Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Notei Mobility and Transport Connectivity Series Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note © 2025. The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, D.C., 20433, USA Telephone: +1-202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Internet: https://www.worldbank.org/transport Standard disclaimer This work is a product of the staff of The International Bank of Reconstruction and Development/ World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Notev Table of contents Foreword..........................................................................................................................................................viii Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................................ix Executive summary.........................................................................................................................................xi Part 1: Disaster and climate-resilient transport strategy & key priorities............................................. 1 1. Definitions..................................................................................................................................................... 3 2. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................7 3. Shifting paradigms: Toward sustainable transport services provision............................................12 Part 2: Resilience measures by transport sub-sector..............................................................................20 A. Highways and high-capacity roads........................................................................................................... 21 System planning and financing.............................................................................................................. 23 Engineering and design............................................................................................................................. 28 Operations and maintenance.................................................................................................................. 33 Contingency planning................................................................................................................................ 36 Institutional capacity and coordination............................................................................................... 38 Case studies................................................................................................................................................. 41 B. Rural roads..................................................................................................................................................... 43 System planning and financing.............................................................................................................. 45 Engineering and design............................................................................................................................. 49 Operations and maintenance.................................................................................................................. 53 Contingency planning................................................................................................................................ 56 Institutional capacity and coordination............................................................................................... 58 Case studies................................................................................................................................................ 60 C. Urban transport............................................................................................................................................ 62 System planning and financing.............................................................................................................. 64 Engineering and design............................................................................................................................. 69 Operations and maintenance...................................................................................................................73 Contingency planning.................................................................................................................................76 Institutional capacity and coordination................................................................................................79 Case studies................................................................................................................................................. 81 D. Railways and urban rail.............................................................................................................................. 83 System planning and financing.............................................................................................................. 85 Engineering and design............................................................................................................................. 90 Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Notevi Operations and maintenance.................................................................................................................. 94 Contingency planning.................................................................................................................................97 Institutional capacity and coordination............................................................................................. 100 Case studies.............................................................................................................................................. 102 E. Maritime and inland waterways.............................................................................................................. 104 System planning and financing............................................................................................................ 106 Engineering and design.............................................................................................................................111 Operations and maintenance................................................................................................................. 115 Contingency planning............................................................................................................................... 118 Institutional capacity and coordination.............................................................................................. 121 Case studies...............................................................................................................................................123 F. Aviation..........................................................................................................................................................125 System planning and financing............................................................................................................. 127 Engineering and design............................................................................................................................132 Operations and maintenance.................................................................................................................136 Contingency planning...............................................................................................................................139 Institutional capacity and coordination..............................................................................................142 Case studies...............................................................................................................................................145 G. Coastal transport infrastructure............................................................................................................. 147 System planning and financing.............................................................................................................149 Engineering and design............................................................................................................................153 Operations and maintenance.................................................................................................................159 Contingency planning...............................................................................................................................162 Institutional capacity and coordination..............................................................................................164 Appendix A.................................................................................................................................................... 166 A1. Hazard mapping methodology................................................................................................................167 A2. Adaptive planning and innovative project financing....................................................................... 168 A3. Green infrastructure for the urban environment............................................................................. 169 A4. Innovative procurement and supply mechanisms to support post-disaster recovery............ 169 Appendix B.................................................................................................................................................... 170 B1. Tier 1 indicators...........................................................................................................................................171 B2. Tier 2 indicators......................................................................................................................................... 174 References.....................................................................................................................................................205 Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Notevii List of tables ES.1. Examples of resilience measures by sub-sector (Part 2)..................................................................... xii Results framework sample indicators for inland transport systems (including coastal B2.1.  infrastructure)............................................................................................................................................. 174 List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible B2.2.  impacts on inland transport infrastructure systems........................................................................178 Results framework sample indicators for maritime infrastructure and waterways................ 186 B2.3.  List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible B2.4.  impacts on maritime infrastructure and waterways....................................................................... 190 B2.5. Results framework sample indicators for the aviation sector (including coastal airports).......................................................................................................................192 List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible B2.6.  impacts on airport infrastructure......................................................................................................... 196 List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible B2.7.  impacts on coastal transport infrastructure systems..................................................................... 198 List of figures Figure 1.1. Five pillars of the life-cycle approach to resilience...........................................................................5 Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Noteviii Foreword Resilient transport systems are not simply an infrastructure challenge — they create and connect people to jobs, essential services, and economic opportunities. In a world increasingly shaped by natural disasters, conflicts and other global disruptions, the functioning of our transport networks defines the resilience of our communities, our economies, and our future prosperity. Today, governments, development partners, and the private sector stand at a critical juncture. We must move beyond traditional approaches to transport infrastructure investment and embrace a new paradigm: one that places resilience at the core of transport planning, financing, design, operations and institutional frameworks. Future-ready transport systems must not only withstand disasters and other shocks but most importantly ensure trade, services and business continuity, and enable post-disaster rapid recovery, adaptive growth, and long-term sustainability. The Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note sets forth a practical, strategic vision for achieving these goals. It challenges all of us — decision-makers, engineers, financiers, and development practitioners — to think systemically, act proactively, and collaborate across sectors and borders. The stakes are high. The cost of transport disruptions for households and firms in low- and middle- income countries is estimated to range between $391 billion and $647 billion annually. Conversely, investing in resilient transport could unlock an estimated $4.2 trillion increase in global GDP by 2040 through improved access to markets and services. These are not abstract figures — they represent lives improved, opportunities expanded, and economies strengthened. This Guidance Note is both a blueprint and a call to action. Let it guide our efforts to build multimodal transport systems that are not only stronger, but smarter. Let us act with urgency and foresight. Let us rethink resilience and build the foundations for growth, inclusion, and opportunity for generations to come. Nicolas Peltier-Thiberge World Bank Transport Practice Global Director Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Noteix Acknowledgments The Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport report was prepared under the leadership of Oceane Keou, with significant contributions from World Bank staff and expert consultants, including Mohammad Dehghani, Maxence Breteau, GRID Engineers – in particular Rallis Kourkoulis, and earlier contributions from Xavier Espinet Alegre. As World Bank Group peer reviewers working on different transport subsectors, Sofia Guerrero Gamez, Sean Michaels, Yang Chen, Mercedes Gutierrez Ferrandiz, Dominik Englert, Megersa Abera Abate, Alina Burlacu, Jia Li provided invaluable inputs and comments. Sincere thanks to external advisors as well: Diego Ferrer – Lead Economist at the European Investment Bank, Dr. Hao Wang – Professor at Rutgers University, and Constantine Samaras – Director of the Carnegie Mellon University Scott Institute for Energy Innovation. Further suggestions, comments, and inputs were provided by the World Bank’s Transport Practice Managers, as well as Jing Xiong, Guillermo Diaz-Fanas, Rajesh Rohatgi, Vincent Vesin, Natsumi Taniyama, Mumba Ngulube, and Ivan Emmanuel Mwondha. The team also thanks Aurelio Menendez, Georges Bianco Darido, Marc Navelet, Dung Anh Hoang, A S Harinath, Yohannes Yemane Kesete, Julie Rozenberg, Andrew Losos, Kavita Sethi, Kulwinder Singh Rao, James Robert Markland, for their earlier comments. Jonathan Davidar of the World Bank’s Transport Global Unit led the production editing phase. Editorial services were provided by RRD GO Creative, in particular Susanna Myrtle Lazarus and Sridharan Munuswamy. The team also thanks Erin Scronce for helping in preparing the report for production. The team also thanks the Multilateral Development Banks, including but not limited to the European Investment Bank (EIB), Inter-American Development Bank (IaDB), African Development Bank (AfDB), Islamic Development Bank (IsDB), European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), as well as the European Commission, for their support and close collaboration with the World Bank in the visibility and launch of this guidance note. Finally, the team acknowledges the vision, continuous support and guidance from Nicolas Peltier – Global Director of the Transport Practice, Binyam Reja – Global Knowledge Transport Unit Practice Manager, Shomik Mehndiratta – Europe and Central Asia Transport Unit Practice Manager, Jean-Francois Marteau – West Africa Transport Unit Practice Manager, and Cecilia Briceno-Garmendia – Lead Economist, throughout the development of this critical guidance note. Executive Summary Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Notexi Executive summary As climate change accelerates, transport networks face both direct and indirect disruptions, impacting trade, mobility, and economic stability. Extreme weather events damage critical infrastructure, isolating communities and disrupting supply chains, putting significant impact on economic growth. Recognizing these challenges, the World Bank Group has committed to raising annual climate financing to US$ 40 billion by 2025, with 45 percent of total financing directed toward climate action. To effectively address climate risks on transportation system functionality, considering a more comprehensive approach is essential. Rather than focusing solely on hard infrastructure, resilience must be built through transport systems and the community. This is critical to effectively withstand climate hazards while supporting business continuity and communities’ adaptability to disruptions. The World Bank therefore developed the life-cycle approach, i.e. a five-pillar approach, to enable climate resilience to be embedded into every phase of the transport infrastructure life cycle: • System planning and financing to assess risks and guide investments • Engineering and design to develop cost-effective adaptation solutions • Operations and maintenance to facilitate proactive monitoring and climate-smart upkeep • Contingency planning to strengthen emergency response • Institutional capacity and coordination to enhance cross-sector collaboration This Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note provides strategic guidance to integrate climate resilience into transport investments, facilitating long-term sustainability and economic growth, supported by case studies and best practices from around the world. Building upon the above life-cycle approach, and based on a gap analysis completed from recent donor-funded transport projects, the note identifies four strategic priorities to enhance resilience in the transport sector: • System Thinking: Shifting from asset-focused investments to system-wide resilience • Enhanced Risk Governance & Disaster Financing: Ensuring financial mechanisms support long-term climate adaptation • Innovative Technologies: Improving infrastructure resilience with new engineering solutions, nature-based solutions, or tools like predictive analytics and smart asset management • Cross-Sectoral Coordination: Integrating emergency response, meteorological services, and transport planning for better disaster preparedness The transition from asset-level protection to a system-wide strategy, emphasized throughout the note, offers a comprehensive, multi-dimensional approach to strengthening communities’ social, human, natural, physical, economic and financial resilience to the impacts of climate change. With targeted investments and strategic planning, transport systems can transform from vulnerable assets into enablers of long-term prosperity and climate adaptation. Investing in climate-resilient transport not only safeguards infrastructure but also generates long-term socio-economic benefits for people and businesses. This “resilience dividend” includes reduced economic losses, enhanced trade efficiency, and stronger community development. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Notexii To maximize these benefits, decision-makers should utilize Decision-Support Tools (DSTs) to evaluate and prioritize investments. These tools offer climate-resilient investment scenarios at the network level, ensuring that financial resources are directed toward solutions with the highest impact. The note is primarily aimed at decision-makers, policymakers, and transport sector professionals, including government officials, transport authorities, engineers, and urban planners, who are involved in planning, designing, and implementing transport infrastructure projects. It is also highly relevant for development practitioners, researchers, and private sector stakeholders looking to understand how to integrate climate resilience into transport systems to enhance long-term sustainability and economic growth. Throughout the document, essential concepts are explored, including the life-cycle approach, as well as the distinction between building resilience “through” and “of” transport systems. These concepts help frame the necessary shifts in thinking and policy needed to transition toward more adaptive and sustainable transport networks. The note is structured into two main parts: • Part 1 establishes the importance of climate resilience in transport, emphasizing the need for a life-cycle approach based on five pillars that integrate resilience into transport systems. It also identifies key challenges and outlines strategic priorities to strengthen adaptation efforts • Part 2 provides sub-sector-specific solutions for highways, rural roads, urban transport, railways, maritime, aviation, and coastal transport. The resilience measures are tailored to each mode of transport while maintaining a holistic, system-wide perspective ES.1. Examples of resilience measures by sub-sector (Part 2) Sub-sector Example Pillar Integrated advances in GIS technology Highways & enabling smart asset management systems Operations & maintenance high-capacity roads for integrated infrastructure data Biomaterials and nature-based solutions Rural roads Engineering & design offering cost-effective adaptation strategies Improved collaboration between transport Urban transport authorities, police and emergency services, Contingency planning ensuring designation of emergency shelters Network-wide approach that considers System planning and Railways & urban rail interconnected subsystems like energy and financing communications Emergency vessels to prevent isolation and Maritime & inland advanced information systems for real-time Contingency planning waterways weather alerts Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Notexiii Sub-sector Example Pillar All airport components accounted for in the Aviation design, including access routes, electrical Engineering & design infrastructure systems, and runway drainage Regional task forces bringing together transport authorities, meteorological Coastal transport Institutional capacity & experts, and emergency responders, infrastructure coordination facilitating proactive action and rapid responses This is followed by key indicators, categorized into Tier 1 and Tier 2. These span all sub-sectors and are designed to enhance policymakers’ capacity to establish clear, measurable, and actionable targets. They encompass a range of metrics, such as the percentage of the rural population living within two kilometers of an all-weather road (RAI), the time elapsed between a predicted event and a warning announcement to users, and other quantifiable measures that track economic, social, and environmental progress. Part 1 Disaster and Climate‑Resilient Transport Strategy & Key Priorities Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note2 Transport infrastructure for economic growth & social equity An adequate and reliable supply of infrastructure services is widely recognized as the backbone of economic development and human well-being. Over the last two decades, there has been increased attention to the role of transport infrastructure in addressing poverty and inequality. A consensus has emerged among academics, development practitioners, and policymakers that, under the right conditions, transport infrastructure development can play a major role in promoting growth and equity. Through both channels, it has the potential to effectively alleviate povertyi. Sustainable transport development is linked to many Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and strategic plans are needed to achieve them. Developing green and resilient transport corridors is key to achieve SDG 9 (sustainable infrastructure), while developing a cost-efficient and resilient network of rural roads supports the achievement of SDG 10 (reduced inequalities). The World Bank Group will raise annual climate financing to US$40 billion by June 2025, targeting to dedicate 45 percent of their total financing towards climate action. This is part of the World Bank Group’s 2021–2025 Climate Change Action Plan, which aims to support green, resilient, and inclusive development. Half of the US$40 billion will be allocated to mitigation and half to adaptation. This guidance note aims to provide key strategic priorities to support this ambition, and promote climate-resilient transport development and related investments. It will support decision-makers in planning and building back better as climate-related hazards are expected to increase in the future. 1 Definitions Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note4 1.1. Adaptation and resilience In the context of climate change, adaptation is defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the process of adjusting to the actual or expected climate and its effects. Discussions on adaptation often advocate taking specific actions before it is no longer possible to adapt to, minimize, or avoid harm from climate change. Such measures could include building sea walls to protect people against sea level rise or installing irrigation systems to combat water scarcity. Resilience to climate change or climate resilience is defined as the capacity to prepare for, respond to, and recover from the impacts of hazardous climatic events while incurring minimal damage to societal wellbeing, the economy, and the environment. This entails a range of actions across policy, infrastructure, services, planning, education, and communication. Building resilience requires a holistic and multi-dimensional approach to enhance communities’ social, human, natural, physical, and financial capacities to cope with and recover from the impacts of climate change. Adaptation refers to a process or action taken to minimize the impact of irreversible environmental changes on infrastructure and thereby the dependent societies and ecosystems. Resilience describes the capacity or ability to anticipate and cope with shocks, and to recover from their impacts in a timely and efficient manner. In practice, the distinctions and relationship between resilience and adaptation are less easily defined. In particular, transport resilience to climate change is the ability of a transportation system to continue to function in the face of major disruptions, such as extreme weather events. In the guidance note, the terms climate resilience, disaster resilience, and climate and disaster resilience are used interchangeably. 1.2. Natural hazards and disasters Natural hazards are phenomena that can occur within the natural environment and may cause harmful consequences to humans, property damage, environmental degradation, or social and economic disruption. It is important to note the distinction between hazards and risks — a hazard refers to a situation that has the potential to lead to (negative) consequences, and a risk relates to the likelihood of hazards occurring and the severity of their consequences. Natural phenomena such as hurricanes, heatwaves, or floods are only considered natural hazards if people, ecosystems, infrastructure, resources, or businesses can be affected by them. In turn, the risk associated with these natural hazards expresses the probability and extent of the damages that could arise from these hazards.ii Technological or industrial hazards are induced by human activities, while natural hazards are defined as hazards that are triggered by natural processes such as geological or oceanographic movements, or atmospheric conditions. Natural hazards can fall under two distinct categories: • Climatological hazards include all meteorological and hydrological hazards, as well as any climate-change induced hazard. Among the list are droughts, heat or cold waves, floods, storm surges, tropical cyclones, or blizzards and hailstorms. These hazards are typically triggered by a Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note5 lack of precipitation, temperature anomalies, global warming, or climatic phenomena. Most are often triggered by extreme meteorological conditions such as atmospheric pressure changes and strong winds, and other climatological factors. • Geological or geophysical hazards pertain to any internal earth-related processes, which manifest in the form of earthquakes, volcanic activity, tsunamis, or landslides/debris flows. These hazards are triggered by various types of acute and chronic changes in the earth’s structure, but also by climatological or hydrometeorological factors. Disasters are actual events caused by hazards. A hazard is a potential threat, while a disaster is the actual event and its consequences. A hazard becomes a disaster when it affects a community or society, causing serious disruption and widespread losses. In some cases, these various types of natural hazards are interrelated. Therefore, they cannot always be observed or analyzed on their own as the consequences of a specific hazard type might form the causes of another. A good example of this interconnectedness are landslides, a geological hazard type, that can be induced by heavy precipitation, a climatological hazard. This guidance note will be useful to address climatological, geophysical/geological, and combined hazard types. The Life-Cycle Approach The life-cycle approach relies on comprehensively addressing disaster risk considerations at every stage. Figure 1.1. Five pillars of the life-cycle approach to resilience The World Bank Approach to Resilience 5 Pillars of resilience (Life cycle approach) System Planning Engineering & Operations & Contingency & Financing Design Maintenance Planning Institutional Capacity & Coordination Source: World Bank. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note6 This pillar involves defining measurable, strategic targets and performing a high-level analysis to assess the exposure of the network to current and projected hazards. It takes into consideration the infrastructure assets as System well as the significant socioeconomic factors that interact with it, to develop Planning & adaptation and funding strategies based on a system-level assessment of Financing impacts and multi-criteria appraisal of solutions. At this stage, the aim is to refine the analysis of Pillar 1, using more detailed engineering data and assessment tools, incorporating considerations of local conditions, interdependencies, and, to the extent possible, down-scaled Engineering & hazard predictions, to propose an economically sound adaptation strategy Design (or combination of strategies) that aligns with resilience targets. This pillar involves incorporating resilience targets in O&M plans, establishing asset inspection and intervention activities, utilizing smart asset management systems, investing in lifecycle instrumentation and monitoring, reviewing maintenance contracts, and employing relevant O&M key performance indicators (KPIs) to assess resilience and ensure proactive maintenance, efficient resource utilization, and effective response to climate-induced disruptions. Performance- based contracts can be a valuable tool in this context, explicitly linking payment Operations & to system performance and providing a powerful incentive for contractors to Maintenance maintain or operate assets effectively. By incorporating climate-related KPIs into these contracts, such as maintaining minimum service levels during extreme weather events, transport authorities can ensure that resilience goals are met while optimizing costs and resource allocation. At this stage, the aim is to establish mechanisms that will enable service continuity during a possible disruptive event. Contingency planning involves developing coordinated emergency and resilience plans, effectively exploiting redundancies, and ensuring the availability of resources, technical and financial. Contingency In this direction, it is essential to take advantage of advances in technology, for Planning example, for rapid damage assessment and effective communication during emergencies, and mechanisms for financing climate adaptation measures. This pillar focuses on building adaptive capacity, enhancing cross-sectoral coordination, establishing effective communication channels, and promoting training and awareness. These efforts will strengthen the disaster response Institutional capacity of institutions, facilitate collaboration, ensure efficient information Capacity & flow, and raise resilience awareness, ultimately improving the overall resilience Coordination of the transport system. 