Chain for Equipment, Accessories, and Inputs Used in FLID and Post-Sale Maintenance of Equipment There are a limited number of suppliers of irrigation equipment and accessories in Ghana.1 The existing ones mainly supply petrol, diesel, and electric water pumps and their accessories for both domestic and irrigation purposes. Several enterprises import petrol, diesel, and electric pumps, especially those from China and India. The number of agents is relatively few, and rather than reaching out to farmers at the irrigation sites, they expect the equipment to be carried to them. There are also multiple types of pipes imported and sold by many retailers throughout the country, many of which are used for domestic water supply. All other inputs, such as agrochemicals (fertilizers, weedicides, insecticides, and so forth) are not retailed specifically for irrigated agriculture. Most of them target rainfed crop production, even though irrigators use them. Many smallholder irrigators prefer to use only organic manure/inorganic fertilizer mixtures for several reasons, but this mix tends to not be unavailable in sufficient quantities. Availability of Financial Services and the Role of Development Partners Finance for FLI, especially at the production level, has been a major problem for its development. Interest rates of commercial banks are too high for most irrigators (small, medium, or large) to consider credit from those sources. Microfinance institutions have also not been forthcoming with favorable rates. The involvement of development partners in irrigation has been more in formal irrigation development. An important intervention is that of the Ghana Commercial Agricultural Project (GCAP), a World Bank/ USAID–assisted project, which tried to promote FLID at all levels. Medium- and large-scale as well as a few small-scale irrigated enterprises are supported to improve their production, storage, and marketing activities but are also tasked with helping promote smallholders to improve their irrigated production activities. Several other donor-supported projects implemented by the government of Ghana and programs that support FLID include the GCAP and the International Fund for Agricultural Development-assisted Ghana Agriculture Sector Investment Programme, which was co-funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development and the African Development Bank. Key Private- and Public-Sector Participants in FLID The main private-sector participants in FLID are smallholder irrigators who may be divided into “traditional smallholder irrigators” and “value-chain-inspired smallholder irrigators.” The former produce with the hope of finding a market for the output. Their main target market is local aggregators and traders. The latter are smallholder producers because they cultivate fewer than 100 hectares. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 15 However, they are “value-chain inspired” in the sense that they target specific local or foreign markets. Some of them aggregate agricultural produce from some of the traditional smallholder producers.2 There are also several medium- and large-scale private participants in FLID. Most of them are supported now by GCAP. Table A.1 gives examples of medium- and large-scale FLID enterprises that are supported by GCAP in the form of grants for equipment, warehousing, and other facilities to beneficiaries who must in turn reach out and support smallholder irrigators in their areas of operation with land preparation, inputs, and technical assistance. The smallholder irrigators (outgrowers) are also encouraged to produce high-quality products and sell to these nucleus farmers. Thus, the system helps to reduce the marketing problems of the smallholder irrigators. The main public-sector participants in FLID include some district departments of agriculture, the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and the Northern Development Authority, formally called Savanna Accelerated Development Authority. Notes 1. The well-known ones are Dizengoff, Reiss & Co. (Ghana) Ltd., and PumpTech, Inc. Dizengoff and Reiss & Co. Ltd. have networks in all 10 regional capitals and other big towns in the country. They, in addition to PumpTech, are known to have post-sale maintenance of irrigation equipment through agents, though adequacy and effectiveness are a concern to many irrigators. 2. Examples include Sugarland Ltd. (in Kortorkor) and Abians Co. Ltd. (in Asutsuare), both in the Shai Osudoku district of the Greater Accra Region, and Fulla Farms Ltd. in the Upper West Region. Sugarland Ltd. produces high-quality fruits (mango and guava) and vegetables such as peppers in an “environmentally sustainable manner” on its 30-hectare farm, and Abians Co. produces rice on its 35-hectare irrigated land. Fulla Farms Ltd. produces bananas on an 8-hectare farm at Kokoyiku (in the Upper West Region) by pumping water from the Black Volta River. 16 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Chapter 6 Support Institutions and Advisory Services Irrigation Training, Research, and Extension in Ghana The government of Ghana established the Kpong Irrigation Training College in the early 1960s to train agricultural graduates who wanted to specialize in irrigation extension. It was closed in the 1980s as “irrigation development did not keep pace with the number of graduates from the college.” (Nyamadi, 2017). A suggested policy shift at the time toward small-scale irrigation development that extended to irrigation was not implemented, consequently the irrigation specialists did not have any farmers to whom they could extend the knowledge (Nyamadi 2017). A recent project led by the Ghana Irrigated Development Authority (GIDA)—Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) project—produced an irrigation curriculum for agricultural institutions targeting agricultural colleges in the country. However, the curriculum is yet to be adopted by colleges. Some training and research have also been provided by universities.1 Moreover, irrigation research and training are being provided at the University of Ghana’s Soil and Irrigation Research Center at Kpong in the Eastern Region since the 1960s. However, it is constrained by limited resources and facilities. A West African Centre for Water, Irrigation and Sustainable Agriculture (WACWISA) has also been recently established (January 2019) at the University for Development Studies, Tamale, to train postgraduate students and to undertake research in agricultural water management, irrigation