BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Suggested citation: World Bank. Building Code Checklist for Fire Safety (English). Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group. Credits: The World Bank Group Cover image: Warsaw, Poland. A fire at the Warsaw Hub construction site. © GrandWarszawski | Dreamstime.com Back cover image: Krabi, Thailand. Haze caused by forest fires, © Nutkamol Komolvanich | Dreamstime.com This document is the property of the World Bank. It is permissible to copy and use any of the material in this report provided that the source is appropriately acknowledged. Further information is available from: © The World Bank 2023 Adaptations—If you create an adaptation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank. 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RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS: The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Graphic design: Miki Fernández/ULTRA designs, Inc. Table of Contents Acknowledgement 5 List of Acronyms 6 1. Overview 8 2. Introduction 11 3. Objectives 15 4. Guidance 17 5. Key Concepts of Fire Safety Components in Building/Fire Regulations 24 6. Building Code Checklist for Fire Safety 31 Appendix A – Location of Fire Provisions in Building Regulatory Systems 66 Appendix B – Primer on Building Fire Safety Concepts 70 3 4 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Photo: © matsou Acknowledgement This tool was developed by Brian Meacham (Consultant), under the guidance of Keiko Sakoda (Senior Disaster Risk Management Specialist) and Ana Campos Garcia (Lead Disaster Risk Management Specialist). Overall coordination was provided by Kristal Peters (Consultant). Valuable technical inputs and advice were provided by following global experts: Ai Sekizawa, Antonio Cicione, Colleen Wade, and Kiyoshi Fukui. The team also appreciate peer review comments from Artessa Saldivar-Sali (Senior Infrastructure Specialist, World Bank), Carina Fonseca Ferreira (Disaster Risk Management Specialist), Joaquin Toro Landivar (Lead Disaster Risk Management Specialist), Katherine Coates (Consultant), and Julia Ratcliffe (Consultant). We thank the World Bank’s Global Corporate Solutions Translation and Interpretation Services for editorial assistance, and Miki Fernández for graphic design. 5 6 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY List of Acronyms AS Standards Australia ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials BCL Building Control Regulations BRCA Building Regulatory Capacity Assessment BRR Building Regulation for Resilience BSL Building Standards Law BSI British Standards Institution BWOF Building Warrant of Fitness CE Conformité Européenne CEN European Committee for Standardization CMs Compliance Documents CO Carbon Monoxide CO2 Carbon Dioxide CTIF International Association of Fire and Rescue Services DRM Disaster Risk Management DtS Deemed-to-Satisfy ECC Emergency Command Center EU European Union EVCCP Emergency Voice Communication Control Panel FACP Fire Alarm Control Panel FACU Fire Alarm Control Unit FAS Fire Alarm System FRR Fire Resistance Rating FSL Fire Standards Law HVAC Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning IBC International Building Code ISO International Organization for Standardization ITM Inspection, testing, and maintenance LMICs Low- and Middle-Income Countries NBC National Building Code NCC National Construction Code NFPA National Fire Protection Agency NZS Standards New Zealand THs Technical Handbooks UL Underwriters Laboratories Urban FRAME Urban Fire Regulatory Assessment and Mitigation Evaluation Diagnostic VM Verification Methods WHO World Health Organization 7 8 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 1. Overview Rapid urbanization and population growth are driving the construction of new buildings, with global building stocks expected to double in the next 15 to 20 years.1 While such trends will represent significant development advances and offer economic growth opportunities, concern remains regarding the resilience and safety of new and aging building stocks, increased energy and water consumption, and accessibility of the existing and the evolving built environment and infrastructure that support the living environment and lifestyle. Furthermore, this increase in development will result in greater exposure to climate and disaster risks due to the evolving impacts of climate change depending on where development is located and to what level of standards it is constructed. Additional vulnerability can be compounded in unregulated and informal settlements where buildings are constructed with high density on risky sites, using substandard building materials and failing to implement safe design and construction practices. The combination of urbanization and climate change pose significant challenges for countries and cities to form a comprehensive set of regulatory and policy instruments to achieve a more resilient, sustainable, and accessible built environment. The World Bank’s Disaster Risk Management (DRM) engagements support countries to design and implement diversified investments for risk reduction and preparedness. Among various approaches, improving the building regulatory framework and implementation capacity proves to be one of the most cost-effective means of reducing underlying climate and disaster risks,2 in combination with investments for physical structural improvements/retrofits. In this context, the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR)’s global line of work Building Regulation for Resilience (BRR) aims to promote resilient, green, healthy, and inclusive built environments through enhanced regulatory frameworks and implementation capacities. The BRR offers technical support and advisory services for governments by analyzing the existing regulatory framework and capacity of target countries utilizing the Building Regulatory Capacity Assessment (BRCA) methodology, which identifies key issues and targeted recommendations for countries for priority actions, potentially as part of the DRM investments financed by the World Bank or any other financial sources. 1 Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction, 2022 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction https://globalabc.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/2022%20Global%20Status%20Report%20for%20 Buildings%20and%20Construction_1.pdf 2 https://www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/building-regulation-resilience-0 Chapter 1 As the BRR expands, demand has grown for technical advice on details of building codes based on global knowledge and practice. Responding to such requests, the BRR has developed a set of checklists that support countries in assessing the comprehensiveness and depth of their building code provisions, focusing on four major elements: structural resilience, fire safety, green buildings, and universal accessibility. This will help countries (or professionals commissioned by governments) to assess their own codes against consolidated checklists referring to global good examples. The methodology has been developed to target subject matter experts in each discipline with basic engineering and architectural background. While each document presents a methodology, users can contact the GFDRR for worksheets for convenient use. This document presents a checklist for fire safety. Figure 1. Objectives of different BRR tools Building Code Checklists: Building Act A set of tools to review provisions of building code Building Code focusing on four major topics Building Regulatory Objective, Functional Requirements, structural Capacity Assessment Legislation resilience Performance Criteria (BRCA): (Mandatory) A tool to reviews fire safety regulatory framework overall Alternative Solutions Verification Acceptable green Methods Solutions Demonstrate buildings Compliance with Performance Criteria universal Cited Information designs Guidance Information Source: Figure adapted and modified from the original figure by Building and maintaining New Zealand’s homes and buildings. 9 Photo: © bermuda cat 2. Introduction The number of people annually who die or America, and other low- and middle-income are injured by fires in formal and informal countries (LMICs). structures, or as a result of large outdoor fires, such as wildland fire, reaches into the several For instance, research has shown that detailed tens of thousands. While the data is scarce to fire incident data are not available for many understand the global baseline, data collected African countries as of writing,5 but where data by the International Association of Fire and are available, the situation is troubling. Figure Rescue Services (CTIF) indicates 30,860 1 illustrates the number of deaths per year for fire-related deaths occurred in 2018 in the 40 South Africa reported by fire brigades, which reporting countries alone.3 Burn injuries from shows an annual increase of approximately fire reported by the CTIF numbered 51,360 in 5–10%. However, based on mortuary data, the the 30 reporting alone.4 These estimates do number of fire-related deaths may be as much not include data from Africa, much of Latin as 4 to 5 times higher.6 3 World Fire Statistics, Report 25, Table 8, CTIF, 2020 (available at https://www.ctif.org/sites/default/ files/2020-06/CTIF_Report25.pdf, last accessed November 22, 2022). 4 World Fire Statistics, Report 25, Table 9, CTIF, 2020 (available at https://www.ctif.org/sites/default/ files/2020-06/CTIF_Report25.pdf, last accessed November 22, 2022). 5 Africa: Taking fire safety forwards. Fire and Materials. 2021; 45: 999– 1007. https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2894. Walls, RS, Cicione, A, Messerschmidt, B, Almand, K 6 Stats SA. Statistical Release Mortality and Causes of Death in South Africa, 2011: Findings from Death Notification. Pretoria, South Africa: Pretoria; 2014. doi:Statistical release P0309.3, as cited in Walls, RS, Cicione, A, Messerschmidt, B, Almand, K. Africa: Taking fire safety forwards. Fire and Materials. 2021; 45: 999– 1007. https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2894. 11 12 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Figure 2. Number of deaths per year reported by fire brigades in South Africa from 2003 to 20165 900 800 700 Number of fatalities 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 Year In 2018 the World Health Organization (WHO) areas and a 176% increase in population over estimated that 180,000 deaths every year are the past 40 years.8 As urban areas grow, so does caused by burns—the vast majority of which the fire challenge, both in formal and informal occur in LMICs.7 In addition to those who die, construction.5 Within the formal construction the WHO suggests there are millions more sector, lack of adequate regulations and who are left with lifelong disabilities and compliance capacity from design and disfigurements, often with resulting stigma construction through to operations of buildings and rejection. While the WHO data include in use, coupled with a growing tendency burns from sources other than structure fires, toward high-rise developments, can result in it is clear that the actual number of fire-related significant fire losses. This can be seen even in deaths and injuries resulting from structure high-income countries, with tragic fires such as and wildland fires lies between these CTIF and the Grenfell Tower fire in London.9 WHO estimates—many tens of thousands of deaths and millions of injuries. Unregulated, informal settlements are particularly at risk of conflagration and Urban areas in LMICs grow by an estimated frequent distributed fire incidents. This is due 70 million people each year, and low-income to the building materials used, high density of countries have seen a 300% increase in built-up shelters, use of open flame cooking and heating 7 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/burns (last accessed November 22, 2022). 8 UNDRR (2019). Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. https://gar.undrr.org/sites/default/ files/reports/2019-05/full_gar_report.pdf. 9 Homepage | Grenfell Tower Inquiry. Chapter 2 Figure 3. Fire disaster in Imizamo Yethu informal settlement, Cape Town, South Africa 2017 Source: Aletta Harrison, 2017. devices without safety measures, and narrow Moreover, the growth of urban areas leads roads and paths which limit access for fire them to encroach upon forests and wildland apparatus and egress of people. Fires in such spaces, thus increasing the risk of interface settlements can displace thousands of people, areas. One example is the Valparaiso fire in even if casualties are low.10 One example 2014 in Chile, which destroyed around 2,900 is the informal settlement fire in Imizamo houses12 in formal and informal settlements. Yethu, Cape Town, which left 10,000 people This trend extends to high-income countries homeless.11 Obtaining an accurate picture as well, as evidenced from significant wildland of the fire problem is quite difficult, and the and wildland-urban interface fires in Australia, challenges are significant. Europe, and North America in recent years.13 10 For examples, see lists of informal settlement 12 https://emergenciaydesastres.mineduc.cl/ fires at https://www.iris-fire.com/downloads/ incendio-valparaiso/. media-reports-of-is-fires/ (accessed January 13 For example: Filkov, A.I., Cawson, J., Swan, 2020) as well as research on fire spread, such as M.H., Penman, T.D. (2023). Wildland Fire. In: Walls, S.W., Eksteen, R., Kahanji, C. and Cicione, Meacham, B.J., McNamee, M. (eds) Handbook A. (2019). Appraisal of fire safety interventions of Fire and the Environment. The Society of Fire and strategies for informal settlements in South Protection Engineers Series. Springer, Cham. Africa. Disaster Prevention and Management. Vol 28. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94356-1_7; Iss 3. www.emeraldinsight.com/0965-3562.htm. Elhami-Khorasani, N., Ebrahimian, H., Buja, 11 Kahanji C, Walls RS, Cicione A. (2019) Fire spread L. et al. Conceptualizing a probabilistic risk analysis for the 2017 Imizamo Yethu informal and loss assessment framework for wildfires. settlement conflagration in South Africa. Int J Nat Hazards 114, 1153–1169 (2022). https://doi. Disaster Risk Reduct. April 2019. doi:10.1016/j. org/10.1007/s11069-022-05472-y; Fernandez- ijdrr.2019.101146. Anez N, Krasovskiy A, Müller M, et al. Current 2. INTRODUCTION 13 14 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY The trend of increasing number and magnitude mitigation significantly increase the potential of wildland and wildland-urban interface for fire ignition, fire spread, and potential fires is also related to increased temperatures conflagration. Reduction of fire risk requires and wind speeds associated with climate improved urban planning; infrastructure; change.14 This combination of urbanization, building design, construction, and materials; encroachment on the wildland, and climate fire suppression capability; more and better change presents significant challenges for data on the impact of structural fires to inform resource management, planning and zoning, policy; and education and training. These building and fire regulation, and emergency needs and more have been articulated in services. such documents as the Urban FRAME: Urban Fire Regulatory Assessment and Mitigation In addition to the human toll, the global Evaluation Diagnostic16 and the Global Plan for economic impact of fire is staggering as well. a Decade of Action for Fire Safety.17 In the United States alone, the annual cost of fire is estimated to be between 1–2% of GDP, Proven approaches to fire risk reduction totaling US$328.5 billion in 2014.15 through building and fire regulation include appropriate enabling legislation, well-designed In short, urban fire risk is a global problem— and implemented building and fire regulations, one that can be heightened during periods and adequate capacity to undertake building of rapid urban development. Inadequacies in fire safety plan review and construction urban planning, infrastructure and construction inspection. practices related to fire prevention and Wildland Fire Patterns and Challenges in Europe: A Synthesis of National Perspectives. Air, Soil and Water Research. 2021;14. doi:10.1177/11786221211028185. 14 For example, see: Urrutia-Jalabert, R., González, M. E., González-Reyes, Á., Lara, A., and Garreaud, R. 2018. Climate variability and forest fires in central and south-central Chile. Ecosphere 9(4):e02171. 10.1002/ ecs2.2171; Abram, N.J., Henley, B.J., Sen Gupta, A. et al. Connections of climate change and variability to large and extreme forest fires in southeast Australia. Commun Earth Environ 2, 8 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/ s43247-020-00065-8. 15 National Fire Protection Association (2017). Total Cost of Fire in the United States. https://www.nfpa.org/News- and-Research/Data-research-and-tools/US-Fire-Problem/Total-cost-of-fire-in-the-United-States. 16 https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34671#:~:text=The%20Urban%20Fire%20Regulatory%20 Assessment%20and%20Mitigation%20%28Urban,urban%20fire%20risk%20reduction%20projects%- 20and%20investment%20planning. 17 https://wbef.rics.org/globalassets/rics-website/media/decade-of-action-for-fire-safety_november-2021.pdf. 3. Objectives The Building Code Checklist for Fire Safety The scope of fire safety provisions can be aims to assist World Bank teams in the detailed broad, including aspects of fire prevention, review of the fire safety provisions of building structural resilience to fire, active fire and/or fire regulations. detection and signaling systems, automatic and manual fire suppression systems, egress The purpose of this checklist is to facilitate (evacuation) systems, and controls on a robust approach to reviewing fire safety hazardous materials. How these aspects are provisions in building and/or fire regulations addressed can vary widely: they may all be by providing a discussion of fundamental fire contained in one regulation (for example, safety components of building and/or fire the building regulation) or spread across regulations, a systematic approach to review multiple regulations (for example, building fire safety provisions in regulations, and regulations, fire service regulations, and examples of how fire safety provisions are urban planning regulations). The regulatory addressed within a range of exemplar building provisions may be highly detailed specifications regulatory systems. While this checklist can be (that is, prescriptive-based) that are largely applied without expertise and experience in self-contained in the building regulation, or fire safety regulations or design, such expertise they may be function-based, with “high-level” and experience is extremely valuable to help objectives in the building regulation along with navigate some of the complexities of codifying reference to standards and guidelines to be fire safety provisions. followed for detailed design. In some cases, the regulations may reflect a combination of A component of a robust contemporary prescriptive- and function-based approaches building regulatory system is the inclusion of (see Table 1). a comprehensive set of fire safety provisions. 15 16 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY To support countries who have a defined need legislation, and fire legislation—as well as or interest in fire safety regulatory capacity societal capacity-building efforts, the diagnostic beyond review of fire provisions in existing includes an assessment of each area. The focus building and fire codes, the BRR published on fire risk reduction in the built environment the Urban FRAME: Urban Fire Regulatory through regulatory frameworks fits into Assessment and Mitigation Evaluation projects to support national and local capacity Diagnostic. The Urban FRAME diagnostic is building; promote legal and regulatory reforms; designed to support government officials and alleviate the impacts of poverty; and promote project managers, including World Bank Task health and human capital. The diagnostic Team Leaders, in assessing building fire safety is designed to work with other associated regulatory systems to identify critical gaps and assessments and quantitative analyses, opportunities for building and urban fire risk such as the BRR’s BRCA and the Emergency reduction projects and investment planning. Preparedness & Response’s Ready2Respond Diagnostic. The Urban FRAME diagnostic focuses on three critical components of the regulatory Where a more detailed review of fire safety frameworks for building fire safety: (i) legal regulatory provisions is warranted, this and administrative; (ii) development and checklist has been developed to support such maintenance; and (iii) local implementation. needs. Because fire safety crosses regulatory regimes—infrastructure and planning, building 4. Guidance: How to use the Building Code Checklist for Fire Safety When reviewing regulations for fire safety review. Ultimately, for regulatory systems to components, it is helpful to follow a systematic be most effective, a combination of a robust approach that considers the regulatory building regulatory system and adequate provisions in a stepwise manner. The review regulatory and market capacity is required. The should take into account the regulatory and flowchart presented in Figure 4 presents steps market capacity of the jurisdiction under to be taken as part of a systematic review. 4. GUIDANCE: HOW TO USE THE BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 17 18 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Figure 4. Steps to be taken in a systematic review of code provisions for fire safety ➊ ➋ ➌ Understand overall Identify fire-related Undertake a systematic regulatory framework regulations and review chapters Identify relevant ministries, Look for provisions legislation and regulations with Identify which regulations that address each of a bearing on building fire safety, (for example, building, fire, the fundamental fire including planning/zoning, planning, electrical, etc.) safety components and water infrastructure, electric contain relevant chapters or subcomponents according to and gas utilities, building/ sections on the six fundamental the checklist (see Chapter 5), construction, and fire. This may fire safety components and and assess the adequacy of the be available as an outcome subcomponents (see Figure regulatory language, including of a BCRA or Urban FRAME 1) for buildings and where the level of detail provided to engagement. these chapters or sections are assure proper interpretation located. and execution of the regulatory requirement, and/or to refer to • Fire provisions may have standards or guidelines that their own chapter or section provide the necessary level of but are sometimes located detail. as part of the mechanical/ building services chapter or 1. Provisions may be written section. in functional language, as prescriptive-based • Building use/occupancy requirements, or using a classifications may be combination of both. located with fire provisions, 2. The adequacy of the with structural provisions, regulatory language will or in their own chapter or depend on several factors, section (or all three). including: i) the level of detail • Fire resistance may be provided and the clarity of addressed together with the stated provisions; ii) the fire provisions, structural extent to which reference provisions, or both. standards are cited; iii) the uniformity of and/or • Egress (escape) provisions compatibility between the may be with located with fire referenced standards; iv) provisions or in a dedicated the extent to which non- chapter or section. mandatory guidance is included/cited; and v) the uniformity of and/or the compatibility between the guidance. Chapter 4 ➍ ➎ ➏ Assess provisions in Assess interface among Complete checklist and a country context fire and other regulations reporting Consider the regulatory and Review the interface between Summarize findings based on market capacity required to fire-related and other sections completed checklist. The summary interpret and act upon the (for example, planning/zoning, should be presented in a way to regulatory provisions in a structural, mechanical, electrical) highlight identified challenges and manner that can be expected as necessary and appropriate. opportunities for enhancement.   to achieve the fire safety objectives for buildings that are • Coordination with structural is compliant with the regulations. often required. • Consideration may be given to • Coordination with mechanical, the market’s capacity to work electrical, plumbing, and urban with a regulatory document planning may be needed. that is significantly function- based and lacks adequate and consistent reference to accepted standards and guidance—Who will be using regulations? What is their educational background? • Consideration may be also given to the testing/approval/ accreditation systems for materials, products, and systems. 4. GUIDANCE: HOW TO USE THE BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 19 20 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY electrical and mechanical installations in How and Where Fire Safety buildings? Components Are Implemented into Regulation 4. Is the building regulatory framework (approach) functional/performance-based While robust building and fire regulations or prescriptive? incorporate the fire safety components identified above, there is not typically a 5. If the regulatory framework is functional/ one-to-one relationship between the defined performance-based, is there associated components and the provisions within the “deemed-to-satisfy” (DtS) guidance (also regulations. This is because the structure of known as “compliance documents” or building and fire regulations derives from “approved documents”)? national legislation and regulatory models, 6. Are the building (and fire) regulations meaning that building and fire regulations will applied uniformly across the country (a be unique to the country for which they are national system), by a state or territory (a developed, the provisions may be split between federal system), or another way? different regulations (for example, building and fire), and different terminology may be used. 7. What is (or are) the source of reference standards for materials, system design and Factors for consideration when initiating a installation, etc. (for example, country review include the government structure (for Bureau of Standards, International example, centralized national system, federal Organization for Standardization, etc.)? system, etc.), the government ministry(ies) Depending on the answers, a comprehensive or department(s) with responsibility for review of fire safety components in regulations building and fire legislation and regulations, the may require a review of documents associated legislative structure, and the model used for with several government ministries, agencies, development of the building and fire regulation and private-sector entities (in particular, (if any). Specific considerations include: standards). Figure 5 shows a typical structure of building regulatory frameworks. However, 1. Are building and fire regulations under the to some extent, each regulatory frameworks purview of the same ministry? and building regulation will be structured 2. Do building regulations address all fire differently. The structure will largely depend safety components for buildings, or are on the legislative structure used in a country, as some provisions addressed under fire well as the model used to develop the building regulations? regulation (if any). Accordingly, it is difficult to identify precisely where to look in any 3. Does other legislation/regulation contain particular building regulation, fire regulation, requirements relevant to fire safety in or set of building and fire regulations to find buildings, such as electricity infrastructure, references to fire safety provisions. water infrastructure, planning and zoning, and hazardous materials regulation, and Chapter 4 4. The building act (or equivalent) includes Structure of Building Regulatory function-based requirements, and building Framework regulations include primarily prescriptive- When starting a review, it is helpful to based requirements. know that many building and fire regulatory frameworks are variations of one of the Figure 5. Typical structure of following fundamental structures (See Table 1. building regulatory framework For simplicity, reference is made to just building acts and building regulations, but a parallel situation may exist for fire service acts Building and fire regulations): Act 1. The building act (or equivalent) includes Building Code function-based requirements, and the Objective, Functional building regulations include primarily Requirements, Legislation Performance Criteria (Mandatory) prescriptive-based requirements. 2. The building act (or equivalent) includes Alternative function-based requirements, and the Verification Acceptable Solutions building regulations include primarily Methods Solutions Demonstrate function-based requirements. Compliance with Performance Criteria Cited Information • Detailed requirements for compliance with the function-based requirements of the regulations are in mandatory Guidance deemed-to-satisfy (DtS) documents. • Detailed requirements for compliance Information with the function-based requirements of the regulations are in non-mandatory Source: Figure adapted and modified from the original figure by Building and maintaining New Zealand’s homes and buildings. DtS documents. 