2 Introduction Explore the direct and indirect impacts of climate-related hazards on transportation networks, from economic losses to community disruptions. Understand the need for climate-resilient transport solutions to enhance connectivity, safety, and long-term sustainability. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note8 2.1. Socio-economic impact of climate change on transportation networks 2.1.1. Direct and indirect impacts Natural disasters and climate-related hazards have the potential to create widespread and expensive disruptions to transportation networks, impacting the economy and society directly and indirectly. These disruptions can occur at a spatial scale that may be disproportional to the geographic extent of physical damage. These pose life-threatening situations for both users of transportation networks and the dependent population. According to recent estimates by Hallegatte et al. (2019)iii, the cost of transport disruptions for households and firms in low-and middle-income countries varies between $391 billion and $647 billion per year. In addition to their high economic cost, events of high severity (extreme phenomena with a relatively limited duration, that is, shocks) can pose significant threats to human life. This is particularly relevant in situations where access to essential healthcare is compromised, or in cases where broken transport links lead to partial or complete isolation of communities. This can therefore impact their access to basic resources, and hinder evacuation and emergency response procedures. The sudden, large-scale transport disruptions caused by extreme-intensity natural disasters may also trigger humanitarian crises if they impact highly vulnerable populations in environments characterized by limited institutional (coping) capacity. This was seen recently the case in northern Mozambique, where extensive flooding following the passage of cyclones Idai and Kenneth in 2019 left 2.5 million people, 1.3 million of which were children, in need of humanitarian aid, facing food shortages and a month-long nutrition crisis. Transport service operators also bear a considerable cost due to less acute but chronic climate stressors. Interestingly, developed economies are far from immune to such impacts. As pointed out in a 2019 WB sector note by Rozenberg et al.iv, the US aviation sector suffers approximately four times more flight delays due to minor weather events in comparison to extreme events. Similarly, prolonged periods of low temperatures affect railway operations in countries like Finland and Sweden, as the operating speeds of trains are reduced for safety reasons. On the other hand, relatively dry summers have had a measurable impact on inland waterway transportation in northwestern Europe, where the sector’s total losses in 2013 amounted to over US$480 million, mainly due to the reduced operability of large vesselsv. Globally, the cost of damage to road and railway assets due to natural hazards is estimated to range between US$3.1 billion and 22 billionvi. What is more, the restoration of damaged infrastructure can take months, and in some cases years, particularly after severe shocks. Long recovery periods multiply the social and economic impact of infrastructure failures, burdening public infrastructure budgets and making the infrastructure sector less attractive to private investors. Across the globe, the mounting pressure on transport network operators is due to climate change. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there are concerning projections that indicate a significant rise in precipitation during wet months. These projections have led to pessimistic estimates, suggesting that rehabilitation costs due to river flooding could be up to 17 times higher compared to historical valuesvii. In Mozambique, the annual cost of flood-induced damages to road bridges is projected to escalate to 3 percent of the country’s GDP by 2050, which is twice the current expenditureviii. Similarly, Viet Nam faces substantial risks as approximately 60 percent of its land is exposed to various acute and chronic natural hazards. National-level criticality analysis in conjunction with Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note9 macroeconomic modeling, considering the consequences of freight disruptions, indicates that road and rail network failures can result in enormous losses amounting to US$1.9 million per day and US$2.6 million per day respectively. 2.1.2. Additional adverse effects: Cumulative impact on road safety The impact of natural disasters on transport incidents and crashes is also significant. Research indicates that adverse weather conditions, including snow, rain, storms, strong winds, extreme heat, and fog present a safety risk to all road users. Weather associated with precipitation reduces road friction, diminishes driver visibility, and impairs driving performance in various ways, as noted by Rowland et al. (2007). Numerous studies have observed an increase in crash occurrence and severity during inclement weather. For instance, in Lagos State, Nigeria, research has shown that the road casualty rate rises by 8.64 percent during the rainy season (Owolabi 2012). 2.2. Building for tomorrow: Why is climate-resilient transport development crucial Adaptation allows infrastructure to be responsive and evolving, rather than static and susceptible to threats. Climate-resilient transport assets can provide benefits such as reduced ownership costs, improved financing terms, more efficient maintenance operations, more opportunities for risk transfer and increased valuation of assets. 2.2.1. Positive socio-economic impacts on people and businesses The effects of climate-resilient investments in transportation corridors and networks are substantial and multi-dimensional. At the macro level, the transport network is linked to trade volumes and costs, agricultural output, land value, employment, and income. At the micro level, well-connected transport networks link producers and consumers, while also affecting people’s health and well-being, facilitating access to food, education, employment, health, and other social and cultural facilities. According to the World Bank, investing in climate-resilient transport infrastructure could lead to an estimated US$4.2 trillion increase in global GDP by 2040 through improved access to markets and services. Another recent analysis by the World Bankix covering 16 countries in North Africa and 24 countries in SSA found that investment gains associated with transport infrastructure led to economic growth ranging from 1 percent to over 10 percent of national GDPs. This was accompanied by significant wider socioeconomic benefits related to consumption, gender equality, education, and job creation. Resilience investments in transport infrastructure have the potential for long-lasting positive repercussions that extend beyond the physical infrastructure itself. Investing in resilience is associated with returns for the community and comprehending this “resilience dividend” is key to appraising the benefits of investments. Such benefit is not only associated with the potential loss reduction in case of a severe event (that decision-makers may still consider as very low probability) but extends to better operations, increased security for the community (including food security in Emerging Markets & Developing Economies, that is, EMDE countries), more reliable logistics, employment, and development opportunities due to better accessibility. In turn, communities become better equipped to adapt and respond to the challenges posed by climate variability and change by creating a more robust and diversified economic base. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note10 2.2.2. Overview of the impact of climate-resilient transport development in Emerging Markets & Developing Economies (EMDEs) • Substantial increase in transnational trade due to improved cross-border transport. • Reduction of consumer costs. • Reduction of illegal trade and better governance. Example: In SSA, inadequate infrastructure is responsible for 60 percent of transport expenses in landlocked countries, while coastal countries face a Trade 40 percent burden. Moreover, it is estimated that each additional day of transit time results in a significant 7 percent decrease in exports. By improving and upgrading transport corridors in the region, it is projected that overland trade could surge by approximately US$250 billion over a span of 15 years. • Creation of new jobs and diversification of the economic activity. • Increase in agricultural production. • Poverty reduction. • Increase in technology adoption. Rural economy Example: In Viet Nam, the development of the NH–5 highway corridor in Viet Nam had a major impact on the region of influence, reducing by 35 percent the number of households that lived in poverty between 1995 and 2000. • Increase in women’s employment. • Broader access to healthcare. • More inclusive education and reduction of illiteracy levels. Example: The development of the NH-2 corridor in India has been linked to an Equity overall increase of literacy by 6 percent, reaching 12 percent for women and girls. There was an increase of 7 percent in school enrollment, as well as 9 percent higher women’s participation in labor force 9 percent, and 7 percent higher employment in non-agricultural activities. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note11 2.2.3. Climate-resilient transport as a connector and enabler Countries should transition from viewing adaptation as purely an additional cost and separate investment to systematically managing and incorporating climate risks and opportunities at every stage of the infrastructure life cycle. This will guarantee that transport infrastructure will stand up to its role as a connector and enabler of community resilience. To be effective, resilience investments must: Be based on a rational and evidence-based approach that involves assessing and prioritizing (a)  interventions, guided by a thorough evaluation of exposure to hazards, system and community vulnerabilities, risks, direct and indirect impacts, intervention costs and benefits in the long-run Consider the full life cycle, from the planning and design phases to construction and later the (b)  Operations and maintenance phases. Adopting such a comprehensive approach can effectively improve the coping capacity of economies and societies in the face of an uncertain and challenging future. As adaptation and resilience span the entire project life cycle, it is important to reiterate that they are not always associated with substantial upfront incremental costs. Less costly measures, anywhere from nature-based solutions to policy-related changes and beyond, can greatly contribute to the above-described impacts and wider outcomes. In the same vein, improving maintenance and operations is a no-regret option for boosting the resilience of infrastructure assets while reducing overall costs. Every US$1 spent on road maintenance saves an average of US$1.50 in new investments, making maintenance a very cost-effective option (Kornejew, Rentschler, and Hallegatte 2019). 3 Shifting Paradigms: Toward Sustainable Transport Services Provision Explore the shift toward climate-resilient transport systems that enhance sustainability, trade, and logistics while mitigating climate- related disruptions. Examine the transition from asset-level to network-level planning, the role of multimodal transport in resilience, and the strategic investments needed to create adaptable, efficient, and inclusive transportation systems. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note13 3.1. The new focus: Climate-resilient transport for sustainable services, trade and logistics It is increasingly imperative to shift focus towards climate-resilient transport for sustainable services, trade, and logistics in the face of escalating climate change impacts. A strategic emphasis on climate-resilient transport not only mitigates risks associated with climate- related disruptions but also fosters economic growth and prosperity by improving connectivity and accessibility. Prioritizing the development of resilient transportation systems will help governments and stakeholders enhance the reliability and sustainability of critical services such as healthcare, education, and emergency response. Climate-resilient transport networks also play a pivotal role in providing access to jobs, facilitating trade and commerce, and enabling the efficient movement of goods and services both domestically and internationally. Climate-resilient transport infrastructure enhances the efficiency and reliability of supply chains by reducing disruptions caused by extreme weather events or natural disasters. By investing in resilient transportation networks, countries can strengthen their trade capacities, boost export competitiveness, and attract investment opportunities. This strategic focus on climate-resilient transport for trade and logistics contributes to sustainable economic development and promotes regional and international connectivity. Climate-resilient transport development strategies are therefore even more important in the context of multimodal transport development. The new focus is to identify priorities or required investments while considering the different modes of transport operating in a system, although this could be more difficult. Recent studies by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) have shown that enhancing resilience in multimodal transport networks, therefore reducing service delivery disruptions, can lead to a 15 percent reduction in trade costs and a 20 percent increase in global trade volumes by 2030. 3.1.1. Transition from asset-level to network & system-level approaches While asset-level strategies traditionally focus on individual components of the transport system, network-level approaches take into account the interconnectedness and interdependencies among various elements. The transition from asset-level to network-level approaches in transportation planning signifies a paradigm shift towards more comprehensive and strategic methodologies. This shift allows for a more holistic perspective, where the entire (multimodal) transportation network is viewed as a cohesive entity delivering a service rather than separate entities. By considering the network as a whole, decision-makers can identify synergies, optimize resources in view of existing fiscal and funding constraints, and enhance overall system performance. This change in perspective offers significant advantages in optimizing the efficiency and resilience of transport systems. For example, by analyzing the network as a cohesive unit, planners can identify critical links and nodes that are essential for system functionality. Understanding the network dynamics enables better decision-making in terms of infrastructure investments, operational improvements, and emergency response preparations. Moreover, network-level approaches promote a more integrated and coordinated approach to transportation planning, facilitating smoother interactions between different transportation modes, and enhancing overall system performance. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note14 Network-level approaches in transportation planning is essential to ensure sustainable and climate-resilient transport systems in the long term. By shifting the focus from individual assets to the entire network, stakeholders can better address the complex challenges posed by urbanization, population growth, and climate change. This strategic shift promotes adaptive and resilient transportation networks that can withstand disruptions, improve connectivity, and enhance economic and social well-being. Through network-level planning, decision-makers can create more cost-efficient, effective, and sustainable transport systems that meet the evolving needs of communities and promote a more resilient future. There is tremendous value in knowing the spatial distribution of hazards when planning and designing at a systems level. Strengthening the most exposed infrastructure assets can reduce total annual costs from between $120 billion and $670 billion to between $11 billion and $65 billion (Hallegatte et al, 2019). When resilience strengthening is done for all transport infrastructure, irrespective of exposure, the costs relative to the benefits can be too high and the benefit cost ratio can be less than one (Koks et al). 3.1.2. “Building resilience through” vs “building resilience of” Resilient transport systems support social equity by providing accessible and reliable transportation services to all segments of the population. Climate-resilient transport strategies for sustainable services, trade, and logistics can also benefit environmental sustainability and social inclusivity efforts, among others. Building resilience through a project refers to how a project can minimize the indirect (wider) impact of climate-related hazards on communities (including people and businesses) or helps them cope with disaster and climate risks. This is the ultimate objective, as this can build resilience of communities through establishing better systems, safeguarding livelihoods, and promoting economic activities, thus fostering a prosperous future for all. In comparison, building resilience of infrastructure assets is limited to addressing the direct impact of climate on said infrastructure. It requires ensuring the viability of climate-resilient transport interventions in spite of climate and disaster risks by assessing the risk of failure in the economic and financial analysis. Needless to say, building resilience of transport infrastructure is essential within a broader systemic context. 3.1.3. Prioritizing multimodal transport systems & corridors development Multimodal transport development is essential for building resilience in global supply chains and ensuring food security across both low-income and high-income nations. Transport logistics are critical to maintain reliable food supply chains, but are highly vulnerable to disruptions caused by natural disasters, geopolitical tensions, and economic crises. Climate-resilient multimodal networks, which integrate road, rail, air, and maritime transport, are particularly effective in mitigating these risks by providing alternative routes and modes of transport, ensuring continuity in the face of shocks. For instance, the integration of rail and maritime transport in logistics corridors has proven to be 30 percent – 50 percent more cost-effective and less vulnerable to climate-related disruptions than road transport alone. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note15 The World Bank’s regional logistics corridor programs illustrate how such approaches bolster resilience while driving economic growth. In East Africa, upgrades to the Northern Corridor reduced transit times by 30 percent and transport costs by 40 percent, enabling faster and more reliable trade flows. These improvements not only safeguard food supply chains during disruptions but also stimulate local economies by enhancing market access for agricultural producers and reducing costs for consumers. Similarly, in South Asia, modernization of the India-Bangladesh corridor reduced cross-border delays by 20 percent, significantly enhancing trade resilience. Climate-resilient multimodal networks further amplify these benefits by directly addressing the challenges posed by extreme weather events and climate change. For example, raising road and rail infrastructure standards to withstand flooding and integrating renewable energy in logistics hubs not only ensures operational continuity but also supports long-term sustainability. It is necessary to adopt a more holistic strategy to ensure food supply chain resilience moving forward. For instance, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that climate-resilient logistics and improving last-mile connectivity could reduce post-harvest losses—currently 14 percent globally—by enabling faster and more efficient transport of perishable goods. Beyond food security, resilient transport networks drive broader economic growth by improving connectivity between urban centers and rural areas, enhancing trade competitiveness and attracting investment. Studies suggest that every 10 percent improvement in transport connectivity can boost GDP by 1–2 percent in developing regions. Furthermore, digital tools such as real-time tracking and predictive analytics, when integrated into multimodal networks, can enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and minimize carbon footprints. 3.2. Cost benefit analysis and investments scenarios There is a critical need to use Decision-Support Tools (DSTs) to support governments, decision-makers, and non-technical officials to optimize and prioritize investments. In addition to current vulnerability assessment models, it is imperative to develop innovative tools that offer climate-resilient investment scenarios at the network level. These tools should evaluate the broader economic advantages and financial feasibility of said scenarios through a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA). Such tools must be globally scalable, functional in data-scare environments, and most importantly, adaptable to consider the country’s specific socio-economic priorities (which can include agriculture value chains, mining, or industrial sector activities development, etc.). DSTs can be designed to target one specific sub-sector or to support multimodal level assessments. It can also be utilized in the context of the Bank’s Country Climate and Development Reports (CCDRs), where analytics are needed to make thorough recommendations on the climate-resilient investment potential for a country’s economic growth. One of the key expected benefits of DSTs is to provide national and local governments with a clearer assessment, beyond global estimates, of: The actual district-or country-level investment needs by tailoring adaptation solutions to the (a)  country’s conditions (whether using actual unit costs or utilizing machine-learning methods). In particular, governments can use CBA analyses to evaluate and confirm the cost-effectiveness of nature-based solutions The actual funding gap and budget required to build and maintain climate-resilient (b)  transport networks. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note16 Opportunities to leverage public and private financing will then be unlocked and financing strategies better tailored on that basis. To enable this, the World Bank developed HARMA (Hazard & Risk Multi-Regional Assessment tool for transport networks), a decision-support tool that helps governments plan and invest in climate-resilient transport infrastructure networks. HARMA is a high-level DST for planning risk mitigation interventions to road network infrastructure. Its functionalities include: • Identifying vulnerability hotspots within the network • Pinpointing road segments that could cause significant disruptions • Facilitating informed investment decisions for minimizing expected losses The tool achieves this through a comprehensive suite of algorithms that analyze traffic patterns under normal and disrupted conditions, map hazards, estimate damages to roads and bridges, and impact of disruptions on users. Moreover, HARMA allows users to model adaptation interventions and evaluate their potential through CBA, while deriving investment scenarios that prioritizes areas that need urgent adaptation. The tool can be deployed in different environments. The vision is to expand HARMA to support climate-resilient multimodal transport planning or multisectoral assessments through cost-efficient investment scenarios. Case study - HARMA tool pilot How Pakistan effectively used CBA in developing climate-resilient transport networks In Pakistan, two alternative adaptation plans were simulated to compare two alternative decision-making strategies. Both plans reflected a vision for a nation-wide retrofit on the strategic road network, implying that the decision maker represents a national governmental institution, such as the National Highway Authority. Plan A, named “Adaptation to any possible event”, involves the decision-maker investing in the protection of priority links against all the events that could possibly occur during the period of the assessment, including rare events such as the 1500-year flood. Plan B, named “Adaptation to frequent events”, represents a decision-making approach focused on minimizing disruptions from frequent events. The two proposed investment plans are evaluated by means of Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA). Results show that the more frequent events (up to 100 years) contribute the most to the total calculated Expected Annual Loss (EAL). Such events are effectively mitigated by both plans, yet in the case of Plan B at a much lower adaptation cost. Therefore, the marginal loss reduction that Plan A provides in rare, extreme floods doesn’t justify its substantial retrofitting expenses. It is essential to highlight that these results are specific to Pakistan. The result of the economic appraisal may be drastically different for another network, for example where hydraulic design standards are in place to safeguard bridge performance impacted by frequent floods. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note17 Plan A: Adaptation to any possible event 400 $320 400 8 15% Million 300 300 $191 10% $130 Million 200 200 Million 4 Country-wide adaptation 2.5 5% 2.9% of assets that produce 100 100 annually significant total losses in all possible floods 0 0 0 0% Interventions in 31 bridges 1 1 1 1 & 910 km of roadways BENEFIT NPV BCR ROI (PV) Plan B: Adaptation to frequent events 400 400 8 7.0 15% 12.1% $291 annually Million $249 300 300 Million 10% $41 Million 200 200 Country-wide adaptation of assets that produce 5% 100 100 significant total losses in frequent floods (RP ≤ 100 y) 0 0 1 0% Interventions in 24 bridges 1 1 1 1 & 790 km of roadways BENEFIT NPV BCR ROI (PV) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note18 3.3. Strategic planning for better adaptation and resilience in transport The four following Key Priorities (KPs) have been identified based on the World Bank portfolio gap analysis. These priorities are essential for enhancing resilience in any transport development project, and tackling current institutional or technology barriers. Examples of applications are provided as case studies later in the report. Network and system-level planning (Pillar 1 of the life-cycle approach) demands greater attention to ensure proper prioritization and budget allocation towards necessary investments for building systemic resilience. Prioritization of these investments must be based on cross-cutting (economic, environmental, social, etc.) and community-level considerations. It is important to emphasize promoting resilience at the infrastructure level, and even more so at the network level. The resilience of individual infrastructure KP-1: assets is evaluated within the broader context of the entire system. Develop Implementing system planning facilitates a comprehensive understanding of network-level critical infrastructure and enables prioritization for the overall benefit of the thinking transport system and its users. New developments are planned with the intent to minimize exposure of people and businesses to hazard prone areas. Lastly, proper network-level prioritization is essential to allocate sufficient funding where needed, that is, towards urgent asset rehabilitation and maintenance, in a resource-constrained environment. Using fiscal or economic policy tools and increasing private sector participation must be promoted to adapt to climate change, fund the infrastructure investment gap, and repair damaged infrastructure after a disaster. Financial protection strategies, including disaster risk financing mechanisms, KP-2: multi-year insurance programs, disaster reserve funds, etc., are considered (Pillars 1 and 4 of the life-cycle approach), early on during the planning stage Enhance risk and to be activated in case of emergency in the aftermath of a natural disaster. governance Piloting and scaling up such instruments, with the support from the Global with improved Risk Financing Facility (GRiF) and the World Bank Disaster Risk Financing and disaster risk Insurance Program (DRFIP), will help leverage more financing. For example, financing insurance policies to protect transport assets-for which proper resilient design, strategies construction, and maintenance are pre-conditions for an insurance payout and reflected in insurance premiums, are options to be explored by governments. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note19 Democratize new, cost-effective, and resilient techniques to be implemented during transport infrastructure planning, design, construction, and maintenance, and for emergency systems, beyond the common techniques and approaches (All pillars of the life-cycle approach). Recent advances in construction technology, for example, show that cost-efficient and/or environment-friendly approaches can increase performance. There is KP-3: a full range of new technologies from which to draw inspiration. Indicatively, consider the use of drones for risk assessment and resilient logistics, Promote low-cost technologies for data collection and performance assessment, innovative open-source data, bioengineering solutions (including NBS), use of waste technologies plastic material, self-heated pavements, arch bridges, River Information Services (RIS)-generated data for resilience of Inland Waterway Transport (IWT) infrastructure. Enhancing coordination among impacted transport authorities, as well as emergency, police and health services, and meteorological services, is crucial for establishing efficient emergency response mechanisms (Pillar 4 of the life-cycle approach). To effectively respond to adverse climate events or KP-4: disasters and mitigate their impacts on infrastructure and communities, protocols and reserve funds must be established. This is achieved by improving Support early warning systems, hydrometeorological forecasts, and implementing cross-sectoral timely evacuations. Additionally, efforts are focused on developing response real-time network systems, such as sensor systems along transport routes. mechanisms Better planning, particularly in urban and coastal areas, is essential, aligning transport systems and logistics flows with local and regional evacuation, response, communication and recovery requirements. Part 2 Resilience Measures by Transport Sub-Sector Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note21 A. Highways and high-capacity roads Disaster resilience-building in highway projects cannot be agnostic of the economic and social environment within which they reside. The adverse effects of disaster-induced network functionality losses disproportionally impacts economic growth at a scale that far exceeds the spatial and financial scale of the network itself. It can therefore have dire consequences on supply chains, business productivity, and access to services, goods, and jobs. Reduced serviceability of highways can cause costly delays and disruptions in the logistics supply chain, leading to a backlog of goods that could not be transported, causing lost revenue for businesses and increased costs for consumers. Additionally, road closures and increased traffic congestions compromise the ability of workers to reach their jobs, impacting the productivity of local industries. The societal impact can be immense in cases where road failures lead to isolation of communities, especially in EMDEs where such failures can lead to humanitarian crises due to disruptions of food corridors, escalating inequalities, and poverty. For road operators, the impact of natural disasters and climate change not only incurs significant direct loss and loss of revenue, but also translates to indirect losses due to loss of trust and confidence in their ability to provide safe and efficient transportation. This is also reflected in their insurability and attractiveness for the private sector. In this context, this note provides tailored guidance aiming to alleviate disaster-related challenges towards achieving resilience across the five pillars of a highway project’s life cycle. Highlights System planning and financing • Integrate user mobility and business continuity indicators into risk assessment procedures to accurately evaluate disaster-induced wider network losses. • Consider both current and future scenarios in climate hazard identification, based on relevant climate change projection models. Engineering and design • Leverage innovations in design and materials in creating new adaptation solutions for highways, including nature-based alternatives. • Consider adaptive design strategies amid significant uncertainty over future climate projections. • Consider the cost of external risks, opportunities, and potential co-benefits as part of the economic appraisal of adaptation alternatives. Operations and maintenance • Employ real-time monitoring systems for quick data collection and timely execution of maintenance actions. • Capitalize on GIS advances for the development of a smart asset management system, allowing for integrated infrastructure data. Contingency planning • Secure the availability of appropriate emergency equipment and facilitate cooperation with entities involved in disaster recovery, as part of contingency plans. • Enable low-cost, efficient real-time communication with highway users, such as broadband messages with innovations in ICT and communication technologies. Institutional capacity and coordination • Establish partnerships with key stakeholders and disaster risk management authorities to enhance climate adaptation awareness and ensure efficient implementation of recovery activities. • Develop the institutional framework to enable/attract private sector participation. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note23 Highways and high-capacity roads   System planning and financing 1.0. Build awareness among key stakeholders and review existing policies ‰ Conduct specialized stakeholder workshops: Organize targeted workshops for public authorities, universities, and private sector stakeholders to highlight specific vulnerabilities in road transport systems and the urgency of adopting climate-resilient measures. Tailor content to the expertise and roles of each group. ‰ Integrate resilience into policy agendas: Review existing policies and advocate for the inclusion of climate-resilient transport as a priority in development and infrastructure policies, linking it to economic growth, disaster preparedness, and community well-being. ‰ Showcase local and global success stories: Promote and share relevant case studies and pilot projects from around the world with high-level decision makers to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of climate-resilient transport systems. Use these examples to inspire action and provide a practical roadmap for implementation. Set disaster resilience targets and measurable objectives linked to system-level 1.1.  performance indicators ‰ Recognize the role of the network for the local/regional economy and the society, the operations performed, and the characteristics of the people and goods that use the infrastructure. ‰ Think of the possible ways the changing climate may affect each of the above parameters and determine the resilience priorities of the network. Priorities should address: • User safety • Mobility • Connectivity • Quality of service • Economic activity • Societal wellbeing ‰ Link priorities with ‘conditions of success’ and/or ‘minimum performance thresholds’ to determine the resilience indicators of the highway. Appendix A summarizes sector-and hazard-specific resilience indicators to consider in this step. High-level guidance for setting resilience targets is provided in the TCFD (2021)x. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note24 Highways and high-capacity roads 1.2. Identify and characterize the possible hazards affecting the network ‰ In the case of climate-related hazards, account for both current and future hazard intensity trends, based on appropriate climate change projection models. For further details and an indicative list of hazards affecting the highway sector, refer to Appendix A and B, respectively. ‰ Consider implementing a Green Resilient Highway Corridor Concept using an Integrated Landscape Approach, that is, through multi-risk impact assessments at the landscape level around the road alignment to maximize benefits of future interventions. This approach helps characterize hazards/competing demands and integrates policies for enhanced resilience and ecosystems management. Example: Walking the Talk: Promoting an Innovative Approach for Green and Climate-Resilient Transport Infrastructure in Nepal. 1.3. Assess network vulnerability ‰ Map hazard exposure: Overlay hazard and network maps to identify the extent of the network (assets and links) that may be impacted by each one of the identified hazards as developed in the previous step. ‰ Map the dependent socio-economic environment: Adopt a system of systems thinking to identify links between the highway network, the society, and the economy (as per the discussion made in Step 1.1). Map to the level of refinement possible: • The geospatial distribution of potential users, based on population maps. • GDP variations, based on census data • The locations of hubs, major feeder junctions, and key destinations (industries, shopping centers, etc.) Additionally, try to identify/estimate: • Traffic patterns • Traffic demands at the different network links • Proportion of trucks, industrial/private vehicles, etc. • Geolocated road crashes. ‰ Conduct a preliminary network analysis based on traffic load and network topology. ‰ Appraise the criticality of each road segment, which is an indicator of the overall significance of a link for the network functionality and for the dependent socio-economic environment (for example, segments carrying high traffic loads, providing access to critical infrastructure, serving vulnerable population). ‰ Estimate the vulnerability of highway components, which is a metric to gauge the proneness to potential disruption, and hence may serve as a preliminary measure to prioritize adaptation actions. ‰ Assess opportunities for new links in non-vulnerable zones to help build network redundancy. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note25 Highways and high-capacity roads 1.4. Understand physical infrastructure vulnerability ‰ Perform vulnerability assessments qualitatively during the planning phase for a high-level identification of adaptation strategies and revisit b during the engineering phase when design details are clarified. ‰ Rate the susceptibility of network assets to climate-related or natural-disaster-induced stress considering: • Asset age • Compliance with up-to-date design standards • Lack of adaptation measures along the highway network against the identified Hazard types (for example, lack of flood defenses in the case of coastal flooding) ‰ Estimate the expected damage on (critical) assets for different hazard intensities (for example, high, moderate, or low) associated with a range of disaster/climate scenarios (for example, collapse of roads due to embankment failure in the case of extreme flooding, temporary inundation of a road segment in heavy rainfalls). 1.5. Assess the potential impacts and losses on the network Damage on the highway assets or the interconnected infrastructure may result in large-scale socioeconomic losses reflecting the costs for repairs and the consequences of reduced or no functionality of the affected part of the network. ‰ Based on the knowledge of hazard exposure, assets’ vulnerabilities, and the criticality of each highway segment, assess potential impacts for each Hazard type (and level of stressing) in terms of: • Direct Losses due to infrastructure damage considering estimated distribution of damages along the highway and the cost of repair/replacement for each type of infrastructure. • Reduced Mobility expressed in terms of increased travel time due to detours. • Loss of Connectivity, or disruptions that may impede accessibility of communities, businesses, trade hubs, logistics/emergency routes, major feeder junctions, etc. • Cascading socio-economic losses, or, disruptions to supply chains that may slow down economic growth. • Cascading social effects related to potential isolation of communities, increasing inequality and disproportionately impacting less privileged populations, especially where the affected segments serve human vulnerability hotspots. • User safety, which can refer to failure of road infrastructure, in particular large structures (for example, bridges), may result in significant loss of life • Operator losses, for example, in concession contracts, loss of operability directly impacts the highway revenues. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note26 Highways and high-capacity roads • Externalities (Even in cases where highways may not be directly impacted): (i) Extreme weather impacting major feeder routes may result in loss of customers (ii) Severe weather power outages impacting traffic lighting may create traffic collapse and supply-chain disruptions (iii) Changes in traffic demand due to rise in fuel and energy prices further compounded by increasing emissions regulations may reduce traffic demand. 1.6. Develop high-level adaptation plans ‰ Map alternative adaptation strategies to mitigate the risks identified in Step 1.5. Possible adaptation solutions could include changes in the road alignment to reduce exposure to coastal hazards or landslide hazards or identification/construction of alternative routes to increase network redundancy in the aftermath of a disaster. ‰ Appraise the alternatives using a Multi-Criteria Analysis (or similar). Employ a set of suitable assessment criteria, for example, correlated with the cost efficiency, timeliness, or flexibility (whether the strategy is sufficiently flexible to adjust to changing circumstances) of the solution. ‰ Come up with ways to manage the externalities identified in Step 1.5 (for example, build cross- sector collaborations and co-ordinate disaster relief efforts or explore risk-transfer options). ‰ Consider abandoning or relocating the project in case of high-impact unmitigated risks. 1.7. Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resiliencexi A non-exhaustive list of innovative high-volume road project financing solutions includes: ‰ Public-private partnerships (PPPs): PPPs can finance resilience measures by leveraging private sector investment and expertise (for example, PPP framework for the development of a flood-proof highway corridor) in the following ways: • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) with the availability payment scheme where the public party agrees to pay a fixed amount at regular intervals to the private party for maintaining and operating the asset, as long as the asset fulfils specific Key Performance Indicators and pre-determined performance standards. In such schemes, extending the KPIs to include climate-related aspects and climate-proofing activities can enhance the resilience of the rural road. • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) with the shadow toll scheme where the public entity agrees to pay a fixed amount per user considering various criteria such as the vehicle type, the distance travel on an annual basis. ‰ Pricing incentives, taxes and fees, such as congestion charging, heavy vehicle taxes, fees for overweight vehicles can help financing adaptation works (by going towards a road maintenance fund for example) and reducing emissions. ‰ Climate funds for developing countries, such as the Green Climate Fund or the Adaptation Fund. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note27 Highways and high-capacity roads ‰ Green-bonds or sustainability-linked loans to finance nature-based solutions. ‰ Concessional grants to finance expensive adaptation works that otherwise would breach the project’s affordability (for example, major flood defenses to protect the highway). ‰ Carbon pricing mechanisms, by placing a price on greenhouse gas emissions and using the revenue to fund adaptation measures. ‰ Any type of risk-transfer mechanism (including traditional insurance, parametric coverage, and weather derivatives), and advisory support, offering financial protection against a wide range of shocks: droughts, floods, tropical cyclone, earthquake, tsunami, etc. ‰ Innovative financing schemes that may come in the form of an adaptation levy on the businesses that benefit from the climate-adaptation components of the project. ‰ Project bundling. Overcome the barrier of financing less commercially attractive with limited revenue potential by bundling them with projects having a more favorable risk-return profile. ‰ Government subsidies (for example, tax incentives) to a private party for climate-resilient road projects. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note28 Highways and high-capacity roads   Engineering and design 2.1. Downscale hazard ‰ Update hazard maps at the project level to capture the effect of local environmental parameters that potentially aggravate hazards to inform the engineering design. If available, use data from local meteorological stations and measurements of hazard intensity measures (for example, river flows, wind speed, landslide movements) to calibrate or to validate climate hazard models. Consider evidence from past disasters and extreme weather events. 2.2. Design sustainable adaptation solutions for the project ‰ Perform a detailed, engineering analysis of the project infrastructure and design alternative engineering measures/interventions based on standards & guidelines that incorporate disaster resiliency considerations, particularly through sustainable approaches, considering all the hazards. The proposed solutions must be sufficiently addressing the resilience targets set in Step 1.1. ‰ Select appropriate return periods during the design stage (that is, resilient design standards may not economically justify high return periods of 1/50-year hazard events or greater for high-volume roads, 1/50 year for large culverts and small bridges, and 1/100 year for large bridges). ‰ Increase the capacity of the private sector/industry, that is, consulting firms (for design) and contractors (for works), in addition to the public sector, for proper design, review, and implementation of adaptation measures. ‰ Consider the safety of all road users when it comes to adaptation measures. Inadequately designed infrastructure can increase the risk for users, leading to dangerous behavior on the road. Resilience measures may comprise a combination of hard-engineering solutions, soft engineering solutions, and nature-based solutions. The latter two categories often lead to reduced CAPEX and may be associated with co- benefits, which are considered in the CBA of Step 2.3. When there is significant uncertainty over future climate projections, consider proceeding with a flexible (adaptive) design strategy that allows for changing course during the project lifetime. Refer to Appendix A for guidance on adaptive planning strategies. 2.3. Check the economic soundness of adaptation alternatives at the asset level ‰ Perform Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) to identify the strategy (or combination of strategies) that maximizes the benefit-cost ratio, by comparing adaptation alternatives to the BAU (‘business as usual’) scenario. ‰ During the process, incorporate all disaster-related costs and benefits: • CAPEX stemming from the solution implementation, and incurring O&M costs • The cost of externalities and opportunities (for example, the cost of indirect damage caused by broken supply chains due to power outages) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note29 Highways and high-capacity roads • Direct adaptation benefits (for example, reduction of physical asset damage, decrease of toll revenue loss, loss of live avoidance) • Potential co-benefits stemming from the solution implementation, such as an overall reduction in the yearly number of road crashes, and better aesthetics and temperature reductions due to the application of vegetation cover on a flood-susceptible slope aiming to reduce landslide risk. In cases of high climate uncertainty, consider employing more advanced economic evaluation techniques as seen in the World Bank Climate Change Group’s climate and disaster risk stress test methodology, the Decision-Making under Deep Uncertainty (DMDU) approach, the Robust Decision Making (RDM) approach, Real option analysis, etc. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note30 Highways and high-capacity roads Indicative list of adaptation solutions for highways and high-capacity roads Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Flooding • Protection through elevation of road • Early warning for extreme• Planting vegetation section weather conditions (for example, trees, • Water/wave barriers (for example, • Monitoring options for marshes/mangroves) seawalls, dikes, caisson breakwaters; drainage, maintenance/ that are positioned artificial reefs; groynes) repair outside the clear zone of a road for increased • Streambed stabilization using rock • Communication and traffic road safety armoring, gabions, etc. control systems with back-up power supplies • Beach nourishment • Surface drainage (for example, larger culverts, side drains, sustainable urban in case the main traffic • Berms and dunes drainage solutions) control system fails. • Natural reef • Subsurface drainage capacity • Set up of automatic breakwaters reporting mechanisms (for example, oyster • Anti-scour protection for bridge on water levels in tunnel reefs) foundation and embankments installations (for example, rock riprap, subsoil • River/lake restoration protection) • Flood retention ponds   Hazard type | Erosion, Landslides • Erosion control (for example, silt • Comprehensive Erosion • Riverbanks/Slope fencing, ripraps, turf grass, slow- and Sediment Control Plan plantation using forming terraces) • Field monitoring of native plants with • Slope protection precarious slopes deep/strong rooting (rockfall-containing system, mesh, system • Remote monitoring of bolted/anchoring/shotcreted faces) precarious slopes using • Littoral strip reloading • Slope stabilization measures (for aerial mapping methods of cliffs using native example, retaining structures, pile (for example with UAV’s) materials walls, gabion walls) • Installation of crib • Slope drainage (for example, surface walls for slope drainage with gravel trenches, stabilization (that conventional weep holes or innovative is, wooden structure drain solutions for deeper penetration) logs forming a 3D cell backfilled with soil) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note31 Highways and high-capacity roads Indicative list of adaptation solutions for highways and high-capacity roads Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Avalanche • Avalanche protection dams • Comprehensive/Updated • Sun sheds in permafrost slopes avalanche hazards maps • Artificial avalanche triggering with controlled explosions • Remote monitoring using optical cameras and/or terrestrial LiDAR scanners   Hazard type | Extreme heat • Surface treatment of roads (for • Restore/maintain example, anti-skid surface, porous/ urban greenery along reflective coating, adjustment of high-capacity roads bituminous mixture, high albedo surfacing materials) • Road subgrade treatment (for example, remove moisture- sensitive soils)   Hazard type | Extreme wind/hurricanes • Wind-proofing of hanging signals, • Early warning (for extreme lights, and lightweight equipment winds and low visibility • Installation of wind breaks conditions) • Bridge rehabilitation • Installation of redundant signaling • Installation of impact protection structures Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note32 Highways and high-capacity roads Indicative list of adaptation solutions for highways and high-capacity roads Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Wildfires • Removal of brush and thin trees • Emergency-response plans • Spaying with fire retardant within the & evacuation routes highway • Fire-hazard monitoring in • Rights-of-Way to slow down fire areas of risk spread. • Fixed fire-fighting systems in tunnels   Hazard type | Earthquakes • Retrofitting/upgrade of aged bridges • Installation of a rapid to current seismic design standards damage assessment (for example, pier retrofit, restrainers, system to assist with seat extensions) road closure decisions and damage assessment prioritization Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note33 Highways and high-capacity roads   Operations and maintenance 3.1. Incorporate resilience objectives in O&M plans ‰ Ensure robust life-cycle asset performance under the (potentially changing) risk landscape. Monitor/inspect the assets’ condition over time (for example, culvert silting; pavement distress such as cracking, rutting, bleeding; bridge distress such as element corrosion, misalignment, crack, scour) to act once critical risk thresholds are met. ‰ Promote preventive maintenance activities to increase the useful lifespan of assets. Accommodate appropriate tools for the timely identification of preventive maintenance actions. ‰ Promote the use of new technology for cost-efficient, resilient Operations and maintenance. ‰ Consider developing a network of weighing stations along the strategic road network, and prioritizing vulnerable areas, to control overweight trucks that accelerate degradation of the road infrastructure. Establish an action plan for the identification/coordination of intervention activities for 3.2.  each type of asset & system ‰ Prioritize interventions and optimize the allocation of maintenance funds based on a multi- criteria analysis. Consider criteria such as: • Maintaining network connectivity • Budget limitations • Road safety • Maintaining minimum condition/service levels Examples of intervention actions (preventive, corrective, emergency) for the highway sector. Maintenance of corrosion coating; clearing of ditches and Periodic/ culverts; crack sealing; repair of sealants and expansion preventive joints of bridges; shoulder sealing; renewal pavement surface maintenance dressing overlay to slow down deterioration (for example, with chip seal, or seal coat) Filling potholes to retain safe driving conditions; replacing Corrective pavement portions to restore initial serviceability; removing maintenance/ rehabilitation and replacing cracked slabs; re-grading gravel shoulders to remove shoulder drop-off Emergency Removal of debris or obstacles from natural causes; maintenance emergency repair of damage caused by road crashes Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note34 Highways and high-capacity roads 3.3. Promote the use of an GIS-based asset management tool A GIS-based tool is able to integrate: • T  he spatiotemporal characteristics of network assets (location, condition data, performance data) • Financial data (for example, cost of repairs) • Hazard data • Risk-related data. In this context, a GIS-based tool can help: ‰ Identify cross-dependencies between assets & subsystems to enhance resource utilization in O&M activities, for example, by synchronizing maintenance actions across different asset categories. ‰ Attempt inter-operability with hazard monitoring platforms for seamless information integration. ‰ Ensure regular updating of the asset management tool, which is a dynamic instrument, and related data. Invest in lifecycle instrumentation & monitoring and explore innovative approaches for data 3.4.  collection & management Examples of such approaches include: ‰ Intelligent Transportation Systems that leverage advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things (IoT). For instance, transport authorities can optimize traffic signal timings to reduce congestion and emissions during the implementation of O&M activities by using real-time traffic data and predictive analytics. ‰ State-of-the-art sensing networks (for example, Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors) suitable for pavement condition monitoring, damage detection in bridge structures, or slope stability assessments. ‰ Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) combined with Digital Image Processing (DIP) applications. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note35 Highways and high-capacity roads Employ digital innovation to retrieve real-time hazard information and establish procedures 3.5.  to inform users ‰ Retrieve information from globally available hazard monitoring tools (for example, the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], or the Copernicus Emergency Management System [EMS]) directly to the network’s asset management platform, or consider the application of a Road Weather Information System (RWIS) providing input to the same platform. ‰ For efficient weather-related guidance to users consider the use of variable message signs (VMS). The World Bank and the European Space Agency (ESA) have an ongoing partnership developing advanced remote earth observation techniques for climate-resilient transport development analyses, providing valuable resources. Ensure maintenance contracts and procedures are effective even under a rapidly changing 3.6.  hazard environment ‰ Consider performance-based (output-based) contracts to explicitly link payment to system performance, providing a powerful incentive for the contractor that maintains or operates an asset. 3.7. Employ relevant O&M performance metrics to assess resilience These metrics can include the number of periodic condition assessments (number/year), the frequency of preventive maintenance actions (number/year), or asset condition scores above a minimum threshold. The score shall depend on asset type for example, for pavements the International Roughness Index (m/km) may be used for the ride quality. Relevant examples are provided in Appendix B. MONITORING EXAMPLES Sensors for resilient operations Temperature & humidity sensors can inform gritting decisions during cold weather. This can reduce both operational costs by limiting unnecessary road salting as well as pavement repair costs by lowering exposure to the material deteriorating impacts of a saline environment. Sensors for preventive maintenance Corrosion sensors on reinforced concrete elements can monitor the temporal characteristics of RC strength deterioration and allow for timely renewal of coating treatment. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note36 Highways and high-capacity roads   Contingency planning 4.1. Develop and implement emergency and resilience plans ‰ Develop plans to • Establish critical emergency routes for road clearance in case of large-scale disaster impacts • Maintain access to points of strategic importance for emergency response (for example, emergency shelters, hospitals) • Prioritize rapid recovery of priority routes The latter should include all strategic roads and access to key facilities and be selected on seasonal rather than average annual traffic volumes. Note that the priority routes considered here must be in accordance with the high-criticality network links determined in Step 1.5. ‰ Set up/inform an Incident Command System (ICS) center to ensure efficient implementation of a risk-informed emergency plan. ‰ Raise awareness and train the road network personnel in timely and efficiently implementing emergency response protocols. 4.2. Employ advances in ICT technology for better communications Improve communication methods with network users and stakeholders in the event of an emergency by considering the following options: ‰ Establish channels to receive real-time weather forecasts. ‰ Implement/broaden emergency warning systems encompassing all considerable hazards. ‰ Provide users with real-time information about road closures and detour options. ‰ Explore user needs for personalized emergency warnings and travel recommendations using mobile phone alerts for impacted users. 4.3. Ensure availability of resources ‰ Check the availability of trained staff on standby to accelerate restoration efforts, emergency vehicles for post-disaster inspections, stock of temporary bridges to restore connectivity, de-icing equipment, etc. ‰ Engage the relevant public and private authorities in disaster preparedness and emergency management efforts to ensure the timely provision of financial assistance in the aftermath of a disaster. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note37 Highways and high-capacity roads 4.4. Adopt innovative supply models ‰ Pave the legal and knowledge grounds for innovative procurement and supply models to quickly make response & recovery funds available. For further guidance refer to Appendix A. 4.5. Explore disaster risk/contingent financing instruments ‰ Explore adaptation contingent finance that can be delivered from various sources through different mechanisms and instruments. A non-exhaustive list of innovative contingent financing solutions includes: • Reserve or emergency fund accounts to cover the rising cost of climate-induced disruptions. • Contingent credit line provisions to secure financing and support recovery efforts after climate disasters. • Financial de-risking instruments (state guarantees or DFI’s de-risking) to incentivize private-sector participation in high-risk projects. • Immediate response instruments, such as the World Bank’s Contingent Emergency Response Components (CERCs) and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (CAT-DDOs). 4.6. Employ tech-enabled solutions ‰ Explore tech-enabled solutions for rapid damage assessment of critical highway assets/links, such as: • Low-cost UAVs-based imaging • Rapid remote sensing (via LiDAR or satellites) providing visually interpretable images • Crowdsourcing for condition assessment of assets Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note38 Highways and high-capacity roads   Institutional capacity and coordination 5.1. Establish the institutional framework to facilitate Private Sector Participation If structured correctly, PPPs can offer innovative solutions to bolster resilience and provide well-informed and well-balanced risk allocation between partners. Indicative PPP contract provisions that may increase the attractiveness of projects having strong adaptation component: ‰ Inclusion of climate provisions in tender documents (RFPs, RFQs) ‰ Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) specifying recovery targets ‰ Tariff incentives/tax exemptions for enhanced alignment with resilience targets ‰ Provisions for flexible tariff models and cost-sharing mechanisms to facilitate climate interventions during the O&M phase of the project ‰ Third-party monitoring of climate-adaptation works ‰ Establishment of clear dispute resolution mechanisms for climate risks 5.2. Develop adaptive capacity in the relevant authorities and transport service providers Examples of support actions include: ‰ Issue guidelines, leaflets and other education and information material on maintenance, good preparedness, contingency planning and procedures in emergency cases. ‰ Endorse climate adaptation strategies and increase public awareness through pilot demonstrations (for example, by testing the feasibility of a climate early warning system through small-scale application to a specific road segment prior to considering implementation to the entire network, or through WB-funded interdisciplinary projects that promote the development of local knowledge/good practices to combat climate change impacts). Promote, update, and ensure improved design standards that incorporate resilience against 5.3.  extreme weather events The development of updated quality codes and standards is crucial, considering the potential limitations that existing standards may contain. Examples of support actions include to promote updated design standards for road drainage systems or bridge foundations against current and future flood risks, or the modification of design requirements for supports and anchorages against winds. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note39 Highways and high-capacity roads 5.4. Prepare protocols for timely and broad communication with the users ‰ Have communication plans in place, applicable to the different hazards, incorporating the need to address externalities. Prepare concise messages to direct users on how to react to an emergency alarm. ‰ Identify a broad range of communication channels (radio, text messages, mobile apps, social networks, etc.) and exploit a variety of them to target diverse audiences. ‰ Train staff responsible to communicate with the public in case of emergency. Consult and co-ordinate with other highway authorities, subcontractors, suppliers, and key 5.5.  stakeholders ‰ Establish mutual aid arrangements between authorities. ‰ Establish standard operating procedures that outline the roles and responsibilities of each agency and stakeholder involved in maintaining and supplying resources for rapid response actions and for post-disaster recovery. ‰ Develop and maintain a communication network encompassing all relevant entities that can contribute to the climate-resilience-enabling environment by providing climate data, insights on Best practices, or expertise (for example, research institutes, meteorological organizations, metropolitan authorities, ministries etc.). Encourage investments in digital infrastructure and promote interoperability between 5.6.  