technology and sustainable agricultural and food systems. It is one of the World Bank-assisted African Centers of Excellence (ACE). The Water Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research has also been in the forefront in irrigation research in Ghana. Several international research institutes, particularly the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), have undertaken extensive research in agricultural water management in general and irrigation in particular in Ghana. A few nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as Care International, have assisted farmer-led irrigation (FLI) in Ghana. Information on Surface Water and Groundwater Availability, Output Market, Input-Output Price Information, and More As discussed in chapters 2 and 3, a lot of information exists on both surface water and groundwater availability in Ghana. Going forward, disaggregated information with respect to specific irrigable areas should ideally be obtained and actions taken to improve and expand both surface water and GW FLID in the country. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 17 Information on output markets as well as output prices are difficult to determine, especially because most irrigated crops are easily perishable. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture collects prices of most agricultural commodities regularly, but prices of irrigated commodities are volatile, especially because both production and marketing of irrigated produce by smallholder farmers are disorganized. Note 1. Department of Agricultural Engineering of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi and the Department of Agricultural Mechanization and Irrigation Technology at the University for Development Studies in Tamale. 18 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Chapter 7 Challenges and Constraints to FLID Water Availability Challenges and Constraints Ghana is generously endowed with both surface water and groundwater resources. However, the country still experiences challenges with water availability, mainly due to limited investments in both surface water and groundwater storage as well as water harvesting, lack of appropriate agricultural water management, and climate change. Although Ghana is not currently constrained by surface water availability, the diverse use of surface water for hydroelectric power, domestic use (including livestock watering), irrigation, and industrial purposes demands their prudent management.1 The silting of many rivers and streams – a result of a lack of enforcement of riverbank protection regulations – has resulted in serious reduction in water capture in the rivers, increased evapotranspiration, and flooding during heavy rains. The growth in population implies an increase in water use, and these factors, combined with climate change and variability, demand greater action in the sustainable management of the country’s surface water resources. Water governance at all levels—national, district, landscape, and community—needs to be streamlined to avoid the problems that can arise from water scarcity. As stated in chapter 3, Ghana’s groundwater potential is substantial and GW irrigation (GWI) can increase with little risk of overexploitation, even in the face of climate change and variability. Promotion of GWI will involve well-informed GW management, monitoring, and control of the way water is extracted. Ghana’s laws on GW have to do with the Water Resources Commission (WRC) regulating GW extraction, and largely for domestic use. The mandate of the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) is focused on surface water irrigation. GWI is not specifically targeted in any irrigation policy statements. Apart from the lack of policies and institutions for GWI – challenges with finance, land tenure, as well as unavailability of appropriate drilling technology, cost of energy (fuel and electricity for pumps), market for irrigated produce, and extension services have been identified as major constraints in GWI in Ghana (Dittoh and Awuni 2011; Dittoh, Awuni and Akuriba 2013; Namara, Gebregzlabher et al. 2013; Obuobi et al. 2013). Land Availability Challenges and Constraints Land tenure persisted as a thorny issue in Ghana, especially for irrigated agriculture.2 Most irrigators— more than 50 percent in the Upper East Region, according to Dittoh, Awuni, and Akuriba (2013)—do not have formal titles to the lands they cultivate. Small-, medium-, and large-scale irrigators need a reasonable degree of security of land tenure for irrigated agriculture to be successful and contribute to increased food production, food security, and incomes. Land leasing for agricultural production in rural areas has become a lucrative business, specifically for irrigated crop production. Informed guidelines related to land leasing, thus, are in need of development. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 19 Scarcity of irrigated land in rural areas is equally a problem, mainly because potential irrigable land is far less available than land for rainfed agriculture, and given the relatively higher profitability of irrigated production, the demand is higher. Moreover, irrigable land will always be in short supply relative to the number of people who can undertake irrigation practices. Additionally, increases in unemployment and availability of empty spaces in cities also led to urban and peri-urban cultivation of vegetables.3 Water for cultivation areas is sourced from streams and gutters and includes wastewater from nearby houses in many of the peri-urban areas in the country. This trend points to a high degree of scarcity of land for irrigation, which is made worse by property developers and the sales of good irrigable lands for buildings across the country. Policies to promote FLID could make irrigated production on peri-urban lands more profitable than sale of the land for urban construction. Lastly, damage to irrigated areas by farm animals presents another challenge. Livestock are often left to roam unattended in several parts of the country during the dry season. Thus, irrigated farms must be fenced, and temporary fencing has been practiced by numerous smallholder irrigators as permanent fencing is expensive, according to farmers. Policy and Institutional Challenges to FLID The current National Irrigation Policy, Strategies and Regulatory Measures (GIDA 2017) categorizes irrigation typologies in terms of funding modalities and farming systems as follows: Non-state-funded Purely