3. The building act (or equivalent) includes In regulatory structures that are largely function-based requirements, and the function/performance-based, most find it is building regulations include a combination essential to have a robust set of reference of functional, performance-based and DtS documents18 and reference standards prescriptive-based requirements. to support the proper design of fire safety 18 As part of many functional and performance-based building regulatory systems, there are non-mandatory, DtS solutions, which if followed are generally considered to meet the requirements of the building regulation. The DtS documents most generally provide a prescriptive pathway to regulatory compliance. One example is the Approved Documents in England and Wales. Approved Document B provides a largely prescriptive approach to complying with the mandatory fire and egress-related function-based requirements of the Building Regulations—England and Wales. In countries which adopt this approach, reference standards are typically cited in the DtS documents (not in the building regulations). For example, Approved Document B in England and Wales cites standards of the British Standards Institution (BSI) and others that address specifics of standard fire tests for flammability, resistance to fire, alarm systems, etc. 4. GUIDANCE: HOW TO USE THE BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 21 22 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY systems, as well as the adequate review and DtS documents often cite consensus standards approval of these designs. This approach from recognized standards development generally requires a robust capacity in the organizations for detailed requitements on design, enforcement and insurance sectors, material specifications, performance and since such regulatory structures allow certification tests, design requirements, significant flexibility in design. Furthermore, in installation requirements, etc. general, prescriptive building regulations and Table 1. Examples of countries’ regulatory standards and corresponding deemed-to- satisfy documentation Country Regulation DtS Documents Standards (Predominant) Australia Performance-based DtS provisions in National Standards Australia (AS), International Construction Code (NCC) Organization for Standardization (ISO) Canada Objective-based Part B of Regulations Canadian Standards Association, various US standards, including from the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), ISO England Function-based Approved Documents British Standards Institution (BSI), European Committee for Standardization (CEN), ISO, BSI New Zealand Performance-based Compliance Documents Standards New Zealand (NZS), joint AS/NZS standards, ISO In many countries that have performance-based Note also that these tables are representative regulations, there are also verification methods only, since requirements for specific building (VMs), which are largely engineering-based uses may be found in different code volumes guidance (but not standards). For example, or DtS documents. For example, in Australia, VMs are used in Australia, Japan (within the NCC Volume One contains the technical Building Standards Law), New Zealand, and requirements for the design and construction several Nordic countries. of multi-residential, commercial, industrial, and public assembly buildings and some While it is not practicable to provide extensive associated structures. NCC Volume Two examples of how different countries address contains the technical requirements for the all fire safety components in their regulations, design and construction of smaller scale a few specific examples for resistance to buildings including houses, small sheds, fire/fire spread and for fire suppression are carports, and some associated structures. In presented in Table 9 and Table 11, respectively. England, Approved Document B – Fire Safety, Note that these tables focus on where detailed is presented in two volumes: B1, Dwellings, and compliance provisions can be found (including, B2, Buildings other than dwellings. In the US, for example, tables with resistance to fire one- and two-family dwellings fall under the rating for structural elements, or water supply, International Residential Code, and all other pressure and flow requirements for interior buildings fall under the International Building hydrants (standpipes)). Code (IBC), published by the International Chapter 4 Code Council. In the US, these codes only following a different standard, which become promulgated when adopted into could create problems for local authorities law by individual states or jurisdictions. See regarding enforcement and could lead Appendix A for examples of location of the to inconsistency in levels of fire safety in details relating to resistance to fire and internal buildings). hydrant (standpipe) systems compliance in 3. Reference standards are aligned with all different countries’ regulations. aspects of building regulatory system capacity, including product testing, In all regulatory structures, it is essential that approval, and market surveillance (for the consensus standards be cited as uniformly example, it would create challenges if a and consistently as possible to help ensure the US fire test standard were cited, but there following: are no test facilities that can test to that standard and/or materials that comply 1. Potential inconsistencies that may arise with the standard are unavailable in the from mixing incompatible standards are market). minimized. The following chapter provides basic 2. Potential inconsistencies that may arise knowledge on six fundamental fire safety from lack of providing a reference standard components for the built environment. Users for each regulated area (that is, detection, of this tool who are fire safety experts and suppression, smoke control, materials already familiar with key concepts in fire testing, etc.) are minimized. Failing to safety components in building and fire provide standards leaves all decisions to regulations can skip the following section the market, which could result in wide- Chapter 5. Key Fire Safety Components in ranging variation (for example, failing to Building/Fire Regulations and proceed to cite a standard for installation of automatic Chapter 6. Building Code Checklist for Fire sprinklers may lead to each design Safety. 4. GUIDANCE: HOW TO USE THE BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 23 5. Key Fire Safety Components in Building/Fire Regulations Building regulations (and sometimes fire from fire conditions during escape, regulations or a combination of both) in most escape system components, signage, and countries include provisions/requirements emergency lighting. associated with the following six fundamental 4. Fire Suppression: regulatory provisions fire safety components: that address water supply, manual fire suppression systems and equipment, 1. Fire Prevention: regulatory provisions that address the control of potential automatic fire suppression systems and sources of ignition and readily ignitable equipment, and fire extinguishers. materials during building construction and 5. Fire Service Access and Facilities: occupancy. regulatory provisions that address access 2. Resistance to Fire/Fire Spread: for fire apparatus to the building, access regulatory provisions that address the of firefighters within the building, and fire performance-based requirements building equipment and facilities to of structural systems, non-structural support firefighting operations, including compartment barriers, and interior and firefighter lifts. exterior surface materials, openings, 6. Inspection, Test, Maintenance, Plans building and lot separation, and smoke & Training: regulatory provisions that control. address inspection, test and maintenance 3. Occupant Safety, Refuge and Egress: (ITM) of fire equipment, fire safety and regulatory provisions that address emergency escape plans and training, fire occupant/occupancy characteristics, safety management of the building, and safety from falls during escape, protection related post-occupancy issues. 24 Chapter 5 While there are many fire safety guidance because while many countries include fire documents that address the concepts safety provisions in building regulations (for embodied in these components—such as the example, Australia, England, and New Zealand), International Fire Safety Standards Coalition’s in some jurisdictions, regulatory requirements International Fire Safety Standards: Common for building fire safety can be found in both Principles document;19 NFPA Standard 550, building regulations and fire regulations, Guide to the Fire Safety Concepts Tree;20 the and sometimes only in fire regulations. For International Fire Engineering Guidelines;21 example, in Japan, resistance to fire/fire spread and ISO Standard 13387-1:1999, Fire safety and occupant safety, refuge, and egress are engineering — Part 1: Application of fire addressed by the Building Standards Law, while performance concepts to design objectives22—none prevention, fire suppression and most aspects of these align specifically with the structure of of fire service access and facilities are found in building (or fire) regulation, and terminology the Fire Service Law.23 In Singapore, fire safety and definitions differ between documents. regulations are all found in the fire regulations, As such, while these are useful guidance specifically, the Code of Practice for Fire documents for fire safety analysis and design, Precautions in Buildings 2018.24 they do not provide guidance for review of regulatory provisions. In addition, depending on whether the regulatory system is function-/performance- To provide a specific regulatory review based or prescriptive-based, detailed provisions diagnostic that aligns with building (and might be found in DtS compliance documents fire) regulation content, six fundamental rather than in the regulation itself. This is fire safety components as listed and defined discussed further in a subsequent section. The above are structured here. Note also that the issue of where fire safety provisions be found phrasing “building (and fire) regulation” is is important when reviewing regulations for used here. As mentioned, this is necessary fire safety, since it means multiple regulations, 19 International Fire Safety Standards: Common Principles, Edition 1, International Fire Safety Standards Coalition, 2020, ISBN 978 1 78321 384 9 (online: https://www.rics.org/globalassets/rics-website/media/news/news-- opinion/fire-safety/ifss-cp-1st-edition.pdf, last accessed December 6, 2022). 20 NFPA 550 – Guide to the Fire Safety Concepts Tree, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, United States, 2022 (free to view online at https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and- standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=550, last accessed December 6, 2022). 21 International Fire engineering Guidelines, Australian Building Codes Board, Canberra, ACT, Australia, 2005 (online: https://www.abcb.gov.au/sites/default/files/resources/2022/Guidelines-international-fire- engineering-2005.pdf, last accessed December 6, 2022). 22 ISO 13387-1:1999, Fire safety engineering — Part 1: Application of fire performance concepts to design objectives, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1999. 23 See for example discussion in, Sekizawa, A. and Notake, H. (2006). “Performance Requirement for Building Fire Safety from the Viewpoint of Firefighting and Rescue Activity,” Fire Science and Technology, Vol.25 No.2 (2006) 147-162 (online: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/fst/25/2/25_2_147/_pdf, last accessed December 6, 2022). 24 Singapore Civil Defence Force. (2018). Fire Code 2018 Table of Contents. SCDF. https://www.scdf.gov.sg/ firecode/table-of-content 5. KEY FIRE SAFETY COMPONENTS IN BUILDING/FIRE REGULATIONS 25 26 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY which may fall under different government Robust and comprehensive building (and/ ministries/agencies, may be required for a or fire) regulations should address each of comprehensive assessment, as may a review them. However, the extent to which they of compliance documents. In jurisdictions are implemented will depend on the fire where the fire safety requirements can be risk profile, fire safety objectives, and the found in multiple regulations, review of just jurisdiction’s building and fire regulatory one regulation would be incomplete. The same capacity. The extent of implementation of each is true for functional-/performance-based of these components may be influenced by any systems where details are found in compliance or all of these factors, along with consideration documents. of risk-benefit-cost balancing. In other words, there may be trade-offs associated with various considerations, ranging from area, height, and There can be further regulatory review construction materials used for the majority complexity due to fire-related items being of buildings to availability and reliability regulated elsewhere as well, such as regulations of fire suppression water supply, capacity for electrical installations, electric utilities, of the design, enforcement, and fire and water supply services, planning, environmental, emergency services community, and the cost of occupational health and safety, and the like. implementation. The specific focus of this diagnostic tool is to support a detailed review of building Fire Safety Subcomponents (and fire) regulations with respect to fire The six fundamental fire safety components safety provisions in view of the foregoing in building (and fire) regulations, along with definitions of the six fundamental fire safety a more detailed set of subcomponents, are components in building (and fire) regulations. presented in Figure 6. Chapter 5 Figure 6. Fundamental fire safety components and subcomponents in regulations Fire Safety/Protection Components of Building/Fire Regulations ➊ ➋ ➌ ➍ ➎ ➏ Fire Resistance Occupant Fire Fire Service Inspection, Prevention to Fire/Spread Safety, Refuge Supression Access and Test, Mainenance, of Fire and Egress Facilities Plans, Training 1.1 Controls on 2.1 Fire resistance 5.1 Access 6.1 ITM for fire 3.1 Fire electrical systems of structural 4.1 Extinguishers for fire apparatus protection detection and appliances system and equipment systems 1.2 Controls on 2.2 Resistance 3.2 Occupant 5.2 Access 6.2 Evacuation solid, liquid, and of interior walls, 4.2 Water and fire service to stairs, hydrants, planning gaseous fuels and ceilings, floors, supply notification hose reels and training appliances and shafts 1.3 Controls on 2.3 Resistance 3.3 Protected 6.3 Fire safety 4.3 Manual 5.3 Firefighter hazardous material to flame spread – means of escape/ management suppression lifts storage interior surfaces refuge plans 3.4 Occupant 5.4 Firefighter 1.4 Controls on 2.4 Resistance to 6.4 Temporary load, travel 4.4 Automatic communications smoking/operations flame spread – use requirements/ distance, exit suppression and command with hot surfaces exterior surfaces permits capacity center 3.5 Occupant/ 1.5 Controls during 2.5 Protection of occupancy construction/ openings in exterior characteristics renovation (vulnerabilities) 2.6 Building/lot 3.6 Safety glazing, separation and protection against exterior fires falls, etc. 2.7 Smoke 3.7 Signage, control/ lighting, emergency management power The dotted blue line shows interdependencies between primary components (that is, egress routes need to be protected). Note that while ‘2.7 Smoke control / smoke management’ is shown here as a subcomponent of ‘Resistance to fire / Spread of Fire’, the topic may be found as its own section, or with ‘Building Services’, or sometimes with ‘Occupant Safety, Refuge and Egress’ in building / fire codes. 5. KEY FIRE SAFETY COMPONENTS IN BUILDING/FIRE REGULATIONS 27 28 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY The fundamental fire safety components and facilities) and acceptable amounts of flammable subcomponents presented in Figure 6 are and combustible liquids and other materials, detailed in the subsequent section as part of the but typically do not address “normal” contents review checklist. The following provides a high- and furnishings (for example, chairs, tables, and level introduction to the concepts embodied bedding). in the structure. Additional discussion on each can be found in Appendix B. 2) Resistance to Fire / Spread of Fire As used here, resistance to fire/fire spread 1) Fire Prevention refers to those features and systems which There are numerous factors that influence resist the influences of, or inhibit the spread the potential for fire ignition in a building and of, fire and sometimes smoke into, out of, and subsequent development of a threatening fire. within a building. This component includes the While many of the factors can be addressed resistance of a material to ignition, combustion, in building and/or fire regulations, some and failure of materials and systems due to may also be addressed in related legislation heat or thermal radiation from a fire, as well and regulation, including those governing as resistance against or the protection of an utilities (that is, electric, fuel gas, liquid fuels), opening in wall, ceiling, or floor against fire environmental, occupational health and safety, spread, hot gases, and smoke. While there is and consumer safety. Key fire prevention a large range and diversity in the terms used factors that may be addressed in regulations are to identify and describe resistance to fire/fire provided in Appendix B, Table 8. spread components within regulations and more broadly in the literature, they are generally In which regulation—and where in the focused on minimizing the potential for a fire regulation provisions—the factors may be external to a building from getting in, for a fire found will depend on the regulatory structure within a building to spread from one space to of the jurisdiction. However, many building another in the building, and for a fire to spread regulations include sections on the following, from a building to an adjacent property. which should be reviewed: Additional details on key resistance to fire/fire • Electrical services, electrical equipment, spread concepts are provided in Appendix B, photovoltaic systems, energy storage Table 9. systems. • Piped gas services and appliances (for 3) Occupant Safety, Refuge, and Egress example, heating, cooking). Detection is the first step in identifying the presence of a fire and triggering subsequent Building regulations may or may not include fire action, such as occupant evacuation. Fire safety and evacuation training requirements. detection, alarm, and communications Likewise, building regulations often address bulk systems provide the opportunity to detect storage (for example, warehouse and storage fire through a wide range of automatic fire Chapter 5 detection devices, provide a means for manual Depending on building use, the means of fire alarm initiation, provide for a range of escape may include refuge areas and horizontal alarm signaling capabilities (audible (voice or exits to help protect occupants unable to travel non-voice) and visual), and provide interfaces on stairs on their own. The means of escape with other fire protection systems (such as should be free from safety hazards that might smoke control/management systems) and other impact escaping occupants and have proper building systems, as appropriate. The types signage and lighting. of fire detection, alarm, and communications equipment required in buildings with different Additional details on key occupant safety, occupancy/use classifications vary widely by refuge, and egress concepts are provided in country and local regulation and based on the Appendix B, Table 10. other fire safety systems installed. 4) Fire Suppression To facilitate safe escape, the means of escape The aim of fire suppression components (sometimes referred to as “means of egress’”) is to provide means to apply extinguishing describe the path of travel that a building agents to a fire. This can range from handheld occupant encounters, starting with any fire extinguishers to building fire sprinkler occupiable point in a building, and ending when systems, hydrant systems, pumps, and related they reach a public way outside of the building equipment to support manual fire suppression (for example, a public walkway, street, alley, etc.). activities by occupants and the fire service. Means of egress is often described in terms A primary consideration with either automatic of three fundamental components: the exit or manual water-based fire suppression is an access, which is unprotected or has limited adequate and reliable water supply. This means protection and includes the portion of the not only sufficient volume of water for fire building between any occupied point and an suppression activities, but appropriate flow exit; the exit, which provides a protected path rates and pressure to deliver the water where of egress from the exit access; and the exit required. Water storage and fire pumps may be discharge, which is outside the building and is required to enhance municipal water supplies the section between the point where occupants for such purposes. leave an exit and the point where they reach a public way. Figure 7. Components of Egress (Escape) System Exit Accessible exits, exterior Exit discharge Exit access Occupiable exit doors, exit enclosures, Exterior exit balconies, Aisles, aisle accessways, Public way space exit passageways, exterior exit stairs, exterior corridors, doors, hallways, horizontal exits, exit exit ramps, exit/egress ramps, steps stairways, vertical exit courts, yards enclosures Source: UN, 2012 5. KEY FIRE SAFETY COMPONENTS IN BUILDING/FIRE REGULATIONS 29 30 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Additional details on key fire suppression 6) Inspection, Test and Maintenance concepts are provided in Appendix B, Table 11. (ITM), Plans, and Training Regulating inspection, test and maintenance 5) Fire Service Access and Facilities (ITM) of fire safety systems and features It can be challenging for the fire service in buildings is required to assure a proper and other emergency responders if building working state when called upon. Likewise, planning and construction fails to adequately most buildings should have comprehensive address their needs. This includes the ability fire and emergency response plans, evacuation to get fire apparatus to the building, firefighter plans, and fire safety management plans. The wayfinding in the building, a fire command plans should be supported by training, drills, center, firefighter lifts, appropriate exterior and and other exercises which help familiarize interior hydrant connections, and the like. occupants and the fire service with procedures that should be followed in case of fire or Additional details on key fire service access and another emergency. facilities concepts are provided in Appendix B, Table 12. Additional details on key ITM, planning, and training concepts are provided in Appendix B, Table 13. 6. Building Code Checklist for Fire Safety The following table is provided as a tool to chapters and numerous detailed provisions assist in the review of fire safety provisions in for the items listed below alone. By contrast, building regulations based on the fire safety the building regulations in England and Wales components overviewed above. It should be only address the items below in a handful of noted that specific guidance for the assessment functional statements, with details found in the of regulatory provisions is not possible because non-mandatory Approved Document B – Fire (a) all regulatory provisions are contextual Safety (which in turn has multiple chapters and to the regulatory and legislative structures numerous provisions). While this checklist can and regulatory capacity of a country and (b) be applied without expertise and experience in there are in many cases more than a single fire safety regulations or design, such expertise approach to meeting fire safety objectives in a and experience is extremely valuable to help building regulation. Accordingly, in particular navigate some of the complexities of codifying the column “where to look in regulation(s)” is fire safety provisions. The primary components neither specific nor comprehensive in terms and major subcomponents are color-coded to of where the information may be found. For align with Figure 6. example, the IBC in the US has more than 12 31 32 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. Checklist for the review of fire performance provisions in building regulations Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 1. FIRE PREVENTION 1.1 Controls on electrical systems and appliances 1.1.1 Controls Some aspects of electricity (a) Do the building regulations address Provisions for electric utilities on electrical distribution are typically addressed electrical utilities to the building? are often found in regulations ignition hazards in regulations other than building a. If not, what regulations do? other than building regulations. from electrical regulations (for example, electric i. How do these regulations work However, if contained within building distribution utility infrastructure). However, in with the building regulations? regulations, they may be found in systems coming some countries aspects of electricity b. If so, what is addressed (for their own section (electrical). into a building utilities, such as connections to example, cable protection, buildings, may be addressed in electrical meter, circuit breakers, building regulations. etc.)? 1.1.2 Controls Proper and safe installation of (a) Do the building regulations address Provisions for electrical installations on electrical electricity distribution in buildings electricity distribution within a within buildings may be found in ignition hazards (for example, breakers, proper building? external regulations, such as the from electrical cabling, outlets, switches, etc.) is a. If not, what regulations do? National Electrical Code in the US. If distribution critical to help prevent potential i. How do these regulations work in building regulations, they may be systems within a ignitions/fires. with the building regulations? part of the building services section building b. If so, what is addressed (for (mechanical/electrical/plumbing example, interior wiring, outlets, systems). switches, etc.)? (b) Are electrical safety components included, such as circuit breakers and ground fault interruption? 1.1.3 Controls Most consumer appliances are not (a) Do the building regulations address Provisions for electrical installations on electrical controlled by building regulations. electrical wiring and safety for within buildings may be found in ignition hazards However, installations such as fixed fixed (permanent) appliances (for external regulations, such as the from electrical lighting and other built-in appliances example, fixed heating systems, National Electrical Code in the US. If appliances are included. Also, the energy cooling systems, HVAC, lighting, in building regulations, they may be efficiency components of electrical elevators)? part of a dedicated electrical section appliances may be regulated by the a. If not, where is this addressed? or part of a building services section building code. i. How do these regulations work (mechanical/electrical/plumbing with the building regulations? systems). They may include b. If so, what is addressed (fixed ground fault interrupters, location/ heating systems, cooling systems, positioning requirements relating HVAC, lighting, elevators)? to outlets in/near wet areas, and c. If so, are safety components related items. included, such as ground fault interruption? Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 1. FIRE PREVENTION (cont.) 1.2 Controls on solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels and appliances 1.2.1 Controls Some aspects of fuel distribution are (a) Do the building regulations address Provisions for liquid and gaseous on fuel source typically addressed in regulations gaseous and liquid fuel connections fuel distribution and storage may distribution other than building regulations to buildings? be in energy utilities regulations. connection to (for example, fuel gas utility a. If not, where is this addressed? Relevant material may also be found buildings (for infrastructure). However, in some i. How do the other regulations in specific regulations, such as the example, natural countries, aspects of fuel utilities, work with the building International Fuel Gas Code in the gas, propane, and such as connections to buildings, regulations? US. If in building regulations, they fuel oil) may be addressed in building b. If so, are safety devices included, may be part of a fire prevention regulations. such as seismic shut-off or building services section valves, spill control, special fire (mechanical/electrical/plumbing protection, etc.? systems). 1.2.2 Controls on Proper and safe installations of fuel (a) Do the building regulations address Provisions for liquid and gaseous fuel sources within distribution and storage in buildings the safety of solid, liquid, and fuel installations may be part of buildings (for is critical (for example, piping, gaseous fuels for heating, cooking, the building services (mechanical/ example, natural pressure relief valves, shut-off and related uses in buildings? electrical/plumbing system) section. gas, propane, and valves, etc.). a. If not, where is this addressed? They may also be found in specific fuel oil) i. How do the other regulations regulations, such as the International work with the building Fuel Gas Code in the US. regulations? b. If so, are safety devices included, such as seismic shut-off valves, spill control, special fire protection, etc.? 1.2.3 Controls on Similar to electrical appliances, (a) Do the building regulations address Provisions for solid, liquid, and solid, liquid, and appliances that use solid, liquid, solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels for gaseous fuel installations may gaseous fuels or gaseous fuels for heating and fixed (permanent) appliances (for be part of the building services for heating and cooking are a source of potential example, cooking, fixed heating (mechanical/electrical/plumbing cooking appliances ignitions and fire. Locations in systems, HVAC, and generators)? system) section. They might also be buildings, separation between a. If not, where is this addressed? in fire prevention sections. In some appliances/fuel storage and i. How do the other regulations cases, they may be found in specific combustible building components work with the building regulations, such as the International may be addressed. Required regulations? Fuel Gas Code in the US. Provisions electrical installations around b. If so, are safety components may include venting, distance to appliances that use solid, liquid, included, such as pressure relief combustibles, requirements for heat or gaseous fuels for heating and valves, seismic shut-off valves, or CO2 detection, and related items. cooking may be regulated as well. liquid spill containment, venting, CO detection, and special fire suppression? 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 33 34 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 1. FIRE PREVENTION (cont.) 1.3 Hazardous materials 1.3.1 Controls Large amounts of combustible, (a) Do the building regulations address If not addressed in building on hazardous explosive, toxic, or otherwise storage of hazardous/combustible/ regulations, this may be addressed materials storage hazardous materials can present flammable/explosive materials? under fire prevention regulations, significant fire safety hazards. Strict b. If not, where is this addressed? hazardous materials regulations controls on quantities that can be How do the other regulations work with within occupational health and stored within buildings of various the building regulations? safety legislation, chemical safety uses are often implemented. regulations, or other regulations. 1.3.2 Specific In many countries, specific building (a) Do the building regulations Such controls may be found under building use/ use/classifications are identified have designated building use/ specific use/occupancy classes classification for industries which use and/or classifications for facilities using (for example, storage, industrial/ for facilities store large amounts of hazardous and/or storing large amounts of factory, high-hazard facility) as well that use/store materials. Extra protection is hazardous materials? as fire prevention legislation and/or large amounts generally provided to safeguard a. Are there limits on quantities regulations. As quantities/hazards of hazardous employees and the public. stored? increase, so too do fire safety materials b. Are there special protection requirements (generally). requirements for stored materials, for example, higher fire resistance ratings (FRR), smaller compartments, vents, fire suppression, etc.? c. Are there requirements for HAZMAT information (that is, location and type of lockers with information, signage, material safety data sheets, etc.)? 