trans-region/trans-agency data collection platforms ‰ Standardize weather information and hazard warnings across the region, by establishing a common hazard classification protocol, recognizable across the different sectors, stakeholders, and trans-region transport services. ‰ Foster the operational, physical, technical, procedural and institutional integration of weather and traffic control services. ‰ Secure green funding for investments in digital infrastructure that underpin resilience objectives and help the highway adapt to the climate-change effects (for example, building smart monitoring or early warning systems). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note40 Highways and high-capacity roads Harmonize post-disaster investigation procedures across units participating in emergency 5.7.  operations to facilitate recovery actions ‰ Establish standardized post-disaster assessment protocols and forms for damage reporting (for example, in the case of bridges, check and score the condition of specific asset components, such as the bearings, deck, pier, abutments, and expansion joints). ‰ Promote a streamlined chain of command between post-disaster assessment responders and the headquarters of a transportation agency, including standard work packages for the responders, inspection route maps, and information on the chain of command. An indicative set of targets for resilient highways and high-capacity road networks • In events that are likely to appear with relatively high frequency (for example, recurrence period lower than 20 years) ensure safe mobility (that is, minimal increase of travel times within the network and no road closures). • In more severe events (for example, recurrence period form 20–100 years), ensure connectivity (that is, that there is no isolation of any point in the network) and minimal economic (reductions of toll revenues) and societal impacts (lack of access to work, school, healthcare etc.). • In climate disasters (for example, rare events with recurrence period > 100 years), ensure user safety (no loss of life) and capacity to recover connectivity and restore mobility within specified timeframes. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note41 Highways and high-capacity roads Case studies International best practice Vermont department of transport in response of 2011 tropical storm Irene In 2011, tropical storm Irene struck Vermont, leading to widespread flooding, and causing significant damage to buildings, roads, and bridges/culverts. In response to this event, the Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTrans) established the Irene Innovation Task Force to scrutinize the disaster response. Alongside general propositions to spur innovation, the task force put forward recommendations aimed at enhancing planning, integration, communication, information technology, and operations. A substantial focus of these recommendations was on preventive measures designed to bolster transportation resilience in the face of similar future events. Among others, these included the promotion of streambed stabilization, the revision of bridge design criteria to incorporate flood resilience, and a reconsideration of riverbank design methodology. Best practices System planning & financing • The VTrans Strategic Plan has been updated to include strategic investment plans related to resiliency and preparedness for future events. [Step 1.1] • VTrans later developed the Vermont Transportation Resilience Planning Tool (TRPT) [Steps 1.2 to 1.4] Engineering & design • VTrans is supporting streambed stabilization as part of its design procedures, by increasing use of rip rap and other river stabilization design options. [Step 2.3] Contingency planning • An Incident Command System (ICS) center was set up to manage emergency. [Step 4.1] • VTrans now holds mandatory ICS training to prepare for future events. [Step 4.1] • VTrans partnered with Google to create a map showing closures and detours. [Step 4.2] • Pre-organi WBG operations in focus zed emergency protocols had been put in place to ensure timely drawdown of Federal relief funds. [Step 4.3] • An Accelerated Bridge Program is now well-established and adopted by VTrans and the industry, making Vermont even better prepared for rapid bridge replacements. [Step 4.3] Institutional capacity & coordination • VTrans, in partnership with the River Program in the VT Agency of Natural Resources, has developed a three-tiered Rivers and Roads Training Program. [Step 5.2] • The VTrans Hydraulic Manual was updated to be brought up to date with the current VTrans bridge manual and include considerations on bridge capacities to withstand flooding. [Step 5.3] • VTrans worked with FEMA to update standards for drainage components (for example, widening of culverts to sustain increased debris flows). [Step 5.3] • VTrans brainstormed with Vermont government about changes that needed to be made to state policies and are now updating the state hazard mitigation plan following these discussions. [Step 5.5] More information at: https://vtrans.vermont.gov/climate/resilience-planning Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note42 Highways and high-capacity roads Case studies World Bank Group operation Improving resilience of federal road network in Brazil Brazil’s roads are increasingly vulnerable to natural disasters, especially floods and landslides. The aim of this technical study was to enhance the disaster resilience of federal highway infrastructure in Brazil. This was achieved by reviewing the Disaster Risk Management (DRM) capabilities pertaining to federal road infrastructure and by examining case studies that applied innovative methodologies for disaster risk assessment. Furthermore, the study evaluated the economic benefits of implementing resilience countermeasures in relation to landslides. Best practices System planning & financing The study mapped rainfall-induced landslide risk areas, calculating the likelihood of landslide event occurrence by relating it to precipitation threshold values, specific for basins that share similar characteristics (climatological and geological-geomorphological). For this purpose, they employed databases of historical landslide and rainfall data (including data on spatial location, date, and time of each recorded event). [Step 1.2] Engineering & design • Design of landslide mitigation solutions, including anchor curtains (retaining structures with tie rods) and deep horizontal drains along the body of precarious slopes. [Step 2.2] • Economic evaluation of risk mitigation measures, using a Decision Making under Deep Uncertainty (DMDU) approach. [Step 2.3] Operations & maintenance • Use of an integrated GIS platform to collect, store and manipulate all types of geographic data. In addition to editing and working on the collected data, the platform also allows users to overlay multiple information layers and create thematic maps to graphically depict information collected by aerial vehicles. [Step 3.3] • Use of innovative technologies such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (Drones) for monitoring of areas at risk for mass movements. [Step 3.4] Contingency planning • Use of UAVs in disaster prevention, monitoring, and management. [Step 4.6] More information at: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/ documentdetail/585621562945895470/improving-climate-resilience-of-federal-road-network-in- brazil Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note43 B. Rural roads Rural roads play a crucial role in the livelihoods of rural communities, serving as their main connection to markets and essential services such as food, education, and healthcare. Therefore, the impact of natural disasters and climate change on rural road networks extends far beyond physical infrastructure damage. In this context, the deteriorating state of rural road networks (especially in EMDEs), combined with the adverse effects of increasingly extreme weather events, can lead to impeded accessibility and potential isolation of communities, food scarcity, increasing inequality, and disproportionate impacts on less privileged populations, especially in areas where the affected road segments provide access to human vulnerability hotspots. Additionally, the reduced functionality of rural networks may cause disruptions in regional supply chains and loss of producer-market links, creating barriers to the socio-economic growth of rural communities. At the same time, rural road development projects are often associated with various challenges, including the scarcity of funds, lack of technical expertise at local government bodies, and weak institutional frameworks to support implementation. Investments are often made based on ad-hoc decisions and subjective judgments of local government officials, leading to inefficient distribution of resources that fail to capture the local community needs and interests. This note provides tailored guidance aiming to address these challenges and achieve disaster resilience under a societal lens across the five pillars of a rural road project’s life cycle. Highlights System planning and financing • Adopt a regional/network approach for resilience planning, evaluating the impact of access to critical facilities (health, education, emergencies services) and analyses the lack of redundancy to avoid isolation. • Take a data-driven approach to system planning, with recent advancements in disaster economics and network science enable quantification of the cost and benefits of resilient interventions in rural roads. Engineering and design • Explore innovations in material use (such as biomaterials or nature-based solutions) for the design of low-cost adaptation alternatives. • Prioritize Labor-Based Methods (LBMs) over conventional machine-based methods, which often require costly equipment. Operations and maintenance • Use open-source asset management systems as an innovative, affordable, and efficient method for operating rural and low-volume roads. • Leverage ICT technologies together with engaged citizens to serve as an innovative approach to monitor rural road conditions and report repairs. Contingency planning • Ensure the availability of spare goods, temporary bridges, and emergency vehicles for prompt restoration of connectivity. • Establish financial mechanisms for rapidly disbursing recovery funds to remote and isolated communities. This will enable local entities to rapidly restore connectivity. Institutional capacity and coordination • Effectively manage rural road resilience, which requires strong coordination with local authorities, communities, and emergency response teams. This ensures proper planning, sustainability of interventions, and swift implementation of recovery activities. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note45 Rural roads   System planning and financing 1.0. Build awareness among key stakeholders and review existing policies ‰ Conduct specialized stakeholder workshops: Organize targeted workshops for public authorities, universities, and private sector stakeholders to highlight specific vulnerabilities in rural road transport systems and the urgency of adopting climate-resilient measures. Tailor content to the expertise and roles of each group. ‰ Integrate resilience into policy agendas: Review existing policies and advocate for the inclusion of climate-resilient transport as a priority in development and infrastructure policies, linking it to economic growth, disaster preparedness, and community well-being. ‰ Showcase local and global success stories: Promote and share relevant case studies and pilot projects from around the world with high-level decision makers to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of climate-resilient transport systems. Use these examples to inspire action and provide a practical roadmap for implementation. 1.1. Set measurable strategic-level targets linked to system-level performance indicators ‰ Engage local stakeholders (for example, via the organization of stakeholder workshops) such as the community, or the local government, to identify the strategic rural network under consideration according to criteria such as the rural population’s access to labor markets, health, educational and water facilities. ‰ Identify the region’s advancement enablers, which includes economic priority sectors (for example, agriculture, tourism), and segments of the society most affected by the road project under development (for example, women, children, and the youth). ‰ Determine the resilience priorities of the rural road network, considering the following parameters: • Human/community vulnerability factors • Connectivity of remote communities • Affordable and equitable accessibility to essential services • Producer-market links • Food security • Social safeguarding (for example, ensuring that the project does not entail land acquisition or adverse impacts to rural communities). ‰ Link targets with ‘minimum performance thresholds’ to determine the resilience indicators of the rural network. Appendix A summarizes sector-and hazard-specific resilience indicators to consider in this step ‰ Ensure high-level endorsement and political buy-in of the prioritization process and results for stability of the planning and implementation processes, as well as maximized outcomes. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note46 Rural roads 1.2. Identify and characterize natural hazards possibly affecting the rural network ‰ In the case of climate-related hazards, the analysis is done for both the current situation and the projected future scenarios based on appropriate climate change projection models. ‰ Distinguish between mid-term (2050) and long-term futures (2100). Apply mid-term projections for the analysis of road elements (for example, pavement, drains, etc.) and long-term projections for longer-live assets such as bridges and major flood/coastal defenses. ‰ Always combine climate projections with projections on population distribution. ‰ For further details and an indicative list of hazards affecting the rural roads sector, refer to Appendix A and B, respectively. 1.3. Assess network vulnerability and perform a district level prioritization ‰ Map hazard exposure: Overlay hazard and network maps to identify the extent of the network that may be impacted by each one of the identified hazards. ‰ Calculate the criticality of road segments as an indicator of the overall significance of a road link for the network functionality and the dependent socio-economic environment (for example, segments providing access to critical services, serving vulnerable population). To assist the process, map to the level of refinement possible: • The local population distribution and density (no. of people per km2) • The percentage of population within 2 km of an access road, that is, the Rural Access Index developed by the World Bank • The location of agricultural growth poles or other economy hubs in the planning area and the location of healthcare and educational facilities, that is, the remoteness indicator • The serviceability level of a road (that is, whether the road is purely an access road or whether it is also used for mobility) • Geolocated road crashes ‰ Estimate the vulnerability of rural network components, which is a metric of the propensity to be adversely affected by an event, considering the dependence of rural communities on these rural access roads. Repeat the calculation for future climate conditions and growing population scenarios. The output of this step will assist prioritization decisions by highlighting critical districts calling for immediate adaptation action. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note47 Rural roads 1.4. Perform a project-level climate vulnerability assessment This step focuses on high priority districts (identified in Step 1.4), with the aim to assess the sensitivity of particular road segments to specific hazards, gauge adaptation needs and inform climate-sensitive engineering designs. ‰ Rate the sensitivity of road assets to climate or disaster-induced stressing. If a refined (asset-specific) vulnerability assessment is not feasible at this stage due to the lack of appropriate data, employ qualitative vulnerability indicators such as: • The asset age • The construction material (for example, paved or unpaved road surfaces) • The road inclination (roads in flat areas are vulnerable to ordinary flooding, while roads in mountainous areas are more vulnerable to rapidly flowing water in drains and cross streams) • The lack of adaptation measures along the network against the identified Hazard types (for example, lack of drainage systems) • The lack of road maintenance • Historical failures and disruptions caused by natural hazards (the engagement of local experts and local community stakeholders is recommended to identify existing infrastructure issues) ‰ Estimate the expected damage on (critical) assets for characteristic levels of stressing (for example, high, moderate, low), for example, extensive erosion of road segments in the case of heavy rainfall with high flow velocities. 1.5. Assess the potential impacts and losses on the network ‰ Based on the knowledge of hazard exposure, asset vulnerability, and criticality of each rural road segment, assess potential impacts for each Hazard type (and level of stressing) in terms of: • Direct Losses due to infrastructure damage considering estimated distribution of damages along the network and the cost of repair/replacement for each type of asset. • Loss of connectivity, leading to impeded accessibility of communities to markets and essential services. • Cascading socio-economic losses, related to the disruption of supply chains that may slow down economic growth. • Cascading social effects related to potential isolation of communities, food scarcity, increasing inequality and disproportionate impacts to less privileged populations, especially where the affected segments serve human vulnerability hotspots. • User safety such as the failure of rural road infrastructure in particular structures (for example, bridges), that may result in significant loss of life. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note48 Rural roads 1.6. Develop high-level adaptation plans ‰ Identify high-level strategies for adaptation to climate hazards and risk reduction, such as road realignment to avoid a floodplain or the disruption of natural water flows. ‰ Appraise the alternatives using a Multi-Criteria Analysis (or similar). Employ a set of suitable assessment criteria, for example, correlated with the cost efficiency, the flexibility (whether the strategy is sufficiently flexible to adjust to changing circumstances), or the social impact of the solution. In case of high-impact unmitigated risks consider abandoning or relocating the project. ‰ Promote local resource-based approaches and use of local capacities, such as the use of local labor and materials, but also local-level planning, local contractors, and community groups for the implementation of infrastructure works during both construction and maintenance phases to enhance the local economy and engage the citizens of the surrounding settlements. 1.7. Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resilience1 A non-exhaustive list of innovative rural road project financing solutions or available instruments to fill the revenue gap includes: ‰ Climate funds for developing countries, such as the Green Climate Fund or the Adaptation Fund. ‰ Innovative financing schemes that may come in the form of an adaptation levy on local businesses, in particular agrologistics enterprises or large cooperatives in rural areas, that benefit from the climate-adaptation components of the project. ‰ Donor grants supporting rural development, sustainability, and food security. The grant may cover capital expenditures but also institutional reformations of beneficiary countries. ‰ Cost-sharing arrangements between local governments and communities for financing road maintenance (for example, similar arrangements have been successfully applied in Madagascar and South Africa). Such initiatives encourage communities to assume the maintenance responsibility of rural roads and make them accountable if they don’t meet the contract obligations. ‰ ‘Self-help’ mechanisms where instead of raising cash, communities pay in-kind with labor or locally available materials (for example, Umuganda system in Rwanda). ‰ Project bundling. Overcome the barrier of financing less commercially attractive with limited revenue potential by bundling them with projects having a more favorable risk-return profile. ‰ Government subsidies (for example, tax incentives) to a private party for climate-resilient rural road projects. WBG’s Climate Toolkits for Infrastructure PPPs (2022) guidance document offers more resources and guidance on innovative 1 financial instruments linked to climate change. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note49 Rural roads   Engineering and design 2.1. Downscale hazard ‰ Update hazard maps (climatological, geomorphological, etc.) at the project level to capture the effect of local environmental parameters that potentially aggravate hazards to inform the engineering design. If available, use data from local meteorological stations and measurements of hazard intensity measures (for example, river flows, wind speed, landslide movements) to calibrate or to validate climate hazard models. Consider evidence from past disasters and extreme weather events. 2.2. Design ‘fit-for-purpose’ adaptation measures for the project ‰ Identify potential adaptation options such as raising the levels of roads and paths, paving roads to protect them from heavy rain, making them all-weather roads for vehicles, bicycles, and motorcycles. Interventions shall be relevant to the serviceability level of the road (for example, maintaining critical links operational during a disastrous event) and respectful of budgetary constraints (for example, not wastefully above the demanded standards). It is recommended to combine different adaptation options, promoting soft engineering and green, low-cost solutions. ‰ Provide adequate road safety measures while providing adaptation solutions for low-volume traffic roads. While new paved roads improve resilience and access, they can also lead to severe road safety issues, especially without proper road safety measures. The main risk is higher speeds; every 1 km/hour increase on rural roads raises the fatal crash risk by about 4.5 percent (Elvik 2009). ‰ Explore new low-cost technologies and materials for intervention measures. Search for practices that have proven their merit through research and actual implementation works. For example, low-cost road surfacing with lime/bitumen, use of gabions for slope stabilization, construction of masonry culverts/bridges. ‰ Exhaust options for Labor-Based Methods (LBMs) instead of conventional machine-based methods that require expensive equipment (Refer to Step 3.4 for examples). ‰ Select appropriate return periods during the design stage (that is, resilient design standards may not economically justify high return periods of 1/25-year hazard events or greater for low-volume roads, 1/50 year for large culverts and small bridges, and 1/100 year for large bridges). ‰ Increase the capacity of the private sector/industry, that is, consulting firms (for design) and contractors (for works), in addition to the public sector, for proper design, review, and implementation of adaptation measures. ‰ Consider adaptation measures that take into account the safety of all road users. Infrastructure if not adequately designed can increase the risk for users, including non-motorized user, forcing dangerous behavior on the road. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note50 Rural roads 2.3. Select the optimum adaptation strategy (or combination of strategies) ‰ Use a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) to calculate the cost-benefit ratio of adaptation alternatives. Incorporate the capital expenditures stemming from the solution implementation, the O&M costs, the direct adaptation benefits (for example, reduction of physical asset damage, loss of income avoidance for local communities), and potential co-benefits. To assist calculations, consider the use of the Roads Economic Decision Model (RED) developed by the WB to improve the decision-making process for the development and maintenance of low-volume rural roads. ‰ Seek the support of specialized experts and local stakeholder groups (including citizens from the affected settlements, local authorities, engineers and local business owners) to retrieve a detailed understanding of the local context and validate the effectiveness of each adaptation measure with respect to their loss reduction potential. Employ a streamlined stakeholder engagement approach to avoid coordination failures. Indicative list of adaptation solutions for rural roads Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Flooding/extreme rainfall • Adequate crossfall • Low-cost monitoring options • Roadside planting (trees, • Surface drainage (for example, (for example, frequent marshes/mangroves) to adequate section/spacing inspections) for drainage decrease hydrodynamic forces, of miter and side drains, systems that are positioned outside installation of scour checks, the clear zone of a road for larger culverts) increased road safety • Adequate design of subsurface • Beach nourishment drainage (use of plastic/fiber • Berms and dunes reinforced pipes or rubble drains) • Natural reef breakwaters • Water barriers (for example, (for example, oyster reefs) boulders, wire mesh gabions, • River/lake restoration textile mesh gabions, dikes, or concrete seawalls, if funds allow) • Rainwater harvesting for road embankment protection • Avoid disruption of natural • Adequate design for vented water flows and give space to drifts, fords, causeways to allow water streams and rivers controlled flooding of low-level roads • Adequate design of Irish bridges to withstand overtopping. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note51 Rural roads Indicative list of adaptation solutions for rural roads Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Erosion, Landslides • Erosion control measures for • Comprehensive erosion and • Riverbanks/Slope plantation hillsides (for example, liners) Sediment Control Plan using native plants with deep/ • Slope stabilization measures (for • Development of protocols strong rooting system example, gabion walls, rip raps) to decrease road traffic on • Grass sodding, preferably • Catchwater drains to prevent high-risk segments during with deep thick root grass like excess water runoff and land wet periods vetiver) slips in hillside roads • Littoral strip reloading of cliffs • Paving of earth roads (for using native materials example, application of concrete • Installation of crib walls for lining or grouted stone-pitching) slope stabilization • Install cascades and chutes at • Progressive terrace of high the outlet of culverts for erosion slopes control • Check dams on side ditches for erosion/sediment control   Hazard type | Extreme heat • Surface treatment of paved • Planting trees alongside the roads (for example, anti- rural roads can provide shade skid surface, adjustment of and reduce the temperature in bituminous mixture) the surrounding area • Greater use of concrete • Ground cover with mulch pavements due to their higher alongside unpaved roads to temperature resistance (for increase water retention example, Ultra-Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavements) • Segment block paving reduces the risk of buckling Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note52 Rural roads Indicative list of adaptation solutions for rural roads Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Extreme wind/dust storms • Improve earth roads to gravel • Decrease road traffic • Selective trimming and or paved standards to reduce during acute events to pruning of trees in a way that deterioration due to fines loss avoid road crashes maintains ecological function • Emulsion treated bases (bitumen • Dust control by while reducing the risk of or lime additives) applying water falling branches or uprooting • Measures against sand accumulation (for example, sand traps)   Hazard type | Wildfires • Removal of brush and thin trees • Emergency-response plans & • Selective trimming and • Spaying with fire retardant evacuation routes pruning of trees in a way that within high-risk zones maintains their ecological function while reducing the risk of fires Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note53 Rural roads   Operations and maintenance 3.1. Set strategic level resilience goals, objectives and performance metrics in O&M plans ‰ Specify a level of service for different road classes incorporating safety, serviceability, accessibility, sustainability criteria and taking into account the potential impact of climate disruptions on the economic well-being of local populations (for example, seasonal road closures due to flooding for a couple of days may be more tolerable for a farm access road that a provisional road that connects several farming/fishing communities with labor and market centers). ‰ Communicate the level of service adopted for each class of road with road users and communities. ‰ Associate each level of service with a set of performance indicators and outline the required measures/actions to meet the desired performance. Performance indicators includes strategic (for example, adoption of asset management system), tactical (for example, targeted condition of road pavement) and operational outputs (for example, cleaning frequency of drains). Establish a framework for inspecting asset condition/performance and identifying 3.2.  intervention activities ‰ Integrate climate adaptation into O&M procedures and develop a risk-based approach for prioritizing interventions. Prioritization shall consider: • Potential loss of life • Cost and consequences of closure • Accessibility/mobility requirements • Availability of alternative routes • Availability of funds ‰ Explore options that are low-cost and appropriate for low-volume roads such as pothole filling, vegetation management, recycling and reusing existing gravel on the road surface, community engagement in reporting road damages and providing feedback on the O&M activities. Consider the possibility of labor-based methods where technically and economically feasible to maximize employment and transfer skills to the target worker groups without compromising the quality of the O&M plan. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note54 Rural roads Examples of intervention actions (preventive, corrective, emergency) for rural roads. Regular road inspection and reporting of existing issues, vegetation Periodic/ management, clearing of ditches and culverts, implementation and preventive maintenance of low-cost road safety measures such as reflective maintenance road markings or signage, periodic inspection and maintenance of the identified alternative detours for the critical links of the main road. Pavement repairs, pothole filling, repair of eroded road segments, grading and gravel replacement, repairs to re-establish the structural Corrective integrity of damaged bridges, culverts or other infrastructural maintenance/ road assets, replacement of outdated or inadequate road drainage rehabilitation structures, installation of guardrails or rockfall protection nets to protect road users. Removal of debris, boulders or other obstacles from natural causes, Emergency temporary repairs to ensure continued access, deployment of maintenance temporary traffic control measures (for example, speed limits) to ensure safe passage through a damaged road segment. 3.3. Promote the use of Road Asset Management Systems (RAMS) ‰ Develop a RAMS system that shall work in a GIS environment integrating network data (location, condition, performance), financial data (for example, cost of repairs), hazard data, and risk-related data. ‰ Ensure regular updating of the asset management tool, which is a dynamic instrument, and related data. 3.4. Invest in innovative and low-cost technologies for data collection ‰ Use open-source free software such as ODKxii and free mobile applications for data collection and condition assessment of roads (such as the RoadLabPro, developed by the World Bank). ‰ Expand the spectrum of collected data. For any reference monitoring period, catalogue climate extremes and describe their consequences on the road network and the broader ecosystem (that is, locations of failures or signs of physical degradation on the road assets, witnessed disruptions). ‰ Embed road and climate data into a RAM system. Use output/performance data to calibrate/ validate climate risk assessments and inform future prevention/maintenance actions. Use measurable indicators to describe threats and consequences in a transparent and objective manner (for example, measured downpour and days of road closures). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note55 Rural roads 3.5. Implementation and feedback ‰ Evaluate the applied strategies against assigned targets (Step 3.1) and relevant O&M performance indicators as systematic and objectively as possible. For example: number of kilometers inspected, timeliness of submission of technical reports, cost of maintenance activities, maintenance funding obtained compared to the asset value. (refer to Appendix B for other relevant O&M indicators) ‰ Engage with local communities and consider their feedback in the evaluation of strategies. Consider metrics such as the number of participants in community meetings, number of complaints, etc., revise and reassess accordingly. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note56 Rural roads   Contingency planning 4.1. Develop and implement emergency and resilience plans ‰ Establish critical emergency routes that provide continuity of services to points of strategic importance in case of large-scale disasters (for example, emergency shelters, hospitals). ‰ Restore connectivity and level of service of rural roads rapidly to avoid circumstances of prolonged isolation of vulnerable communities. ‰ Prepare emergency response teams and specify responsibilities. Establish collaborations within the structures of vulnerable communities to ensure coordination on protection (for example, construction of temporary bridges to facilitate access of emergency supplies). ‰ Communicate/validate emergency plans with police and national emergency services. ‰ Explore low-cost alternatives for early warning systems of local coverage and run pilot projects for demonstration (for example, use of inexpensive sensors and mobile apps, off-the-grid solar energy-powered platforms for data acquisition, data transmission, and data analysis). 4.2. Ensure availability of resources ‰ Ensure availability of resources such as emergency vehicles to evaluate damage, stock of temporary bridges to restore connectivity, emergency signages and reflective materials to highlight the affected road zones and trained staff on standby to quickly restore mobility. 4.3. Financial mechanisms that quickly operate in a disaster ‰ Establish financial mechanisms to quickly make response and recovery funds available in the aftermath of a disaster. Deploying financial resources for remote and isolated communities in the aftermath of a disaster is challenging if there is no financial mechanism or framework in place. Ex-ante disaster risk financing tools, established by government in advance, can assist the quick disbursement of funds post-disaster mechanism so that local entities can rapidly restore connectivity. Indicative examples include: • Contingency funds for disaster recovery: The fund may set aside a small fraction from the regular budget intended for maintenance, which will be utilized for disaster risk reduction purposes if no disaster occurs. In doing so, it would mitigate the risk of insufficient disaster recovery funds, especially when all previously allocated funds for maintenance and improvement have been depleted prior to the disruptive event. • Donor assistance (for example, from the World Bank or other DFIs): Governments could set up international appeals and donor conferences, which could be a good potential source of funding. Utilizing the recovery plans and their connections with SDGs will help make a strong case for funding requests. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note57 Rural roads 4.4. Explore disaster risk/contingent financing instruments ‰ Explore adaptation contingent finance that can be delivered from various sources through different mechanisms and instruments. A non-exhaustive list of innovative contingent financing solutions includes: • Reserve or emergency fund accounts to cover the rising cost of climate-induced disruptions. • Contingent credit line provisions to secure financing and support recovery efforts after climate disasters. • Financial de-risking instruments (state guarantees or DFI’s de-risking) to incentivize private-sector participation in high-risk projects • Immediate response instruments, such as the World Bank’s Contingent Emergency Response Components (CERCs) and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (CAT-DDOs). Restoring the connectivity and serviceability of rural roads may be a matter of life and death, as low network redundancy might lead to the isolation of communities. Provision of spare goods, temporary bridges, and emergency vehicles are critical to ensure restoration of connectivity in a timely manner. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note58 Rural roads   Institutional capacity and coordination 5.1. Stakeholder awareness and participation Create awareness in the local community and stakeholders about the benefits of resilient infrastructure and encourage government-community cooperation. This can include: ‰ Communicate in a simple and transparent way the various project activities and their potential to minimize disruption to ensure broad social acceptance of the project. Highlight the particular importance of maintenance activities to sustain the climate-proof nature of the road during its lifetime. ‰ Ensure continuous engagement with a wide range of stakeholders (from national ministries cascading all the way through to village groups) to promote inclusive, effective and efficient communication, collaboration and involvement during the project. Organize frequent public meetings and opinion surveys to establish the local views. ‰ Establish programs that account for regional inequalities to avoid excluding or discriminating against marginalized groups. Encourage the most vulnerable people to participate in decision-making. ‰ Embed local knowledge in adaptation measures to make them more inclusive and ease uptake, while boosting communities’ sense of ownership (for example, the indigenous knowledge can inform a community-based monitoring and early warning system). ‰ Train stakeholders who intend to participate in labor-based maintenance/adaptation works and do not possess the relevant knowledge and skills to carry out these works. ‰ Arrange field visits for key national and regional stakeholders to showcase technology and its potential as an adaptation measure for the road infrastructure sector. 5.2. Support authorities and transport service providers to build adaptive capacity ‰ Strengthen the knowledge base for planning and decision-making (for example, set up an easy-to-use online database for climate-related information). ‰ Develop practical experience of climate change adaptation through pilot projects. ‰ Establish the legal and institutional framework for the transport sector to incorporate climate change. Create a clear structure of roles and responsibilities associated with climate adaptation among the various authorities. Establish coordination groups to support and implement disaster recovery plans. ‰ Train staff in emergency response, vulnerability analysis, climate data and information management and analysis, identification and prioritization of climate change adaptation measures, methods, and standards for climate proofing of infrastructure, and hands-on learning from pilot demonstration projects and drills. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note59 Rural roads Review existing rural transportation engineering standards and guidelines and suggest 5.3.  risk-based updates The development of updated quality codes and standards is crucial, considering the potential limitations that existing standards may contain. Examples of support actions include to introduce design guidelines on low-cost interventions against severe weather phenomena for rural and low-volume roads (for example, low-cost road surfacing and slope stabilization). Establish cross-sectoral coordination and collaboration to increase efficiency of resilience 5.4.  planning and response activities ‰ Develop and maintain a communication network including public entities that act at the national, subnational or sectorial level, such as ministries, city departments or specialized-to- climate-change units. Learn about their on-going climate-related activities and plans and how the project could benefit from these (for example, through shared capacity building activities, sharing relevant information, or taking into consideration the lessons learned, Best practices and insights gained from their experience). ‰ Identify and coordinate with other relevant stakeholders or partners including, but not limited to, universities, research institutes, meteorological organizations or other public or independent entities that may provide data on local climate hazards and risks and expertise to support the disaster recovery planning process. Harmonize procedures across units participating in post-disaster emergency operations to 5.5.  facilitate recovery actions ‰ Establish simple, yet standardized, post-disaster assessment forms for damage reporting. ‰ Train local responders. ‰ Establish procedures that outline the roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder involved in maintaining and supplying resources for rapid response actions and for post-disaster recovery. In order to effectively manage rural road resilience, it is important to develop strong coordination with local authorities, the local community, and local emergency response teams to ensure proper planning, sustainability of interventions, and quick implementation of recovery activities. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note60 Rural roads Case studies International best practice The Cambodia rural roads improvement project Rural roads constitute a significant part of Cambodia’s transport network, granting community access to essential social and economic services. Therefore, they are vital for the survival of many Cambodian communities. However, these roads are vulnerable to climate change, and more specifically, to changes in precipitation and temperature. The Cambodia Rural Roads Improvement Project, supported by the Nordic Development Fund and the Asian Development Bank (ADB), evaluates climate-related risks and their impact on physical infrastructure and provides a set of suitable adaptation options for Cambodia’s rural roads. Best practices System planning & financing • Identification of potential hazards and their associated impacts to the infrastructure. [Step 1.2/1.5] • Vulnerability mapping and identification of critically vulnerable areas. [Step 1.3/1.4] Engineering & design • Development of a list of adaptation options for roads and drainage assets for various Hazard types [Step 2.3]: • Road level raising • Slide slope adjustments • Drainage improvements (using permeable roads, ditches, and drains) • Grass sodding • Hydraulic works (groynes, ponds, dams) • Erosion control methods (retaining walls, gabions, riprap) • Economic cost-benefit analysis of specified adaptation scenarios [Step 2.4] considering: • Direct costs (cost related to material, labor, preparation, construction, planning, and design). • Direct benefits [travel time saving, vehicle operating costs (VOC) saving, maintenance cost saving, increase in residual values, reduced potential flood costs, reduced negative social and environmental impact]. • Co-benefits (increased tourism, reduced impact of floods on agricultural activities, reduced health cost from road dust). Operations & maintenance • Identification of main regular maintenance activities [Step 3.2]: • Dust control • Inspection of road distress • Clearing and cleaning of culverts and drains • Repair of erosion protection and scour check More information at: https://www.adb.org/projects/42334-013/main Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note61 Rural roads Case studies World Bank Group operation Haiti rural accessibility & resilience project (P163490) Haiti’s road network, particularly in rural areas, is highly susceptible to natural hazards such as flooding, earthquakes, and coastal erosion. The deteriorating condition of the country’s tertiary and rural road networks presents significant logistical and financial challenges, obstructing rural households’ access to agricultural markets and their ability to engage in more profitable agricultural value chains. Limited accessibility to basic services (healthcare, education, administrative centers) and economic opportunities poses a considerable hurdle to rural development and exacerbates vulnerabilities associated with disasters. This project aims to address these concerns by improving all-weather road access in designated subregions and enhancing the resilience of selected segments within the road network. Best practices System planning & financing • Vulnerability study of the national primary and secondary road network, and the identification of critical points (which would be used to identify and prioritize works to be financed under the component). [Step 1.3] • Appraisal of disaster mitigation strategies with the aid of Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA). [Step 1.6] • Preparation and financing of local mobility plans to prioritize interventions for local access (to schools and health centers, for instance) and define the complementary facilities required to enhance the benefits of improved connectivity. [Step 1.6] Engineering & design • Protection and rehabilitation of bridges situated on the selected road segments. [Step 2.3] • Reinforcement of coastal protection, hydraulic protection for bridges and slope stabilization works. [Step 2.3] • Rehabilitation works on the tertiary and rural road network (400 km), including: • Re-graveling or paving of earth road surfaces to increase durability. • Construction of drainage structures (that is, culverts, small bridges). • Construction of retaining walls and erosion control structures. [Step 2.3] Institutional capacity & coordination • Strategic and technical capacity assessment. [Step 5.1] • Organization of training sessions for technical and procedural knowledge sharing. [Step 5.1] • Enhancement of institutional capacity of the Ministry of Public Works, Transportation, and Communications (MTPTC) through the provision of technical assistance and targeted training. [Step 5.1] • Development of design guidelines for construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance of transport infrastructure works. [Step 5.3] More information at: https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P163490 Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note62 C. Urban transport As the effects of climate change become more pronounced, urban transportation systems are facing new and unprecedented challenges. Disruptions from adverse weather events can have far-reaching consequences for urban populations, including decreased access to jobs and services, potential isolation of entire neighborhoods, and increased safety risks. Disaster-induced damages on the multi-modal network may affect supply chains and incur direct and indirect losses for operators and service providers. Adapting urban transport systems to accommodate the increasing intensity and frequency of climate-induced disasters is a critical task that demands the collaboration of a diverse set of stakeholders, including policymakers, communities, transportation authorities and engineers. Moreover, to effectively address the inherent uncertainty included in future climate projections, it is important to consider both short-term and long-term adaptation strategies, specifically tailored to the needs and conditions of individual urban areas. In this context, this note provides bespoke guidance for incorporating climate and disaster resilience into the five key pillars of an urban transport project’s lifecycle. The document emphasizes the importance of taking a holistic approach to resilience, one that considers not only the physical infrastructure, but also the socio-economic context in which transport systems operate. Each of the five pillars is supported by recommendations and Best practices aimed at bolstering the climate and disaster resilience of urban transport systems towards long-term safety, accessibility, and sustainability. Highlights System planning and financing • Plan resilient urban transport in the context of a complex ‘system of systems’, considering the interdependencies with other systems and lifelines (for example, energy, water) within the urban environment. • Evaluate the impact of natural and climate hazards on the functionality of urban transport systems, considering both current and future climate trends. Engineering and design • Incorporate nature-based solutions and green infrastructure to build resilience into the urban transport system while promoting livability and health in urban areas. • Harness new technology for data collection (for example, GPS) to facilitate the design of efficient and cost-effective urban transport infrastructure. Operations and maintenance • Leverage new technologies for more efficient management and maintenance of urban transport assets, including citizen engagement IT tools and Internet of Things (IoT) real-time monitoring systems. • Ensure cross-agency coordination for the efficient implementation of maintenance plans and synergistic utilization of equipment and resources. Contingency planning • Enhance collaboration and communication across sectors (transport sector authorities, police, emergency services, etc.) to ensure designation of emergency shelters during disasters. • Capitalize on innovative ICT solutions to develop communication campaigns and provide real-time emergency information to urban transport users. Institutional capacity and coordination • Establish a common authority that can manage the urban transport resilience plan. This is critical due to the complexity of urban transport systems. • Educate the public about the potential negative impacts of climate change on existing urban transport systems, the importance of resilience, and its long-term cost benefits. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note64 Urban transport   System planning and financing 1.0. Build awareness among key stakeholders and review existing policies ‰ Conduct specialized stakeholder workshops: Organize targeted workshops for public authorities, universities, and private sector stakeholders to highlight specific vulnerabilities in urban transport systems and the urgency of adopting climate-resilient measures. Tailor content to the expertise and roles of each group. ‰ Integrate resilience into policy agendas: Review existing policies and advocate for the inclusion of climate-resilient transport as a priority in development and infrastructure policies, linking it to economic growth, disaster preparedness, and community well-being. ‰ Showcase local and global success stories: Promote and share relevant case studies and pilot projects from around the world with high-level decision makers to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of climate-resilient transport systems. Use these examples to inspire action and provide a practical roadmap for implementation. 1.1. Set measurable disaster resilience targets linked to urban-scale performance indicators ‰ Appreciate the role of the transport network in preserving urban resilience. Think of the different functions of urban life that are dependent on the network and set relevant resilience targets. These includes: • User safety • Connectivity, including connections with remote neighborhoods and considerations for the first-and-last-mile connectivity • Affordable and equitable accessibility to essential services • Reduced exposure and fragility for the critical network components • Reliable mobility and redundancy levels • Sustainability of transportation infrastructure and services ‰ Link targets with ‘minimum performance thresholds’ to determine the resilience indicators of the network (for example, the maximum tolerable period of disruption). Appendix B summarizes sector-and hazard-specific resilience indicators to consider in this step. 1.2. Identify and characterize the natural hazard affecting the network ‰ Analyze both the current situation and the projected future scenarios in the case of climate-related hazards, based on appropriate climate change projection models. ‰ Incorporate projected land-use changes and demographic shifts in future scenarios. ‰ Distinguish between mid-term (2050) and long-term futures (2100). Apply mid-term projections for infrastructure that can be easily replaced/upgraded and long-term projections for long lifespans investments (for example, land-use changes, flood defenses, bridges). For further details and an indicative list of hazards affecting the urban transport sector, refer to Appendix A and B, respectively. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note65 Urban transport 1.3. Assess network vulnerability ‰ Create an inventory of the urban transport network (road assets, public transport terminals, rolling stock, facilities for cyclists, etc.), including costs for repairing and replacing damaged infrastructure, mobility patterns and fare prices per transport mode available. Identify the supporting systems (for example, energy grid) and associated interdependencies. ‰ Map hazard exposure: Overlay hazard and network maps to identify the extent of the urban network that may be impacted by each one of the identified hazards considering both low and high impact scenarios. ‰ Adopt a ‘system of systems’ approach to identify and map the interdependencies between the urban network, the society and the economy. In the mapping process consider: • Census data (for example, urban population distribution) • Percentage of population using the public transport and their geospatial distribution • The location of urban economic poles, major feeder junctions, and key destinations/services per district (industries, hospitals, schools, etc.) • Geolocated road crashes • Interconnected infrastructure (for example, ports and airports, water and waste systems) Estimate the modal split and the traffic demand at different network links (including road and rail corridors) considering up-to-date traffic data. ‰ Calculate the criticality of network links and nodes (for example, road segments or transit stations) as an indicator of a component’s significance to the network functionality (for example, segments providing access to critical services). ‰ Based on the criticality, estimate the severity and implications of different disaster scenarios affecting the network. The output of this step will assist prioritization decisions by highlighting critical points of failure within the network calling for immediate adaptation action. 1.4. Assess physical infrastructure vulnerability (including the rolling stock) ‰ Perform vulnerability assessments in qualitative terms during the planning phase to assist a high-level identification of potential adaptation strategies and are revisited during the engineering phase when design details are clarified. ‰ Rate the sensitivity of assets to climate or disaster-induced stressing. Employ qualitative vulnerability indicators such as: • The asset residual age • The construction material (for example, the pavement’s porosity, as an indicator of water runoff efficiency) • The lack of adaptation measures along the network against the identified Hazard types (for example, lack of road drainage systems in the case of urban flooding) • Operational thresholds (for example, temperature thresholds for pavement binder or bus tires) • Historical failures caused by natural hazards. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note66 Urban transport ‰ Estimate the expected damage on (critical) assets and rolling stock for different hazard intensities (for example, high, moderate, low) associated with different disaster scenarios. Consider both structural damages and electromechanical failures, for example, flood damage to underground subway stations, electrical equipment damage disrupting tram services, bus fleet damage due to extreme temperatures. 1.5. Assess the potential impacts and losses on the network ‰ Based on the knowledge of hazard exposure, asset vulnerability, and criticality of each network segment and transport mode, assess potential impacts for each Hazard type (and level of stressing) in terms of: • Direct losses due to infrastructure damage considering estimated distribution of damages along the network and the cost of repair/replacement for each type of asset. • Operational losses, leading to delays, detours, and route cancellations as a result of the reduced network capacity. • Loss of connectivity, leading to impeded accessibility of city districts to markets and essential services. • Cascading socio-economic losses, related to the disruption of supply chains and access to workplace that may slow down economic growth. • Impacts on users’ mobility behavior. For example, an increase in the number of wet days can impact mode-choice away from cycling and buses to private cars. • Cascading social effects, related to potential isolation of neighborhoods, increasing inequality and disproportionate impacts to less privileged groups. • User safety or the failure of urban infrastructure, in particular structures (for example, bridges), that may result in significant loss of life. • Revenue losses, for example, in concession contracts, loss of operability directly impacts the revenues of the service operator. • Externalities due to loss of functionality of interconnected systems Indicatively, for example, severe weather power outages impacting traffic lights may create traffic congestion. An indicative set of targets for resilient urban transport networks • In events that are likely to appear with relatively high frequency (for example, recurrence period lower than 20 years) ensure safe mobility (that is, minimal increase of commuting times and no disruptions in the main transport modes). • In more severe events (for example, recurrence period from 20–100 years), ensure connectivity (that is, no isolated neighborhoods) and minimal economic and societal impacts (lack of access to work, school, etc.). • In climate disasters (for example, rare events with recurrence period > 100 years), ensure user safety (no loss of life) and capacity to recover connectivity and restore mobility within specified timeframes. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note67 Urban transport 1.6. Develop multi-modal adaptation plans in an integrated system of systems environment ‰ Identify high-level strategies for adaptation to climate hazards and risk reduction. Strategies includes: • Risk zoning and land-use changes (relocation of people and businesses from particularly exposed areas; avoiding building a new bus depot in an area that is expected to become flood prone in future) • Investments in physical infrastructure (for example, flood proofing of key transportation corridors, elevation of a causeway) • Operational strategies (for example, temporarily move the rolling stock out of the harm’s way, altering repair cycles) • Modality changes that promote compact urban development (for example, provide reliable alternatives to private vehicles to reduce pressure on road infrastructure that is frequently damaged by weather events) ‰ Think of adaptation and mitigation synergies and create plans that support developments in both agendas simultaneously (for example, reducing emissions by increasing the use of low-carbon modes of transport needs to be supported by a transport infrastructure that remains resilient to a changing climate; ecosystem-based adaptation of rivers supports sustainable development and protects against riverine flooding). ‰ Compare the strength and weaknesses of alternative plans using a Multi-Criteria Analysis (or similar). Employ a set of suitable assessment criteria, for example, correlated with the cost efficiency, the timeliness, the flexibility (whether the strategy is sufficiently flexible to adjust to changing circumstances), the effect on climate mitigation of the solution. ‰ Come up with ways to manage the externalities identified in Step 1.5 (for example, build cross-sector collaborations and co-ordinate disaster relief efforts or explore risk-transfer options). ‰ Seek the support of local stakeholders during the planning process to retrieve a detailed understanding of the local urban context and priorities (key stakeholders include public authorities, transport service providers, citizen representatives, engineers, urban planners, and NGOs). 1.7. Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resilience A non-exhaustive list of innovative urban transport project financing solutions includes: ‰ Public-private partnerships (PPPs): PPPs can be used to finance resilience measures by leveraging private sector investment and expertise (for example, BOT scheme for the development of a flood-proof BRT corridor). ‰ Pricing incentives such as congestion charging, parking charges, taxi license fees, fuel duty can help financing adaptation works and reducing emissions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note68 Urban transport ‰ Green-bonds or sustainability-linked loans to finance resilient, nature-based or green infrastructure solutions (for example, investments in electric buses or trains or bike-sharing systems). ‰ Climate funds for developing countries, such as the Green Climate Fund or the Adaptation Fund. ‰ Carbon credit or pricing mechanisms, by placing a monetary value to greenhouse gas emissions reductions achieved through a shift to urban/mass transportation and using the revenue to fund adaptation measures. ‰ Any type of risk-transfer mechanism (including, traditional insurance, parametric coverage, and weather derivatives), and advisory support, offering financial protection against a wide range of shocks such as droughts, floods, tropical cyclone, earthquake, tsunami, etc. ‰ Innovative financing schemes that may come in the form of an adaptation levy on the businesses that benefit from the climate-adaptation components of the project. ‰ Project bundling. Overcome the barrier of financing less commercially attractive with limited revenue potential by bundling them with projects having a more favorable risk-return profile. ‰ Government subsidies (for example, tax incentives) to a private party for climate-resilient urban transport projects. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note69 Urban transport   Engineering and design 2.1. Downscale hazard ‰ Update hazard maps (climatological, geomorphological, etc.) at the project level to capture the effect of local environmental parameters on present and future climate conditions to inform the engineering design. For example, urban environments are typically warmer than rural areas due to air pollution and the effect of concrete on heat retention, yet this is typically not accounted for in global climate models. Use data from local meteorological stations and measurements of hazard intensity measures (for example, precipitation, wind speed, landslide movements) to calibrate or validate regional hazard models. 2.2. Design sustainable adaptation solutions for the project ‰ Perform a detailed engineering analysis of the project infrastructure and design alternative measures/interventions based on standards and guidelines that incorporate disaster resilience considerations, particularly through sustainable approaches. Use new technologies (for example, GPS) to assist design by incorporating accurate data on commuting behavior. Consider in your analysis the impact of infrastructure failure on interdependent network components through complex network simulations (cascading impacts). ‰ Define the scale (system-wide or local) and timing of the interventions of Step 1.6. Interventions may comprise a combination of hard-engineering, soft engineering, nature-based or green infrastructure solutions (refer to Appendix A). GFDRR developed a detailed catalogue of NBS for urban resilience: https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/publication/211102%20 NBS%20catalogue_FINAL_LR.pdf ‰ Identify sequences of adaptation measures, or ‘adaptation pathways’, that can be implemented in stages (as opposed to once-off interventions). This is recommended for long-term planning, where future climate projections are characterized by high uncertainty. For further guidance on adaptive planning strategies, refer to Appendix A. ‰ Ensure that the envisaged adaptation options are tailored to city-specific circumstances, are technically feasible, and aligned (or at least not conflicting) with existing plans in the same urban environment and beyond (for example, plans for other sectors or regional transportation climate action plans). ‰ Increase the capacity of the private sector/industry, that is consulting firms (for design) and contractors (for works), in addition to the public sector, for proper design, review, and implementation of adaptation measures. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note70 Urban transport 2.3. Select the optimum adaptation alternatives at the project level ‰ Evaluate the costs and benefits of the alternative adaptation options at the project level considering the different ways the implemented strategy can alleviate the direct, indirect, and cascading impacts of Step 1.5. ‰ Appraise adaptation plans using the most appropriate approach for the context of the assessment. For example, it is advisable to apply: • Traditional cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis for investment decisions having a short-planning horizon. • Multi-criteria analyses when there is a mix of quantitative and qualitative data. • Real-option analysis or the Decision Making under Deep Uncertainty (DMDU) approach when dealing with large irreversible decisions (for example, changes in the land use). Indicative list of adaptation solutions for urban transport Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Flooding • Protection through elevation • Hazard assessment of flood- • Sustainable Urban Drainage of road sections/public transit prone areas at the project level Systems (SuDS), such entrances/tracks • Improve weather forecasting as: detention basins, • Flood gates/barriers/shutters at capacity and implement early retention ponds, integrated transit stations warning systems constructed wetlands, pervious pavements, • Relocation of critical facilities • Monitoring options for drainage tree pits and rain gardens, and/or equipment (such as maintenance & repair green roofs, rainwater underground lines or electrical • Mobile power supply harvesting systems equipment) substations to be used in case • Planting vegetation (trees, • Increase of surface and of power outages marshes, etc.) coupled with subsurface drainage system • Mobile barriers to prevent the reduction of speed limits capacity (for example, larger water from entering tunnels and/or trees protected by culverts, adequate piping size, and underground stations crash barriers more water inlets; enhanced pumping) • River/lake restoration Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note71 Urban transport Indicative list of adaptation solutions for urban transport Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Extreme heat • Surface treatment of roads • Proactive plans for temporary • Create a better microclimate (for example, anti-skid surface, suspension of electric rail/tram for city residents on hot porous/reflective coating, more services if electrical systems days by introducing green heat-tolerant asphalt binders) overheat or overhead lines lenses along the urban • More efficient and durable expand and sag network (for example, engine cooling systems • Proactive traffic management planted roundabouts) • Increased ventilation, more plans to avoid traffic • Restore/maintain urban cooling substations, air- congestion and reduce the greenery along the road and conditioning for public heat-island effect plant large trees to improve transport, shaded bus/train • Warnings for extreme heat to shading conditions stops. urban transport users • Create shade structures • Bridge/rail joints for with green roofs & other increased thermal expansion addons accommodation   Hazard type | Extreme cold/ice • Pavement surface treatment • Advanced weather forecasting (high friction surface treatment, systems and early warning for superhydrophobic coatings, urban transport users thermochromic asphalt • Comprehensive snow & ice pavements, flexible/physical Control Plans, including bending pavements) procedures for efficient snow removal and de-icing Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note72 Urban transport Indicative list of adaptation solutions for urban transport Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Extreme Wind/Hurricanes • Wind-proofing of hanging • Early warning (for extreme • Proactively manage roadside signs, lights, and lightweight winds and low visibility vegetation and trees by equipment conditions), including better balancing ecological function • Move vulnerable overhead weather forecasting and and reducing risk of falling electrical lines underground communication with the users. branches/uprooting. • Installation of windbreaks • Adapting land use to reduce wind speed in proximity to transport routes by creating natural and artificial wind barriers   Hazard type | Erosion, Landslides • Erosion control (silt fencing, • Comprehensive erosion and • Slope plantation and ripraps, turf grass) sediment control plan vegetative reinforcement • Slope stabilization measures • Field monitoring of precarious using native plants with (retaining structures, terraces) slopes deep/strong rooting system • Slope drainage (gravel trenches, etc.) • Hydraulic binding agents into earthwork materials   Hazard type | Fires • Removal of brush and thin trees • Emergency plans and • Manage roadside vegetation • Spraying fire retardant in evacuation routes including and perform selective tree urban risk zones (for example, passenger evacuation plans for trimming/pruning in a way explosive material facilities). underground systems that maintains the ecological • Fire-hazard monitoring in function • Fixed fire-fighting systems in tunnels and underground protected green areas within facilities the city Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note73 Urban transport   Operations and maintenance 3.1. Incorporate resilience targets in O&M plans ‰ Make sure that the resilience goals of the entire urban transport operational plan and each sub-sector’s O&M-specific plan are well-aligned and coordinated. ‰ Set robust life-cycle performance targets for all assets under the (potentially changing) risk landscape. ‰ Set O&M objectives that build resilience not only at the asset level but also at the network level and its dependent urban environment. 3.2. Establish an action plan for high maintenance efficiency against natural disasters ‰ Develop a framework to prioritize intervention measures and optimize the allocation of maintenance funds. In your assessment, consider parameters such as: • Maintaining network connectivity (including first-last-mile approach) • Budget limitations • Road safety • Minimum condition/service levels • Coordination with other major urban works (for example, synching of street overlay with water pipes maintenance activities) ‰ Monitor asset condition/network performance over time (for example, pavement distress; wear of bus engines or tram lines) to effectively act once critical risk thresholds are met. ‰ Budgets for maintenance plans in urban settings should include proper maintenance of urban infrastructure such as sidewalk, markings, signs, traffic signals, guardrails, street lighting, etc., whose regular maintenance is crucial for urban road and pedestrian safety. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note74 Urban transport Examples of intervention actions (preventive, corrective, emergency) for urban roads. Vegetation management and tree trimming; clearing of ditches and culverts; crack sealing; pavement surface dressing Periodic/ overlay to slow down deterioration; road marking and signage preventive maintenance maintenance to maintain clear sightlines for drivers and pedestrians; periodic replacement of vehicle brakes, wheels, or mechanical components (rolling stock) Pothole filling, replacement of buckled rail sections; Corrective replacement of outdated or inadequate drainage structures; maintenance/ replacement of engine cooling systems (rolling stock) repairs rehabilitation to re-establish the structural integrity of damaged urban bridges or tunnels. Removal of debris, boulders, or other obstacles from road Emergency segments; clearing of drainage systems from debris; snow maintenance removal or de-icing for urban roads and overhead equipment; pumping of water from flooded urban transit stations. 3.3. Promote the use of smart and integrated asset management tools ‰ Consider developing a shared platform for integrated and coordinated O&M plans among the different transport sub-sectors. In this context: • I dentify inter-dependencies between assets and subsystems within individual sub-sectors (for example, Bus Rapid Transit) or across multiple transport sub-sectors (for example, buses and trams) to enhance resource utilization in O&M activities • S  ynchronize & coordinate O&M activities with activities related to other sectors (for example, water or energy) to increase efficiency (for example, synch street overlay with water pipe maintenance activities) ‰ Ensure regular updating of the asset management tool, which is a dynamic instrument, and related data. MONITORING EXAMPLES Sensors for resilient operations At tram depots, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) based sensors are used to monitor the condition of trams in order to identify faulty wheels. This approach is used for condition- based maintenance, with the aim of removing defective trams at entry or dispatch gates. Faulty wheels have been found to generate greater vibration energy than normal wheels, making it possible to detect and address issues before they cause serious problems. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note75 Urban transport Invest in lifecycle instrumentation & monitoring and explore innovative technologies for 3.4.  data collection & management Examples of such approaches include: ‰ Internet of things (IoT) based approaches, where sensors are installed on assets and transmit real-time condition performance data to enhance response and timely O&M interventions. ‰ Smart ticketing systems that utilize contactless payment methods can improve data collection on passenger journeys and provide insights to transport authorities into travel patterns and demand, thereby informing decisions around service provision, infrastructure investment, and O&M plans. ‰ Rolling stock monitoring (for example, temperature monitoring sensors, pressure sensors, vibration sensors, accelerometers, fuel level sensors, etc.) can improve the scheduling of fleet maintenance and be integrated into a condition-based maintenance plan. ‰ GPS systems combined with easy-to-use mobile apps that allow commuters to identify and report existing maintenance issues. ‰ Real-time hazard monitoring platforms (for example, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], or the Copernicus Emergency Management System [EMS]) that can directly provide hazard information to the network’s asset management platform. Review maintenance contracts and procedures to be effective even under a rapidly changing 3.5.  hazard environment ‰ Conduct climate impact assessments on a regular basis (for example, every x no. of years) to re-assess the potential effects of changing climate conditions on the urban transport system; use the results to inform maintenance procedures and re-negotiate maintenance contracts to ensure they remain effective and relevant. ‰ Consider performance-based (output-based) contracts to explicitly link payment to system performance, providing a powerful incentive for the private party that maintains/operates an asset. 3.6. Monitor the efficiency of the O&M plan ‰ Employ appropriate KPIs reflecting resilience objectives (defined in Step 3.1). For example: • The frequency of preventive maintenance actions: number/year • A  sset condition scores above a minimum threshold (for example, for pavements the International Roughness Index: m/km) • O  perational metrics (number of lost fares due to natural disasters/year; number of complaints/years linked to O&M works). Relevant examples are provided in Appendix B. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note76 Urban transport   Contingency planning 4.1. Develop coordinated emergency response plans ‰ Develop emergency plans that are coordinated and communicated effectively between all entities involved in urban transport management. ‰ Provide clear communication protocols to be followed during disaster events and outline the roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders (for example, transport operators, emergency responders, local authorities). ‰ Develop evacuation plans for passengers and personnel. ‰ Perform emergency drills and update plans regularly to reflect changes in the transport network, emerging risks, and evolving Best practices. 4.2. Ensure availability of resources ‰ Ensure the availability of essential resources and equipment during potential disaster events, including among others: • Emergency vehicles for post-disaster inspections • T  raffic management equipment (including traffic lights and road signs) for facilitating the movement of emergency vehicles and supplies during and after natural disasters • Trained staff on standby to accelerate restoration efforts • Designated emergency shelters • Backup batteries for the electric rolling stock in case of power grid disruptions. ‰ Coordinate with subcontractors, suppliers, and governmental authorities and establish mutual aid agreements to ensure the strategic and timely provision of resources and financial assistance for post-disaster recovery. 4.3. Plan for redundancies ‰ Consider a range of alternative transit options and detours to maintain service continuity, particularly in limited accessibility neighborhoods that rely on a single transport mode. Plan for accommodating the increased traffic demand on the operational transport modes after a disaster (for example, schedules for more frequent bus services). ‰ Develop contingency plans for disruptions in interdependent lifeline services (for example, electricity). For example, install back-up power generators at critical points along a subway system. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note77 Urban transport ‰ Improve communication infrastructure to ensure effective coordination during emergencies, including for example: • Installation of backup communication systems, such as satellite phones or radio systems • Development of a centralized communication hub connected to all modes of public transport, which can provide real-time information to passengers and staff in case of an emergency event. ‰ Expand the number of designated emergency cooling shelters during times of excessive heat. Enhance community engagement and emergency communication at the 4.4.  city/neighborhood level ‰ Use the power of innovation in ICT to develop communication campaigns and real-time emergency information for urban transport users. For example, promote the use of social media for updates on service disruptions or emergency situations, and the development of mobile apps for sharing information on alternative transit options or evacuation routes. ‰ Involve communities in the development of neighborhood evacuation and disaster preparedness plans, to ensure that these plans are tailored to the specific needs and circumstances of each neighborhood. ‰ Engage citizens in emergency preparedness exercises. For example, transport authorities can organize drills that simulate emergency situations on trains or buses to help citizens understand what to do in case of an emergency. ‰ Promote the provision of tax incentives to emergency management/disaster preparedness volunteers. ‰ Strengthen public education campaigns to increase the likelihood that citizens will keep emergency preparedness kits in their homes. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note78 Urban transport 4.5. Explore disaster risk/contingent financing instruments ‰ Explore the range of contingent financing products that can be used to address the financial risks of disasters and receive immediate liquidity after a disaster occurred. The optimum mix of approaches depends on the types of risks faced by a client and the frequency and severity of disaster events. For example, the World Bank helps clients increase their financial resilience to disasters by supporting disaster risk financing programs and offering immediate contingent financing in the aftermath of a natural disaster. A non-exhaustive list of innovative contingent financing solutions includes: • Reserve or emergency fund accounts to cover the rising cost of climate-induced disruptions • Contingent credit line provisions to secure financing and support recovery efforts after climate disasters • Financial de-risking instruments (state guarantees or DFI’s de-risking) to incentivize private-sector participation in high-risk projects • Immediate response instruments, such as the World Bank’s Contingent Emergency Response Components (CERCs) and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (CAT-DDOs) Explore tech-enabled solutions for rapid damage assessment of urban transport 4.6.  infrastructure ‰ Use mobile mapping systems, such as LiDAR-equipped vehicles or drones to map the condition of distributed assets quickly and accurately (for example, roads and bridges). ‰ Incorporate crowd-sourced data collection, such as mobile apps that allow citizens to report damage to roads, bridges, and other infrastructure using their smartphones. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note79 Urban transport   Institutional capacity and coordination 5.1. Establish a common urban authority to coordinate the adaptation action plan ‰ Include members of all relevant urban transport and resilience stakeholders (for example, operators, service providers, agencies, citizens). If a metropolitan transport authority is already in place, a designated unit focusing on resilience is created within this entity to take on the direct responsibility of developing and implementing an integrated Urban Transport Climate Adaptation Plan across short, medium, and long-term horizons. 5.2. Promote the development of standards and guidelines with resilience considerations ‰ Promote protocols that increase the walkability of new developments or sustainable urban planning processes, such as complete street design and the use of green infrastructure components. 5.3. Develop adaptive capacity in relevant authorities, transport service providers and the public ‰ Develop and disseminate guidelines, leaflets, and other educational materials that promote good maintenance practices, preparedness and contingency planning for emergency events. ‰ Draw upon past transport projects implemented in urban settings with similar characteristics to promote knowledge sharing and Best practices for mitigating the impacts of climate change. ‰ Empower relevant authorities through training on emergency response procedures, infrastructure vulnerability, climate data management, and implementation of adaptation strategies, complemented by practical learning opportunities from pilot projects and drills. ‰ Strengthen communications with the public regarding the potential negative impacts of climate change on existing urban transportation systems. Communicate the importance of resilience and long-term cost benefits of promoting compact cities and greater use of public transit options. Establish/rationalize the institutional framework for facilitating Private 5.4.  Sector Participation ‰ Incorporate climate adaptation contract provisions in PPPs to increase the attractiveness of projects having strong adaptation component and balance the risk allocation between public and private partners and. Indicatively consider: • Inclusion of climate provisions in tender documents (RFPs, RFQs) • Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) specifying resilience outputs • Credit support and other de-risking mechanism • Tariff incentives/tax exemptions for enhanced alignment with resilience targets Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note80 Urban transport • Provisions for flexible tariff models and cost-sharing mechanisms to facilitate climate interventions during the O&M phase of the project • Third-party monitoring of climate-adaptation works • Establishment of clear dispute resolution mechanisms for climate risks 5.5. Develop protocols for timely communication with urban transport users ‰ Prepare communication plans, applicable to the different hazards, addressing the unique needs of vulnerable citizens. ‰ Develop key messages that speak directly to the target audiences and identify effective ways to deliver them (public transport websites, social channels, radio, television, text messages, push notifications, etc.). ‰ Train staff responsible for communicating with the public during emergency events, considering language or other communication barriers (for example, in highly touristic zones, emergency staff is able to effectively communicate the emergency to tourists). 5.6. Harmonize procedures to facilitate rapid response and recovery actions ‰ Standardize weather information and hazard warnings across the urban transport network, by establishing a common hazard classification protocol, recognizable across sub-sectors. ‰ Create plans for reinstating transport services after a disaster, including protocols for inspecting infrastructure and equipment damage and determining appropriate steps for repairing or replacing affected assets. ‰ Establish standardized post-disaster assessment forms for damage reporting and train local responders on their proper use. Enhance cross-sectoral coordination and interdisciplinary collaboration to optimize the 5.7.  efficiency of resilience planning and response activities ‰ Establish and maintain a communication network that includes public entities at the national, subnational, or sectorial level, such as ministries, or city departments. Gain insights into their ongoing climate-related initiatives and strategies, and explore opportunities for mutual benefits, such as shared capacity building activities or exchange of relevant information. ‰ Engage with universities, research institutes, meteorological organizations, or other public or independent entities that contribute to the climate-resilience enabling environment. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note81 Urban transport Case studies International best practice Resilient Urban Mobility in Ho Chi Minh City Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) faces significant economic implications from traffic congestion, estimated to incur a direct cost of approximately $97 billion between 2015 and 2045. Given that around 45 percent of HCMC lies less than a meter above sea level, the city and notably its transport system are highly susceptible to flooding. This vulnerability is particularly pronounced during the rainy season, thereby reducing the network’s capacity and efficiency. To address these challenges, the city is orchestrating a range of construction activities and technology implementations. Funding for these initiatives is derived from a mix of local private and public sources, supplemented by Official Development Assistance (ODA) from multilateral institutions such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Best practices System planning & financing • Identification and assessment of various mechanisms for financing resilience interventions: fare box (public transport) revenue, congestion charging, parking charges, vehicle tax increase, fuel duty increase, land value uplift or advertising. [Step 1.7] Engineering & design • Construction of six metro rail lines (so-called MRT or Metro Rail Transit system), three light rail lines, and a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system to facilitate mode shift. [Step 2.2] Operations & maintenance • Operational integration across the city’s multiple transport modes through innovative technologies. Establishment of an Inter-operator Fare Collection (IFC) solution that functions across public transport modes, aiming to reduce delays and improve the commuters’ experience. This will stimulate mode shift and contribute to increasing resilience by providing redundancy and alternative means of travel. [Step 3.3] • Establishment of an IoT-based traffic control system to manage traffic flows remotely and in real-time. [Step 3.4] Institutional capacity & coordination • Interdisciplinary collaboration among stakeholders across multiple levels of city administration to enable the development and implementation of an integrated multimodal transport plan, which specifies provisions for: (i) Updated policies to guide urban planning; (ii) The evolution of new agencies to coordinate cross-sector activities; (iii) Staff training. [Step 5.3 / 5.7] • Harmonization of disaster management procedures across the urban transport network through technology standards and protocols. [Steps 5.6] More information at: https://www.scribd.com/document/511168838/Resilient-Urban-Mobility-a- Case-Study-of-Integrated-Transport-in-Ho-Chi-Minh-City Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note82 Urban transport Case studies World Bank Group operation Mongolia: Municipal Transport Asset Management for Resilience in Ulaanbaatar City (P165658) Poor asset management and the absence of long-term strategic planning for urban transport infrastructure – including roads, intersections, and bridges – have long undermined service quality in Ulaanbaatar City (UB), which operates on a limited budget for road maintenance and repairs. The city’s challenges are further complicated by climate-related disasters such as flash floods, storms, and severe road icing during winter, thereby amplifying the need for increased capital investments in transport infrastructure. This technical assignment project aims to assist the Municipality of Ulaanbaatar (MUB) in enhancing its urban transport infrastructure asset management and fostering resilience in its planning processes. Best practices System planning & financing • Development of a city-wide asset inventory for roads and bridges. [Step 1.3] • Evaluation of asset condition and asset vulnerability to climate-induced risks. [Step 1.4] Operations & maintenance • Use of crowd-sourcing technologies to collect asset data. [Step 3.4] • Use of sensors and artificial intelligence approaches for asset condition assessment. [Step 3.4] More information at: https://www.gfdrr.org/en/feature-story/results-resilience-managing- transport-assets-resilience-ulaanbaatar-mongolia Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note83 D. Railways and urban rail Railway networks play a vital role in transporting cargo and connecting people to jobs and essential services. At the same time, their complex and interconnected infrastructure renders them particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events: floods and landslides can damage railway tracks, bridges, and auxiliary network components (such as electricity lines), while extreme heat or cold can cause damages to equipment and the rolling stock and impact the safety and comfort of passengers. The impacts of climate-induced disasters can lead to lengthy service disruptions in railway operations, resulting in supply-chain losses, increased maintenance costs, reduced accessibility, and a negative impact on the quality of life for both urban dwellers and remote populations dependent on the railway. For railway operators, the effects of natural disasters not only result in significant direct damage but also translate to indirect losses due to reduced fare revenues and diminished confidence in their ability to provide safe and efficient transportation. This, in turn, can affect their insurability, financing options, and attractiveness to private investors. In view of these considerations, resilience-building against natural disaster events in the railway sector must be considered early in project development and maintained as a continuous focus throughout operations. To aid this effort, this guidance note provides customized recommendations for enhancing the resilience of railway systems across the five pillars of project development, ensuring that the sector remains safe, accessible, and reliable in the face of potential climate challenges for years to come.2 2 For urban rail projects, also consult the ‘Urban Transport’ sector section of the guidance note. Highlights System planning and financing • Ensure a network approach and consider the performance of interconnected sub-systems (such as energy or communications) when planning for resilient railway systems. • Adopt a systems approach to disaster/climate risk assessments, considering the impact of disaster-induced disruptions on business continuity and passenger mobility. Engineering and design • Evaluate large-scale, irreversible adaptation alternatives; implement procedures that accommodate all potential sources of uncertainty to minimize the risk of maladaptation. Operations and maintenance • Establish a risk-based maintenance framework for all railway subsystems (tracks, bridges, drainage systems, rolling stock, energy, water, buildings, etc.). • Invest in lifecycle instrumentation and monitoring and explore innovative IoT-based approaches for data collection and management. Contingency planning • Develop a risk-based plan for speed restrictions, line closures and reduced passenger capacity during emergencies. • Ensure availability of equipment and spares, including mobile power supply, to quickly restore service after a disaster. • Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resilience. Institutional capacity and coordination • Set up communication frameworks and mechanisms across all relevant institutions and agencies responsible for ensuring a quick and efficient response to disasters. • Streamline the institutional framework to facilitate private sector participation. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note85 Railways and urban rail   System planning and financing 1.0. Build awareness among key stakeholders & review existing policies ‰ Conduct specialized stakeholder workshops: Organize targeted workshops for public authorities, universities, and private sector stakeholders to highlight specific vulnerabilities in rail transport systems and the urgency of adopting climate-resilient measures. Tailor content to the expertise and roles of each group. ‰ Integrate resilience into policy agendas: Review existing policies and advocate for the inclusion of climate-resilient transport as a priority in development and infrastructure policies, linking it to economic growth, disaster preparedness, and community well-being. ‰ Showcase local and global success stories: Promote and share relevant case studies and pilot projects from around the world with high-level decision makers to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of climate-resilient transport systems. Use these examples to inspire action and provide a practical roadmap for implementation. 1.1. Set measurable strategic-level targets linked to system-level performance indicators ‰ Evaluate the degree and nature of interdependencies between railways and other systems (for example, energy systems, communication systems, local markets, industries) and set resilience objectives that focus on business continuity and critical passenger access, based on diagnostic studies conducted on both the supply and demand aspects of rail transportation. ‰ Pinpoint the main areas of focus and objectives for boosting the resilience of the railway network • Safety of passengers and personnel • All-weather accessibility, particularly for remote or underdeveloped areas • All-weather availability and operational reliability through the provision of alternative transportation modes and contingency plans for both freight and passengers • Equitable service levels for all rail corridors and communities ‰ Associate specific performance levels with determined objectives and correlate targets with ‘minimum performance thresholds’ to ascertain the resilience indicators of the rail network (for example, tolerable recovery time to achieve 90 percent operability in the aftermath of a disaster of any given intensity). Appendix B summarizes sector-and hazard-specific resilience indicators to consider in this step. 1.2. Identify the natural hazards affecting the rail transport network ‰ Analyze both the current situation and the projected future scenarios in the case of climate- related hazards, based on appropriate climate change projection models. Refer to Appendix A and B for additional information and a suggested roster of hazards that influence the rail sector. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note86 Railways and urban rail ‰ Perform planning decisions—corridor selection, location of maintenance yard, design decision of major civil works like metro tunnels and terminals—with long-term climate projections (2100). Apply mid-term climate projection (2050) for the analysis of replaceable equipment (for example, signaling, electrification equipment). Rail projects are long-lived assets entailing large and irreversible outlays of investment. ‰ Combine climate projections with long-term demand forecasting and land-use projections when performing corridor selection. 