state-funded Blended nance schemes schemes schemes 2. High-value 4. High-value 6. High-value 1. Staple 3. Staple 5. Staple horticultural or horticultural or horticultural or crops crops crops industrial crops industrial crops industrial crops FLID can fit into four of the six categorizations: 1, 2, 5, and 6. The major challenge is that GIDA, with its downsized workforce, cannot effectively lead in the implementation of programs and projects aimed at promoting and expanding FLID. GIDA can only continue to perform its policy- making and monitoring roles. An effective institutional framework for the promotion and expansion of FLID should be developed. The district departments of agriculture must be sensitized, and some personnel trained to be the district-level personnel to supervise promotion and expansion of FLID. Another challenge at the policy and institutional levels is inadequate information at watershed or landscape and community levels for effective district-level FLID. There is extensive information on irrigation potential and water resources at the national level, but there is also a need to disaggregate the information at much lower levels for planning and implementation. Capacity building in that area is a necessity for public and private sector actors involved in FLID. 20 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Socioeconomic and Inclusiveness Concerns Regarding women’s participation in irrigation, Van Koppen, Hope, and Colenbrander (2013) observed that women in Ghana possess a stronger say on their irrigated rather than on rainfed plots. This may be so in formal irrigation schemes because it is government policy that at least 30 percent of all developed irrigated land must be for women irrigators, but it is likely not applicable to FLI. Women are involved with their male counterparts in FLID, but there is little information on the status of women in FLID. There will be a need for deliberate incorporation of gender and generational concerns in FLID. Financial Services Challenges and Constraints Access to institutionalized finance for irrigation purposes has been a major challenge, as noted in Chapter 5. The establishment of the Ghana Commercial Agriculture Project (GCAP) and its financial support to FLID has been significant. However, the model does not go far enough to address the financing problems of the smallholder irrigators (outgrowers). The lack of involvement of outgrowers in discussions leading to the support given of mainly medium- and large-scale irrigators has been a great concern to smallholders and to some of the GCAP direct beneficiaries. It will continue to be difficult to access credit if smallholder irrigators are not organized into viable and functioning irrigation farmer-based organizations (FBOs). Constraints of Input and Output Markets and Pricing Availability of inputs has so far not been a serious constraint except for the lack of finance to purchase equipment and the production inputs such as fertilizers by many smallholder irrigators. There have been serious challenges, however, with respect to the marketing of irrigated produce, especially during the peak harvesting periods. The lack of sure markets virtually truncates the value chains. This also has serious implications for the prices at which the produce can be sold. Farmers hardly recover basic production costs during peak harvesting periods. A sustainable solution is processing of the products, which requires goods production and market analyses to determine the viability of such ventures. There should be a relative long-term development plan for irrigated product processing in specific production areas. The tendency has been to rush into the establishment of a processing unit for political considerations rather than prudent business considerations. Hard and Soft Infrastructural Challenges FLID has faced both hard and soft infrastructural challenges. For most smallholders, irrigators have almost no important hard infrastructure. Even use of pumps for surface water lifting and digging of wells for GWI has been based on “zero hard infrastructure.” Promotion and expansion of smallholder FLID should involve the provision of some basic hard infrastructure to be determined by competent irrigation engineers and practitioners. Soft infrastructure in the form of training irrigation extension personnel and irrigators themselves is also necessary for the achievement of sustainable expansion of FLID. Training should be technical and Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 21 relate to socioeconomic and environment issues. Understanding the protection and improvement of ecosystems and ecosystem services in all irrigated environments is a major area that needs emphasis. One of the important advantages of smallholder FLID is the ability to easily combine irrigation with ecosystem enhancements Notes 1. The hydroelectric power plant at Akosombo is already experiencing shortages of water during some drought years. 2. These problems have already been highlighted in Chapter 3. 3. A whole stretch along the Accra-Tema Motorway are irrigated vegetable farms. 22 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Chapter 8 Assessment of Business and Financing Models Typologies of Business or Financing Models and Their Relative Performance Many of the current FLID systems are plagued with numerous constraints that make them unviable or barely viable as business enterprises (in the case of most smallholder systems) or the establishment costs are too high for the farmers (in the case of medium- and large-scale systems). Evans, Giordano, and Clayton (2012) identified land tenure, access to credit and extension services, and lack of adequate infrastructure and market chains as the main issues. Also, insecurity of land tenure can be a serious disincentive for investing in the irrigated land, as noted earlier in Chapter 3. With respect to credit, Otoo et al. (2018) have noted that the market for irrigation inputs is generally undeveloped in Sub-Saharan Africa for rural smallholders, and the situation in Ghana is likely to be worse than the Africa average. In Ghana, most of the investments in FLID, especially in smallholder practices, are from the farmers’ own resources. Namara, Awuni, et al. (2011) undertook an assessment of shallow well groundwater (GW) irrigation (GWI) in the Upper East Region, which shows that shallow well FLID is generally profitable, with losses in some cases. The profitability analysis and existing business models (found in table A.2) indicate