1.3.3 Limits on For building uses that store small (a) Are there limits on quantities stored? Such controls may be found under hazardous material amounts of hazardous materials— (a) Are there special protection use/occupancy classes descriptions, storage in all other either for sale (mercantile buildings), requirements for stored materials with quantities noted as pertinent to building uses cleaning, or other—there is typically (for example, higher FRR, smaller the use. This may also be addressed a limit on quantities and guidance on compartments, vents, fire in fire prevention legislation and/or storage and protection. suppression, etc.)? regulation. As quantities/hazards (a) Are there requirements for HAZMAT increase, so too do fire safety information (that is, location and requirements (generally). type of lockers with information, signage, material safety data sheets, etc.)? Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 1. FIRE PREVENTION (cont.) 1.4 Controls on smoking/operations with hot surfaces 1.4.1 Controls on Smoking materials are a major (a) Do the building regulations contain May be found in the fire prevention smoking source of fires, including improperly fire prevention measures associated section. May also be in external discarded matches, lighters, and with smoking? regulations, such as fire prevention smoking material. a. If not, where are such controls, or occupational health and safety. and how do regulations interact? 1.4.2 Controls on Fire ignition hazards can exist with (a) Do the building regulations contain May be found in fire prevention operations with hot equipment required for building fire prevention measures associated section. May also be in external surfaces operation, such as machinery. with equipment used as part of regulations, such as fire prevention the operation of the building, or occupational health and safety. manufacturing processes, or other? a. If not, where are such controls located, and how do regulations interact? b. If addressed in the building regulations, are there requirements for separation from combustible materials, fire protection systems, etc.? 1.5 Controls during construction/renovation 1.5.1 Controls Fire ignition during construction (a) Do the building regulations address Such controls may be found during and renovation is a significant fire prevention during construction under specific provisions for construction/ concern. Fire prevention regulations and renovation? alterations, renovations, additions, renovation often institute controls while a. If not, where is this addressed? and extensions. These may also hot work (for example, welding) b. If so, what types of controls be found in reference standards activities are ongoing, such as fire are required (for example, (for example, NFPA 241 Standard watches. For new construction and special permits, training, fire for Safeguarding Construction, significant renovation/extension/ watch, requirements for manual Alteration, and Demolition alteration, additional features, such suppression to be available, etc.)? Operation). Provisions may also be as temporary fire suppression found in fire prevention legislation equipment, may be required. and/or regulation. 1.5.2 Controls on Fire ignition during building works is (a) Do the building regulations address Such controls may be found hot works a significant concern. Fire prevention fire prevention during construction under specific provisions for regulations often institute controls and renovation? alterations, renovations, additions, while hot work (for example, a. If not, where is this addressed? and extensions. These may also welding) activities are ongoing, such b. If so, what types of controls are be found in reference standards as fire watches. placed on hot work, such as (for example, NFPA 241 Standard welding (for example, special for Safeguarding Construction, permits, fire watch, etc.)? Alteration, and Demolition Operation). Provisions may also be found in fire prevention legislation and/or regulation. 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 35 36 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE 2.1 Fire resistance of structural system 2.1.1 Fire The structural system’s resistance (a) Do the building regulations address The FRR of structural systems resistance of load- to fire is critical for a building’s structural stability under fire load? may be found in association with bearing structural structural stability during and (b) Are there specific requirements/ building use/occupancy classes system (including after a fire. Stability is necessary limitations on height and area of or in the fire protection section load-bearing to facilitate safe evacuation, fire building based on construction (which may sometimes be part of columns, beams, service activities, and property materials (combustibility/FRR)? the mechanical or building services interior and exterior protection (for example, collapse (c) Are tables of fire resistance for section). Reference to fire resistance walls). avoidance). Building materials are structural members provided? of primary and secondary may typically required by regulations to (d) What members are addressed and also be found under structure, be tested and rated on their ability what FRR are provided, based on in particular where reference to resist temperatures associated building use (and height and area, as codes such as the Eurocode for with a “standard” fire for a defined applicable)? Structures are used. Coordination period of time without failing to (e) What are the bases for FRR? with structural is critical. Reference perform their intended function. FRR (f) Are the bases for FRR appropriate? should be provided to the basis are listed in minutes or hours and (g) Is allowance made for reducing of any FRR stated (for example, typically determined by standard fire required FRR if a full building materials tested to a recognized tests. Materials that are combustible automatic fire sprinkler system is fire test standard for the intended (for example, wood) or that may installed? use, such as ISO 834, BS 476, EN fail under high temperatures (h) Are fire stop/sealant requirements 1363-1366, AS 1530.4, NFPA 251, (for example, steel) may require provided for fire-rated assemblies? ASTM E-119, etc.). In some cases, a protection and be limited as to the (i) Are alternate methods for assessing “rule of thumb”’ or experience-based size of building in which they can fire response of structure possible, FRR for building materials, including be used. In some cases, analytical such as Eurocodes for Structures? indigenous materials, may be approaches may be acceptable. In appropriate (for example, concrete some jurisdictions, it is permitted cover on rebar, char depth for timber, to reduce FRR for some members thickness of stone, brick, etc.). if a full building automatic sprinkler system is installed. 2.2 Fire resistance of non-load-bearing structural components 2.2.1 Fire The fire resistance of interior fire- (a) Do the building regulations address Fire resistance ratings of interior resistance of walls, rated compartment barriers is a the fire resistance of interior (non- partitions and shafts will be in ceilings, floors, very important issue for fire safety. load-bearing) walls/partitions? sections describing those features shafts, and roof The objectives of this measure are a. If so, in what ways (for example, (for example, shafts with stairs, to prevent fire spreading in large fire cells/compartments, means lifts, piped services, etc.), walls with areas, spaces connecting several of escape (egress), separation of fire cell separation, components of floors, such as stairs, shafts, building uses, etc.)? means of egress, concealed spaces, and void spaces, and so forth. (b) Do shafts need to be built using FRR etc. Reference should be provided Compartmentation is necessary to material? to the basis of any FRR stated (for control fire spread, facilitate safe (c) What is the basis for the FRR? example, materials tested to a evacuation, and so forth. See also (d) Are requirements for fire sealants/ recognized fire test standard for 2.1 above. fire stop materials provided? the intended use, such as ISO 834, (e) What is the basis of fire stop/sealant BS 476, EN 1363-1366, NFPA 251, performance/rating? ASTM E-119, etc.). (f) Is allowance made for reducing required FRR if a full building automatic fire sprinkler system is installed? Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (cont.) 2.2.2 Fire See 2.2 above. Also, hot gases will (a) Do the building regulations address See 2.2 above and 2.5 below. resistance of flow through corridors, shafts, and the FRR of door systems in fire-rated Reference should be made to openings (or other such spaces, so dampers, self- walls and assemblies? specific component testing, such closures) in interior closing doors, and similar features (b) Do the building regulations address as fire door systems (for example, fire-rated barriers are needed. the FRR of window openings/ NFPA 252, ISO 3008, and EN 1634), (for example, door window opening protectives in fire- windows (for example, NFPA 257 systems, windows, rated walls and assemblies? and ISO 5925), dampers, ducts, etc. dampers, access (c) Do the building regulations address panels, ducts, etc.) requirements for fire dampers in mechanical ventilation ductwork passing through walls between FRR floors, ceilings, walls, shafts, and similar? (d) Do the building regulations address the FRR of HVAC system ducts? 2.2.3 Fire The fire resistance of exterior wall (a) Do the building regulations address These requirements may be found resistance of systems is important to help control the FRR of exterior walls? with structural (see 2.1) or in exterior wall for fire external to a building from a. If so, are there requirements specific sections on exterior wall systems/façade entering the building. It can also be for FRR materials/fire (cavity) systems/façade/building envelop. systems important to control for exterior wall barriers in exterior wall cavities? Reference should be provided to systems contributing to the fuel load b. If so, are there also requirements the basis of any FRR stated (for and to fire spread (see also 2.3–2.6 for the FRR of closures in exterior example, materials tested to a below). Note that for some building walls? recognized fire test standard for the uses and sizes, separation distance intended use, such as ISO 834, BS between buildings/lot lines can be a 476, EN 1363-1366, EN 13501, NFPA mitigation measure. 251, etc.). 2.2.4 Fire The fire resistance of roof structures (a) Do the building regulations address These may be found in a specific resistance of roof can be important for structural the FRR of roof assemblies/ section (under fire) on roofs. See systems stability and control of fire spread. systems? also 2.1 above. Reference should See also 2.1 above. (b) Do the building regulations address be provided to the basis of any FRR fire barriers in roof voids between stated (for example, materials tested occupancies below the roof? to a recognized fire test standard for the intended use, such as ISO 834, BS 476, EN 1363-1366, NFPA 251, etc.). 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 37 38 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (cont.) 2.3 Resistance to flame spread – interior surfaces 2.3.1 Flame spread Combustible surface lining materials (a) Do the building regulations address Ignitability/combustibility/surface limitations on can facilitate the rapid spread of resistance to flame spread on flame spread provisions may be interior wall, ceiling, flames and are therefore typically interior wall, ceiling. and floor found in a chapter/section on this and floor surfaces limited in quantity and/or prohibited surfaces? topic, or as provisions included in several building use groups, in (b) Are there different ratings based on under a blanket fire protection particular within means of egress use/occupancy classification? section (which may sometimes be (escape pathways). Ignitability, (c) Are there more restrictive ratings for part of the mechanical or building combustibility, and flame spread the means of escape (egress)? services section). Reference should rating are typically determined by (d) What is the basis of the fire spread be provided to the basis of any standard fire tests. ratings? ignitability/combustibility tests (for example, AS 1530.1, EN ISO 1182, and BS 476-4) and to flame spread rating/material restriction (for example, materials tested to a recognized fire test standard for the intended use, such as ASTM E84, BS 476 Part 6 & 7, EN 13501, EN 13823, ISO 5658, ISO 5660, NFPA 286, etc.). 2.3.2 Flame spread Combustible surface lining materials (a) Do the building regulations address See 2.3.1 above. Also, surface limitations in can facilitate the rapid spread of resistance to flame spread of flame spread provisions for interior cavities/ flame and are therefore typically materials used in cavity void spaces interior cavities/void spaces may void spaces (in limited in quantity and/or prohibited of interior walls, ceiling, and floor sometimes be found with sections walls, above in concealed spaces, void spaces, assemblies? addressing shafts, mechanical ceilings, etc.) and cavities. These may be within (b) Are there requirements against spaces, and the like (see also walls, above ceilings, and other such installation of combustible material 2.2 above). Reference should be locations. in void spaces, such as electrical provided to the basis of any flame cables, communication cables, spread rating/material restriction fire alarm system cables, or other stated (for example, materials tested services? to a recognized fire test standard for the intended use: ASTM E84, BS 476, EN 13823, ISO 5658, NFPA 286, etc.). Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (cont.) 2.4 Resistance to flame spread – exterior surfaces 2.4.1 Flame Combustible surface lining materials (a) Do the building regulations address Flame spread limitations on exterior spread limitations can facilitate the rapid spread of resistance to flame spread of wall surfaces/systems may be on exterior wall flame and are therefore typically materials used in exterior wall/ located in sections on exterior surfaces/systems limited in quantity and/or prohibited façade assemblies? wall/façade/envelope systems, in several building use groups, in (b) Are requirements for resistance as part of structural, or within particular on exterior walls of high- to flame spread provided for each the fire protection section (which rise buildings. component (for example, surface may sometimes be part of the material, insulation, support mechanical or building services material, etc.)? section). Reference should be provided to the basis of any flame spread rating/material restriction stated (for example, materials tested to a recognized fire test standard for the intended use, whether small- scale tests, such as ISO 1182, non-combustibility), reaction to fire test (for example, EN 13501), or large-scale components tests (for example, BS 8414, NFPA 285). 2.4.2 Flame Combustible surface lining materials (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 above. spread limitations can facilitate the rapid spread of resistance to flame spread of in exterior wall flame and are therefore typically materials used in cavity void spaces cavities/void limited in quantity and/or prohibited of exterior wall/façade assemblies? spaces in concealed spaces, void spaces, (b) Are requirements for fire sealants/ and cavities. These may be within fire stop materials provided? exterior wall/façade systems. A particular concern is high-rise buildings. 2.4.3 Flame spread Combustible roof surfaces can (a) Do the building regulations address Fire performance of roof systems limitations on roof facilitate the rapid spread of flame flame spread limitations on roof and coverings may be found under systems/materials and are therefore typically limited in systems/materials? the fire protection section (which quantity and/or prohibited. (b) Do the building regulations prohibit may sometimes be part of the combustible materials as roof mechanical or building services coverings? section), but may also be found under structural or materials sections. Reference should be provided to the basis of any flame spread rating/material restriction stated (for example, materials tested to a recognized fire test standard for the intended use, such as ASTM E108). 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 39 40 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (cont.) 2.5 Openings in exterior walls 2.5.1 Protection Openings in external walls can (a) Do the building regulations address Fire protection of exterior openings of openings in facilitate the fire spread from within protection of openings in exterior may be found in sections on exterior exterior walls a building to an adjacent building walls to prevent fire spread into or wall/façade/envelope systems, or or exterior material or expose a out of the building (such as window within the fire protection section building to fire from an external protection, window size, door (which may sometimes be part of threat. There may be separation protection, etc.)? the mechanical or building services distance requirements in the (b) Do the building regulations address section). Planning regulations may regulation to address this, and/ prevention of ember entry to vents, also have a bearing, especially in or requirements for protection of windows, etc. from exterior fire (for association with building separation openings (fire resistance, water example, trash fire, wildfire, etc.)? (see also 3.3). sprays, etc.) 2.6 Building/lot separation & exterior fires 2.6.1 Separation Fire in a building could be large (a) Do the building regulations address Building separation may be found between buildings enough to cause the ignition of a separation of buildings on the same in sections on exterior wall/façade/ on same lot nearby building. The threat depends lot? envelop systems, within the fire on the building construction, exterior a. If so, what are the minimum protection section, or in planning/ materials, and exterior openings. distances before fire protection zoning regulations. One way to manage exposure of external walls and openings in is separation distance between wall is required? Compare with Sometimes, if the buildings have a buildings. international benchmarks. single owner, minimum separation b. If not, where is this addressed? might only be needed for sleeping occupancies (depends on code objectives). Alternatively, use of fire-rated construction could be an alternative to physical separation. 2.6.2 Separation See 2.6.1 above. (a) Do the building regulations address See 3.3.1. between buildings separation of buildings on different on different lots lots? a. If so, what are the minimum distances before fire protection of external walls and openings in wall is required? Compare with international benchmarks. b. If not, where is this addressed? 2.6.3 Separation There is a wide range of sources (a) Do the building regulations address See 3.1.1. between buildings of potential exterior fires, which if separation of exterior fire sources and exterior located near the exterior wall of a from external wall of buildings? sources of building could lead to ignition of a. If so, what are the minimum exposure (for fire in the building. Exterior sources distances before fire protection example, trash of potential exposure include trash of external walls and openings in bins, trees, shrubs, bins, stored materials, vegetation, wall is required? Compare with vehicles, etc.) vehicles, transformers, etc. international benchmarks. b. If not, where is this addressed? Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (cont.) 2.7 Smoke control/management 2.7.1 Smoke Smoke is a major threat to (a) Do the building regulations include Resistance to the flow of smoke resistance of building occupants in a fire. Due to specific requirements for smoke by passive building components, interior smoke pressure differentials in a building resistive construction? fire and smoke sealants, dampers, compartment resulting from interior and exterior a. If so, what smoke control and others may be dispersed barriers (for temperature differences, smoke can measures are required (for throughout the regulations. For example, fire cells, be pushed through cracks and other example, smoke seals)? example, resistance to smoke shafts, etc.) small openings, which should be b. What are the bases for these spread may be included with fire fire and smoke sealed. See also 2.2 requirements (for example, resistance or egress requirements. above. standards)? Damper requirements may be c. Are requirements for fire with mechanical systems. Door sealants/fire stop materials closers may have fire resistance provided? requirements. d. What is the basis of fire stop/ sealant performance/rating? 2.7.2 Smoke See 2.7.1. Also, smoke will flow (a) Do the building regulations address See 2.7.1. resistance of through corridors, shafts, and other resistance to smoke flow between openings in interior such spaces, so dampers, self- spaces? smoke barriers closing doors, and similar features a. If so, what smoke control (for example, door are needed to inhibit smoke flow. measures are required (for systems, dampers, See also 2.2 above, as fire and example, door closers, smoke ducts, etc.) smoke resistance for interior spaces dampers within ductwork)? can sometimes be addressed b. What are the bases for these together. requirements (for example, standards)? 2.7.3 Passive Some building uses, such as storage (a) Do the building regulations address Passive smoke and heat venting smoke and and factory, or atrium spaces in tall requirements for passive smoke requirements may be found heat venting buildings may benefit from roof- and heat venting systems and/or in association with specific components/ level vents that exhaust smoke and components? requirements for select building systems hot gases, allowing occupants to a. If so, for what building uses? uses, such as storage/warehouse, escape and fire service to conduct b. Are the requirements appropriate factory/industrial, and the like. They suppression operations. Passive in the circumstance? (This may may also be found within the fire vents typically are activated by a change based on building use protection section. Technical details fusible link, but in some cases may and might be benchmarked to are most often found in reference be activated in conjunction with the international best practice.) standards (for example, EN 12101- operation of the fire alarm. 2, BS ISO 21927-3, NFPA 92, NFPA 204, etc.), handbooks (for example, ASHRAE Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering; SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering), or guidance documents (for example, CIBSE Guide E). 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 41 42 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (cont.) 2.7.4 Tenability Smoke and other products of (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for smoke exhaust criteria (smoke combustion cause most fire tenability requirements that must systems may be found in the fire layer, temperature, fatalities. Providing pathways clear be maintained by smoke venting/ protection section of the regulations. CO, etc.) of smoke for occupants to escape exhaust systems? However, they might also be found is essential (see 3.3). It can be a. What are the criteria/ under the mechanical or building helpful to have smoke exhaust requirements? services section. Technical details systems in many buildings; this is a b. Are the requirements appropriate are most often found in reference common feature in large buildings in the circumstance? (This may standards (for example, EN 12101- and high-rise atria buildings. The change based on building use 2, BS ISO 21927-3, NFPA 92, NFPA design of smoke exhaust systems is and might be benchmarked to 204, etc.), handbooks (for example, often aimed at maintaining tenable international best practice.) ASHRAE Handbook of Smoke environments for people while Control Engineering; SFPE Handbook they evacuate (or fire service while of Fire Protection Engineering), or undertaking operations). Tenability guidance documents (for example, criteria may be smoke level above CIBSE Guide E). floor, temperature of smoke layer, or concentration of gases/toxicants. 2.7.5 Design fire Design of smoke exhaust systems (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.7.3 and 2.7.4 above. requirements generally requires an assumption requirements for design basis fire about the fire that is expected and/or mass production of smoke and mass of smoke that may be for design of smoke and heat produced. Some jurisdictions venting systems? include design fire specification in a. What are the bases of design? their regulations. b. Are the requirements appropriate in the circumstance? (This may change based on building use and might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 2.7.6 Mechanical Exhaust rates/volumes will depend (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.7.3 and 2.7.4 above. smoke and heat on the expected fire and mass requirements for make-up air and exhaust – exhaust of smoke produced. Also, there exhaust rates for smoke and heat rates/make-up air must be enough fresh air coming venting systems? in to facilitate proper operation of a. What are the bases of design? exhaust fans. Some jurisdictions b. Are the requirements appropriate provide calculation methods to in the circumstance? (This may guide these designs. change based on building use and might be benchmarked to international best practice.) Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (cont.) 2.7.7 Pressure Fires increase temperature, which (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.7.3 and 2.7.4 above. differentials can result in pressure differentials, requirements for maximum leakage which in turn push smoke into areas/pressure differentials for the cracks and openings. In addition to design of smoke and heat venting sealing openings, creating pressure systems? differentials can help impede smoke (b) Do the building regulations movement. In some cases, this can address requirements for pressure include providing barriers between differentials for the design of spaces (in this case, pressure stairwell pressurization systems? differentials may be considered to (c) Do the building regulations keep a corridor clear of smoke, for address requirements for pressure example). Pressure differentials differentials for smoke barrier across doors can also make it more design? difficult for occupants to open the a. What are the bases of design? door. b. Are the requirements appropriate in the circumstance? (This may change based on building use and might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 2.7.8 Stack effect Stack effect is movement of air (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.7.3 and 2.7.4 above. into and out of buildings through stack effect considerations in the unsealed openings as a result design of smoke exhaust systems? of differentials between indoor- (b) Do the building regulations address to-outdoor air density resulting stack effect considerations in the from temperature and moisture design of smoke control for shafts differences. From a fire perspective, (for example, lift shafts, stair shafts, this can cause smoke to stratify etc.)? and be pushed onto floors (think a. What are the bases of design? of smoke rising from a chimney in b. Are the requirements appropriate cold temperatures) or be pushed in the circumstance? (This may higher (less temperature differential change based on building use to overcome). Either situation can and might be benchmarked to impact evacuation in unconditioned international best practice.) stairs and create other challenges. 2.7.9 Sprinkler Smoke rises due to the high (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.7.3 and 2.7.4 above. interaction temperatures produced from a design considerations for smoke fire. This is why smoke vents and and heat venting systems when exhaust ports are most often automatic fire sprinkler systems are located at ceiling/roof level. also in use? Sprinklers cool smoke and fire. In a. What are the bases of design? cases where smoke vents/exhaust b. Are the requirements appropriate and sprinklers are used, care must in the circumstance? (This may be taken to design appropriately to change based on building use the interactions. and might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 43 44 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 2. RESISTANCE TO FIRE/SPREAD OF FIRE (CONT.) 2.7.10 Operation In some jurisdictions, the fire service (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.7.3 and 2.7.4 above. (automatic, requires full control over smoke requirements for operation of the manual, both – exhaust systems, while in others it is smoke and heat exhaust system? sequence) possible to have automatic systems a. Do these address automatic and with manual override. It can be manual operation? helpful to define what is permitted b. Are the requirements appropriate and how the system should operate. in the circumstance? (This may change based on building use and might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 2.7.11 Smoke The fire service will generally (a) Do the building regulations address See also 2.7.3 and 2.7.4 above. exhaust controls require control over smoke exhaust requirements for the location of systems. As such, it can be smoke and heat exhaust system important to identify the location controls (for fire service or other and controls required for smoke operator use)? exhaust systems. 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS 3.1 Fire detection 3.1.1 Smoke Early detection and notification of (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for smoke detection alarms (self- fire is essential to life safety. Many requirements for smoke alarms in would typically be found in the contained smoke jurisdictions require self-contained domestic dwellings? fire protection section (which detection and smoke alarms (smoke detection a. If so, does this include all may sometimes be part of the alarm function) and local sounder) in residential dwellings (for example, detached mechanical or building services occupancies, which sound in the dwellings, apartments, etc.)? section). In some cases, room/residence of the fire, but not b. If not for all dwellings, which are requirements will be found under fire elsewhere in the building (that is, in omitted? service legislation, such as in a fire apartment buildings, alarm sounds regulation. Technical design details only locally in apartment where may be found in reference standards device is located). (for example, BS EN 54 series, NFPA 72, ISO 7240 series, etc.). 3.1.2 System- Early detection and notification of (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for smoke detection connected smoke fire is essential to life safety. Many requirements for system-connected would typically be found in the detectors jurisdictions require fire alarm smoke detectors? fire protection section (which systems (see 3.2), with system- a. If so, for which building use/ may sometimes be part of the connected smoke detectors, for occupancy classifications are mechanical or building services commercial buildings, public they required? section). Design details may be in buildings, and others, in particular i. For each required building use, reference standards (for example, when there is no fire sprinkler in what locations within the BS EN 54 series, NFPA 72, ISO 7240, system. In these systems, the building are they required (for etc.). detection of smoke should generally example, all compartments, sound a general alarm in the building corridors, lift lobbies, atria, (or portion thereof) and notify etc.)? the fire service (see also Section b. What are the bases for the 5). Smoke detection is often in requirements (for example, corridors, lift lobbies, and other key standards)? locations. Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (CONT.) 3.1.3 System- Early detection and notification (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for heat detection connected heat of fire is essential to life safety. requirements for system-connected would typically be found in the detectors Heat detectors are used when the heat detectors? fire protection section (which environmental conditions are not a. If so, in which building use/ may sometimes be part of the appropriate for smoke detection occupancy classifications are mechanical or building services or where a later detection of fire is they required? section). Design details may be in acceptable (heat detectors need a i. For each required building reference standards (for example, larger, flaming fire to activate them). use, in what locations within BS EN 54 series, NFPA 72, ISO 7240, the building are they required etc.). (for example, attic spaces, mechanical spaces, etc.)? ii. What are the bases for the requirements (for example, standards)? 3.1.4 Manual fire Most every building except 1-2 (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for manual alarm alarm buttons family dwellings and perhaps some requirements for system-connected buttons would typically be found in other small residentials will typically manual alarm buttons (boxes, call the fire protection section (which be required to have a fire alarm points)? may sometimes be part of the system (FAS). The purpose is to a. If so, in which building use/ mechanical or building services accept inputs from fire and smoke occupancy classifications are section). Design details may be in detection devices, manual alarms, they required? reference standards (for example, sprinkler water flow, and other such i. For each required building use, BS EN 54 series, NFPA 72, ISO 7240, devices. Each building that has in what locations within the etc.). a FAS should have manual alarm building are they required (for buttons (points) for occupants to example, at each exit, at each manually sound an alarm. These are exit access above grade, etc.)? typically located near exit access. b. What are the bases for the requirements (for example, standards)? 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 45 46 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (cont.) 3.2 Occupant and fire service notification 3.2.1 FAS/fire Most every building except 1-2 (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for FAS/FACP alarm control panel family dwellings and perhaps some requirements for FAS and/or FACP? would typically be found in the (FACP) other small residentials will typically a. If so, in which building use/ fire protection section (which be required to have a FAS. The occupancy classifications are may sometimes be part of the purpose is to accept inputs from they required? mechanical or building services fire and smoke detection devices, b. For each required building use, section). Design details may be in manual alarms, sprinkler water flow, what alarm initiating (for example, reference standards (for example, and other such devices. The FACP smoke detectors, manual call BS EN 54, NFPA 72, ISO 7240, etc.). indicates system status and controls buttons, sprinkler water flow, etc.) the systems (for example, smoke and alarm notification devices exhaust). There may be remote fire (for example, bells, horns) are alarm annunciator panels located required to be connected and at different building entrances to supervised? facilitate fire service response. It (c) Are other devices connected to may also be required that the FACP and/or controlled by the FACP (for be connected to the fire service or example, in-duct smoke detectors other monitoring system to report and smoke exhaust fans)? activation of the FAS. (d) Are there requirements for remote alarm annunciators to be located elsewhere in the building? (e) Are there requirements for direct connection to the fire service or other monitored service? (f) What are the bases for the requirements (for example, standards)? 3.2.2 Alarm FASs require installation of (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for audible alarm notification devices alarm notification devices to audible notification devices for fire notification devices would typically (audible) alert occupants. Audible alarm and other emergencies? be found in the fire protection notification devices may include a. If so, in which building use/ section (which may sometimes be bells, horns, sounders, speakers, or occupancy classifications are part of the mechanical or building similar devices. Requirements may they required? services section). Design details include location and sound power (b) Are location and sound power level may be in reference standards (for level (dBA). (dBA) requirements provided? example, BS EN 54, NFPA 72, ISO 7240, etc.). 3.2.3 Alarm FASs require installation of alarm (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for visible alarm notification devices notification devices to alert visual alarm notification devices for notification devices would typically (visible) occupants. Visible alarm notification fire and other emergencies? be found in the fire protection devices may include flashing or a. If so, in which building use/ section (which may sometimes be strobe lights. Requirements may occupancy classifications are part of the mechanical or building include location and intensity they required? services section). Design details (candela). Visible notification (b) Is intensity level or other may be in reference standards (for devices are required to meet requirements provided, in particular example, BS EN 54, NFPA 72, ISO disability requirements. for the visually impaired? 7240, etc.). Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (cont.) 3.2.4 Emergency In high occupancy buildings, high- (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for emergency voice rise buildings, and other such requirements for emergency voice voice communication systems communication complex or high-risk building, many alarm communications? would typically be found in the system jurisdictions require emergency a. If so, in which building use/ fire protection section (which voice communications to control occupancy classifications are may sometimes be part of the evacuation. This allows building they required? mechanical or building services management or the fire service to (b) Are locations of speakers and section). They may also be found direct evacuation appropriate to the intelligibility requirements provided? with specific special occupancy event. requirements, such as high-rise buildings. Design details may be in reference standards (for example, BS EN 54, BS 8629, NFPA 72, ISO 7240, etc.). 3.2.5 Emergency Where emergency voice (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for EVCCP voice communication systems are requirements for the control panel would typically be found in the communication required to control evacuation, there and operations for emergency voice fire protection section (which control panel needs to be an EVCCP located in communications? may sometimes be part of the (EVCCP) a readily accessible and protected (b) Is location of the EVCCP addressed? mechanical or building services space, typically on the ground level, (c) Is any guidance provided on section). They may also be found to facilitate building management or evacuation sequencing or with specific special occupancy the fire service to direct evacuations messaging? requirements, such as high-rise appropriate to the event. buildings. Design details may be in reference standards (for example, BS EN 54, NFPA 72, ISO 7240, etc.). 3.3 Protected means of escape/refuge 3.3.1 Exit Occupants should be protected from (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with protection (see fire events during the time required fire protection of exit systems (for Section 2 above. In addition, fire also Section 2) to egress a building. Jurisdictions example, FRR, flame spread limits, resistance and flame spread often require FRR for exits (including etc.)? requirements may be in other corridors, stair shafts, and doors) to a. Are the requirements appropriate sections under fire suppression (see provide such protection (see also in the circumstance? (This might section 4), and sometimes under Section 2). be benchmarked to international structural. See also Section 2.7 for best practice.) pressurization (for stair shafts, lift lobbies, etc.). 3.3.2 Refuge areas/ Occupants should be protected (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with horizontal exits from fire events during the time requirements for “areas of refuge” Section 2 above. In addition, fire required to egress a building. For for persons with disabilities while resistance and flame spread those occupants unable to exit awaiting rescue? (In high-rise requirements may be in other on their own, due to disability, buildings, these may be associated sections under fire suppression (see infirmity, or other reasons, areas of with exit stair lobbies. For hospitals, section 4), and sometimes under refuge inside of the building may there may be horizontal exit structural. The communications to be required. Jurisdictions often requirements.) areas of refuge may also be found in require FRR for refuge areas to a. Are the requirements appropriate provisions associated with fire alarm provide such protection. Horizontal in the circumstance? This would and communications systems (see exits are often required in hospitals. include space for persons, fire 3.2 above). Communication systems are often resistance rating of space, use also required. of roll-down fire partitions, etc. (This might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 47 48 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (cont.) 3.3.3 Refuge floors In very tall buildings, the time (a) Do the building regulations address If required, such provisions would required to evacuate by stairs can be the need for refuge floors for very likely be associated with sections quite long and tiring for occupants. tall buildings? on specific building occupancies, To provide safe interruption of a. Are the requirements appropriate in particular high-rise (and more egress and time to rest, some in the circumstance? (This might specifically, supertall) buildings. jurisdictions require that intervals of be benchmarked to international refuge floors (no occupancy – just best practice.) open area, with sprinkler protection and other features) be provided (see also 3.5). 3.4 Occupant load, travel distance, and exit capacity 3.4.1 Occupant The ability to quickly evacuate a (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for egress load limits (by use, room or a building is significantly occupant load capacity/limits based (evacuation) systems and features room, building, a function of the number of people on building or space use/occupancy may be in the fire protection section, etc.) and width of exits. As occupant load classification? (Note that many or within a dedicated section (for (and density) increase, the number, regulations apply load factors by example, Chapter 10 of the IBC in location, and capacity of exits need space, not just building use.) the US), of the regulations. In some to increase. Establishing occupant a. Are the requirements appropriate? cases, details are in reference load limits by density for different (This might be benchmarked to documents, such as Approved spaces (or other) is an important international best practice.) Document B in England. Dedicated baseline. codes on egress requirements are also available (for example, NFPA 101). 3.4.2 Exit capacity Exit capacity refers to the number (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with of occupants that a given egress exit capacity? 3.4.1 above. component can accommodate. a. How are the requirements Capacity may be expressed in such presented (for example, table, terms as mm/person. Total capacity calculation method)? requirements may be mandated, b. Are the requirements appropriate? with number of exits determined (This might be benchmarked to based on location requirements. international best practice.) 3.4.3 Exit numbers It is generally impractical to assume (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with (including all occupants can exit via a single calculation of required number of 3.4.1 above. minimum required) path/stair/door. Many jurisdictions exits? require a minimum of two exits a. If so, what are the bases (for from all but very small buildings, example, total occupant load, and at least two exits from each area of building/floor, number of floor of high-rise buildings, with the floors, etc.)? total number of exits increasing as (b) Are at least two means of escape occupant load increases. required from all building uses? a. Are the requirements appropriate? (This might be benchmarked to international best practice.) Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (cont.) 3.4.4 Exit locations It is generally inappropriate to (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with have all occupants enter exits at a exit location, relative to such 3.4.1 above. single location and discharge to the factors as travel distance, dead-end outside at a single location, in case corridors, exit remoteness, etc.? one exit becomes compromised. a. Are the requirements appropriate? Determining the location of exits is a (This might be benchmarked to function of travel distance to an exit international best practice.) and remoteness of exit access and discharge. 3.4.5 Exit Exit remoteness is a measure of (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with remoteness distance between exit access points exit access and exit remoteness? 3.4.1 above. in a building (or floor of a building a. If so, what is the basis for the in high-rises). It is often required remoteness requirement? that exit access points be located b. Are the requirements appropriate no closer than 1/3-1/2 the diagonal in the circumstance? (This might dimension of the floorplate. This be benchmarked to international is to facilitate having one exit best practice.) access available in case another is compromised. 3.4.6 Exit discharge Exits should generally discharge (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with to the exterior into a public way exit discharge requirements, such as 3.4.1 above. or suitably protected courtyard. “to the exterior of the building,” and This pathway to the exterior is the protection of the discharge area (for exit discharge. These may include example, from vehicles)? corridors and exit discharge doors. a. Are the requirements appropriate? 3.4.7 Common Travel distance to an exit is an (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with path of travel important aspect of fire safety, as requirements/limitations on 3.4.1 above. it relates to time required to reach common path of travel and total a safe place. The common path of allowable travel distance? travel is the distance between the a. Are the requirements appropriate most remote point in a space to the in the circumstance? (This might point in the exit access path from be benchmarked to international which the occupant has two distinct best practice.) paths to an exit. 3.4.8 Dead-end Finding an exit in an emergency can (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with travel limits be difficult, and it is important that limits on the length of dead-end 3.4.1 above. occupants avoid walking into spaces corridors in means of escapes? from which they cannot exit (dead a. Are the requirements appropriate end). Many jurisdictions therefore in the circumstance? (This might limit the length of dead-end corridors be benchmarked to international (for example, to 5 m or 7 m). best practice.) 3.4.9 Exit width The width of exit access (a) Do the building regulations See comments associated with components (for example, corridors) address width of means of escape 3.4.1 above. and exits (for example, stairs) components? is important. Width of means of a. Are the requirements appropriate escape components should be in the circumstance? (This might appropriate to occupant load and be benchmarked to international exit system components to help best practice.) ensure flow of persons. 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 49 50 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (cont.) 3.5 Occupant/occupancy characteristics (vulnerabilities) 3.5.1 Occupancy/ Different building uses and occupant (a) Do the building regulations contain a This depends on regulatory use groups characteristics present different single set of building use/occupancy structure. In cases where there is risks and hazards and therefore classifications that apply to all parts more than one set of building use/ require different levels of protection of the regulation? occupancy classifications, check (see also discussion on related a. If not, is there a specific set for that they are not in conflict. This issues/coordination issues that fire safety (escape/egress)? can be particularly important for follows this table). structure and fire if there are fire- related structural provisions in each section. 3.5.2 Accessible To the extent practicable, exits (a) Do the building regulations address This may be found with fire exit components should be designed for people of all the need for all or some exit system provisions, egress provisions, or in abilities. Accordingly, components components to be accessible? an accessibility section. in means of egress, such as doors, should meet accessibility requirements. Note that some jurisdictions do not require all exits to be accessible. 3.3.3 Refuge areas/ Occupants should be protected (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with 3.3 horizontal exits from fire events during the time requirements for areas of refuge above. In addition, fire resistance required to egress a building. For for persons with disabilities while and flame spread requirements those occupants unable to exit awaiting rescue? (In high-rise may be in other sections under fire on their own, due to disability, buildings, these may be associated suppression (see Section 4 above), infirmity, or other reasons, areas of with exit stair lobbies. For hospitals, and sometimes under structural. The refuge inside of the building may there may be horizontal exit communications to areas of refuge be required. Jurisdictions often requirements.) may also be found in provisions require FRR for refuge areas to a. Are the requirements appropriate associated with fire alarm and provide such protection. Horizontal in the circumstance? This would communications systems (see 3.2 exits are often required in hospitals. include space for persons, fire above). Communication systems are often resistance rating of space, use also required. of roll-down fire partitions, etc. (This might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 3.5.4 Occupant In very tall buildings, the time (a) Do the building regulations address If required, such provisions would self-evacuation lifts required to evacuate by stairs can be requirements for occupant self- likely be associated with sections quite long and tiring for occupants. evacuation lifts in case of fire or on specific building occupancies, To address this concern, some another emergency? in particular high-rise (and more jurisdictions allow occupant self- a. Are the requirements appropriate specifically, supertall) buildings. evacuation lifts. in the circumstance? (This might Special requirements for the be benchmarked to international protection of lifts might be found best practice.) in the mechanical conveyance sections. Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (cont.) 3.6 Safety glazing, protection against falls, etc. 3.6.1 Safety glazing Glazing that is used within (a) Do the building regulations address Safety glazing may be addressed circulation spaces of a building, requirements for use of safety-rated in a particular safety to occupants in particular means of escape, glazing in occupant circulation section or as part of means of should provide protection to spaces, exterior windows, etc.? escape. See comments associated occupants against breakage, and as (b) Do the building regulations address with 3.4.1 above. appropriate, be fire rated. requirements for use of fire-rated glazing in means of escape? 3.6.2 Handrail Where means of egress are adjacent (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with (stairs, barriers to areas of significant height requirements for barriers to prevent 3.4.1 above. against falling) differentials (for example, walkway falling from height? (In some cases, near a wall that drops off 1m or these may be required if the vertical more), guardrails may be needed. drop is 1 m or more.) To facilitate the safe egress of (b) Do the building regulations address occupants via stairs, they should be requirements for the location and able to reach a handrail from any design of handrails in exit stairs point in the stair. Also, handrails (for example, location, quantity, should be sized to fit the human height above riser, cross-sectional hand well. dimension of handrail, etc.)? a. Are the requirements appropriate in the circumstance? (This might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 3.6.3 Stair Uneven stairs (those in which the (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with geometry (rise, run, rise of the step and the distance stair geometry requirements to meet 3.4.1 above. landings, etc.) to the back of the step (run) are safe usage needs (for example, non-uniform) can present a tripping are rise and run dimensions given, hazard. This is true in emergency are minimum widths defined, are and non-emergency events alike. minimum landing area and geometry As such, many jurisdictions define provided, is door intrusion on criteria for rise and run for exit landings addressed, etc.)? stairs. Similarly, stair landings a. Are the requirements appropriate that are too small can cause flow in the circumstance? (This might restrictions, especially as flows from be benchmarked to international corridors merge into stairs. As such, best practice.) many jurisdictions define minimum landing dimensions. Likewise, widths of stairs can be problematic if too narrow (restricting flow) or too wide (inability to access a handrail). Such limits may also be defined. 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 51 52 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND EGRESS (cont.) 3.6.4 Door swing in The inability for escaping occupants (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with exit pathway, exit to exit buildings due to door swing requirements for direction of door 3.4.1 above. In addition, accessibility hardware, locks or revolving doors has contributed swing in the means of escape? sections of the building regulations to many large life-loss events. As (b) Do the building regulations address should be checked. such, most jurisdictions require exit requirements for door closers (see doors to open in the direction of the also Section 3)? path of exit travel. Also, exit doors (c) Do the building regulations address should be unlocked from the inside, hardware for opening/locking doors and where they need to be unlocked, which are part of the means of should do so automatically on alarm. escape? Pushbar (emergency) hardware a. If so, are door hardware should be used where practicable in requirements coordinated with places of assembly and other large accessibility requirements? occupant load buildings. b. Are the requirements appropriate in the circumstance? (This might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 3.6.5 Door swing For the reasons outlined above, (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with exit discharge where practicable, exit doors that requirements on the swing of exit 3.4.1 above. Where planning or discharge to public ways should discharge doors to the exterior other regulation impose competing open in the direction of exit travel (which is generally required to be in objectives (for example, narrow (that is, out to the street). The exit the direction of escape travel)? sidewalk), this issue may require discharge door should also be (b) Do the building regulations address discussion and coordination. protected from parked cars and protection of the exit discharge door other obstructions. This may require swing area (to allow it to open when bollards. needed)? a. Are the requirements appropriate in the circumstance? (This might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 3.7 Signage, lighting, and emergency power 3.7.1 Exit signage Except for places where people (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with live, most are unfamiliar with the requirements for exit signage (for 3.4.1 above. In addition, accessibility location of exits in buildings. This example, illumination, size, color, sections of the building regulations is especially true in buildings where and location)? should be checked. Requirements exits are only used in emergencies a. Are the requirements appropriate for exit signs may also be found (or predominantly in emergencies). in the circumstance? (This might in standards (for example, ISO or As such, it is important to have exit be benchmarked to international others). signs that are readily identifiable, best practice.) easy to read/understand, are located to indicate path of travel, and illuminated/photoluminescent to guide people. Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 3. OCCUPANT SAFETY, REFUGE, AND Egress (cont.) 3.7.2 Exit path Smoke from a fire can make it (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with illumination difficult to see. Also, fire can cause illumination of escape paths in both 3.4.1 above. power outages in a building. As normal power and emergency power such, many jurisdictions require situations? exit path illumination that includes a. Are the requirements appropriate emergency power (batteries) or is in the circumstance? (This might photoluminescent to help occupant be benchmarked to international wayfinding. best practice and local power reliability.) 3.7.3 Emergency Smoke from a fire can make it (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with lighting difficult to see. Also, fire can cause requirements for emergency lighting 3.4.1 above. power outages in a building. As in spaces other than the means of such, many jurisdictions require escape? (This is important for large emergency lighting in exit paths that areas and others with insufficient or are connected to emergency power no windows.) (batteries/generators). a. Are the requirements appropriate in the circumstance? (This might be benchmarked to international best practice.) 3.7.4 Wayfinding In addition to exit signage and (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with guidance pathway illumination, it may be requirements for wayfinding 3.4.1 above. In addition, accessibility helpful to have message boards guidance systems, other than as sections of the building regulations or other wayfinding guidance in outlined above? should be checked. very large buildings, such as transit a. Are the requirements appropriate terminals, sports arenas, and the in the circumstance? (This might like. be benchmarked to international best practice.) 4. FIRE SUPPRESSION 4.1 Extinguishers 4.1.1 Handheld fire Handheld fire extinguishers (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for handheld fire extinguishers can serve as a means for early requirements for handheld fire extinguishers may be found in intervention to suppress a fire. extinguishers? the fire protection section of Regulations can identify what type a. If not, where is this addressed? the regulations. In some cases, of fire extinguisher is appropriate b. Are the requirements adequate? requirements will be found under for which hazards in a building and fire service legislation, such as in where they should be located. a fire regulation. Additional details can also be found in standards (for example, NFPA 10). 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 53 54 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 4. FIRE SUPPRESSION (cont.) 4.2 Water supply 4.2.1 Municipal fire If firefighting water is provided by (a) Do the building regulations Requirements for fire water water capacity/ the local municipality, there will still address municipal water supply connections may be in the fire connections need to be connections into the requirements for fire protection protection section of the regulations. (single, dual) building. Connections will also be systems? In some cases, requirements will be required from local storage tanks a. If not, where is this addressed? found under fire service legislation, as necessary. It will be critical to b. If so, are requirements adequate? such as in a fire regulation. understand whether the municipal Technical details are most often system can supply the required found in reference standards (for flows and pressures. For reliability, example, NFPA 22 and NFPA 24). it may be prudent to have looped It may also be important to check connections or feeds from different water resources regulations, municipal mains or branch lines. municipal water regulations and the like. 4.2.2 Local water See 4.2.1. (a) Do the building regulations address See 4.2.1. Note that NFPA 22 is storage capacity local water supply (for example, an example standard on tanks for and location storage tank) requirements? firefighting water storage. a. If not, where is this addressed? b. If so, are the requirements adequate? 4.2.3 Fire service For some large, complex buildings, (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for fire water connections including high-rise, large storage, fire service connections for internal connections may be in the fire and large public spaces with interior hydrant (standpipe) systems, dry protection section of the regulations. hydrant (standpipe) systems, there sprinkler risers, and/or other fire In some cases, requirements will be may be a need for connections to service water needs? found under fire service legislation, firefighting apparatus to provide a. If not, where is this addressed? such as in a fire regulation. water. b. If so, are the requirements Technical details are most often adequate? found in reference standards (for example, NFPA 22, NFPA 24). 4.2.4 Street hydrant While not always a part of building (a) Do the building regulations address This may be found in planning/ location regulations, fire service regulations/ requirements for placement of street zoning regulations and/or requirements may specify municipal hydrants (connected to municipal municipal water supply regulations. (external) hydrant locations to help water supply) relative to distance to Sometimes information may be coordinate fire apparatus access. buildings being protected? provided in fire service regulations. a. If not, where is this addressed? b. If so, are the requirements adequate? 