that financing of the enterprises is from the farmers’ own resources (self-financing) as no mention is made of interest payments. The main investment cost elements of shallow GW development in Ghana are well drilling and well lining (both functions of well depth) as well as procurement of water-lifting devices, which include rope and bucket, hand pumps, treadle pumps, and motor pumps. The use of motorized pumps was, at the time of the study, limited to riverine shallow wells where yield is sufficiently high (Namara, Awuni et al. (2011). Dittoh, Awuni, and Akuriba (2013) also identified existing business and financing models of similar FLID technologies in the Upper East Region of Ghana (table 8.1), the area with the highest smallholder-irrigated area in the country, as indicated in Chapter 2. The information was collected during the 2010–11 irrigation season (October 2010 to April 2011). Table 8.1 shows that the highest average net revenue per farm family (US$1,742.93) was obtained by surface water motor pump irrigators; but the per acre amount (US$631.51) was dominated by GW bucket-fetch irrigators. If the latter could increase the area under cultivation, it would be the best option in terms of returns per family and per acre. The surface water motor pump technology in this particular study (table 8.2) is the same as the riverine seasonal shallow well technology in table A.5. The two studies, therefore, clearly indicate the higher profitability of motorized pump technologies over other FLID technologies. Dittoh, Bhattarai, and Akuriba (2013) have identified some existing FLID business and financing models across the West African arid and semiarid areas (table 8.2). As shown in the table, the watering can/bucket-fetch technology (using surface water or shallow wells) presented low investment costs. It is no wonder, then, that it had been the main water-lifting technology for FLID for a long time in the West African sub-region. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 23 TABLE 8.1. Relative Total Costs and Net Revenues by Irrigation Type in Bawku-West and Talensi/Nabdam Districts (Upper East Region) Groundwater Surface water Surface water Surface water Item bucket fetch bucket fetch motor pump gravity flow A. Average irrigated area (area per irrigator or farm family) 0.69 1.16 3.31 0.52 B. Average depreciated cost of equipmenta 3.76 2.32 85.01 2.33 (per irrigator) (US$) C. Average cash expenditureb on farm inputs 85.38 98.66 711.30 44.67 (per irrigator) (US$) D. Average imputed family labor costc 85.68 40.89 135.49 45.75 (per farm family) (US$) E. Average total cost (per average area under irrigation) 174.82 141.87 931.80 92.75 (US$) (B+C+D) F. Average total cost per acre (US$) (E/A) 253.36 122.30 281.51 178.37 G. Average gross revenued (per farm family) (US$) 610.56 717.14 2674.73 192.03 H. Average net revenue (per average area under irrigation) 435.74 575.27 1,742.93 99.28 (US$) (G−E) I. Average net revenue per acre (US$) (G/A) 631.51 495.92 526.56 190.92 Source: Dittoh, Awuni, and Akuriba 2013. Notes: a. Buckets, watering cans, hoes, cutlasses, sickles, as well as pumps in the case of pump irrigators. b. Includes mainly expenditure on planting and fencing materials, inorganic and organic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, fuel for pumps, and hired labor, but may also include rentals of tractors, bullock, and ploughs. c. Obtained by estimating total family labor days used and average market wage rates. d. Obtained by estimating total crop harvests and average market prices. Prices of vegetable crops vary widely within and between seasons. TABLE 8.2. Investment Costs and Net Annual Returns (Profits) (in US$) for Affordable Micro-Irrigation for Vegetables (AMIV) Systems per 0.05 Hectares (500 Square Meters) Irrigators’ Net preference Specific cases used Payback annual ranking of as examples for Investment period return Irrigated system systems (1 = best) profitability analysis costs (US$) (years) (US$) Permanent well/ boreholes/tubewells, 1 Balayere, Niger 618.91 3.94 33.28 motorized pump system Ndiar, Senegal 675.43 1.00 540.46 Surface water, motorized pump basin 2 River Niger in 266.74 6.01 -9.00 system (individual) Segou, Mali Surface water, motorized pump basin 3 Korania, Upper East 385.00 1.17 253.00 system (communal or group) Region, Ghana Permanent well, watering can/bucket- 4 Niessega, Burkina 426.74 1.42 215.20 fetch system Faso Balayere, Niger 299.57 1.20 189.00 Shallow well, watering can/bucket-fetch 5 Zangum, Northern 47.00 0.16 281.50 system Region, Ghana Surface water, watering can/bucket- 6 River Niger in 92.82 0.63 128.83 fetch system Segou, Mali Source: Dittoh, Bhattarai, and Akuriba 2013. 24 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana As expected, technologies that used the motorized pump had much higher investment costs, and if the motorized pump is combined with a borehole or deep well, then the cost would go far above the means of most smallholder farmers. Net annual returns, as shown in table 8.2, do not clearly indicate whether any particular water-lifting technology is more profitable even though the irrigators’ preference is the use of motorized pumps (because the manual lifting technologies are tedious). The fact that this computation was done based on a small area of 0.05 hectares may be the reason the results do not show any clear indication of which lifting technology is more profitable. With very small areas, watering can/bucket fetch can easily be competitive, but with larger areas, the use of pumps tends to be more efficient. The low profitability may also be a result of the differences in the cost of fuel and other factors in the different countries. A shortcoming of the comparison of the technologies in table 8.2 is represented by the differences in the socioeconomic conditions in the countries examined. Even though the use of the treadle pump has declined dramatically in Ghana, it is still an existing FLID technology. Adeoti et al. (2007) assessed the use of the treadle pump for irrigation in the Volta and Ashanti regions of Ghana and obtained cost-and-return information (table 8.3). Table 8.3 indicates that, on average, irrigators in the Volta and Ashanti regions who adopted the treadle pump had a 37.4 percent higher net income than those who did not. In Ghana, the SOKA pump (a treadle pump) was designed to make use of local materials and fabrication techniques (AfDB et al. 2007). However, farmers became frustrated because of the tedium of operations, frequent breakdowns, and the fact that it cannot be used over large areas of land (AfDB et al. 2007). The desire of most treadle pump users was to shift to motorized pumps. Irrigated urban and peri-urban vegetable production has also served as an important FLID system. Danso et al. (2002) compared the revenue generation potential of different farming systems, including irrigated production in Kumasi (table 8.4). The results indicate that profitable irrigation businesses can be TABLE 8.3. Income from Irrigated Farms in the Volta and Ashanti Regions of Ghana Per farm Per hectare Total revenue Total cost Net income Total revenue Total cost Net income (US$) (US$) (US$) (US$) (US$) (US$) Adopters Volta 847 263 582 1,883 588 1,295 Ashanti 1,865 531 1,334 2,361 672 1,689 All respondents 1,361 409 952 2,062 619 1,443 Non-adopters Volta 758 290 468 1,263 484 779 Ashanti 816 201 615 1,511 371 1,140 All respondents 856 247 609 1,476 426 1,050 Source: Adeoti et al. 2007. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 25 TABLE 8.4. Revenue Generated in Different Farming Systems in Kumasi, 2002 Typical farm Net revenue (US$) per Location Farming system size (ha) farm size, per year Rural/peri-urban Rainfed maize or maize/cassava 0.5–0.9 200–450 Peri-urban Dry-season vegetable irrigation only (garden 0.4–0.6 140–170 eggs, pepper, okra, cabbage) Peri-urban Rainfed maize combined with dry-season- 0.7–1.3 300–500 irrigated vegetables Urban Year-round irrigated vegetable farming 0.05–0.2 400–800 (lettuce, cabbage, spring onion) Source: Danso et al. 2002. developed around urban and peri-urban irrigated production. However, most of the inland valleys in towns and cities that supported irrigated vegetable production have been or are being sold for housing purposes. FLID Business and Financing Models That Can Be Scaled Up The enumeration of the existing FLID business models clearly indicates great potential for the develop- ment of FLID. Most of the activities were undertaken through self-financing by smallholder irrigators. That means if government and the organized private sector can recognize the potential that can be taken advantage of by investing in FLID, irrigated agriculture in Ghana can pick up dramatically. There is great potential for expanding FLID and making it a successful business venture in Ghana, but several constraints of the sector must be removed. First and foremost is improvement in water management practices. Others include land tenure, finance, inadequate infrastructure, haphazard marketing systems, and lack of extension services. Most of these can be overcome if concerted effort is undertaken by the government, private sector, development partners, and other stakeholders to develop and expand FLID in Ghana. This section briefly describes several possible business and financial models that can be developed when credible data is available. The business models developed would have to be mindful of the fact that almost all development initiatives have multiple goals that go beyond the short-run profit motives of individual irrigators (Otoo et al. 2018). Potential business and financial models that can be scaled-up may be categorized into irrigated production business models, irrigation service provision business models, and a mixture of production and service models. Irrigated Production Business Models The following are promising irrigated production business models that can be developed when adequate data are available. The first six are modifications of what Dittoh, Bhattarai, and Akuriba (2013) termed irrigated pathways. None of the models listed is mutually exclusive. Two or more of them can be combined depending on location, source of water, lifting technologies, and so forth. 26 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Specialized Irrigated Vegetable and Fruit Production for Export and the Local Market Some tropical vegetables and fruits, such as green beans, butternut squash, bananas, mangoes, and pineapples, have considerable demand in Europe and North America. The present trend is for foreign-supported investors (who are incidentally medium- and large-scale farmer-led irrigators) to produce such crops. Smallholder producers should be able to participate in the process either as outgrowers or as farmer groups. Golden Exotics Ltd. is such a large-scale FLID establishment. The company has had problems with the quality of the produce of outgrowers, so there are areas for improvement so smallholder farmers can participate. Such an irrigation business model will require considerable fund investment and capacity building of the smallholder farmers. Commercialization of Indigenous Vegetables through Production under Irrigation Indigenous vegetables are known to contain considerable amounts of important vitamins and minerals as well as have important medicinal properties (Amisah et al. 2002). Their production is already being undertaken by women in almost all farming households in Ghana under rainfed conditions. Production under irrigation is also now becoming considerable because of growing demand in urban areas and can be improved further if packaging is improved. Formalizing the production of indigenous vegetables under irrigation assures the residents of urban areas of constant supplies of these vegetables during both the wet and dry seasons. Irrigated Vegetable and Livestock Integration Systems Livestock is important in the arid and semiarid areas of West Africa. Irrigated vegetable-livestock integration ensures that livestock get both adequate water and some supplementary feed. The manure of the animals, in turn, is important as a complementary input in irrigated vegetable production. According to Ayariga (2011), irrigated agriculture’s profitability potential is in the multifunctional use of irrigated water, which parts of the Northern and Upper regions of Ghana are demonstrating. Promotion of Urban and Peri-Urban Vegetable Production Urban and peri-urban vegetable production has been considerable in Ghana over several decades (Drechsel and Keraita 2014) because it has been a major source of employment and wealth creation for many young people in urban areas. There is also considerable demand for vegetables produced in urban and peri-urban areas, which is one of many other advantages of this business model. Promotion of the Production of Organic Vegetables and Fruits The “chemicalization” of agricultural products, especially vegetables and fruits, is causing significant anxiety that gives impetus to the development of organic vegetables and fruits. There is a premium for organic vegetables, especially amongst higher income consumers. This could be a stand-alone business model or could be combined with the urban/peri-urban irrigated model. Nucleus Farmer (or Off-taker)/Outgrower Schemes and Contract Farming These are well-known systems that have worked elsewhere. Success requires social engineering to ensure that all agreements and deadlines are adhered to. The medium- and large-scale systems are usually the nucleus farmers, and off-takers can be processing firms. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 27 Communal Ownership of Small Reservoirs and Dugouts This is a system that is already in practice but needs to be uplifted by putting in some degree of social innovation to ensure that the governance system is progressive and focused on operating the irrigation system in a more business-like fashion. Private Ownership of a Small Reservoir/Dugout This system is uncommon because of the high cost of constructing a small reservoir. However, it is a model worth promoting if private individuals are ready to invest in it. Shallow and Deep Groundwater Using Different Drilling and Pumping Techniques These are common prevailing FLID systems in the country. Investment in the water systems to make them more permanent is required, as well as purchase of pumps and overhead tanks. Better water management systems such as drip irrigation will be useful, though that requires substantial investment ­ in terms of funding and training. Inland Valley Water Capture Systems for Paddy and Dry-Season Vegetables This is also a well-known and practiced FLID system. It has had some promotion by the government through the Low Rice Development Project. The main drawback is the land tenure system. Solar Pump Irrigation Systems (Small- and Medium-Scale) One of the main constraints to FLID is the high cost of pumping water. Both fossil fuels and electricity have been expensive relative to returns from irrigation. The cost of installing a solar system is beyond the capability of most smallholder farmers. However, an external financing system for such a business model could be established. Irrigation Service Provision Business Models Several types of services can be provided to irrigators. They range from sales and maintenance of equip- ment and inputs to aggregation and marketing of produce. Sale and Maintenance and Rental of Pumps (Petrol, Diesel, Electric) Sales and maintenance as well as rental of all types of irrigation pumps should be a lucrative business venture. There are already many people in that trade, but most are stationed in big towns and cities. A business model that targets the rural areas where irrigation takes place will be viable. Maintenance of pumps and irrigation equipment in rural communities is relatively easy because “motor-kings” (tricycles) can get to nearly every part of the rural areas. ­ Sale and Maintenance of Solar Pumps Solar energy for irrigation is becoming important. There are already several types of solar pumps, which are suitable in all parts of the country and almost universally preferred to fuel pumps or any other source of energy. 28 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Provision of Irrigation Production Inputs (Land Preparation Equipment, Vegetable Seeds, Fertilizers, and So Forth) There are several components of irrigation that are specialized. Vegetable seeds production, for example, requires some expertise that can be a niche for an entrepreneur. Product Aggregation and Other Marketing Services The development of the marketing component of the various irrigated product value chains is import- ant especially because it has important gender implications. Women are more involved in the marketing of irrigated products than production. Thus, inclusiveness and equity considerations of the business models can be easily seen in the development of irrigated product marketing business models. Mixed Production/Service Provision Model Traditional mixed production/service provision businesses are basically vertical integration businesses where the production companies also deal in inputs and/or aggregate and sell products. The models of interest here are however based on commodity value chain concepts. Irrigated Agriculture Cluster Models The models envisaged here have to do with the application of the concept of agricultural clusters to irrigated production. An agricultural cluster is an aggregation of value chain actors: farmers, aggrega- tors, and enterprises that provide inputs and services such as farm inputs and finance, and other rel- evant value chain actors coming together as business partners in a mutually beneficial way to advance a common interest. In this case, it is the production and sale of an irrigated product(s). Agricultural clusters are governed by business models for the common good of all actors along the value chains. Each one should endeavor to have an effective communication platform that involves all actors along a value chain. Possible Sources of Financing FLID has almost always been self-financing. Village savings and loans schemes should ideally be pro- moted by irrigation farmer-based organizations, but these structures do not exist in most of the FLID areas. They will, therefore, need to be put in place by well-informed behavior change communication processes. However, self-financing sources can only maintain the status quo, so there is a need for a well-planned injection of funds into FLID agriculture in Ghana. Given the past and current difficulties associated with agricultural financing in Ghana, the bulk of funding for the improvement and expansion of FLID should go through a well-structured system (or institution) such as a national fund for irrigated agriculture with clear guidelines on how it will be administered and what proportions should be allo- cated to smallholders as well as medium- and large-scale producers. Indeed, at least 75 percent of the fund should aim at the smallholders because they have limited access to credit. Disbursements of funds should be by a functional Information and Communication Technology (ICT) system with a well-designed system for recovery by the same ICT system. The decisions as to who qualifies will be made through the irrigated farmer-based organizations. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 29 The money for the fund should be sourced by the government of Ghana from the World Bank and the African Development Bank. The government must contribute in cash up to 10 percent of the fund required. The Ghanaian civil society organizations and relevant nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) should be able to contribute to discussions as to how best to administer the funds. Disbursements should be based on well-prepared and feasible business plans. The National Fund for Irrigated Agriculture structure should help irrigators produce business plans. The Role of the Ghanaian Government and NGOs in Expanding FLID The government has a crucial role to play in promoting and expanding FLID. However, to ensure that things are done correctly—devoid of partisan politics and misuse of any assistance—development partners, civil society organizations, relevant knowledge groups (such as irrigation researchers), and relevant NGOs in the country should be involved in deciding the role of all main stakeholders. Irrigation NGOs in particular should be involved in deciding how to expand FLID in the country and how to disburse loans to irrigators. They will also be crucial in extending and monitoring irrigated activities. The Ghana Irrigation Development Authority with its limited staff, it can only be involved with policy, technical support, and limited monitoring and evaluation. Monitoring and impact evaluation should be at the district level and handled by the District Departments of Agriculture with assistance from relevant knowledge institutions. Examples of Attempts at FLID in the rest of Africa The Ghana Commercial Agriculture Project model described in this chapter may be regarded as the main model for FLID. While it has several shortcomings, it can be modified as needed. The World Bank–assisted Fadama project in Nigeria is one of the best examples of a FLID project. Many researchers have acclaimed it as highly successful (Achoja 2014; Afolabi 2010; Bature, Sanni, and Adebayo 2013). While it cannot be fully implanted in Ghana or other African countries, it is a point for an extensive FLID learning experience. South Africa has a well-developed water resources and irrigation system, but as in other African countries, smallholder FLID was ignored for a long time. 30 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana Appendix A TABLE A .1. Typologies and Their Characteristics by Locations in the Upper East, Upper West, and Northern Regions of Ghana Estimated number of Estimated households/ Region Irrigation typology (sources of water) areas (ha) farmers Major crops cultivated Upper SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 29,200 73,000 Onions, tomatoes, sweet East peppers, leafy vegetables, SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) 7,500 25,000 mangoes, rice, green maize, (only FLID) eggs. SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 9,400 31,000 SH-UPI (streams, shallow wells, wastewater, and 6 40 Leafy vegetables. pipe water) PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 560 5 Onions, tomatoes, sweet peppers, leafy vegetables, PLI (rivers and dams) 750 1 mangoes, rice. Upper SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 18,500 52,900 Onions, tomatoes, sweet West peppers, leafy vegetables, SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) 2,200 11,000 mangoes, rice, green maize. (only FLID) SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 4,100 20,500 SH-UPI (streams and shallow wells) 3 20 Leafy vegetables. PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 320 3 Mangoes, rice, maize. PLI (rivers and dams) 0 0 — Northern SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 30,300 67,300 Onions, tomatoes, sweet peppers, leafy vegetables, SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) 3,200 12,800 mangoes, rice, butternut (only FLID) squash, green maize. SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 2,850 11,400 SH-UPI (streams and shallow wells) 12 80 Leafy vegetables, green maize, lettuce, cabbage. PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 880 6 farm enterprises Rice, mangoes, seed sorghum, maize, soybeans. PLI (rivers and dams) 1,250 2 farms enterprises Source: Estimated by author from varied published and unpublished sources, field visits and key informant interviews, 2018. Note: — = not available; FLID = farmer-led irrigation; ha = hectare; PLI = private large-scale irrigation; PMI = private medium-scale irrigation; SH-GWI = smallholder groundwater irrigation; SH-SWI = smallholder surface water irrigation; SH-UPI = smallholder urban and peri-urban irrigation. Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 31 TABLE A .2. Typologies and Their Characteristics by Location in the Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, and Eastern Regions of Ghana Estimated number Estimated of households/ Region Irrigation typology (sources of water) areas (ha) farmers Major crops cultivated Brong SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 15,150 33,600 Onions, tomatoes, sweet Ahafo peppers, local leafy vegetables, SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) 2,400 12,000 exotic vegetables (lettuce, (only FLID) cabbage, and so on). SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 1,540 7,700 SH-UPI (streams and shallow wells) Negligible 0 Leafy vegetables, green maize. PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 0 0 — PLI (rivers and dams) 0 0 — Ashanti SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 5,500 18,000 Onions, tomatoes, sweet SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) 1,500 10,000 peppers, leafy vegetables, (only FLID) mangoes, rice SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 1,350 9,000 SH-UPI (streams, shallow wells, wastewater, and 25 16,500 Local leafy vegetables, exotic pipe-borne water) vegetables PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 250 16,500 Tomatoes, local leafy vegetables, exotic vegetables PLI (rivers and dams) 0 0 — Eastern SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 14,450 32,000 Exotic vegetables, mangoes, SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) 1,250 6,250 green maize, rice (only FLID) SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 3,020 15,100 SH-UPI (streams and shallow wells) 3 20 Exotic and local green vegetables, garden eggs PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 320 3 firms Maize, rice, exotic vegetables PLI (and dams) 0 0 — Source: Estimated by the author from varied published and unpublished sources, field visits, and key informant interviews in 2018. Note: — = not available; FLID = farmer-led irrigation; ha = hectare; PLI = private large-scale