4.2.5 Fire pump(s) Depending on the local situation (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for fire pumps may with municipal (or local stored) requirements for firefighting water be in the fire protection section of water supply for firefighting and supply pumps? the regulations. In some cases, on the size of the building, fire a. If not, where is this addressed? requirements will be found under pumps may be needed to provide b. Are the requirements adequate? fire service legislation, such as in the necessary pressure and flow a fire regulation. Technical details rates for sprinklers and manual are most often found in reference suppression. standards (for example, NFPA 20). Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 4. FIRE SUPPRESSION (cont.) 4.3 Manual suppression 4.3.1 Exterior fire Fire hydrants are essential for (a) Do the building regulations address This may be found in planning/ service hydrants connecting firefighting apparatus to requirements for street hydrants zoning regulations and/or water supplies. There are typically (connected to municipal water municipal water supply regulations. external hydrant systems connected supply) relative to distance to Sometimes information may be to water mains (see also 4.2.4 buildings being protected or other? provided in fire service regulations. above) and internal to the building a. If not, where is this addressed? for firefighter use. b. If so, are the requirements adequate? 4.3.2 Fire service Interior hydrants (standpipes) are (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for location of fire interior hydrants essential for providing firefighting requirements for location and service hydrants (standpipes) may (standpipes) water throughout large and tall redundancy of interior hydrants be found in the building regulations, buildings. This allows firefighters (standpipes) for fire service use? either in the fire protection section to connect hoses locally within the a. If not, where is this addressed? or with specific occupancy building, near the fire, without laying requirements (for example, high-rise, long distances of hose. storage/warehouse, etc.). In some cases, requirements will be found under fire service legislation, such as in a fire regulation. Technical details are most often found in reference standards (for example, NFPA 14). 4.3.3 Fire service In some countries, hose reels for fire (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for firefighter hose connections service use are required. However, fixed (permanent) hose reels for fire reels may be found in the fire other countries have dropped service use? protection section of the regulations. this requirement due to the fire a. If not, where is this addressed (if In some cases, requirements will be service’s preference for bringing at all)? found under fire service legislation, their own hoses to connect to b. Are the requirements adequate? such as in a fire regulation. interior hydrants. Where provided, Technical details are most often regulations can identify where they found in reference standards. should be located, hose length, and related parameters. 4.3.4 Manual fire It is necessary to understand water Do the building regulations address Requirements for minimum water suppression water capacity, flow, and pressure needs requirements for capacity (flow rate) supply may be in the fire protection capacity (flow and for the interior fire service hydrant and pressure of interior hydrants section of the regulations. They may pressure) (standpipe), along with sprinkler (standpipes) for fire service use? be combined to include sprinklers systems requirements, to design If not, where is this addressed? and interior hydrants (standpipes) overall firefighting water supply Are the requirements adequate? and defined in terms of flow, systems for the building. pressure, and duration (for example, 30 min or 60 min capacity). In some cases, requirements will be found under fire service legislation, such as in a fire regulation. Technical details are most often found in reference standards (for example, NFPA 13,14, 24). 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 55 56 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 4. FIRE SUPPRESSION (cont.) 4.3.5 Occupant-use In some countries, occupant- (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for occupant hose hose reels use hose reels are used for early requirements for fixed (permanent) reels may be found in the fire intervention to suppress a fire. occupant-use hose reels for protection section of the regulations. However, other countries have firefighting? In some cases, requirements will be dropped this due to potential risk to a. If not, where is this addressed (if found under fire service legislation, user (if not successful in controlling at all)? such as in a fire regulation. fire). Where provided, regulations b. Are the requirements adequate? Technical details are most often can identify where they should be found in reference standards. located, hose length, and related parameters. 4.4 Automatic suppression 4.4.1 Automatic Automatic fire sprinklers are among (a) Do the building regulations require A requirement for a building to have sprinkler system the most effective way to control installation of automatic fire automatic fire sprinkler systems fires when small and to keep them sprinkler systems? would most typically be found in small, limiting impacts to life and a. If so, in which building use/ the fire protection section (which property. Most jurisdictions require a occupancy classifications are may sometimes be part of the full building automatic fire sprinkler they required? mechanical or building services system to be installed in all high (b) Are there any boundary conditions section). However, they may also occupancy buildings, high-rise that define when an automatic fire be found with specific special buildings (residential, commercial, sprinkler system is required, such occupancy requirements, such as institutional), hospitals, and other as height of building, occupant load, high-rise buildings, high-hazard such complex or high-risk buildings. nature of the materials stored in the buildings, and the like. In some Some jurisdictions require sprinklers building, etc.? cases, requirements will be found for storage, industrial, and most under fire service legislation, such other occupancies as well. Some as in a fire regulation. Technical jurisdictions require all buildings design details are most often found except 1-2 family dwellings to be in reference standards (for example, sprinklered. BS EN 14972, BS 9251, ISO 6182, NFPA 13). 4.4.2 Sprinkler Design of automatic fire sprinklers (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for sprinkler hazard design density/ depends on the expected fire loads. sprinkler design density/hazard classification may be in the building hazard Different regulatory approaches classification requirements? regulations, either in the fire classifications are used, such as light hazard or a. If not, where are these addressed? protection section or with specific ordinary hazard, to define design b. Are the requirements adequate? occupancy requirements. Design parameters. The building regulation details are most often found in may define different categories for reference standards (for example, different building uses (for example, BS EN 14972, BS 9251, ISO 6182, office may be light hazard). NFPA 13). 4.4.3 Sprinkler Sprinkler systems are typically (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for minimum water design area designed by considering sprinkler design area requirements supply may be in the fire protection hydraulically remote design areas (for example, hydraulically remote section of the regulations. They may in which a specified number of location, number of heads operating, be combined to include sprinklers sprinklers may be activated. This floor area, etc.)? and interior hydrants (standpipes), is necessary to understand water a. If not, where are these addressed? and defined in terms of flow, capacity, flow, and pressure needs. b. Are the requirements adequate? pressure, and duration (for example, 30 min or 60 min capacity). In some cases, requirements will be found under fire service legislation, such as in a fire regulation. Technical details are most often found in reference standards (for example, BS EN 14972, BS 9251, ISO 6182, NFPA 13). Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 4. FIRE SUPPRESSION (cont.) 4.4.4 Sprinkler It is necessary to understand (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for minimum water water capacity, water capacity, flow, and pressure water capacity, flow, and pressure supply may be in the fire protection flow, and pressure needs for sprinkler systems, along requirements for sprinkler systems? section of the regulations. They may with interior fire service hydrant a. If not, where are these addressed? be combined to include sprinklers (standpipe) requirements, to design b. Are the requirements adequate? and interior hydrants (standpipes), firefighting water supply systems for and defined in terms of flow, the building. pressure, and duration (for example, 30 min or 60 min capacity). In some cases, requirements will be found under fire service legislation, such as in a fire regulation. Technical details are most often found in reference standards (for example, BS EN 14972, BS 9251, ISO 6182, NFPA 13). 4.4.5 Water flow Sprinkler heads are a form of heat (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for installing a local alarm (local) detection, so when the sprinkler requirements for water flow alarms water flow alarm may be in the fire activates, it should sound a local connected to sprinkler systems? protection section of the regulations. water flow alarm—typically located a. If not, where are these addressed? In some cases, requirements will be on the outside of a building—to found under fire service legislation, such signal to people that water is as in a fire regulation. Technical details flowing. are most often found in reference standards (for example, BS EN 14972, BS 9251, ISO 6182, NFPA 13). 4.4.6 Water flow Sprinkler heads are a form of heat (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for installing water (connection to detection, so when the sprinkler connection of the sprinkler system flow switches for the FACP may FACP) activates, it should sound an interior to the building FACP? be in the fire protection section of alarm via the FACP, to signal to a. If not, where are these addressed? the regulations. In some cases, occupants that there is a fire. This is requirements will be found under important because smoke detectors fire service legislation, such as in and other such devices may not be a fire regulation. Technical details installed in sprinklered buildings, so are most often found in reference flow alarms are the primary alarm standards (for example, BS EN initiating devices. 14972, BS 9251, ISO 6182, NFPA 13). 4.4.7 Sprinkler Supervision of fire sprinkler systems (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for supervision may supervision is important to monitor positions of connection of the sprinkler system be in the fire protection section of valves. to the building FACP? the regulations. In some cases, a. If not, where are these addressed? requirements will be found under fire service legislation, such as in a fire regulation. Technical details are most often found in reference standards (for example, BS EN 14972, BS 9251, ISO 6182, NFPA 13). 4.4.8 Special Some spaces in certain buildings (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for areas which extinguishing may require suppression systems requirements for special suppression require special extinguishing systems that do not use water (for example, systems, such as chemical systems, systems may be found in the chemical systems for commercial inert gases, and the like? fire protection section of the stove/oven exhaust systems, inert a. If so, in which building use/ regulations or under specific use/ gas in computer space). occupancy classifications, or occupancy groups. In some cases, within which specific rooms or requirements will be found under for specific uses in a building, fire service legislation, such as in are they required (for example, a fire regulation. Technical details kitchen range exhaust hood)? are most often found in reference b. If not, where is this addressed? standards. 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 57 58 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 4. FIRE SUPPRESSION (cont.) 4.4.9 Automatic Any installed special extinguishing (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for supervision of extinguishing system should be supervised by the connection of special extinguishing special extinguishing systems system supervision building FACP to indicate alarms and systems to the building FACP? may be found in the fire protection notify responsible persons if there is a. If not, where are these addressed? section of the regulations. In some a problem with the system. cases, requirements will be found under fire service legislation, such as in a fire regulation. Technical details are most often found in reference standards. 5. FIRE SERVICE ACCESS AND FACILITIES 5.1 Access for Access for fire apparatus is critical, (a) Do the building regulations address Fire service access for apparatus fire apparatus and yet usually not included in building fire service access for apparatus may be found in planning equipment regulations. Rather, attributes such (that is, roadway width, turning regulations, transportation as roadway width, turning radius, radius, prohibition over underground regulations, or other. It may be and access to buildings is often parking, etc.)? dependent on fire service resources found in planning regulations. This a. If not, where is this addressed? and the types of apparatus deployed needs to be coordinated. Access in the local municipality. should not be over underground parking. 5.2 Access to The fire service should have clear (a) Do the building regulations address See comments associated with stairs, hydrants, access within buildings, especially to requirements for fire service Sections 3 and 4 above. and hose reels locations of FACPs and emergency access and wayfinding in buildings, command centers (ECCs). It should especially to stairs, ECCs, fire pump also be easy for them to readily room, and other critical spaces? identify stairways and firefighter a. Are the requirements appropriate lifts for operational and occupant in the circumstance? (This might evacuation needs. be benchmarked to international best practice.) 5.3 Firefighter lifts All high-rise buildings present (a) Do the building regulations address Firefighter lifts may be addressed in challenges for the fire service, requirements for fire service lifts? the fire protection section. Special from bringing equipment to upper a. Are the requirements appropriate requirements for the protection of floors, to evacuating impaired or in the circumstance? (This might firefighter lifts might also be found disabled persons. As such, many be benchmarked to international in the mechanical conveyance jurisdictions require either dedicated best practice.) sections. firefighter lifts or controls that allow firefighters to take control of lifts in emergencies. 5.4 Firefighter In high occupancy buildings, high- (a) Do the building regulations address Requirements for ECC would typically communications rise buildings, and other such requirements for an ECC for use by be found in the fire protection and command complex or high-risk building, many the fire service or other emergency section (which may sometimes be center jurisdictions require a dedicated ECC response and management part of the mechanical or building (fire command center) for use by personnel during emergencies? services section). However, they may the fire service to direct evacuation (b) Is the location of the ECC also be found with specific special communication, control lifts, addressed? occupancy requirements, such as control smoke exhaust, and similar (c) Is ready access to the ECC high-rise buildings. Provisions may functions. Such ECCs are typically addressed? also be located in the structural protected by fire-rated construction. (d) Is protection of the ECC addressed? section, if controls for other events The ECC would house the FACP/ is also anticipated (for example, EVCCP and other similar controls. earthquake, flood, cyclone). Chapter 6 Table 2. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) 6. ITM, PLANS, AND TRAINING 6.1 ITM for fire To help ensure that fire safety (a) Do the building regulations include This may be a unique section in the protection systems systems and features are available requirements for scheduled ITM? building regulations or associated and working properly when needed, a a. If not, where is this addressed? with reference standards for each robust set of ITM provisions should b. If so, do the building regulations type of fire safety equipment. be considered. In some cases, these also include other audits/reports, may be associated with reference such as a BWOF report in which equipment standards (for example, the owner certifies systems are fire detection and fire suppression). maintained in working order? 6.2 Evacuation While it is important to have robust (a) Do the building regulations include These requirements may be planning and means of escape, it is also important requirements for evacuation associated with means of escape, training to have evacuation plans, training, planning and training? as a separate section, or in drills, and the like to help occupants a. If not, where is this addressed? separate regulations (for example, understand their role in an emergency in building evacuation legislation and getting themselves to a place of safety. regulation). 6.3 Fire safety In addition to robust ITM plans (a) Do the building regulations include These requirements may be management plans and evacuation plans, buildings requirements for fire safety associated with fire prevention, should have broader fire safety/risk management plans? as a separate section, or in management plans to help ensure a. If not, where is this addressed? separate regulations (for example, systems are maintained, people are occupational health and safety). trained, combustibles are not stored in means of escape, combustibles are not stored near building façade, and similar good practices. 6.4 Temporary It is sometimes the case that (a) Does the building code address Requirements for temporary use requirements/ temporary buildings / structures permitting of temporary structures structures / uses would typically permits are erected for special events. Such and/or uses? be found in the Administrative buildings / structures should have a. If not, is this addressed in another section of the building / fire code. In a permit and inspection process, document / regulation, such as some cases, separate legislation / appropriate to the structure, and zoning? regulations may be in place. a limited time that the temporary (b) If temporary structures/uses are structure is to be allowed. permitted, is there a specific permitting process for temporary uses? a. Does the permit process include inspection of structural integrity and fire / evacuation safety? b. Does the permit place limits around the definition of ‘temporary’ in terms of time that the structure can exist / use is permitted (e.g., single event, one day, one week, one month)? (c) Is there a process for addressing temporary structures / uses that exceed permitted time (e.g., demolition, conversion to permanent, ...)? 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 59 60 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY While the above list is extensive it is not necessarily Lastly, there are several related issues, which may not exhaustive. Also, as noted previously, not all principles/ fit simply as a fire safety component (such as building features/systems may be required/appropriate in the use/occupancy groups), are coordination issues, or country of focus. In addition some of the details associated are found in related legislation (for example, utilities). with the fire safety principles/features/systems may be Table 3 contains various items of concern such as those located in mandatory or non-mandatory guidance and/or overviewed. referenced standards. Table 3. Related review items Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) A1. USE/OCCUPANCY CLASSES A1.1 While not a fire safety In general, building use/ (a) Do the building regulations This depends on regulatory principle/strategy, for classification depends on the contain a single set of building structure. They may be found as building regulation, this climate, geography, cultural use/occupancy classifications their own section, in a section on sets benchmark criteria background, etc. of a country. An that apply to all parts of the structural, fire or both, or within for specific fire safety important point is that building-use regulation? an annex. In cases where there requirements (based on classes in the building regulations a. If not, is there a specific set are more than one set of building population of building, size should reflect the building uses of for fire (and life safety)? use/occupancy classifications, of building, primary activity the country in question. Specific (b) Are there any other use/ check that they are not in conflict. of building, etc.) to fire safety, different building occupancy classifications (for This can be particularly important uses and occupant characteristics example, for structural)? for structure and fire if there are present different risks and hazards (c) If more than one set of use/ fire-related structural provisions in and therefore require different occupancy classifications each section. levels of protection. This should be exist, is there any conflict considered. between them? A1.2 Special provisions When a building contains multiple (a) Do the building regulations This would typically be found for mixed-use occupancy uses (for example, high-rise contain special provisions for wherever the overall discussion of buildings residential on top of commercial or mixed-use occupancies? building use/occupancy classes is retail space), care should be taken a. If so, does the entire building found. This may be in a regulation to identify what provisions apply need to comply with the (for example, the IBC in the US) to the building and/or its parts (for most restrictive use? or in a reference document (for example, most restrictive for the b. What triggers the “dominant” example, Approved Document B in use applies or mix based on uses). use? England). A1.3 Special provisions for High-rise buildings are (a) How is “high-rise” defined? This would typically be found high-rise buildings characterized by long times for (b) Do the building regulations wherever the overall discussion of occupant evacuation and fire contain special provisions for building use/occupancy classes service response. They may high-rise buildings? is found. also have large populations. (c) If not, has consideration The consequences of a fire are been given to special needs generally higher (in particular associated with fire stability, structural failure). These egress, and firefighting in tall factors often warrant additional buildings, and if so, where are requirements (for example, higher provisions for this? fire resistance requirements, automatic sprinklers, voice communications) over low-rise buildings of the same use. Chapter 6 Table 3. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) A1. USE/OCCUPANCY CLASSES (cont.) A1.4 Special provisions for Depending on area, height, and (a) Are buildings with atria This would typically be found atria openness to floors above grade, allowed? wherever the overall discussion of this may impact fire and smoke a. If so, do the building building use/occupancy classes control, suppression system, regulations contain special is found. and egress. As such, additional provision for atria? requirements or guidance may be b. If not, how is fire detection, warranted. smoke control, suppression and egress addressed for atria spaces? A1.5 Underground Underground structures, especially (a) Are underground buildings/ This would typically be found structures with large numbers of people structures addressed by the wherever the overall discussion of (for example, malls), also require building regulation? building use/occupancy classes special provisions because they a. If so, do the building is found. are characterized by high density regulations contain special of occupants, limited (upward) provisions for the unique evacuation, smoke exhaust features of underground challenges, and darkness if spaces? electrical outage occurs. b. If not, how is fire detection, smoke control, suppression, and egress addressed for atria spaces? A2. COORDINATION ISSUES A2.1 Fire stability of As noted in Section 3.3.1 above, (a) Do the building regulations The building regulations need to structure with structural fire resistance of structural address fire stability of work as a cohesive, coordinated provisions systems may be found in structure in more than one system. In some cases, association with building use/ location (section/chapter)? requirements for fire protection occupancy classes or under fire a. If so, do the separate systems may be under mechanical, protection (which may be part requirements work and in some cases may also of the mechanical or building appropriately together? be addressed under structural services), but may also be found (b) Is there a priority as to when requirements, especially as under structure, in particular one set of provisions has associated with specific hazard where reference codes such as precedence over the other? design (for example, earthquake). the Eurocode for Structures are used. Coordination with structural is critical. A2.2 Alternate methods of Many building regulations allow (a) Do the building regulations The building regulation may design for the use of alternate design allow for use of alternate have a single administrative methods (engineered design/ methods/engineered design? clause that permits alternate performance-based design). It a. If so, what are requirements (engineered) designs in all areas is important to check that this is for designers? or may allow only for specific coordinated across areas. i. When can alternate areas (for example, structural). (engineered) methods be Where engineered design impacts used? more than one area (for example, ii. Are specific methods for application of Eurocodes for alternate (engineered) Structure, which includes an design cited? approach to fire engineering), it (b) If more than one approach needs to be clear which provisions is listed/possible, which has have precedence/priority. precedence? 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 61 62 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 3. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) A2. COORDINATION ISSUES (cont.) A2.3 Seismic bracing of fire In seismic zones, it can be (a) Do the building regulations The building regulations need to protection systems important to have seismic bracing address seismic bracing work as a cohesive, coordinated of non-structural systems and of fire protection systems, system. In some cases, components, including fire particularly firefighting water requirements for fire protection protection systems. Coordination supply, interior hydrants, and systems may also be addressed with structural design is important sprinklers? under structural requirements, to understand if and when a. If so, where is this especially as associated with seismic bracing is needed for fire addressed? specific hazard design (for protection systems, and if so, how i. Are the requirements example, earthquake). best to address it in the building appropriate in the regulation. circumstance? (This may change based on building use and might be benchmarked to international best practice.) A2.4 Coordination with As noted in 4.4.1 above, (a) Are there any conflicts between The building regulations need to mechanical, electrical, and requirements for smoke exhaust fire provisions and mechanical, work as a cohesive, coordinated plumbing provisions on systems may be found in the electrical, or plumbing system. In some cases, smoke and electrical fire protection section of the provisions within the building requirements for fire protection regulations. However, they regulations? systems may be under and/ might also be found under the (b) Are there any conflicts between or required to coordinate with mechanical or building services fire provisions and energy mechanical, and may also have section. Also, sprinklers and efficiency provisions within relevance to energy efficiency, and manual fire protection systems the building regulations (for other clauses. may be designed by mechanical or example, as associated with plumbing engineers. Coordination items such as photovoltaic with mechanical engineers for systems, energy storage these systems is very important systems, and thermal when reviewing regulations. insulation)? A2.5 Coordination with In cases where firefighter lifts and/ (a) Are there any conflicts between The building regulations need to vertical transport on or occupant self-evacuation lifts fire provisions and vertical work as a cohesive, coordinated elevator recall and/or are used, coordination with vertical transport provisions within the system. In some cases, firefighter lifts /and/or transportation requirements is building regulations? requirements for fire protection occupant self-evacuation important. systems may require coordination lifts with vertical transport. A2.6 Coordination with As noted in 4.3 above, most egress (a) Are there any conflicts between The building regulations need to accessibility on accessible systems will have at least some fire provisions and accessibility work as a cohesive, coordinated components in egress accessible features. Coordination provisions within the building system. In some cases, system with accessibility requirements in regulations? requirements for fire protection the regulations is important. systems may require coordination with accessibility. A2.7 Coordination with External wall/façade systems can (a) Are there any conflicts between The building regulations need to façade/external wall/ be very complex, and sometimes fire provisions and façade work as a cohesive, coordinated envelope on insulation, fire use materials such as insulation, provisions within the building system. In some cases, spread, etc. which may be combustible. Fire regulations? requirements for fire protection performance of materials in systems may require coordination façade and insulation systems with façades. should be coordinated with energy performance/mechanical. Chapter 6 Table 3. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) A2. COORDINATION ISSUES (cont.) A2.8 Consistent use There are many standards (a) Do the building regulations Standards that are cited in the throughout all sections organizations worldwide. Most uniformly cite consensus building regulations may be found countries have their own. There standards from the same within each specific section (for are also International Standards organization (for example, BSI, example, structural, mechanical) (ISO) and regional standards (for CEN, and NFPA) within each or may be consolidated into example, CEN in Europe). To the section (for example, structure, a schedule or annex to the extent practicable, standards that fire, mechanical, etc.)? regulations. address a particular topic should a. If not, do the building come from the same organization regulations uniformly cite to assure compatibility. Care comparable consensus should be taken to avoid use of standards within each incompatible standards in the section (for example, building regulations. For example, structure, fire, mechanical, sprinkler requirements from NFPA etc.)? in the US might not be compatible (b) What checks have been carried with manual fire suppression out to assure compatibility design guidance from BSI or other. between cited standards? Also, consistent approach to citing standards should be adopted. Either provide references in all building regulation sections, or in an annex, but not a mix of both. A2.9 Consistent and A consistent approach to citing (a) Do the building regulations Standards that are cited in the uniform reference to same standards should be adopted for use the same approach to building regulations may be found source(s) use throughout all code sections. citing standards consistently within each specific section (for As used here, consistency refers throughout (for example, example, structural, mechanical) to how the reference is stated, cited in specific chapter as BS or may be consolidated into for example, NFPA 13 or NFPA 13 XXXX:2020; or EN 1990:2002/ a schedule or annex to the Design of Sprinkler Systems, or A1:2005; or NFPA 13, Design regulations. other. It is recommended that titles of Sprinkler Systems, NFPA, be included so that the reader Quincy, MA, United States)? better understands the content. a. If not, suggest that all be made consistent. There may be good reasons to (b) Do the building regulations reference an older version of a reference specific dated standard in some instances. versions of a standard or reference the current version of a standard? A3. TESTING/CERTIFICATION A3.1 Required product/ Building regulations should (a) Do the building regulations If not addressed in the building system marking (for state requirements for listing or require building products regulations, there may be other example, CE, UL, etc.) certification of fire protection to be tested and approved, legislation or treaties that require systems and materials. and marked with appropriate appropriate product performance indication (for example, CE certification (for example, the mark, UL label, etc.)? Construction Product Directive and a. If not, how is product quality Regulations in the EU). and conformity assessed? 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 63 64 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 3. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) A3. TESTING/CERTIFICATION (cont..) A3.2 Accredited test A check should be made as (a) Do the building regulations If not addressed in the building facilities to the presence of accredited address the need for regulations, there may be other laboratories to conduct accredited laboratory facilities legislation or treaties that require cited approval/certification to be used in conducting appropriate product performance requirements. product tests and issuing certification (for example, the performance and/or conformity Construction Product Directive and certifications? Regulations in the EU). a. If not, how is product quality and conformity assessed? A3.3 Market surveillance Should be checked if exists. (a) Do the building regulations If not addressed in the building address the need for market regulations, there may be other surveillance of construction legislation or treaties that require products? appropriate product performance a. If not, how is product quality certification (for example, the and conformity maintained? Construction Product Directive and Regulations in the EU). A4. OTHER LEGISLATION/REGULATIONS A4.1 Electricity Electricity is one of the most (a) Do the building regulations Electric utility system requirements infrastructure/distribution common sources of fire address electric utility may be found in power/utilities system/building power ignition. Inadequate electricity requirements for the building, regulations or other. supply requirements infrastructure leading to buildings for example, reliability, (primary) can create ignition hazards. distribution, and the like? This can be a particular concern a. If not, where is this in informal settlements and addressed? construction. Also, unreliable electricity can significantly impact safety systems. Understanding and coordinating with electricity infrastructure is critical. A4.2 Emergency power Following from 6.2 above, (a) Do the building regulations Electric utility system requirements supply requirements emergency power requirements address emergency power may be found in power/utilities for fire safety systems need to be requirements? regulations or other. coordinated with overall building a. If not, where is this emergency power needs. addressed? A4.3 Piped fuel (gaseous/ Piped fuel is a common source (a) Do the building regulations Piped fuel system requirements liquid) utilities. of fire ignition. Inadequate address piped fuel (gaseous may be found in power/utilities infrastructure leading to buildings and liquid) services to the regulations or other. can create ignition hazards and building? provide additional fuel if ignited. a. If not, where is this This can be a particular concern addressed? in informal settlements and construction. Understanding and coordinating with piped fuel infrastructure is critical. Chapter 6 Table 3. (cont.) Topic Relevance Diagnostic Question Where to Look in Regulation(s) A4. OTHER LEGISLATION/REGULATIONS (cont.) A4.4 Municipal water As noted in 4.2.16 above, if (a) Do the building regulations Municipal water supply system requirements firefighting water is provided by address connections to municipal requirements may be found the local municipality, there will water supply for firefighting water? in water resources/utilities still need to be connections into If not, where is this addressed? regulations or other. the building. Connections will also be required from local storage tanks as necessary. It will be critical to understand whether the municipal system can supply the required flows and pressures. For reliability, it may be prudent to have looped connections or feeds from different municipal mains or branch lines. A4.5 High-hazard zoning Planning and zoning regulation (a) Do the building regulations Planning and zoning requirements provisions typically defines where hazardous address permissible location of may be found in planning/zoning facilities/industrial operations high-hazard facilities relative to regulations or other. can be located. These may have residential and other building specific fire protection needs. Also, uses? if residential or other commercial a. If not, where is this buildings are permitted in these addressed? areas, fire exposure requirements should take account of this. A4.6 Land management/ In many countries, urban (a) Do the building regulations Wildfire land management wildfire exposure environments are merging address specifically protection requirements may be found in requirements with the wildland, and with against wildfire threats, land/resource management climate change increasing including such features as regulations or other. In some temperatures and extending screening to prevent ember jurisdictions, specific codes or droughts, fires at the wildland- penetration, noncombustible standards for buildings located in urban interface are increasing. fencing and decking, the wildland-urban interface exist Some jurisdictions have created noncombustible roof materials, (for example, the International special codes or standards to etc.? Code Council Wildland-Urban address particular needs in the a. If not, where is this Interface Code). wildland-urban interface. These, addressed? and fire suppression, need to be coordinated. 6. BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY 65 Appendix A – Location of Fire Provisions in Building Regulatory Systems As discussed in Regulatory Structures, there is systems and the adequate review and approval a variety of approaches to building regulatory of these designs. Many of these countries also system structures. While most building have Verification Methods (VMs), which are regulatory systems address all of the fire safety largely engineering-based guidance (but not principles/strategies/systems overviewed in this standards). checklist, the overall functional description of each, the detailed requirements, and the Note that while for most countries there is design and testing specifications may all exist generally a consistent approach across all in different documents. provisions within a building regulation with respect to functional or prescriptive and level It is not practical to try and describe every type of detail, although in some countries some of regulatory structure in detail (see overview provisions are more specification-based than of main types in Chapter 3 and 4). For each others. This can occur when differences in type, there can be significant differences in capacity are viewed as existing across regulated where required information is to be found, areas. For example, some European countries and the level of detail of the information defer all details of structural design to the (requirements) provided. In regulatory Eurocodes for Structure, as structural engineering structures that are largely functional/ is viewed as a rather mature discipline. At performance-based, most find it is essential the same time, some of the same European to have a robust set of reference Deemed- countries include detailed requirements to-satisfy (DtS) documents and standards (specifications) for fire, since fire engineering is to support the proper design of fire safety viewed as immature in the country. 66 Appendix A Similarly, some European countries allow buildings for compliance purposes. A common for “self-certification” of designs, either example of this is “energy performance” based on the extent to which a discipline testing, which may involve door fan (blower) has a well-organized professional body that tests and thermal imaging to assess leakage charters/certifies its members (for example, areas, thermal bridging, and related building self-certification of structural designs by energy performance issues. In the US, there are a chartered member of the Institution of requirements for building fire safety system Structural Engineers (UK)) or based on the commissioning for many buildings, which is use of pre-approved solutions (for example, undertaken by private-sector firms. the Robust Details for acoustics Home Page (robustdetails.com). Given the variability in regulatory typologies, the following overview is necessarily presented There are also approaches that utilize the at a high level and does not include extensive private sector to complete assessments/tests of treatment of the cited regulatory systems. Table 4. Examples of various regulatory systems Regulatory Approach/ Use of DtS Provision and Level Location of Reference Country Level of Detail of Detail Use of VMs Standards Performance- Non-mandatory DtS provisions VMs exist, including for fire. based/performance are included in the NCC. These In addition, for performance, Cited in NCC, DtS option Australia requirements not are mostly rather detailed International Fire Engineering and in VMs. highly detailed. specifications. Guidelines are used. Objective-based/ Mandatory DtS provisions Cited in NBC, Part B, DtS Canada objectives not highly included as Part B of National No specific VM for fire. provisions. detailed. Building Code (NBC). Function-based/not DtS provisions in non-mandatory No specific VM for fire. BS 9999 and Cited in Approved England highly detailed. Approved Documents. BS 7974 can be used. Document B for fire. Function-based/not Mandatory detailed provisions No specific VMs. Rather, requires Cited in Technical highly detailed at Germany included in Technical “proof engineer” to validate any Requirements for Federal Model Code Requirements for Buildings. engineered designs. Buildings. level. Performance and specifications DtS equations for fire verification Performance-based/ included in Building Standards included in BSL for evacuation, Japan some specific Cited in BSL & FSL. Law (BSL) and Fire Standards smoke exhaust, and fire resistance. requirements. Law (FSL). Active systems in FSL. Performance- VMs exist, including for fire. Non-mandatory DtS provisions New based/performance In addition, for performance, Cited in Compliance are included in non-mandatory Zealand requirements not International Fire Engineering Documents and VMs. Compliance Documents (CMs). highly detailed. Guidelines are used. Function-based/not DtS provisions in non-mandatory No specific VM for fire. BS 9999 and Cited in Technical Scotland highly detailed. Technical Handbooks (THs). BS 7974 can be used. Handbook: Fire. APPENDIX A – LOCATION OF FIRE PROVISIONS IN BUILDING REGULATORY SYSTEMS 67 68 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Table 4. (cont.) Regulatory Approach/ Use of DtS Provision and Level Location of Reference Country Level of Detail of Detail Use of VMs Standards Performance-based Performance included in No specific VM for fire. There is regulation/specific Building Control Regulations as specific Fire Safety Engineering Cited in Code of Practice Singapore requirements (BCR) and Fire Safety Regulation Guideline that must be followed for for Fire Precautions in in compliance (FSL). DtS in Code of Practice performance designs. BS 9999 and Buildings. documents. for Fire Precautions in Buildings. BS 7974 may be used. Rational designs must be undertaken by a competent person (fire engineering) (see annex C) in accordance with the requirements South Africa SAN10400 T which is DtS. of BS 7974, in order to achieve the same level of fire safety implied in 4.2 to 4.59 (inclusive) of this part of SANS 10400. Cited by the Building Mandatory compliance with Largely prescriptive- Code. (Note: model prescriptions, unless alternate based with some Building Code developed US methods or materials are No specific VM for fire. performance in private sector and approved by the Authority language. adopted into legislation at Having Jurisdiction. state or local level.) Table 5. Exemplar location of resistance to fire compliance details in different countries’ regulations Fire Regulation/ Exemplar Referenced Consensus Country Building Regulation/Code Code DtS Document Standards US International Building ASTM E119, Standard Test Methods for Code, Chapter 6, Types of Fire Tests of Building Construction and Construction, Table 601 and Materials, or UL 263, Fire Tests of Building Chapter 7, Fire and Smoke Construction and Materials. Protection Features, Section 703. Australia National Construction Code, AS 1530.4:2014 Methods for Fire Tests Specification C1.1 Fire- on Building Materials, Components and resisting construction. Structures - Fire-resistance tests for Elements of Construction. England Approved Document B2, BS EN 13501-2:2016 Fire classification Section 7: Loadbearing of construction products and building elements of structures, and elements. Appendix B, Table B3. New C/AS2 Acceptable Solution a) AS 1530 Methods for fire tests on Zealand for Buildings building materials and structures–Part other than Risk Group SH, 4: Fire resistance tests of elements of Section 2.3 Fire resistance building construction, or b) NZS/BS ratings. 476 Fire tests on building materials and structures – Parts 21 and 22. Singapore Singapore Fire BS 476: Part 20 to 23, which specify tests Code, Clause 3.3, for stability, integrity, and insulation. Fire Resistance of Elements of Construction, Table 3.3A. Appendix A Table 6. Exemplar location of internal hydrant (standpipe) systems compliance details in different countries’ regulations Referenced Consensus Country Building Regulation/Code Fire Regulation/Code DtS Document Standards US International Building Code, International Fire Code, Part NFPA 14, Standard for the Chapter 9, Fire Protection III – Building and Equipment Installation of Standpipe and and Life Safety Systems, Design Features, Section Hose Systems Section 905, Standpipe 905, Standpipe Systems Systems (same text as in (same text as in IBC) IFC) Australia National Construction AS 2419.1, F Fire hydrant Code, Part E1 Firefighting installations: Part 1 - System equipment (DtS), Provision design, installation and E1.3, Fire hydrants commissioning England Approved Document B2, BS 9990, Non-automatic fire- Section 16: Fire mains and fighting systems in buildings hydrants – Code of practice New Zealand C/AS2 Acceptable Solution NZS 4510, Fire hydrant for Buildings systems other than Risk Group SH, Section 2.2, Fire safety systems, Table 2.2 Singapore Singapore Fire Code, Clause SS 575-A1, Code of practice 6.2, Rising Main and Hose for fire hydrant, rising mains Reel Systems and hose reel system Note that in the case of interior hydrants the performance, design, and installation (standpipes, rising mains) there is a close requirements. This differs from the resistance relationship to the referenced standards for to fire provisions in regulations, where the design and installation requirements. This referenced standards address how the tests are means that the combination of provisions to be conducted, but the performance-based in the regulations and in the standards is requirements are contained in the regulation. needed to obtain a complete picture of APPENDIX A – LOCATION OF FIRE PROVISIONS IN BUILDING REGULATORY SYSTEMS 69 Appendix B – Primer on Building Fire Safety Concepts As presented in the body of this report, there Fire Safety Subcomponents are six fundamental fire safety components in building (and fire) regulations, along with The six fundamental fire safety components a more detailed set of subcomponents. This in building (and fire) regulations, along with annex has been prepared to provide additional a more detailed set of subcomponents, are detail and context to the general summaries presented in Figure 1. The dotted blue line provided. shows interdependencies between primary components (that is, egress routes need to be protected). 70 Chapter Appendix 5 B Figure 8. Fundamental fire safety components and subcomponents in regulations Fire Safety/Protection Components of Building/Fire Regulations ➊ ➋ ➌ ➍ ➎ ➏ Fire Resistance Occupant Fire Fire Service Inspection, Prevention to Fire/Spread Safety, Refuge Supression Access and Test, Mainenance, of Fire and Egress Facilities Plans, Training 1.1 Controls on 2.1 Fire resistance 5.1 Access 6.1 ITM for fire 3.1 Fire electrical systems of structural 4.1 Extinguishers for fire apparatus protection detection and appliances system and equipment systems 1.2 Controls on 2.2 Resistance 3.2 Occupant 5.2 Access 6.2 Evacuation solid, liquid, and of interior walls, 4.2 Water and fire service to stairs, hydrants, planning gaseous fuels and ceilings, floors, supply notification hose reels and training appliances and shafts 1.3 Controls on 2.3 Resistance 3.3 Protected 6.3 Fire safety 4.3 Manual 5.3 Firefighter hazardous material to flame spread – means of escape/ management suppression lifts storage interior surfaces refuge plans 3.4 Occupant 5.4 Firefighter 1.4 Controls on 2.4 Resistance to 6.4 Temporary load, travel 4.4 Automatic communications smoking/operations flame spread – use requirements/ distance, exit suppression and command with hot surfaces exterior surfaces permits capacity center 3.5 Occupant/ 1.5 Controls during 2.5 Protection of occupancy construction/ openings in exterior characteristics renovation (vulnerabilities) 2.6 Building/lot 3.6 Safety glazing, separation and protection against exterior fires falls, etc. 2.7 Smoke 3.7 Signage, control/ lighting, emergency management power The dotted blue line shows interdependencies between primary components (that is, egress routes need to be protected). Note that while ‘2.7 Smoke control / smoke management’ is shown here as a subcomponent of ‘Resistance to fire / Spread of Fire’, the topic may be found as its own section, or with ‘Building Services’, or sometimes with ‘Occupant Safety, Refuge and Egress’ in building / fire codes. APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 71 72 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY The fundamental fire safety components and of a threatening fire. While many of the factors can be subcomponents presented in Figure 8 are detailed in addressed in building and/or fire regulations, some may the subsequent section as part of the review diagnostic. also be addressed in related legislation and regulation, The following provides a high-level introduction to the including those governing utilities (that is, electricity, concepts embodied in structure.25 fuel gas, and liquid fuels), environmental, occupational health and safety, and consumer safety. There are also fire prevention factors and approaches that can help to B.1 Fire Prevention manage buildings in use. An exemplar set of factors to There are numerous factors that influence the potential support prevention of ignition and fire, which can be for fire ignition in a building and subsequent development addressed in regulation, is provided below. Table 7. Fire Ignition Factors That May Be Regulated a. Electrical services and connected appliances/devices (including lighting) b. Piped gas services and connected open flame appliances/devices (for example, stove, heater) c. Smoking material/means to light smoking material (for example, matches, lighter) 1. Sources of potential ignition d. Open flame lighting (for example, torches) e. Maintenance/construction equipment (for example, welders, electrical tools) f. Internal exposure from a fire g. External exposure from a fire due to accidental or natural causes a. Combustible construction materials (for example, timber) b. Combustible interior and exterior surface finishes c. Combustible building contents and furnishings 2. Types of potential fuels d. Combustible stored materials and products e. Accumulated combustible trash/waste material f. Combustible or flammable gases or liquids a. Design, construction, or installation deficiency (for example, electrical installation, no fire stopping) b. Mechanical or electrical system/component/equipment failure c. Unsafe use by occupant of ignition source and/or fuel (for example, cooking with open flame) 3. Potential causes of ignition-fuel d. Error in operating equipment (for example, industrial process) interactions e. Arson f. Natural causes (for example, lightning strike, wildland fire) g. Accidental exposure (for example, exterior vehicle fire) a. Inadequate ITM equipment and systems b. Inadequate fire safety/fire risk management planning, testing, and implementation 4. Operational practices that c. Inadequate fire and evacuation training and education of building occupants and operators impact prevention of ignitions d. Inadequate policies and procedures (for example, no smoking) e. Inadequate environmental and occupational health and safety policies related to fire f. Inadequate environmental and occupational health and safety training of staff 25 Some of the text and figures are excerpted and adapted from the Performance-Based Guidelines for the Design and Construction of UNDG Common Premises Office Buildings, United Nations Development Group, ©2012 United Nations. Used with the permission of the United Nations. Appendix B In which regulation—and where in the regulation Building regulations may or may not include fire safety provisions—the factors may be found will depend on the and evacuation training requirements. Likewise, building regulatory structure of the jurisdiction. However, many regulations often address bulk storage (for example, building regulations include sections on the following, warehouse and storage facilities) and acceptable amounts which should be reviewed: of flammable and combustible liquids and other materials, but typically do not address “normal” contents and • Electrical services, electrical equipment, photovoltaic furnishings (for example, chairs, tables, and bedding). systems, energy storage systems. Table 8 summarizes key fire prevention factors as • Piped gas services and appliances (for example, heating, addressed in the review diagnostic. cooking). Table 8. Key fire prevention factors Driving Feature Impacts on Fire and Life Safety Regulatory Considerations 1.1 Controls on electrical In formal construction, electrical sources are a Proper installation of electrical infrastructure outside, systems & appliances significant source of fire ignitions globally. This leading to, and within buildings. Internal to buildings: can result from the electrical infrastructure and/or proper circuit breakers, surge interruption, protection connected appliances. This is also a major factor of wiring (that is, in rated jacket material, conduit, etc.) in informal construction, especially where power is and related issues to minimize potential for ignition via drawn from inadequate and often illegal electric utility electrical systems and/or connected appliances. connections. 1.2 Controls on solid, The presence of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels for Proper installation of solid, liquid, or gaseous liquid, and gaseous fuels heating and cooking purposes is a source of potential fuel infrastructure, outside, leading to, and within and appliances fire ignitions. This can result from inadequately buildings. Internal to buildings: proper piping, storage, connected appliances, improper use of appliances, connections to appliances, separation distances, problems with piping and/or storage, and problems venting, and related issues to minimize potential for with interaction with electrical systems and ignition and/or subsequent contribution to the fuel appliances. load. 1.3 Controls on Stored materials with high ignition potential and/ Limitations on amount of flammable, combustible, hazardous material or significant burning characteristics can present and explosive materials; requirements for storage storage significant fire hazards. In large quantities these can containers and/or compartments; fire protection overwhelm building fire safety systems. The amounts systems (for example, suppression systems, venting should be limited and storage requirements specified. systems, or other). 1.4 Controls on smoking/ Smoking materials are a major source of fire ignitions, Prohibition of smoking within buildings and within operations with hot as is operational equipment with exposed hot defined distances; requirements for smoking material surfaces surfaces, which can ignite nearby materials. disposal; requirements for separation of hot surfaces from required equipment to combustible materials. 