irrigation; PMI = private medium-scale irrigation; SH-GWI = smallholder groundwater irrigation; SH-SWI = smallholder surface water irrigation; SH-UPI = smallholder urban and peri-urban irrigation. TABLE A .3. Typologies and Their Characteristics by Location in Volta, Greater Accra, Central, and Western Regions of Ghana Estimated Estimated number of Region Irrigation typology (sources of water) areas (ha) households Major crops cultivated Volta SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 17,600 29,300 Shallots, tomatoes, sweet peppers, okra, rice, green SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) (only FLID) 1,550 7,750 maize, local leafy vegetables, SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 4,500 22,500 exotic vegetables. SH-UPI (streams and shallow wells) Negligible 0 — PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 350 3 firms Fruits (bananas, pineapple, and so on), maize, rice. PLI (rivers and dams) 4,200 3 firms table continues next page 32 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana TABLE A .3. continued Estimated Estimated number of Region Irrigation typology (sources of water) areas (ha) households Major crops cultivated Greater SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 15,500 25,800 Maize, exotic vegetables, rice. Accra SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) (only FLID) 2,500 12,500 SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) 3,050 15,250 SH-UPI (streams, shallow wells, wastewater, and 90 600 Exotic vegetables, green beans. pipe-borne water) PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 1,100 7 firms Fruits (bananas), maize, rice, exotic vegetables. PLI (rivers and dams) 2,600 4 firms Central SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 4,500 15,000 Exotic vegetables. SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) (only FLID) 1,250 6,250 SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) Negligible 0 — SH-UPI (streams and shallow wells) Negligible 0 — PLI (rivers and dams) 0 0 — Western SH-SWI (rivers and streams) 7,500 25,000 Rice, green maize, tomatoes, garden eggs, exotic vegetables. SH-SWI (dams and dugouts) (only FLID) 500 2,500 SH-GWI (shallow and deep wells and boreholes) Negligible 0 — SH-UPI (streams and shallow wells) 5 35 Exotic vegetables. PMI (rivers, dams, and groundwater) 0 0 — PLI (rivers and dams) 0 0 — Source: Estimated by author from varied published and unpublished sources, field visits and key informant interviews, 2018. Note: — = not available; FLID = farmer-led irrigation; ha = hectare; PLI = private large-scale irrigation; PMI = private medium-scale irrigation; SH-GWI = smallholder groundwater irrigation; SH-SWI = smallholder surface water irrigation; SH-UPI = smallholder urban and peri-urban irrigation. TABLE A .4. Examples of Medium- and Large-Scale FLID in Ghana Medium- and large- Irrigated scale FLID farm Location area (ha) Brief description of enterprise Golden Exotic Ltd. Asutsuare, GAR, SOD 1,200 Produces mainly bananas and pineapples for export. Plans to increase area to about 2,700 ha. VegPro Ghana Ltd. GAR, SOD, Togorme About 1,070 Produces vegetables and fruits (avocados, mangoes, butternut squash, chilies, and baby corn). It is associated with VegPro Kenya. Anyako Farms Ltd. GAR, SOD, Togorme 500 (90 for Produces maize and rice. Plans to expand to 1,500 outgrowers) hectares. GCAP-assisted. GADCO Ltd. North Tongu District, About 600 Produces and mills rice. Plans to increase area to more Sogakope, VR than 3,000 ha on two sites (KIS and Weta). Eden Tree Dodoekope, South Tongu 110 Produces cabbage, spring onions, lettuce, sweet peppers, District, VR and chili peppers. It was established in 1997 and specializes in the processing, packaging, and supply of fresh vegetables. table continues next page Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana 33 TABLE A .4. continued Medium- and large- Irrigated scale FLID farm Location area (ha) Brief description of enterprise Brazil Agro Business Kpenu, South Tongu About 411 Produces rice. Group Ltd. District, VR Babator Irrigated Bole-Bamboi District, NR. 356 Plans to have a nucleus farm of about 3,800 ha and Farming Hub ingrower block of 1,500 ha for about 1,000 small farmers. It is an AgDevCo project. Arima Farms Ghana Central Gonja District, NR, 500 Produces rice, maize, and soybeans. Target is 7,000 ha. Ltd. Yapei. USAID Feed the Future FinGAP involvement. Kukobila-Nasia Farms Kukobila, NR, Savelugu 128 (50 for Produces mangoes, maize, soybeans, sorghum (seed), and Ltd. Municipal. outgrowers) butter squash. IWAD Ghana Ltd. Mamprugu-Moadori 400 Produces maize, sorghum (seed), rice, soybean (seed), District, NR, Yagaba. cowpea, and sugarcane. Plans to expand to 5,000 (medium term of five years) and 15,000 (long term). GCAP- and Netherlands government–assisted. Akandem Farms Ltd. Builsa North District, 200 Produces maize, rice, peppers, and tomatoes. Chuchiliga, UER Ariku Farms Ltd. Bawku West District, 200 Produces rice, maize, millet, sorghum, soybeans, cowpea, Sambologu, UER mangoes, peppers, tomatoes, and onions. Zebango Royal Farms Bawku West District, 160 Produces maize, rice, cowpea, and soybeans. Ltd. Binaba, UER Sources – Arima Farms Ghana Ltd.: http://agrifinanceghana.org/business/arima-farms-ghana-limited; Babator Irrigated Farming Hub: https:// www.agdevco.com/our-investments/by-investment/BABATOR-IRRIGATED-FARMING-HUB; GCAP-assisted enterprises: Social and Environmental Management Plans 2017. Note: FLID = farmer-led irrigation; GAR = Greater Accra Region; GCAP = Ghana Commercial Agriculture Project; ha = hectare; NR = Northern Region; SOD = Shai Osudoku district; UER = Upper East Region; VR = Volta Region. TABLE A .5. Profitability Analysis of Shallow Wells Groundwater Irrigation Technologies in the Upper East Region Riverine seasonal Category In-field seasonal shallow well shallow well Permanent shallow well Tomato Pepper Tomato Pepper Tomato Pepper Gross income (US$/ha) 1,493.70 1,719.70 2,570.00 1,255.40 605.10 1,611.90 Total variable cost (US$/ha) 1,046,30 1,730.80 1,221.40 675.90 912.30 1,373.00 Fixed cost (US$/ha) 13.70 13.70 83.80 83.80 84.70 84.70 Total cost (US$/ha) 1,060.00 1,744.50 1,305.20 759.70 997.00 1,457.70 Net revenue (return to land 433.70 −24.80 1,264.80 495.70 −391.90 154.20 and management) (US$/ha) Source: Namara, Awuni, et al. 2011. Note: ha = hectare. 34 Assessment of Farmer-Led Irrigation Development in Ghana References Abric, S., M. B. Sonou, B. 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