1.5 Controls during A significant source of fires in buildings under Requirements for hot works permits; painting permits; construction/renovation construction and undergoing renovation is hot hazardous waste disposal; fire watches; temporary works, such as welding. In addition, buildings under suppression systems; and related items. construction and renovation may not have complete fire safety systems in place and may have hazards such as paint thinner and others, which could have self-ignition and flammable gas concerns. APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 73 74 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY B.2 Resistance to Fire/Spread of Fire Fire Resistance Many building materials are required by regulation to be As used here, resistance to fire/spread of fire refers to tested and rated on their ability to resist the increased those features and systems that resist the influences or temperatures associated with a fire for a defined period of inhibit the spread of fire and sometimes smoke into, out time without failing to perform their intended function. To of, and within a building. This component includes: facilitate a common mode of reference for establishing fire resistance, standard test methods exist which essentially i) the resistance of a material to ignition and combustion result in the application of a specific time-temperature and failure of materials and systems due to heat or relationship to a building element, product, system, thermal radiation from a fire and or assembly in a specially designed test furnace. A fire ii) the resistance or protection of an opening in wall, resistance rating is determined based on the time at which ceiling, or floor against fire spread, hot gases, and the material “fails” under the criteria established within smoke through the opening. the test method. This is illustrated below. While there is a large range and diversity in the terms Two exemplar test standards for fire resistance are ISO used to identify and describe resistance to fire/fire spread Standard 834 and the American Society of Testing and components within regulations and more broadly in the Materials (ASTM) Standard E119. Ratings are typically literature, they are generally focused on minimizing the provided in terms of minutes or hours, depending on potential for a fire external to a building from getting in, the standard used (for example, 15-minute, 30-minute, for a fire within a building from spreading from one space 60-minute, 90-minute, and so on, or 1-hour, 2-hour, 3-hour, to another in the building, and for a fire spreading from a and so on). The determination of what fire resistance building to an adjacent property. rating is required for different building elements, Figure 9. Time-temperature curve Figure 10. Large-scale fire test furnace 1200 1100 1000 900 Temperature (Deg C) 800 700 600 500 400 CAN4-S101 or ASTM E119 300 ISO834 (or BS476 or DIN4102) UL1709 Hydrocarbon 200 100 0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 Time (min.) Source: File:Din iso astm ul curves.JPG - Wikimedia Commons Source: Brian Meacham Appendix B products, systems, or assemblies is typically defined in Within building regulations, FRR are generally required for building regulations (codes) or associated compliance load-bearing elements, such as columns, beams, trusses documents.26 and joists, floor and ceiling assemblies, fire walls used to separate buildings or major building uses, and certain In general, the fire resistance rating that is required by types/classes of interior partitions, which are intended a building regulation for a building element, product, to restrict fire spread within or between floors (variously system, or assembly increases based on the relative defined as fire compartments, fire cells, and similar) and importance of that building feature to a building’s overall into the exit system. fire performance. As such, primary structural systems (for example, columns and beams) and fire separation Surface Flame Spread walls and shaft walls will have higher fire resistance A significant concern in buildings is flame spread along/ requirements than non-structural partitions and other just above the surface of a material. This is particularly walls not forming part of the egress system. This concept the case for ceiling and wall linings, but also floor covering generally holds true whether fire protection requirements on the interior of a building and the external wall/façade are established based on regulatory provisions or surface and roof on the exterior of a building. Combustible engineering analysis (that is, more important elements are surface lining materials can facilitate the rapid spread of required to resist temperatures longer than less important flame and are therefore typically limited in quantity and/ elements). or prohibited in several building use groups, in particular within means of egress (escape pathways) on the interior and on exterior walls of high-rise buildings. Figure 11. Photos of vertical flame spread test for two wall lining materials Source: Brian Meacham 26 In countries which have performance-based building regulations (codes), details such as fire resistance ratings are often not defined within the regulation. However, as a companion to the regulation, there is typically a compliance document (approved document, DtS solution, etc.) of some sort that provides one or more means of complying with the regulation, and such compliance documents often provide guidance on fire resistance requirements for various building elements. APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 75 76 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY There is a wide range of approaches and test standards for ceiling igniting other combustibles, or flame extension surface flame spread. Most are “index” type test standards, outside of a compartment and igniting materials in an which report comparative outcomes based on a defined adjacent space (for example, from one space to another scale or index (for example, materials reported as Class A, within a building through an open doorway). Class B, or Class C as per associated flame spread index determined by testing). Figure 12. Flame impingement on ceiling For interior ceiling and wall finishes, ASTM E84 (or equivalent) is most often used in the US. ASTM E84 tests materials in the ceiling configuration. In Europe, the Single Burning Item test, EN 13823:2020, is the fundamental standard. This ‘reaction to fire’ test is used to assess the fire performance of most construction products (excluding floorings), measuring flame spread, smoke production, heat release rate and burning droplet production. The Single Burning Item test evaluates materials in a corner configuration (materials on walls and ceiling). There is also a room corner test in the US (NFPA 286) and internationally (ISO 9705). A wide range of tests exist for exterior wall assemblies as well (for example, NFPA 285, Source: US NIST BS 8414, DIN 4102-20, and AS 5113). Thermal radiation can result in the ignition of nearby It should be noted that not all standard test methods materials in the following ways: deliver the same information. As such, it is important to understand what outcomes are reported, and whether • The initiation fire (first materials burning) in a those outcomes are compatible with the building compartment creates a sufficiently high radiant heat regulations and other reference standards. flux to ignite a nearby item (or items). • The initiation fire in a compartment is sufficiently Compartment Fire Spread large, and the compartment is sufficiently small, Fire spread within a compartment is a complex such that the fire creates a sufficiently hot upper gas phenomenon. For the purpose of this checklist, the layer that radiates thermal energy downward to other dominant mechanisms for fire spread (and increased materials in the compartment, causing them to ignite localized and compartment temperatures) can be (when all secondary items in the compartment ignite considered ignition of materials due to direct flame at about the same time, the phenomenon is known as impingement and to thermal radiation. flashover, and the resulting condition is referred to as full room involvement). Flame impingement can be important in such situations • Hot gases escaping the compartment extend into an as igniting combustible items stored above the fire source adjacent space, ignite, and result in flame extension or (for example, flame from burning items on a low shelf an extended hot upper gas layer, which ignites additional of a storage rack impinges upon and ignites combustible materials as per the above mechanisms. materials above), flame extension horizontally along a Appendix B The sequence of fire growing from the The above illustrations can also be used to initiation fire to flashover through the creation imagine item-to-item radiant ignition. Here, of a hot upper gas layer and subsequent assume there is no ceiling or that the ceiling ignition of other materials in a compartment is is very high. In this case, the initiation fire illustrated below. would still likely grow to engulf the entire sofa (last illustration), at which point the energy Figure 13. Initial item burning output would likely be high enough to ignite the nearby chair. This concept also applies to radiant ignition via windows or other exterior openings (inside-to-outside and vice versa). Given that fire spread results primarily from flame impingement or thermal radiation (from a burning item or a hot gas layer), the control of fire spread through passive features is aimed at keeping the fire and resulting hot gases contained to the compartment (room, space) of fire origin. This is accomplished by having Figure 14. Hot gas layer forms compartment barriers that resist ignition and failure under high temperatures, by using fire sealant and fire stop materials around compartment boundaries (especially fire-rated compartment boundaries), and by protecting openings in compartment barriers, vertical shafts, ventilation ductwork, plenums, and similar spaces so as to prohibit or limit flame extension or the spread of hot gases (using measures such as heat-activated dampers, door closers, and shutters). Figure 15. Radiant ignition from upper layer Smoke Spread Much like controlling the fire spread by containment to the compartment of origin, the aim of passive means of smoke control are to limit the ability of smoke to pass from one compartment to another by protecting openings in compartment barriers, vertical shafts, ventilation ductwork, plenums, and similar spaces. While passive smoke control Source: UN, 2012 measures are similar to controls for the spread of hot gases (for example, sealants and opening APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 77 78 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY protectives), the difference is that smoke can compartment barriers, the allowable floor be toxic at low temperatures, so passive smoke areas, and protection of openings all differ by control measures should consider low energy country). The following represents a sample fires (smoldering, sprinkler controlled) as of barrier terminology. The definitions and well as larger fires. Of particular concern is discussion are not meant to be comprehensive, the spread of smoke into the exit system and but to provide an overview of the concepts. vertically throughout the building. While the use of some opening protective devices may be • Fire walls are building elements used to temperature-actuated (for example, fire doors, divide a single building into two or more dampers, and shutters), others may be actuated buildings. Starting at the foundation and by smoke detectors (for example, smoke continuing vertically to or through the dampers and door closers). roof, a fire wall is intended to fully restrict the fire spread from one side of the wall Compartment barriers to the other (as illustrated in the plan While the concept of using compartment view below). Fire walls are higher level barriers (compartmentation) for the control fire-resistance-rated building elements of fire and smoke spread is easy to understand, than both fire barriers and fire partitions. the descriptions and definitions of the various Because the concept of fire walls is to levels of compartmentation are numerous, and create smaller buildings within one larger it can sometimes be difficult to understand structure, it is critical that a fire wall be why the differences exist. This is further capable of maintaining structural stability complicated by the use of different terms for under fire conditions. If construction on the same function in different countries (for either side of a fire wall should collapse, example, a fire area in the US is essentially such a failure should not cause the fire wall the same as a fire cell in New Zealand or a to collapse for the prescribed fire-resistant compartment in England, but the FRR of time period of the wall. Figure 16. Illustration of fire wall Building A Building B Fire Wall Source: UN, 2012 Appendix B • Fire barriers are fire-resistance-rated protected exit system. A common use of fire building elements that create a barrier barriers is to totally isolate one portion of a restricting fire spread to and from one floor level from another (fire compartment portion of a building to another. All or fire area). This is illustrated in the floor openings within a fire barrier should be plan below, where the fire barrier is used protected with a fire-protective assembly. to separate a floor. This arrangement also Fire barriers are often used to create serves to provide a horizontal exit, such that smaller fire areas containing same uses of each compartment has two exits: stair and the building or to provide egress through a horizontal exit. Figure 17. Illustration of fire barrier and shaft enclosures Compartment A Compartment B Fire Barrier Fire Partition / Shaft Enclosure Shaft Enclosure Smoke Barrier Source: UN, 2012 • Shaft enclosures are intended to restrict as an enclosure element for defining a fire the fire spread, hot gases, and smoke area. vertically within a building. Shaft enclosures • Smoke barriers are intended to prevent are typically required to have an FRR the spread of smoke from one floor or area equivalent to the floors/ceilings through of a floor to another. Smoke barriers should which the shaft penetrates. Exit stairways, form an effective membrane continuous elevator shafts, pipe chases, and rubbish from outside wall to outside wall, and from chutes are examples where shaft enclosure the top of the foundation or floor/ceiling requirements would apply. The above shows assembly below to the underside of the a shaft enclosure around the exit stairways. floor or roof sheathing, deck, or slab above, • A fire partition is a wall or similar vertical including continuity through concealed building element that is utilized to provide spaces, such as those found above suspended fire-resistive protection under specific ceilings, and interstitial structural and conditions, such as corridor walls (see mechanical spaces. This is illustrated in above). A fire partition is considered a lower the elevation view below, where the smoke type of fire-resistance-rated assembly than a barrier (blue) is continuous from floor fire barrier; accordingly, it is not permitted deck to the underside of the ceiling deck, APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 79 80 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Figure 18. Illustration of fire/smoke barrier Floor/Ceiling Assembly Fire Barrier / Smoke Barrier Suspended Ceiling Compartment A Compartment B Floor/Ceiling Assembly Source: UN, 2012 even through the interstitial space above restrict the use of combustible materials (other the suspended ceiling (dashed line).27 than allowable combustible building elements) Smoke barriers typically have a 1 hour fire- in concealed spaces. resistance rating. In the above diagram, the corridor wall (fire partition) could also serve Smoke control (management) systems as a smoke barrier, if properly installed and protected. Smoke control systems, or smoke management systems as they are also known, serve two • A smoke partition is intended to restrict primary functions: restricting the passage of the spread of smoke from one area to smoke from one area to another, and venting another, but is not required to restrict the or exhausting smoke from a building or portion spread of flame and heat, and therefore has of a building to the outside. Systems designed no FRR requirement. to restrict the passage of smoke from one area Penetrations and openings in the above to another may use dampers in ductwork and barriers, shafts, and partitions (including doors, return air plenums and may use fans to provide ducts and plenums) are typically required to be pressure differentials (to keep smoke contained sealed or protected, respectively, by materials, to a specific area). They are often coupled with systems, or components that match the barrier either independent smoke detection devices performance (in terms of FRR, restriction (such as in-duct smoke detectors) to close of smoke passage, etc.). Concealed spaces, if dampers or may receive input from a fire alarm breached by fire, can provide a route for fire control unit (FACU) or building management spread, hot gases, and smoke. Care should system. Such systems may require the use therefore be taken to provide barriers against of self-closing doors or employ automatic fire spread, hot gases, and smoke, and to door release/closure devices, where doors are 27 Note that fire barriers need to be continuous from deck-to-deck in the same manner. Appendix B electromechanically held open during normal and by standard. The concept of using positive use, but release (close) upon activation of a and negative pressure to contain or restrict the local smoke detector or the FAS. Smoke control passage of smoke can be targeted at whatever systems need to be closely coordinated with level is desired (for example, floor of a passive fire protection systems. building, compartment within a floor, exit stair enclosures, stair or elevator vestibule (lobby), Smoke control systems can be complex, with etc.) and may be required in some instances, requirements varying by country, by region, such as within high-rise buildings. Figure 19. Illustration of exhaust of smoke from fire compartment with positive pressure in adjacent compartments Source: Brian Meacham Smoke control or management systems highest occupied floor level during occupant used specifically to exhaust smoke from a evacuation. particular space, such as an atrium in a high- rise building or a large warehouse, may employ Key aspects for smoke exhaust system design natural ventilation (that is, smoke or heat include the design fire size (which dictates how actuated vents) or mechanical exhaust. In much smoke will be produced), the level at either case, the aim is to provide sufficient which the smoke layer needs to be maintained venting or exhaust capacity to remove the and for how long, availability of make-up air, required amount of smoke for the target time. and location and size of vents or exhaust ducts Such systems are often used to maintain the and fans. Reliable primary and backup power is smoke layer above a certain point from the required. APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 81 82 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Figure 20. Illustration of smoke vent/exhaust in atrium and warehouse Smoke Vent / Exhaust Point Smoke Vent / Exhaust Point Source: Brian Meacham Exterior Fire Spread could result in ignition, or could otherwise cause damage depending on the material (for With respect to exterior walls and roof example, flame impingement could cause assemblies, flame impingement and thermal breakage of glass in window opening or façade). radiation can be important in situations such Similar responses can result from thermal as flame extension into or out of an opening. radiation emanating from the flame as well Depending on building geometry, flames (ignition of materials and breakage of glass). extending out of an opening could come in This is a common form of building-to-building contact with a surface, which if combustible fire spread. Figure 21. Impact of fire spread between informal structures Source: ©Justin Sullivan, 2018 Appendix B The reverse situation is also of concern, where openings, and/or protection of openings. A few direct flame impingement or thermal radiation key concepts are illustrated below. from exterior fire threats, such as from adjacent buildings, exterior combustibles (for example, The first two diagrams show that typically, trash or stored combustible materials), or some level of separation distance is required wildland fires, could result in ignition of the between buildings on the same lot (property) exterior or interior of the building of concern. or adjacent lots, particularly when the exterior In addition, in areas prone to wildland fires, walls and roof assemblies are combustible or additional threats exist in terms of burning have unprotected openings. This not only helps brands which may come to rest on combustible to reduce the likelihood of building-to-building surfaces, in some cases being driven by winds ignition but also allows access for fire service through screening and other protective apparatus. In some cases, the distance will be measures. impacted by building shapes or features, such as projection (as in a roof overhang). In such To address these concerns there are two cases, distances may need to be increased, primary strategies: provide adequate separation since the overhang could trap hot gases and distance between the building of concern and result in a more intense (hotter) fire. The other buildings, property, and vegetation; or required distances may be set by regulation or protect the exterior wall and roof assemblies calculation. through the choice of materials, limitation in Figure 22. Illustration of building and lot separation Edge of projection Lot line / boundary Bldg A Bldg B Bldg A Bldg B Same Lot / Property Different Lots / Properties Distance Source: UN, 2012 APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 83 84 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY The following diagrams illustrate issues exposure. With respect to roof construction, associated with unprotected openings the lower building in the diagram below would (windows, in this case), which play a role in be exposed to radiant energy from a fire in distances from other properties and from the taller building, which would impact the vegetation (in areas prone to wildland fires). fire resistance requirements for the roof of There may also be concerns with the height of the lower building and/or the protection of adjacent buildings, especially with respect to openings in the exposed sides of each building. roof construction, but also from general fire Figure 23. Illustration of separation based on unprotected openings distance distance Source: UN, 2012 Given the wide range of construction materials, droughts, and increasing wind speeds, the exterior wall (cladding) materials, and roof potential for fires in the wildland-urban materials, there are numerous ways to address interface are growing. This has prompted the above concerns, ranging from well-defined many governments to include consideration regulatory requirements for separation and of wildland fire prevention and mitigation into protection based on combinations of materials, planning and building regulations. construction and distance, to engineering analysis of thermal radiation exposure. In addition to the external building fire protection approaches outlined above, Wildland Fires additional protection for buildings includes the use of metal screening to prevent embers from Wildland fire is a growing threat in many parts impacting windows or penetrating openings, of the world. As urban environments expand such as roof vents. into the natural environment, and with climate change increasing temperatures, extending Appendix B Also, the concept of creating “defensible the spread of wildfire and can help protect spaces” around buildings is included in some a building from igniting from embers, direct regulations. Defensible space is the buffer space flame contact, or radiant heat. created between a building and the grass, trees, shrubs, or any wildland area that surrounds Table 9 summarizes key resistance to fire/fire it. This space can be helpful to slow or stop spread concepts. Table 9. Key resistance to fire/spread of fire concepts Driving Feature Impacts on Fire and Life Safety Regulatory Considerations 2.1 Fire resistance of Structural stability in case of fire. Fire resistance of structural frame, interior and exterior walls, doors, structural system ceilings, floors, and roofs. Acceptable materials, test standards, overall height and area consideration, size of compartments, other fire protection systems. 2.2 Resistance of interior Control/limit fire spread between Fire resistance of interior walls, exterior walls, doors, windows, and walls, ceilings, floors, and compartments. opening protection. Barrier construction, opening protection (for shafts example, doors), area of exterior windows, building spacing (to building or property line), test standards. 2.3 Resistance to flame Control/limit fire spread on surfaces Combustible interior finish materials can significantly contribute spread – interior surfaces and contribution to fire size and smoke to fuel load, fire spread, and smoke spread. Materials with higher production. resistance to spread of flame/smoke help to reduce risks. 2.4 Resistance to flame Control/limit fire spread on surfaces Requirements for exterior wall (cladding, façade) material and spread – exterior surfaces and contribution to fire size and smoke construction; materials, design and construction of roof assembly; production. planning and resource restrictions; area and height of building; exterior vegetation. 2.5 Protection of openings Control fire spread from interior to Area, location, and protection of openings (windows, vents, etc.), in exterior outside, or exterior to interior. distance from other buildings, storage, lot lines. 2.6 Building/lot separation Control fire spread from one building/ Distance from other buildings, storage, lot lines. & exterior fires property to another. 2.7 Smoke control/ Control/limit smoke spread between Resistance to smoke flow via interior walls, doors, ducts, plenums. management compartments, via ducts, cavities, etc., Requires contiguous barriers, usually requires mechanical dampers, and provide for smoke exhaust where and may also need active systems. Smoke exhaust may require needed. operable windows or vents, or require mechanical smoke exhaust systems. detection devices, provide a means for manual B.3 Occupant Safety, Refuge and fire alarm initiation, provide for a range of Egress alarm signaling capabilities (audible (voice or Detection is the first step in identifying the non-voice) and visual), and provide interfaces presence of a fire and triggering subsequent with other fire protection systems (such as action, such as occupant evacuation. Fire smoke control/management systems) and other detection, alarm, and communications building systems, as appropriate. The types systems provide the opportunity to detect of fire detection, alarm, and communications fire through a wide range of automatic fire equipment required in buildings with different APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 85 86 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY occupancy/use classifications vary widely by Figure 24. Smoke detector country and local regulation and based on the other fire safety systems installed. Fire Detection, Alarm and Communication Systems Automatic fire detection devices include smoke, heat, gas (for example, CO), and flame detectors, as well as water flow switches within sprinkler systems, and occasionally other safety-related initiation devices. The extent to which smoke, heat, and gas detectors are required varies based on building use, height, Source: UN, 2012 the presence of sprinklers and other fire protection systems, and the country where the Figure 25. Manual fire alarm station building is located (for example, if sprinklers are installed, area smoke detection typically is not required; in high-rise buildings, smoke detectors are usually found in lift lobbies to initiation elevator recall; etc.). Manual fire alarm stations (boxes, points, buttons) are used to manually activate the FAS. They are typically located near exit doors which discharge directly to the outside, as well as at the entry point to an exit enclosure (for example, exit stairway) in multi-story buildings Source: UN, 2012 and within pre-determined travel distances within buildings with long travel distances to an exit. Figure 26. Horn/strobe unit Source: Brian Meacham Appendix B Fire detection and alarm systems are typically building between any occupied point and an controlled by an FACU (panel, system). The exit; the exit, which provides a protected path FACU receives input from automatic fire of egress from the exit access; and the exit detection and manual alarm devices, initiates discharge, which is outside the building and is alarm signals to occupants within the building, the section between the point where occupants and in some cases, notifies the local fire leave an exit and the point where they reach a service, and when needed, activates other fire public way. protection systems, such as door releases, smoke exhaust fans and dampers, and so forth. The means of egress components can be FACUs and alarm signaling systems (see below) visualized with the help of the figures below, require reliable primary and backup power. which is a generalized representation of a three-story office building. The top illustration The fire alarm (or occupant notification) reflects a typical floor, highlighting the component typically consists of audible and corridor (pink), which is part of the exit access visual signals. Audible signals may be provided system (path to get to an exit) and two exits, by bells, horns, buzzers, or similar non- which are on the upper floors of the building, voice devices, or by audio speakers. In some are protected stairways (blue). The middle situations, such as high-rise buildings, pre- illustration is an elevation, or side view, recorded and live voice systems are required. showing the corridors (exit access) on floors Visual signals are typically provided by strobe 1 and 2 (pink), the exits, shown in this view as lights or other approved visual alarm indicators. vertical stairway enclosures (blue), and an exit High-rise buildings may also require two-way passageway (green) on the ground floor, which communication systems for use by firefighters, is a protected path to the outside. The bottom typically located within or near stairways and illustration shows how an exit stairway may elevator lobbies. discharge directly to the outside (top right) or connect to an exit passageway (green, lower Means of Egress left), which in turn discharges to the outside. In these diagrams, the blue and the green The means of egress (sometimes referred to as reflect the protected components that make up ‘means of escape’) describes the path of travel the exit, and white and pink are unprotected that a building occupant encounters, starting spaces occupants must walk through to reach a with any occupiable point in a building, and protected exit. ending when they reach a public way outside of the building (for example, public walkway, Typically, the exit access component makes up street, alley, etc.). most of the means of egress in a building, as it essentially covers all of the occupied portions Means of egress is often described in terms of the building aside from the exit (white and of three fundamental components: the exit pink spaces). Depending on the building use access, which is unprotected or has limited or occupancy classification, many parts of an protection and includes the portion of the exit access have no particular requirements for APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 87 88 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY protection (for example, from smoke or flame), Some exit access components, such as except where separation is required due to corridors (pink), may have smoke- or fire- limits on compartment size or for separation protective features to help maintain safe from other uses in the buildings that may be environments while occupants exit the space. more hazardous (for example, kitchen). Components that make up the exits are typically protected by fire-resistance-rated Figure 28. Illustration of components of construction and other safety features, as the egress (escape) system intent is to provide a protected environment from the time occupants enter the exit until they are discharged outside of the building. Offices (open area, Offices (openclosed), meeting area, closed) Stairway Stairway rooms, restrooms, etc. meeting rooms, restrooms, etc. A means of egress often includes both Corridor vertical (for example, protected stairway) and horizontal components. To aid safe egress Stairway Stairway in an emergency, means of egress should be designed, constructed, and maintained to be Typical Upper Level Upper Typical Floor Level Floor Plan Plan obvious, continuous, direct, unobstructed, and undiminished. Features such as unobstructed and illuminated exit signage, emergency lighting, and photoluminescent markings help make the means of egress obvious. Accessibility is also a consideration. Direct and continuous means of egress is often achieved through such features as corridors connecting to vertical exit enclosures housing Elevation Elevation stairways, the use of horizontal exit enclosures if occupants need to change from one stairwell to another on a transfer floor (as may be the case in high-rise buildings), and the use of exit passageways to reach the exterior of the building on the ground level. In some very tall buildings, lifts may sometimes be used. However, lifts are often recalled to the primary level of exit discharge upon activation of the fire alarm for Ground Floor Ground Floor fire service use. Exit access (offices, other spaces) Exite access (offices, other spaces) Unobstructed means of egress are a function Corridor (part of exit access) of design (for example, providing minimum Corridor (part of exit access) Exit (vertical exit enclosure) functional corridor widths and heights, door Exit (Vertical exit enclosure) Exit passageway openings, stairway widths, and headroom; Source: UN, 2012 Exit Passageway Appendix B minimizing wall-mounted fixtures within the etc.). Protection of the exits is dependent path or travel, etc.) and operational procedures upon the above factors, as well as on the size (for example, keeping furniture and storage of the building (height and area) and fire safety out of corridors, stairways landings, exit systems installed. passageways, etc.). Undiminished means of egress are those that maintain their required In egress system design, travel distance and capacities throughout (for example, widths and exit separation are important because of the capacities for the occupant load anticipated). time required for occupants to reach an exit and the potential hazards occupants may face Building Use/Occupancy Classification along the way. Occupant load is important due to factors such as occupant density and the A building’s use or occupancy classification is related reduction in movement speed; occupant important as it is typically used to convey to density and flow through corridors, down or up designers, users, and emergency responders a stairs, and through doorways; and the number sense of key attributes, such as activities (for of persons at risk during an event (for example, example, residential, retail, medical, office space, fire, earthquake, deliberate event, etc.). etc., as well as time of day and day of week the building is occupied), associated occupant Factors that influence allowable travel distance characteristics (for example, awake or asleep, include location and number of exits (per restrained, medicated, or otherwise incapable building, per floor in a building), fire resistance of self-evacuation, familiarity with the building of exit access components, and presence of an layout, etc.), and hazards that may be present automatic sprinkler system (travel distances (for example, combustible or flammable liquid are typically allowed to be longer in sprinklered storage, natural gas, propane or other flammable buildings). Travel distance is generally measured gases for heating or cooking, hazardous from the most remote point, along travelable operations, etc.). For example, considering the paths (for example, around obstructions, aforementioned factors, if a building primarily through doorways) to the point of entering an houses offices, the egress requirements would exit (for example, door to protected stairwell, be different than if a building housed a large door to the exterior), as shown in the red assembly space (for example, movie theater), curved line below. Requirements for exit medical facilities, or residential units. separation (remoteness) should consider the overall dimensions of the floorplate, travel Travel Distance, Number, Arrangement distance, and number of exits. Generally, it is and Capacity recommended that exits be separated by at least The number, arrangement, and capacity of 1/2 the diagonal dimension of the floor plate exits required for portions of a building and (1/3 if building is sprinklered). Co-locating two for the entire building (all spaces) are largely exits in the same shaft of a high-rise building, for a function of the use/occupancy classification example, should be avoided when possible, so of the building, travel distance to an exit, the as to minimize dead-end corridors and facilitate occupant load, and the expected characteristics egress options in case of a fire event that might of the occupants (for example, age, ability, block access to one of the exits. APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 89 90 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY Figure 29. Illustration of travel distance to exit Source: UN, 2012 Figure 30. Illustration of exit separation d Source: UN, 2012 Appendix B Occupant Characteristics associated resistance to fire, particularly when no suppression systems are installed. More Occupant characteristics reflect those combustible materials, such as light frame attributes of the expected occupants which may timber, are typically limited in height and area be important to response, decision-making, since less fire protection may be afforded to and susceptibility to hazard events. Regulatory occupants, whereas concrete structures in provisions for egress systems should take into some cases have no height or area limitation, account such factors as occupant familiarity as they are typically expected to withstand a with the building and exits, occupant roles and fire for a period of time to allow evacuation and responsibilities—particularly where delays may firefighting operations. However, construction be associated with waiting for a responsible is also important for egress for hazards such person to indicate the need to evacuate the as earthquake and deliberate events, where building—and the presence and number of damage to the structure and non-structural sensitive or vulnerable populations. systems could result in damage to means of egress. Height and Construction Building height is important with respect to Occupant Self-Evacuation Lifts availability of exits, travel distance, travel time, For supertall buildings, because of the vertical and the ability for emergency personnel to distance and time required to evacuate a undertake operations. In high-rise buildings, building solely via stairways, some countries there are typically only a few exits (two to four permit the use of occupant self-evacuation vertical exit enclosures housing stairways), lifts. Occupant self-evacuation lifts typically significant queue times could be expected, and have additional protection so that they can be walking speeds are slower on stairs than on used during emergencies. This may include horizontal surfaces. In addition, firefighting higher fire resistance of the elevator shaft and rescue apparatus cannot reach above the walls, smoke-protected lift lobbies, protection fifth floor above street level of most buildings, against water entry and impacts to the lift cab, meaning there may be counter flow on stairs as shaft and equipment, messaging, and means of firefighters are going up as occupants are going communication for occupants who are waiting down, which can further slow egress, and at for the lifts. least one stairway may be taken out of use by firefighters who are staging an attack, thereby reducing the overall number of available exits Signage, Pathway Marking, and and exit capacity. Communications To help facilitate safe egress during Building construction is important with emergencies, exit signage, pathway marking respect to response of the building to the and illumination, and fire safety and hazard of concern. With respect to egress communications systems play significant design, building construction often focuses roles. This starts with detecting fires, on combustibility of the framing material and notifying and communicating with occupants, APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 91 92 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY providing clear indication of exit pathways, compartment to another, and providing for notifying emergency responders, providing emergency responder communications. smoke control or management for tenability, suppressing or controlling fires, preventing Table 10 summarizes key occupant safety, the passage of smoke or fire from one refuge, and egress concepts. Table 10. Key occupant safety, refuge, and egress concepts Driving Feature Impacts on Fire and Life Safety Regulatory Considerations 3.1 Fire detection Facilitates early detection of fire conditions (smoke, Early detection of a fire requires some form(s) of heat, flame) to facilitate occupant evacuation and smoke, heat, CO and/or flame detection. Residential fire service response. may have self-contained smoke alarms. Other uses may have system-connected devices. 3.2 Occupant and fire service Should be some form of FAS in all buildings to notify notification occupants and facilitate fire service response. All fire alarm and communication systems and components need to be maintained, inspected, and tested to assure proper operation. 3.3 Protected means of Ability to safely reach an exit in the case of a fire; Protection of exit access, exit enclosures, exit escape/refuge time required to reach an exit/refuge area; and passageways, horizontal exits, exit stairways, ability to safely reach an exit if one is compromised vertical exit enclosures, occupant load, building size by fire. and layout, building type/construction, and other safety systems. 3.4 Occupant load, travel Speed of movement, flow through openings, ability Number of exits, exit capacity, protection of exit distance, exit capacity to self-evacuate, exit protection, easily opening and access and exit enclosures, exit discharge. Total unlocked doors. travel distance should be such that safe egress is facilitated. Adequate separation in case one exit is compromised. 3.5 Occupant/occupancy Ability for persons of all abilities to safely evacuate a To account for a range of abilities, it may be characteristics (vulnerabilities) building in case of fire or another event. necessary to provide specific design parameters for stairs, ramps, doors, hardware, areas of refuge, lifts, and suitable audible, visual, and tactile means of communication. 3.6 Safety glazing, protection Occupants need to be protected from glass Safety of glazing in exit pathways, barriers for against falls, etc. breakage in exits, expect regular walking surfaces protection from falls on elevated walkways, atria, and uniform stair configurations, and be protected etc., smooth and uniform floor surfaces, stair from falls from height. dimensions, handrails in stairways, etc. 3.7 Signage, lighting, Occupants need to be able to easily identify and Aisles, aisle accessways, corridors, doors, hallways, emergency power locate exits and have adequate lighting. Critical stairs, steps, ramps, surfaces, and exit passages lighting, alarm, and communications systems should should be sized to maintain unobstructed and have appropriate emergency power. unrestricted flow; signage, illumination, and pathway marking should be readily identifiable and understood. Appendix B Piped (mains) systems typically rely on a local B.4 Fire Suppression or regional water authority (government or The aim of fire suppression components privately owned and/or operated) to provide a is to provide means to apply extinguishing connection from the nearest water main(s) into agents to a fire. This can range from handheld the building. To minimize the potential for loss fire extinguishers, building fire sprinkler of water supply due to a problem with the water systems, hydrant systems, pumps, and related authority system, it is generally recommended equipment to support manual fire suppression to have two separate lines into a building, activities by occupants and the fire service. particularly for high-rise or large area buildings. Inside of the building, a suite of check valves, A primary consideration with water-based fire backflow prevention valves, and other controls suppression, either automatic or manual, is are used to isolate the fire suppression water an adequate and reliable water supply. This from potable supplies. Where increased means not only sufficient volume of water for pressure is needed to support the hydraulic fire suppression activities, but appropriate flow demands of sprinkler or standpipe systems, fire rates and pressure to deliver the water where pumps may be used (see below). required. Water storage and fire pumps may be required to enhance municipal water supplies In locations where there is no water authority for such purposes. piped mains system, the water supply infrastructure is unreliable, a supplemental Fire Suppression Water Supplies water supply may be needed within the The efficacy of any fixed water-based automatic building, or water shortages can be expected or manual suppression system in a building due to climatic conditions (for example, is strongly related to the appropriateness and drought), on-site storage is an option. In high- reliability of the water supply. There are three rise buildings, this may involve tanks within the primary sources: piped supply (mains), on- building (basement, upper floors or roof). For site storage (tanks or perhaps ponds), and fire water mist systems, there may be numerous service connections (to standpipe or sprinkler tanks distributed in areas protected by the system). system. In some cases, the use of a dedicated fire suppression water pond or other outside When assessing building fire suppression system source may be considered, but only if suitable needs, the type of system, source of water, and controls are placed on screening of debris and reliability of the system should be considered, the water supply (source) can be considered especially where water supply infrastructure suitably reliable (for example, it would be may be unreliable or water resources are limited. inappropriate to rely on a source that cannot be Fire suppression water flow rates, pressures, expected to meet demands). and minimum supply (quantity or time) requirements will be established by relevant In locations where the water authority main design and installation standards for suppression supply lacks the pressure or flow rate to meet systems and water supplies. the design requirements for sprinklers and/or APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 93 94 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY standpipe systems, a fire pump may be needed. power source. Fire pumps should be sized to Fire pumps come in a variety of sizes based on meet fire suppression needs for a period of time system design parameters, but are often located commensurate with the automatic and manual near the incoming mains (or on-site storage, fire suppression systems design parameters if at a low level) and supply directly into the (that is, most installation standards required sprinkler and/or standpipe systems. Fire pumps flow and pressure criteria to be met for some are typically powered by diesel or electric minimum period of time). motors, with a suitable emergency backup Figure 31. Exemplar fire pump Figure 32. Exterior connection to sprinkler system Source: UN, 2012 Source: UN, 2012 In some buildings, particularly high-rise extinguishing agents when activated. Portable buildings, there will typically be fire service fire extinguishers are rated based on the (fire department) connections outside of the suitability of the extinguishing agent for the building, which allow connection from the expected hazard (for example, paper, liquid fuel, responding fire apparatus into the building’s and electrical source). sprinkler and/or standpipe systems. These connections may be built into the exterior Manual fire suppression systems include all wall, come up through the ground (sidewalk systems which require human intervention and or other surface), or have some other suitable action, whether trained fire service, trained fire arrangement. Threads of these external fire brigade, or trained building occupant. These service connections should match local fire systems include internal standpipe (hydrant) service hose connections. systems, interior hose systems, and portable fire extinguishers. Manual Fire Suppression Systems Portable fire extinguishers discharge small Standpipe (hydrant) systems consist of interior amounts of water, gaseous, or chemical fire risers and branch lines aimed at distributing Appendix B the fire suppression water supply to various on the water immediately and move toward the points in a building, primarily for the use of fire with a charged line. In some cases, interior the responding fire service, for connection hose systems have folded or rolled flat flexible of hoses to facilitate manual fire suppression hose, which needs to be first extended before the operations. Such systems are generally seen in water supply is turned on. high-rise or large floor-plate buildings, where it is more challenging to effect fire suppression Automatic Fire Suppression Systems operations from outside of the building. Outlets will typically be a combination of on/off Automatic fire suppression systems encompass valve and fire service connection, which should any system intended to suppress or extinguish be matched to the threads on hoses used by a fire without the need for manual intervention. the local fire service. In tall buildings, such The most common automatic fire suppression systems will include pressure reducing valves to system is the automatic fire sprinkler system. regulate pressure to appropriate levels at each There are other water-based systems as well, floor. including fine water mist, deluge, and foam systems, which are variations on a theme (water, Although discouraged in several countries for pipes, and nozzles). There are also gaseous and reasons of user safety, some countries allow chemical fire extinguishing systems, which are for interior hose systems for use by either responding firefighters or trained building typically used for special applications, such as occupants. Such systems are often characterized in electrical equipment rooms, kitchen range by small diameter, rigid hoses (like a garden hoods, and similar. For the purpose of this hose) on hose reels (often called hose reel checklist, the focus will largely be on automatic systems). These systems allow the user to turn sprinkler systems. Figure 33. Interior hydrant/standpipe valve and Figure 32. Exterior connection to sprinkler system hose connection Source: UN, 2012 Source: UN, 2012 APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 95 96 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY In concept, automatic sprinkler systems are Figure 35. Exemplar sprinkler head simple, comprised of a water supply, distribution network (risers and branch lines), control valves, and sprinkler heads (water discharge). The intent is to deliver water to the general location of where a fire is burning to control the fire spread in order to facilitate evacuation and limit damage to property while the fire service responds. If detected early enough, and if sufficient water is delivered to the fire, only a small amount of water is needed to control a fire. In cases where the initial fire is small, and the fuel load limited, the sprinkler system may suppress (extinguish) Source: UN, 2012 the fire. Each sprinkler head operates individually (that is, they do not all activate at the same time). Figure 36. Fire sprinkler roof (ceiling) Sprinkler systems can be “wet” (water is always mount side view in the system) or “dry” (water is introduced only when a sprinkler head or other detection device actuates). Wet systems are most common. Dry systems may be used in such cases as when sub-freezing temperatures are a concern (for example, unconditioned storage building, loading dock, attic spaces, etc.). Water flow and pressure requirements will be established in relevant design and installation standards. A sprinkler head is activated when the heat from a fire melts a fusible link, which in turn Source: Brandon Leon releases a cap (cover) whose function is to contain the water in the system, allowing the Figure 37. Side wall sprinkler water to discharge onto the fire. The shape of the deflector drives the resulting pattern of water spray. Typical sprinkler activation temperatures are in the range of 57–80 ⁰C, although much higher activation temperature heads are also available for use where the ambient room temperatures are high. Temperature ratings, response time indices, flow, and pressure specifications are generally based on the hazard classification for a building or space in a building. Different sprinkler head designs are available for mounting in an upright, downward Source: Angelsharum (pendant), or sideways (side wall) orientation. Appendix B As noted above, there are some situations fire (used for fuel storage tanks, for example) or for which automatic suppression system to result in large volumes of lightweight foam options other than sprinklers may be viable, (like a thick layer of soap bubbles) to engulf and appropriate, or even necessary. For the purpose surround materials to be protected. of this checklist, such systems are referred to as alternative automatic fire extinguishing Gaseous systems deliver either inert gas or systems. Water-based systems include fine water gaseous compounds to reduce the oxygen to mist, deluge, and foam systems. Fire water mist support combustion, interrupt the chemical systems are typically high-pressure systems which reaction supporting combustion, or transfer use less water than sprinklers. Such systems may heat away from the reacting materials. These be viable in small volume spaces with limited systems can be total flooding or applied locally water supply. Deluge systems apply a large (for example, CO2 fire extinguisher). Chemical amount of water to all heads simultaneously. fire extinguishing systems deliver chemical Although a variation on a sprinkler system, the compounds, typically in dry powder form, to heads do not have fusible links, so water flows smother a fire or to interrupt the chemical from all heads when the system is actuated. Such reaction supporting combustion. Typical systems are used for water curtains and similar applications include handheld fire extinguishers applications. Foam systems employ additives to and kitchen exhaust hood extinguishing systems. either provide a layer of material on the surface Table 11 summarizes key fire suppression of the resulting water pool to help smother a concepts. Table 11. Key fire suppression concepts Driving Feature Impacts on Fire and Life Safety Regulatory Considerations 4.1 Provides occupants and internal Size, type (extinguishing agent), and location of handheld fire extinguishers. Extinguishers fire brigades an opportunity for early suppression. 4.2 Water Facilitates life safety and Fire suppression water supplies need to be able to reliably provide the necessary supply property protection. Required volume, flow rate, and pressure needed for the required amount of time (based on for automatic and manual fire standards or design). The water supply system and components (for example, tanks, suppression. valves, and pumps) need to be maintained, inspected, and tested to assure proper operation. Reliable primary and backup power is needed for pumps. 4.3 Manual Facilitates life safety and property Required for all high-rise, large area, and high occupant load buildings. Manual fire suppression protection. Choice of standpipe suppression systems and components need to be maintained, inspected, and tested systems and/or portable fire to assure proper operation. Water-based systems require a reliable water supply. extinguishers. Should carefully Portable fire extinguishers need to be matched to the hazard. consider the user. 4.4 Automatic Facilitates life safety and Sprinklers beneficial in all high-rise, large area, and high occupant load buildings. suppression property protection. Reduces fire Requires coherent set of design standards. All automatic fire suppression systems damage. Helps when fire service and components need to be maintained, inspected, and tested to assure proper support/response is limited. operation. Water-based systems require a reliable water supply. Alternate fire extinguishing systems need to be matched to the hazard. APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 97 98 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY (typically to the floor below the fire) or for B.5 Fire Service Access & assisting in the evacuation of persons who Facilities cannot self-evacuate. It can be challenging for the fire service and other emergency responders if building Fire Command Center planning and construction fails to adequately In high-rise buildings, it is common to have address their needs. This includes the ability a fire command center, which is a secure and to get fire apparatus to the building, firefighter protected space within a building near a main wayfinding in the building, a fire command entrance on the level of building access for center, firefighter lifts, appropriate exterior and use by fire service command when responding interior hydrant connections, and the like. to a fire or other emergency event. The fire command center typically houses either the Fire Service Access FACU or a remote-control station for such, any Access for fire apparatus is critical, yet fan control for smoke management systems, usually not included in building regulations. microphone and controls for voice alarm Rather, attributes such as roadway width, signaling, elevator controls, and other building turning radius, and access to buildings is management or security systems, displays or often in planning regulations. This needs controls as deemed necessary to understand to be coordinated. Access should not be the situation and communicate with occupants over underground parking. In addition, the and firefighters as necessary. Fire command fire service should have clear access within centers often contain building layouts and buildings, especially to FACP and ECC other critical information to help facilitate locations. It should also be easy for them to firefighting and emergency response activities. readily identify stairways and firefighter lifts for Table 12 summarizes key fire service access and operational and occupant evacuation needs. facilities concepts. Fire Service Lifts B.6 ITM, Plans and Training For high-rise buildings, many countries require Fire safety systems and features in buildings either (a) dedicated fire service lifts or (b) the require regulating inspection, test, and ability for lifts to be commandeered by the fire maintenance (ITM) to assure a proper service in case of fire. Lifts for use by the fire working state when called upon. Likewise, service typically have additional protection most buildings should have comprehensive so that they can be used during emergencies. fire and emergency response plans, evacuation This may include higher fire resistance of plans, and fire safety management plans. The the elevator shaft walls, smoke-protected lift plans should be supported by training, drills, lobbies, and protection against water entry and and other exercises which help familiarize impacts to the lift cab, shaft, and equipment. occupants and the fire service with procedures They are also typically sized to allow for that should be followed in case of fire or transport of a stretcher or other means of another emergency. moving incapacitated persons. The fire service may use the lifts for staging equipment Appendix B Table 12. Key fire service access and facilities concepts Driving Feature Impacts on Fire and Life Safety Regulatory Considerations 5.1 Access for To facilitate proper response, there needs to be Roadway width, turning radius within dead-end streets/ fire apparatus & adequate roadway access and access to the building for parking areas, sidewalk width, building separation, equipment firefighting apparatus. There is also a need for access to underground structures, location of electricity lines or hydrants or other water supplies. other utilities, key boxes for locked doors, etc. 5.2 Access to stairs, To facilitate adequate movement and operational Appropriately sized stairways (for example, widths hydrants, hose reels activities, there needs to be clearly marked doors for and landings) to facilitate two-way flows and fire command, fire pumps, interior hydrants, designated staging operations, properly located interior hydrant access stairs, and so forth. connections, proper marking of floors, stairs, and the like. 5.3 Firefighter lifts For high-rise buildings, (a) dedicated fire service lifts or Adequate fire resistance of the elevator shaft walls, (b) the ability for lifts to be commandeered by the fire smoke-protected lift lobbies, and protection against service in case of fire is essential for firefighter access water entry and impacts to the lift cab, shaft, and to upper levels. Lifts for use by the fire service typically equipment. Sized to allow for transport of a stretcher or have additional protection so that they can be used other means of moving incapacitated persons. during emergencies. The fire service may use the lifts for staging equipment (typically to the floor below the fire) or for assisting in the evacuation of persons who cannot self-evacuate. 5.4 Firefighter Provides a base for on-site emergency command Requirements for location, fire resistance, size to communications & operations. Houses fire alarm and emergency accommodate fire and communications control command center communications controls. Needs to be accessible and equipment and emergency operations, appropriate protected. signage, backup lighting, and power. Table 13. Key ITM, plans, and training concepts Driving Feature Impacts on Fire and Life Safety Regulatory Considerations 6.1 ITM for A common major contributor to large fire losses is the Building and fire regulations may call for commissioning fire protection failure of installed fire protection systems and features tests and regular ITM. Often, reference standards for systems to work as intended when needed. Testing of systems at specific systems (for example, fire alarm, fire sprinkler, and the time of construction (commissioning) and routine ITM smoke exhaust) will include recommended ITM timing. helps assure systems are in operational condition. Some regulations, such as the Building Regulation in New Zealand, require Building Warrant of Fitness (BWOF) certifications and audits for safety critical systems. 6.2 Evacuation Fire safety systems are just one part of the safety equation. Building and fire regulations may include simply a planning and For the systems to be effective, occupants need to know requirement that evacuation and planning be undertaken by training what to do in a fire emergency. Appropriate planning and the responsible person. However, in some cases guidance training are needed to facilitate this. can be provided as annex material to help the process. 6.3 Fire safety Similar to evacuation planning and training, fire safety Building and fire regulations may include simply a management management plans are helpful for managing transient fuel requirement that fire safety management plans be plans loads (for example, trash), checking systems in accordance developed and maintained by the responsible person. with ITM requirements, reflecting coordination with the fire However, in some cases guidance can be provided as annex service, and the like. material to help the process. 6.4 Temporary Clear guidance on when permits are required is essential. Regulations should address conditions requiring permits use and inspection. requirements/ permits APPENDIX B – PRIMER ON BUILDING FIRE SAFETY CONCEPTS 99 100 BUILDING CODE CHECKLIST FOR FIRE SAFETY that is expected to be operable in case of B.7 Other Items Impacting Fire & fire. In addition, emergency backup power Life Safety Systems and Features requirements for fire service lifts and other In addition to the fire safety systems and building systems may be needed as well. features overviewed above, there are other considerations in building regulations that Controls on Hazardous Materials should be checked, and there are some specific Controls on hazardous materials that can be features that may be appropriate, especially for stored in buildings of different occupancy tall buildings. or use classification may be in building regulations, fire regulations, occupational health and safety regulations, or some Electrical Power Service combination. Generally, the regulatory Many of the active fire safety systems in a structure should contain a combination of building—from fire detection and alarm limits on materials stored and associated systems to smoke and heat exhaust systems— compartment size limitations, fire resistance required electrical power. It is important requirements, fire suppression requirements, that regulatory provisions be in place for and informational requirements for first reliable primary power and for emergency responders. If a building regulation has a focus backup power if primary power is unavailable. on control of hazardous materials, reference Requirements for emergency backup power to relevant standards and guidelines is should be identified for each fire safety system recommended. Urban fire risk is a global problem—one that can be heightened during periods of rapid urban development. Inadequacies in urban planning, infrastructure and construction practices related to fire prevention and mitigation significantly increase the potential for fire ignition, fire spread, and potential conflagration. This checklist aims to facilitate a robust approach to reviewing fire safety provisions in building and/or fire regulations by providing a discussion of fundamental fire safety components of building and/or fire regulations, a systematic approach to review fire safety provisions in regulations.