1.3. Assess network vulnerability to hazard-related disruptions ‰ Compile an inventory of the rail network assets (including structures such as bridges and tunnels, stations and storage yards, rolling stock, equipment, power supply resources like overhead lines, maintenance and stabling facilities, tracks, ICT, level crossings etc.). During the process, make sure to capture the difference in services and characteristics of rail infrastructure (freight, passenger rail and urban metro), including: costs for repair and replacement of damaged assets or fare prices, and condition data (for example, perform track diagnostics to identify failures, review the stability of slopes and embankments, assess the cooling capacities, evaluate the existing power system in terms of supply reliability for trains and signaling). ‰ Determine the interdependencies between the railway network, the community, and the economy by adopting a system-of-systems approach. Use census and economic data, alongside other pertinent information, to build a detailed map that includes the spatial distribution and density of passengers, the location of low-income regions served by the rail network, the placement of major freight corridors, feeder junctions, and urban economic hubs, as well as key destinations (for example, industries or shopping centers in the case of urban rail) and network gateways (for example, ports). Furthermore, attempt to estimate at an appropriate level of granularity (spatial and temporal) the traffic demand at various network links and junctions by utilizing up-to-date traffic analysis data. ‰ Map hazard exposure: Overlay hazard and network maps to identify the extent of the rail network that may be impacted by each one of the identified hazards. ‰ Calculate the criticality of network links (for example, rail segments) and nodes (for example, transit stations or junctions). The analysis can help identify system components that act as ‘choke points’ (that is, points where flow blockages may occur), interdependencies with other services or transport modes that may lead to cascading failures, and areas with insufficient redundancy within the network. ‰ Utilize the aforementioned information to evaluate the potential impacts of various disaster scenarios on the network, considering both the operational aspects of the network and the mobility patterns of passengers, which could be influenced by climate change. The results of this analysis will assist prioritizing ‘focus areas’ by underscoring critical hotspots throughout the network that require immediate attention. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note87 Railways and urban rail 1.4. Assess the physical vulnerability of rail infrastructure ‰ Perform vulnerability assessments in qualitative terms during the planning phase to assist a high-level identification of potential adaptation strategies and are revisited during the engineering phase when design details are clarified. ‰ Rate the susceptibility of railway assets to climate-related or natural-disaster-induced stress considering: • The construction material (for example, concrete or steel bridges) • The asset residual age • Operational thresholds (for example, temperature thresholds for track buckling) • Historical failures and disruptions caused by natural hazards, and • Lack of adaptation measures along the rail network (for example, lack of appropriate drainage system capacity in the case of flooding). Consider the input of local authorities, rail operators and experts for the accurate estimation of these indicators ‰ Estimate the expected damage on critical assets and rolling stock (for example, Flood damage to underground subway stations, overhead lines damage due to ice build-up, reduced stability of rail tracks due to erosion or buckling). Repeat the assessment for different hazard intensities associated with different climate scenarios. 1.5. Assess the potential impacts and losses on the network ‰ Based on the knowledge of hazard exposure, asset vulnerability, and criticality of each network segment, assess potential impacts for each Hazard type (and level of stressing) in terms of: • Direct losses due to infrastructure damage considering the cost of repair/replacement for each type of asset. • Loss in ridership and corresponding operating revenue stemming from the decreased railway availability. • Loss of connectivity, leading to impeded accessibility for communities, businesses, trade hubs, logistics/emergency routes etc. • User safety: failure of infrastructure, in particular large structures (for example, bridges), may result in loss of life. • Reduced mobility expressed in terms of increased travel time due to the use of alternative transport modes. • Cascading socioeconomic losses, related to the disruption of supply chains and access to the workplace that may slow down economic growth. • Cascading social effects related to potential isolation of urban neighborhoods or entire communities, increasing inequality and disproportionate impacts to less privileged groups. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note88 Railways and urban rail • Externalities (Even in cases where the main railway network is not directly impacted). Indicatively (i) Cascading failures caused by damages or loss of operations to interconnected infrastructure (for example electricity and communication systems) (ii) Disaster-induced damage to industries that heavily rely on rail transportation (like manufacturing, agriculture, or mining) that may lead to decreased traffic demand (iii) Disruptions in supply chains due to extreme weather events that can prevent the railway from receiving necessary resources, including fuel or replacement parts 1.6. Develop high-level adaptation plans ‰ Map alternative adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts identified in Step 1.5. Possible adaptation solutions could include: • C  hange of corridor or change of capacity to minimize opportunity costs stemming from under/overmatching future demand projections3 • Changes in alignments to reduce hazard exposure • I dentification/construction of alternative routes to increase network redundancy in the aftermath of a disaster ‰ Compare the alternatives in due consideration of local context constraints (for example, available funding, the temporal window of political and economic opportunity). Apply a Multi-Criteria Analysis to evaluate the cost efficiency, the timeliness, the interoperability (whether the alternative can work cohesively with existing infrastructure and systems, including energy and communication networks), the flexibility (whether the strategy is sufficiently flexible to adjust to changing circumstances) of the solutions. Consider trade- offs of possible adaptation solutions – for example, raised embankments and increased impermeable “gray” infrastructure may affect local flood patterns. ‰ Come up with ways to manage the externalities identified in Step 1.5 (for example, explore risk-transfer options). 1.7. Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resilience A non-exhaustive list of innovative railway project financing solutions includes: ‰ Public-private partnerships (PPPs): PPPs can be used to finance resilience measures by leveraging private sector investment and expertise (for example, PPP framework to develop a flood-proof railway corridor). ‰ Pricing incentives and taxes on operators can help financing adaptation works and reducing emissions. Traffic demand projections can be influenced by climate change directly (for example, desertification of a region) 3 or indirectly (for example, climate policy reforms may amplify the potential of a modal shift to sustainable transport solutions) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note89 Railways and urban rail ‰ Climate funds for developing countries, such as the Green Climate Fund or the Adaptation Fund. ‰ Carbon credit or pricing mechanisms, by placing a monetary value to greenhouse gas emissions reductions achieved through a shift to rail transportation and using the revenue to fund adaptation measures. ‰ Any type of risk-transfer mechanism (including, traditional insurance, parametric coverage, and weather derivatives), and advisory support, offering financial protection against a wide range of shocks: droughts, floods, tropical cyclone, earthquake, tsunami, etc. ‰ Project bundling. Overcome the barrier of financing less commercially attractive with limited revenue potential by bundling them with projects having a more favorable risk-return profile. ‰ Government subsidies (for example, tax incentives) to a private party for climate-resilient rail projects. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note90 Railways and urban rail   Engineering and design 2.1. Downscale hazard ‰ Update hazard maps to capture the effect of local parameters on present and future climate conditions. When available, leverage data from local meteorological stations and measurements of hazard intensity metrics (for example, precipitation, wind speed, landslide) to calibrate or validate climate hazard models. Rail sections are prone to geological hazards which may not be captured by global climate models. Local geotechnical or geological assessment is recommended to evaluate the risk of climate-induced landslides and subsidence. 2.2. Identify and design adaptation solutions for the project ‰ Develop national standards by rail organizations in a collaborative manner for railway infrastructure resilience, under the leadership of a broader national infrastructure commission where relevant. ‰ Perform detailed engineering/technical analysis and embed resilience attributes in the design of adaptation solutions (for example, upgraded design standards to withstand increased stressing, provisions for redundancies, IoT solutions for early warning and fault detection — see List of Adaptation Solutions). Consider in your analysis the cascading impacts of interdependent infrastructure failures (for example, the effect of OHL damage on operations). ‰ Address the resilience targets set in Step 1.1 with the proposed adaptation solutions that comprise a combination of hard-engineering, soft engineering, or nature-based alternatives. When dealing with significant uncertainty in future climate projections, it is recommended to identify sequences of adaptation measures, or ‘adaptation pathways’, that can be implemented in stages during the project’s lifetime. Refer to Appendix A for guidance on adaptive planning strategies. ‰ Design ‘fail safe systems’ with reliable and selective protection schemes to quickly isolate electrical equipment in distress to avoid proliferation of failure. ‰ Increase the capacity of the private sector/industry, that is consulting firms (for design) and contractors (for works), in addition to the public sector, for proper design, review, and implementation of adaptation measures. Check the economic soundness of adaptation alternatives at the project level considering 2.3.  uncertainties ‰ Identify the strategy (or combination of strategies) that maximizes the benefit-cost ratio, by comparing each solution to the BAU (‘business as usual’) scenario. During the process, incorporate all disaster-related costs and benefits: • Capital expenditures • O&M costs • D  irect adaptation benefits (for example, reduction of physical asset damage; decrease of fare revenue loss) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note91 Railways and urban rail • T  he cost of externalities & opportunities (for example, the cost of indirect damage caused by broken supply chains, or the potential gains due to increased railway travel demand stemming from expensive oil-based fuels for road transport) • P  otential co-benefits stemming from the solution implementation (for example, enhancing a railway company’s reputation among passengers & regulators by demonstrating a proactive approach to climate risks may be translated to increased ridership) ‰ Consider all potential sources of uncertainty to minimize the risk of maladaptation (or the risk of committing funds in unnecessary investments) when evaluating large-scale/irreversible adaptation alternatives. Embed Monte Carlo simulations in CBA analyses or apply Decision Making Under Deep Uncertainty to examine the robustness of the solutions for a large set of plausible future scenarios (representing different traffic demand/climate pathways). Indicative list of adaptation solutions for railways & urban rail Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Flooding • Elevate/relocate railway sections • Install flooding detection • Plant vegetation (trees, • Elevate of station entrances/Add alarms to facilitate decisions on marshes/mangroves) and removable flood control covers power system shutdowns enhance coastal wetlands • Increase the drainage system • Use mobile dams to protect the • Use coastal wetlands, capacity to cope with future entry segments of underground berms and dunes as buffer flooding conditions stations. • Install flood barriers/flood • Design an internal electricity protection walls grid to allow operational continuity in the case of nearby • Raise signaling equipment sub-station failures • Install anti-scour protection (for example, rock riprap, gabions) at bridge foundations and embankments Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note92 Railways and urban rail Indicative list of adaptation solutions for railways & urban rail Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Erosion, landslides • Slope protection (rockfall fences, • Field monitoring of precarious • Slope plantation and bolted/anchoring/shotcreted slopes using sensors vegetative reinforcement faces) • Remote monitoring of • Re-engineer slopes to change precarious slopes using aerial grade, improve drainage mapping methods or remote or provide stabilization field instrumentation (for example, with retaining structures, terraces) • Embankment erosion control (silt fencing, ripraps, turf grass)   Hazard type | extreme heat • Install expansion joints on • Paint rails white at particular bridges/rail tracks buckle-prone locations, to • Replace ballasted tracks with reduce solar gain slab tracks to reduce the risk of • Warnings for extreme heat to buckling passengers • Upgrade engine cooling systems for the rolling stock • Ventilation and air-conditioning for rolling stock and buildings   Hazard type | extreme wind/hurricanes • Wind-proofing of hanging • Early warning (for extreme Proactively manage lineside signals, lights, and lightweight winds and low visibility vegetation and trees equipment conditions), including better to reduce risk of falling • Move overhead electrical lines weather forecasting and branches/uprooting. underground communication with the users • Install windbreaks • Install of redundant signaling • Use rigid and latest design catenary lines. • Circuit breaker protection for overhead line equipment Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note93 Railways and urban rail Indicative list of adaptation solutions for railways & urban rail Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Ice/Snow • Install snow covers or heaters on • Install laser measurement switches systems with wireless data • Build snow barriers communication, to measure snow and water level along • Upgrade traction motors with the lines. models less likely to be affected by snow ingress   Hazard type | Lightning • Enhance the grounding • Proactively manage lineside arrangement and surge vegetation to reduce risk of protection, example, install lightning-induced fires lightning rods   Hazard type | Fog • Install enhanced crossing • Low-visibility warning systems signal lights providing alerts on safe speeds • Install track fencing in high- to train drivers. risk areas to deter people from crossing the tracks under low visibility conditions.   Hazard type | Earthquake • Earthquake-resistant design of • Earthquake detection systems deep excavations and tunnels cutting power and applying • Structural strengthening of emergency brakes in trains to elevated components (canopies, prevent the risk of derailment electrical substations, catenary pylons) • Mitigation of liquefaction risk (example soil replacement/ improvements) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note94 Railways and urban rail   Operations and maintenance 3.1. Incorporate resilience targets in O&M plans ‰ Promote proactive asset management and a reliability-centered maintenance (RCM) approach that accounts for climate risks. Ensure proper maintenance of assets across all sub-systems (rail line infrastructure, guideway, electrification, stations and storage/maintenance yards, vehicles, ICT, ticket control and fare collection, etc.), including systematic inspection and asset condition monitoring. ‰ Establish a long-term management strategy that provides the resources to maintain all assets in a state of good repair. ‰ Set robust operational targets under the (potentially changing) risk landscape (for example, keep 90 percent of rail tracks in good condition at all times, maintain the operating spare ratio4 above 15 percent. Take into consideration infrastructure constraints and scale, train and station capacity, passenger demand, and equity. ‰ Promote the use of new technology for cost-efficient, resilient operations. Establish an action plan for inspecting asset performance and identify intervention 3.2.  activities ‰ Make sure that key asset data attributes are recorded within the network inventory and are used as inputs to prioritize maintenance needs (for example, age, useful life, quantity, location, past rehabilitation(s), dates of most recent and next scheduled inspections, physically inspected condition, mileage for the rolling stock, facility size or track length, and rehabilitation costs). ‰ Create a framework to prioritize maintenance interventions over the life cycle of assets. Use criteria such as: • Asset condition and criticality • Maintaining network connectivity • Impact on ridership • Safety • Budget limitations ‰ Develop weights for each criterion, build consensus on those weights among the relevant system stakeholders, and come up with an overall score that ranks assets based on their needs and benefit of mitigated deterioration. 4 Operating spare ratio: Rolling stock set aside as reserve in the event of unexpected breakdowns, emergency events or other irregular service patterns. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note95 Railways and urban rail Examples of intervention actions (preventive, corrective, emergency) for the railway sector. Tree trimming near power lines; clearing/de-silting of ditches and Periodic/ culverts; cleaning of grooved rails; repair of bridge expansion joints; Preventive refurbishment of track and off-track drainage; inspection of service Maintenance lines using test trains before daily operations begin; inspection of the rail track bed and ballast. Corrective Replacement of buckled tracks; repairs to re-establish the structural Maintenance/ integrity of damaged bridges, tunnels, culverts or other infrastructural Rehabilitation assets; replacement of outdated or inadequate drainage structures. Removal of boulders, trees, or other obstacles from the tracks; application of deicer to OHL lines; inspection of p-way under extreme Emergency temperatures; keeping trains run through night to keep tracks free Maintenance of snow and ice during extreme cold conditions; application of low adhesion treatment on rail tracks; temporary repairs to ensure continued rail line access. Invest in lifecycle instrumentation and monitoring and explore innovative approaches for 3.3.  data collection and management Such approaches includes: ‰ Monitoring instruments measuring slope movements, water levels, temperature, etc. to reduce the risk of climate-induced failures via the timely triggering of maintenance actions.5 ‰ Intelligent Transportation Systems that use advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things (IoT). For instance, by using predictive analytics and real-time data on temperature, vibration, and noise levels along the rail tracks, operators can detect patterns and predict potential failures (such as buckling) before they occur. ‰ Rolling stock monitoring (for example, temperature monitoring sensors, vibration sensors, etc.) that can improve the scheduling of fleet maintenance and may be integrated into a conditioned-based maintenance plan. 3.4. Promote the use of smart asset management tools ‰ Develop modern GIS-based solutions that provide continuous insights into railway operations allowing the collection, integration, and processing of various information layers relevant to: • The location and condition of railway network infrastructure (for example, tracks, bridges, stations) • The location of trains Upon installation, expert knowledge is required to develop asset-specific thresholds for action (for example, the amount of slope 5 deformation triggering intervention activities). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note96 Railways and urban rail • Monitoring instruments along the railway • Weather forecasts and early warnings for extreme weather events • Risk-related data (for example, embedded flood risk maps for the network of interest) • Damage/loss records from past events • Financial data (for example, capital expenditures, O&M costs) ‰ Ensure regular updating of the asset management tool, which is a dynamic instrument, and related data. 3.5. Employ O&M key performance indicators (KPIs) to assess resilience ‰ Indicative KPIs includes: • Asset condition scores above a minimum threshold • Operational metrics, such as the post-disaster operating speed as a percentage of speed during normal operations or the average post-disaster dwell time at station platforms compared to normal operations or the number of train cancellations in the aftermath of a disaster event. Relevant examples are provided in Appendix B. ‰ Consider adopting performance-based contracts to explicitly link payment with system performance, thus providing a powerful incentive for the contractor that operates/maintains the asset. This applies to projects developed via public-private partnerships (PPPs) or operated/maintained under a service management contract. In this case, maintenance protocols and associated operational indicators are incorporated within the contract structure. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note97 Railways and urban rail   Contingency planning 4.1. Develop coordinated emergency and resilience plans ‰ Develop a coordinated contingency plan cooperating with local emergency services (for example, fire brigade). ‰ Promote the establishment of an alert/crisis committee that will overview the emergency response plan implementation, assign responsibilities and duties, and ensure that all internal and external resources are located in the appropriate places. ‰ Design a risk-based strategy for speed restrictions, line closures and reduced passenger capacity during emergencies (for example, devise special timetables). ‰ Develop an evacuation plan that outlines the procedures to be followed in case of an emergency evacuation. ‰ Train the railway network personnel to timely and efficiently implement emergency response protocols and keep them informed at all times during an emergency so that updates can be relayed to customers. 4.2. Ensure availability of resources ‰ Check the availability of required emergency equipment (for example, pumps, de-icing machines, rotary snow ploughs, movable dams, sandbags, cranes) and have trained personnel on standby to assist during the emergency and accelerate restoration efforts. ‰ Ensure the availability of spare parts, additional cables and other materials which are known to break in hard winter conditions and increase the throughput of yards and depots. ‰ Improve the performance of rolling stock and equipment to eliminate disruptions under severe weather conditions (for example, investigating options to modify the rolling stock to prevent snow and ice accumulation on undercarriages ‰ Engage the relevant public and private authorities in disaster preparedness and emergency management efforts to ensure the strategic and timely provision of financial assistance to priority needs, through explicit agreements about the cost coverage of emergency and recovery actions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note98 Railways and urban rail 4.3. Plan for redundancies ‰ Establish alternative transit options and detours to maintain service continuity during natural disasters. (for example, establish emergency detours using bus services). ‰ Develop contingency plans for disruptions in interdependent lifeline services (for example, electricity). For example: • Own mobile power supply stations • E  nsure the availability of diesel engines as replacement traction in areas most likely to be affected by electrical grid disruptions and provide contracts for use in emergencies ‰ Build up emergency points at central locations, with all potential devices needed for damage elimination, rescue and re-start of traffic. 4.4. Employ advances in ICT technology to better communicate the emergency ‰ Improve communication infrastructure to ensure effective coordination during emergencies. For example, install common control and steering centers including rail and emergency services. ‰ Coordinate with meteorological agencies and establish channels to receive real-time weather forecasts for emergency planning. ‰ Install warning systems capable of alerting train drivers in advance about necessary speed reductions, or that can promptly halt train operations in the event of an emergency (for example, a rockslide or landslide). ‰ Devise a concise communication plan for real-time delivery of emergency information to railway passengers and clients (online, but also locally, for example, via digitally displayed emergency timetables in stations). Promote the use of social media for updates on service disruptions or emergency situations, and the development of mobile apps for sharing information on alternative transit options or evacuation routes. 4.5. Explore disaster risk/contingent financing instruments ‰ Explore adaptation contingent finance that can be delivered from various sources through different mechanisms and instruments. A non-exhaustive list of innovative contingent financing solutions includes: • Reserve or emergency fund accounts to cover the rising cost of climate-induced disruptions • Contingent credit line provisions to secure financing and support recovery efforts after climate disasters • Financial de-risking instruments (state guarantees or DFI’s de-risking) to incentivize private-sector participation in high-risk projects • Immediate response instruments, such as the World Bank’s Contingent Emergency Response Components (CERCs) and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (CAT-DDOs) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note99 Railways and urban rail 4.6. Explore tech-enabled solutions for rapid damage assessment of railway infrastructure ‰ Use mobile mapping systems, such as drones, to map the condition of distributed assets quickly and accurately (for example, railway tracks and bridges). ‰ Implement sensor-aided real-time monitoring: Typically used for O&M purposes, such sensors would allow authorities to quickly identify and respond to damage in the aftermath of a disaster. Indicative examples include sensors installed on railway tracks to monitor signs of damage or wear. Given the complexity of railway networks, it’s crucial to devise contingency plans addressing not only disruptions within the network but also those affecting interdependent lifeline services, such as energy, water, and telecommunications. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note100 Railways and urban rail   Institutional capacity and coordination 5.1. Support authorities and rail service providers in building adaptive capacity ‰ Identify gaps and priority areas for capacity building by performing maturity assessments for the different rail institutions. Following internationally accepted approaches such as the Climate Capacity Diagnosis and Development (CaDD) frameworkxiii will increase the credibility of the results. List actions that can fill the identified gaps and improve institutional capacity. Such actions includes: • Establishing protocols for drivers to report any evidence of track fault they detect • L  everaging existing knowledge on the mitigation of climate change impacts from similar rail projects in comparable environments ‰ Allocate resources explicitly for capacity building and ensure that relevant actions are implemented with proven results (for example, perform regular knowledge tests). ‰ Train staff with skills and knowledge necessary for all phases of a rail project (planning, design, O&M and contingency planning) and organize joint exercises with local emergency services. ‰ Develop and distribute comprehensive guidelines, informative leaflets, and other educational materials aimed at raising awareness of adaptation to climate change and familiarizing stakeholders with emergency protocols within the rail transport system. Promote, update, and ensure improved design standards that incorporate resilience against 5.2.  extreme weather events ‰ Consider updating design standards for drainage systems based on future flood risk predictions, improving catenary designs to avoid failure in case of harsh weather events, and following ground station surge and lightning protection design guidelines. Establish/rationalize the institutional framework for facilitating Private Sector 5.3.  Participation ‰ Inform and balance the risk allocation between public and private partners by explicitly distributing responsibilities and actions. ‰ Incorporate specific climate adaptation contract provisions in PPPs. Indicatively consider: • Inclusion of climate provisions in tender documents (RFPs, RFQs) • Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) specifying recovery targets • Tariff incentives/tax exemptions for enhanced alignment with resilience targets • P  rovisions for flexible tariff models and cost-sharing mechanisms to facilitate climate interventions during the O&M phase of the project • Third-party monitoring of climate-adaptation works • Create effective procedures to resolve disputes specifically related to climate risks Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note101 Railways and urban rail Enhance cross-sectoral coordination and interdisciplinary collaboration to optimize the 5.4.  efficiency of resilience planning and response activities ‰ Prepare a comprehensive cross-sectoral protocol that defines how and by whom the minimum required service standards are applied under normal conditions (for example, freight or passenger service continuity, local or long-distance time travel targets, etc.) and how and by whom they are gradually reintroduced in case of extreme events. ‰ Engage with relevant entities that can contribute to the climate-resilience-enabling environment by providing data, expertise, or on-site assistance during the emergency (for example, research institutes, meteorological organizations, metropolitan authorities, ministries, fire departments). ‰ Explore opportunities for mutual benefits, such as shared capacity-building activities or exchange of relevant information. Harmonize procedures across units participating in post-disaster emergency operations to 5.5.  facilitate recovery actions ‰ Standardize post-disaster assessment forms that are specific to rail systems and train local responders on their use (for example, implement scoring systems to evaluate the condition of specific components of rail tracks, such as rails, sleepers, ballast, switches, and crossings). ‰ Establish inspection and assessment protocols, prioritizing known vulnerable locations and critical infrastructure. ‰ Standardize weather information and hazard warnings across the region, by establishing a common hazard classification protocol, recognizable across the rail stakeholders, rail services, and ideally across the different transport sub-sectors overall (for example, railway, highways, different urban transport modes, etc.). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note102 Railways and urban rail Case studies International best practice Combating Alpine hazards in Austria The majority of alpine hazards are triggered by extreme/severe meteorological conditions such as heavy precipitation, rapid snow melt or extreme temperatures. In the future, the risk from Alpine hazards could significantly increase due to the impact of climate change. To minimize direct damage to railway infrastructure, structural protections measures are implemented by the Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB Infra AG) along with its partners where this is economically, technically, and environmentally feasible. However, especially in the alpine environment, full protection is not possible, and the risk profile continuously changes due to climate change. To ensure the safe and continuous operation of the network and the safety of passengers, complementary weather monitoring and early warning systems were installed. Best practices Contingency planning • Development of a weather monitoring and early warning system. This interactive web-portal combines data from own and external weather stations, radars, satellites as well as local and global weather projections with detailed information on the complete railway network in Austria. It provides a calculation of important meteorological parameters like temperature, wind speed, precipitation, snowfall, and the snow line at a local level. [Step 4.4] • Emergency planning based on weather warnings such as the installation of an incidence command that decides about operational safety precautions (that is, speed limits, track closures or temporary mitigation measures). [Step 4.4] Institutional capacity and coordination • Development of a cooperation mechanism with other state/regional authorities and local communities, when the planned measures also protect neighboring settlements or interdependent infrastructure (for example, roads or energy supply). [Step 5.3] • Partnerships and vital cooperation between various stakeholders at different administrative levels: • At a superordinate level, ÖBB Infra AG cooperates with federal ministries on strategic issues such as decisions in legislation and technical standards. • At the level of structural risk reduction measures, ÖBB Infra AG cooperates with regional authorities, communities and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management (BMLFUW). • Regarding non-structural measures, ÖBB Infra AG cooperates with the private sector, academic institutions and regional authorities for operating the weather monitoring and early warning system and to improve risk assessments. [Step 5.3] More information at: https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/metadata/case-studies/building- railway-transport-resilience-to-alpine-hazards-in-austria Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note103 Railways and urban rail Case studies World Bank Group operation Strengthening Resilience of EDFC in India The World Bank is financing 1193 km of the 1839 km long Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (EDFC) Project, that proposes to develop a dedicated railway line (parallel to the existing passenger track) connecting Ludhiana, Khurja (Delhi), and Dankuni (Kolkata). The project is being implemented by the Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL). Authorities and experts identify fog, temperature variation, and floods as the main climate change hazards for the corridor. The objective of this technical assignment (Strengthening resilience of EDFC-Ref. 7188719) is to propose solutions to strengthen the Resilience of EDFC and thereby of DFC against the identified climate factors. Best practices System planning & financing • Identified critical flood risk locations for which a detailed flood flow analysis was recommended. [Steps 1.2/1.3] • Examined fog as an additional weather hazard [Step 1.2] • Conducted flood risk assessment: Screening, mapping and hotspot prioritization study that established critical precipitation thresholds (downpour/duration triggers) [Steps 1.3/1.4] • Developed Weather Risk Management Plans (Fog, Temperature, Flooding) [Step 1.6] Engineering & design • Proposed remedial measures to most vulnerable structures following assessment. [Step 2.3] Contingency planning • Recommended the installation of direct precipitation early warning system (EWS) [Step 4.4] • Recommended the development of an integrated all-hazards EWS [Step 4.4] Institutional capacity & coordination • Made recommendations to improve resilience including the development of climate allowances and new design standards. [Step 5.2] • Facilitated participation of the Indian Meteorology Department and Central Water Commission, critical in providing forecast information to EDFC. [Step 5.4] More information at: https://www.gfdrr.org/en/feature-story/results-resilience-railways-resilience- strengthening-climate-resilience-freight Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note104 E. Maritime and inland waterways Ports and navigable waterways operate as parts of a complex network of systems, including the dependent supply chains, hinterland access transport corridors, supporting lifeline services, local populations, and the environment. Disaster-induced disruptions in such interconnected networks have therefore disproportionate impacts on both regional economies and people. Reduced serviceability in one or more of the network’s components can cause delays and disruptions in supply chain logistics, resulting in lost revenue for shippers and carriers and increased costs or supply shortages for dependent industries and consumers, which propagate far beyond the extents of the physical infrastructure at stake. In contrast to all other transport sub-sectors, maritime and waterways primarily transport goods, and people to a lesser extent. However, port closures may cause significant societal impacts, compromising the accessibility of local populations to essential goods and services or even leading to communities’ isolation, especially in the case of small island states where waterborne infrastructure is the only mode of transport. For port operators, the impact of natural disasters and climate change incurs not only significant direct losses stemming from physical asset damage, but also translates to revenue losses due to lost tariffs and disruption of cargo loading/unloading services. This leads to increased vessel dwell times and inflated terminal operating costs, as well as indirect losses related to the loss of trust in their ability to efficiently deliver services. This note provides a roadmap for seaports/river ports and waterways aiming to build disaster resilience across the five pillars of a project’s life cycle, while promoting adaptive project planning strategies to accommodate the increased uncertainty of climate change projections associated with coastal/riverine hazards. Highlights System planning and financing • Evaluate the impact of natural and climate hazards on the functionality of port systems and interconnected infrastructure, considering both current and future climate trends. • Advocate for an interdisciplinary planning approach that harmonizes proposed solutions with strategic goals and the objectives of various stakeholders (for example, port authorities, terminal operators, cargo carriers/shippers, and environmental organizations). Engineering and design • Prioritize adaptive Engineering and design options that can accommodate climate uncertainty. • Evaluate alternative adaptation interventions at the project level using innovative analysis that takes into account the high uncertainty in water level projections, precipitation patterns, winds, waves, and temperature changes. Operations and maintenance • Adapt O&M practices (proper dredging, marking, monitoring of water levels, etc.) to the changing climate to provide better continuity of services, by addressing reduced river levels and sedimentation issues among others. • Leverage ICT innovations for real-time monitoring of river or sea conditions. Contingency planning • Provide emergency vessels to prevent isolation during disasters, given that maritime and inland waterway systems might be the only modes of transport for some communities, particularly on small islands. • Exploit advancements in information systems technology to improve contingency planning via real-time communication of weather alerts. Institutional capacity and coordination • Foster cross-collaboration with research partners to facilitate dialogue among the industry, scientific community, and policymakers, thereby advancing the development of resilient strategies for the sector. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note106 Maritime and inland waterways   System planning and financing 1.0. Build awareness among key stakeholders and review existing policies ‰ Conduct specialized stakeholder workshops: Organize targeted workshops for public authorities, universities, and private sector stakeholders to highlight specific vulnerabilities in maritime and inland waterways transport systems and the urgency of adopting climate- resilient measures. Tailor content to the expertise and roles of each group. ‰ Integrate resilience into policy agendas: Advocate for the inclusion of climate-resilient transport as a priority in development and infrastructure policies, linking it to economic growth, disaster preparedness, and community well-being. ‰ Showcase local and global success stories: Promote and share relevant case studies and pilot projects from around the world with high-level decision makers to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of climate-resilient transport systems. Use these examples to inspire action and provide a practical roadmap for implementation. ‰ Conduct a comprehensive review of existing climate-related and/or environmental policies, in particular at the ports. If no policy is in place, establish a team to benchmark relevant national and international policies, standards, and environmental objectives. This process should also include identifying climate-related and environmental issues within the ports and utilizing a tool to rank these issues based on their significance. 1.1. Set measurable disaster resilience targets linked to system-level performance indicators ‰ Recognize the role of the maritime/inland waterway system as part of an interdependent network of systems that includes: • The onward, regional transport modes, and the dependent supply chain networks (regional or global) • The dependent populations • The interconnected services, such as electric power, fuels, water, wastewater, and communications • The natural environment (marine/riverine) and its sustainability ‰ Think of the possible ways the changing climate may affect the system operations and determine the resilience priorities of the system. Priorities should address: • Safeguarding operational and supply-chain continuity • Securing inter-modal connectivity and passenger mobility • Strengthening physical assets and enhancing preparedness of processes • Safety of navigation and personnel • Alignment with environmental goals Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note107 Maritime and inland waterways ‰ Link these priorities with measurable system-level performance indicators/thresholds, such as recovery time objectives for critical operations. Appendix B summarizes resilience indicators to be considered in this step. ‰ Consider setting up an integrated Corridor Management Authority for regional waterways corridors in particular, which would be responsible for planning, defining adequate targets, and managing the supply chain networks and regional transport connections. 1.2. Identify the natural hazards affecting the system and its operations The sector is prone to disruptions stemming from climate-related hazards, such as heavy precipitation (leading to high flows or flooding), extreme heat and drought (resulting in low-level waters that inhibit navigation), extreme cold and ice, and extreme winds, and water level increases due to climate change particularly for smaller inland/protected ports. Due to the changing climate, both current and future hazard intensities are accounted for, based on appropriate projection models. For further details and an indicative list of hazards affecting the maritime & waterways sector, refer to Appendix A and B, respectively. In addition to the qualitative classification of hazards, the Port Reform Toolkit (Environmental Sustainability Module) developed by the World Bank provides useful detailed information. In particular, it identifies quantitative hazard thresholds for ports, at which a respective operation will have to stop, (cf. Table 1: Safe operating thresholds in ports during selected weather conditions exacerbated by climate change, p.25-26.). 1.3. Assess the system vulnerability to hazard-related disruptions ‰ Map the port system: Create an inventory of port infrastructure assets (waterfront structures such as quay walls and locks, navigation channels, port storage areas, industrial buildings and yard facilities, equipment, vessels etc.), operations (dredging, cargo handling, recreational use etc.), supporting systems (for example, RIS, tracking systems etc.) and associated interdependencies. ‰ Map the dependent socio-economic environment: Adopt a system of systems approach to map the critical transport/supply-chain network in which the port/waterway is embedded as a node, thereby considering: • The main hinterland road/rail corridors and the lifeline services (for example, power plants) that support the functioning of the system • The volume of traded (imported/exported) goods • The populations served by the port infrastructure • The existence of alternative modes of transport with regard to the movement of both people and goods. Try to map all different stakeholders and the environmental resources possibly affected by the system’s operations. ‰ Map hazard exposure: Overlay hazard and critical network (port/waterway and interdependent infrastructure) maps to identify whether the network is impacted by each one of the hazards identified in the previous step. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note108 Maritime and inland waterways ‰ Determine the criticality of individual network components, considering disruption impacts on (indicative list of criteria): • Safety • Economy and business continuity • Local communities • Environmental sustainability. Criticality assessments are proportional to the scale of the facility and could be qualitative at this stage ‰ Estimate the likely severity and implications by exploring hypothetical but plausible ‘what if’ scenarios. For example, what would happen to critical assets, operations, and systems if double or half of the usual winter rainfall was received? ‘What-if’ scenarios may also describe changes in demand, lead times, market share, etc. triggered/exacerbated by the changing climate. For example, climate-related changes in agricultural production may result in a demand for increased seasonal capacity of waterways and ports. The output of this step will assist prioritization of decisions by highlighting critical points of failure calling for immediate adaptation action. 1.4. Understand physical infrastructure vulnerability ‰ Rate the sensitivity of the port/waterway infrastructure to climate or disaster-induced stressing. If a refined (asset-specific) vulnerability assessment is not feasible at this stage due to the lack of data, employ qualitative vulnerability indicators such as: • Residual asset life • Operational thresholds (for example extreme wind under which facility operations are impaired) • Compliance with up-to-date design standards • Historic data on damages or good performance during disaster events • Lack of adaptation measures against the identified hazards ‰ Estimate the expected asset damage for characteristic levels of stressing associated with a range of possible climate scenarios (for example, crane damage due to extreme wind speeds, temporary inundation of a seaport terminal due to high wave heights, hull damage due to collision with floating objects during storms or hurricanes). This is essential for developing adaptation plans that recognize and accommodate climate uncertainties while avoiding maladaptation. 1.5. Assess the potential impacts and losses on the port/waterway system ‰ Based on the knowledge of hazard exposure, assets’ vulnerabilities, and the criticality of each network component, assess potential impacts for each Hazard type (and level of stressing) in terms of: • Direct Losses due to damage to the port infrastructure and vessels. • Operational (or capacity) loss, leading to decreased throughput of ports either as a result of temporarily reduced handling capacity (for example, due to yard congestion) or blank sailing (that is, when a shipment is cancelled). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note109 Maritime and inland waterways • Logistics losses to carriers and shippers due to downtime (losses due to late delivery, inventory loss etc.). • Cascading socio-economic losses due to supply shortages for industries dependent on the import/export activities of a port and raised prices for consumers. • Loss of connectivity for local populations: Port/waterway disruptions may result in the isolation of local populations, especially when no alternative mode of transport is available (for example, on small islands). • User and personnel safety: Failure of large structures or equipment (for example, cranes) may result in loss of life. • Externalities: Even in cases where the port/waterway is not directly impacted, losses may arise due to the damage/functionality loss of interrelated network components (for example, damages to access roads or power outages). 1.6. Develop integrated, high-level adaptation plans ‰ Map high-level adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts identified in Step 1.5. Possible solutions could include: • Limitation of new developments in high-risk areas • E  xploitation of interconnectivity, inter-modality or the use of other transport modes to retain business continuity during disruption periods ‰ Appraise the alternatives using a Multi-Criteria Analysis (or similar). Employ a set of suitable assessment criteria, for example, correlated with: the cost efficiency, assessed over the asset’s life cycle and at the system level, the timeliness, the flexibility (whether the strategy is sufficiently flexible to adjust to the high uncertainty of climate change projections), and the ecological impacts of the solution (for example, combining navigation canals and levees to prevent urban flooding disconnects soils from natural hydrography, increasing sediment consolidation). ‰ Promote an interdisciplinary planning approach that will align the proposed solutions with strategic goals (Step 1.1) and stakeholder objectives (for example, port authorities, terminal operators, cargo carriers/shippers, environmental organizations). ‰ Come up with ways to manage the externalities identified in Step 1.5 (for example, co-ordinate disaster relief efforts, explore risk-transfer options). ‰ In case of high-impact unmitigated risks consider abandoning or relocating the project. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note110 Maritime and inland waterways 1.7. Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resilience A non-exhaustive list of innovative maritime or inland waterways project financing solutions includes: ‰ Public-private partnerships (PPPs): PPPs can be used to finance resilience measures by leveraging private sector investment and expertise (for example, BOT scheme for the development and operation of flood-proof ports). ‰ Pricing incentives such as navigation fees, transit fees, overloading fines, or imposition of a fuel levy, can help financing adaptation works (by going towards a waterway maintenance fund for example). ‰ Structuring lease-tariffs on the basis of environmental impact. ‰ Revenues from hinterland freight transport movements to ports to co-finance resilience and sustainability plans. ‰ Green-bonds or sustainability-linked loans to finance resilient, nature-based or green infrastructure solutions. ‰ Climate funds for developing countries, such as the Green Climate Fund or the Adaptation Fund. ‰ Carbon credit or pricing mechanisms, by placing a monetary value to greenhouse gas emissions reductions achieved through a shift to waterway transportation and using the revenue to fund adaptation measures. Besides, port authorities can opt to include natural sequestration schemes, like sea grass and mangrove planting, and receive payments from carbon markets for sequestering carbon. ‰ Habitat banking: Port authorities can help other parties to compensate for lost marine habitats and receive payments for doing so. ‰ Any type of risk-transfer mechanism (including, traditional insurance, parametric coverage, and weather derivatives), and advisory support, offering financial protection against a wide range of shocks: droughts, floods, tropical cyclone, earthquake, tsunami, etc. ‰ Project bundling. Overcome the barrier of financing less commercially attractive with limited revenue potential by bundling them with projects having a more favorable risk-return profile. ‰ Government subsidies (for example, tax incentives) to a private party for climate-resilient maritime or inland waterways projects. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note111 Maritime and inland waterways   Engineering and design 2.1. Downscale hazard ‰ Update hazard maps (climatological, geomorphological, etc.) at the project level to capture the effect of local environmental parameters that potentially aggravate hazards (for example, global climate models do not provide information on hydrodynamic effects, such as wave impacts, during storm surges) to inform the engineering design. Collaborate with research institutions and governmental agencies to obtain high resolution hazard data for present and future climate conditions. Consider evidence from past disasters and extreme weather events. 2.2. Create a portfolio of potentially effective climate adaptation measures In accordance with the nature of hazard and its anticipated impacts, the planning horizon, the available technical and financial resources, and the resilience targets set in Step 1.1. The proposed interventions should: ‰ Promote sustainable solutions (that is, nature-based solutions (NBS) or soft-engineering solutions such as simply relocating the project activity to a less vulnerable area within the port when possible) that lower the carbon footprint and may be associated with reduced capital expenses. ‰ Explore innovative technologies and materials to minimize risk of disruption (for example, use of drought-tolerant vegetation or rainwater harvesting methods to mitigate the risk of flooding, while conserving water resources). ‰ Be flexible/adaptive to facilitate easy future upgrades or modifications as conditions demand. For example, rather than locking into a single worse-case climate change scenario and investing in a breakwater of a certain dimensions, it may be preferable to design a modular structure that can be easily raised, widened, or otherwise modified when the sea level rises above a pre-determined threshold. Refer to Appendix A for guidance on adaptive planning strategies. 2.3. Develop alternative adaptation pathways at the project level ‰ Perform a preliminary screening of the alternative adaptation measures for the project, considering criteria such as the level of risk reduction, the relative cost, the adaptive capacity of the intervention, the risk of maladaptation in the face of uncertainty, the solution’s contribution to the increase of system competitiveness, the compatibility with existing planning initiatives and stakeholders objectives, and other co-benefits. ‰ Build a comprehensive adaptive management plan combining short and long-term adaptation measures. Where possible, the plan shall prescribe thresholds for the stepwise implementation of the adaptation pathway and include a monitoring program of local environmental parameters to assist/validate decisions on future actions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note112 Maritime and inland waterways ‰ Perform detailed design of the shortlisted strategies against current and future climate scenarios. Conduct detailed technical investigations and analysis with the aid of engineering experts where required. 2.4. Evaluate/prioritize the shortlisted interventions ‰ Utilize the methodology proposed by the Port Reform Toolkit Environmental Sustainability module, which follows three axes: the climate risk reduction (in percentage terms is proposed from several studies), cost, and the time to implement the intervention (short, medium, long-term). It is important to note that the third axis will help define the period until the impact becomes directly measurable. ‰ Employ Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) to identify the strategies that maximize the benefit-cost ratio for short investment horizons (for example, ten years or less) and low uncertainty in climate risk probabilities. During the process, incorporate all disaster-related costs & benefits: capital expenditures, incurring O&M costs, cost of externalities, direct adaptation benefits (for example, reduction of logistics losses), and potential co-benefits (for example, lock-and- dam system upgrades improve the performance of waterways during extreme events, while reducing GHG emissions due to improved energy efficiency). ‰ Employ methods that can incorporate uncertainty with the support of experts knowledgeable in more advanced evaluation techniques for long investment horizons and high uncertainty in climate risk probabilities. For example, the World Bank Climate Change Group’s climate and disaster risk stress test methodology, the Decision-Making under Deep Uncertainty (DMDU) approach, the Robust Decision Making (RDM) approach, Real option analysis, etc. Indicative list of adaptation solutions for ports & waterways Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Coastal/river flooding • Water/wave barriers (dikes, • Forecasting and flood warning • Installation of sustainable levees, breakwaters) systems drainage systems (SuDS), • Construction of embankments • Topographic surveys and reed-beds, gullies. around critical assets and ‘during event’ monitoring to • Hybrid breakwaters equipment (example, back-up map flood risk areas. accommodating an generators) • Predictive modelling for abundance of sea-life • Protection through elevation controlled water discharge (example, oyster reefs) can of storage facilities, quays, during extreme climatic events mitigate shoreline loss and access roads etc. (keeping water level near to facilitate fisheries. • Steepening of apron gradients normal navigation conditions) of quay walls to accelerate drainage Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note113 Maritime and inland waterways Indicative list of adaptation solutions for ports & waterways Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | River/coastal erosion and sedimentation • Erosion control through • Monitoring and record keeping • Restoration/planting of groynes and training walls on location-specific sediment mangroves, saltmarshes, reef • Dredging to improve or debris-related metrics ecosystems conveyance • Re-negotiation of dredging • Beach nourishment to impede • Use of sediment traps, buffer contracts erosion caused by breakwater strips, etc. to reduce sediment structures. run-off into watercourse • Installation of artificial reefs • Modernize the Inland Water to dampen wave energy and Transport fleet to incorporate attenuate wake effects in hull designs that result in less waterways. underwater ‘drag’ & wash creation, reducing bank erosion   Hazard type | Drought • Construction of vertical quays • Development/use of low-flow • Restoration of riparian in river ports to accommodate warning systems (physical or vegetation to increase water transshipment even under low electronic flags) retention in the soil water conditions. • Use of dynamic under keel • Water-saving basins/water clearance (DUKC) technologies reservoirs or leakage reduction • Adaptive lock-and-dam measures for locks & canals systems for improving • Lengthening/retrofitting of navigation conditions in low existing gangways, walkways, water level conditions. linkspans   Hazard type | Excessive heat/excessive cold or ice • Surfaces treatment against • Use of SCADA to monitor • Restore/maintain greenery to excessive heat or excessive temperatures reduce temperatures cold/ice” (example, anti-skid • Monitoring and record surface, porous/reflective keeping on location-specific coating, high albedo surfacing temperature-related metrics materials) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note114 Maritime and inland waterways Indicative list of adaptation solutions for ports & waterways Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Wind gusts • Wind-proofing of cranes, • Early warning systems hanging signals, and • Use of new mooring lightweight equipment technology, example, vacuum • Installation of wind breaks mooring systems • Provision of adequate • Upgrade of maneuvering & fendering systems navigation aids (example, beacons, lights, buoys) • Enhancement of pilotage provisions example, for certain vessel classes increase pilot numbers; train personnel   Hazard type | Fog/Low-visibility conditions • Installation of multi-modal • Early warning systems cranes and other equipment • Enhancement of pilotage for use when prolonged fog provisions example, for certain precludes river use vessel classes increase pilot • Installation of warning numbers; train personnel equipment: fog horns, radar, high visibility lighting, etc. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note115 Maritime and inland waterways   Operations and maintenance 3.1. Develop resilient O&M strategies & plans ‰ Update traditional asset management approaches with risk-based activities. Assess the condition of critical assets and monitor their performance over time (for example, corrosion affecting the structural integrity of cranes; cracks and openings on pavements; settlements of quay walls and permanent deformations of bearing elements; river/sea-bed dynamics) to effectively act once critical risk thresholds are met (or local environmental indicators are measured). ‰ Promote preventive maintenance activities and address repair needs promptly, to increase the useful lifespan of assets, and ensure adequate performance in day-to-day operations as well as likely extreme events. ‰ Manage the allocation of maintenance budget considering: optimization of operability (that is, minimization of climate induced disruptions), safety of users and personnel, minimization of environmental impacts. ‰ Adapt O&M practice (proper dredging, marking, monitoring of water levels, etc.) to the changing climate to provide better continuity of services based on: • Climate risk assessment • Monitoring of weather and sea conditions • Collaboration with stakeholders, such as shipping companies, local communities, and government agencies Examples of climate adaptive O&M strategies include: • Seasonal variation of water level: Maintaining minimum water levels in channels before the rainy season can help prevent flooding and minimize the risk of damage to infrastructure. Similarly, adjusting water levels during periods of drought can help maintain navigable depths and prevent disruptions to shipping operations. • Adaptation of cargo handling service hours during times of extreme heat (that is, re-scheduling to early morning or nighttime) to prevent health & safety issues and avoid excessive energy consumption for cooling. • Increase operation of coupled convoys where the payload can be distributed to several barges resulting in lower draught thus enabling navigation in low water conditions. • Adopt energy efficiency measures and optimize lighting and heating, air conditioning and ventilation systems. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note116 Maritime and inland waterways Examples of intervention actions (preventive, corrective, emergency) for ports & waterways. Renew and replace equipment before the end of lifetime; install Preventive anti-erosion and anti-scour protection; vegetate slopes; cut/clear Maintenance organic matter and manage invasive species in storage reservoirs, canals, towpaths; Dredging; debris removal; clearing of silt traps; repair damaged locks, fenders, and dams; seal cracks with epoxy injections; Corrective fill potholes; renew/replace armoring; renew damaged parts Maintenance of the drainage system, correct wharf settlements or relative displacements Post-disaster channel clearance operations, including ship salvage, removal and disposal of debris; conduct oil spill response Emergency operations; earthworks and soil stabilization actions to repair Maintenance settlements and lateral movements; restoration of fixed and floating aids. Invest in instrumentation and explore innovative approaches for data collection, condition 3.2.  inspection, and monitoring ‰ Employ state-of-the-art solutions in automation and digitalization to increase efficiency and to overcome accessibility restrictions, such as: • Measurements of local meteorological, oceanographic or hydrological data. Such information is invaluable in determining if local trends are in line with projected rates of climate change, as well as informing decisions on ‘when’ an adaptation action or adaptive management response is needed (relevant to Step 2.4). • Subsea monitoring, using underwater drones and sensors, for condition assessment of underwater structures, such as berths, wharves, and foundations. • Rapid mapping of geospatially distributed assets (such as canals) using airborne asset mapping and damage inspection via drones and sensor-equipped aircrafts. • Autonomous vessels can help reduce the risk of accidents and improve the efficiency of shipping operations. If equipped with optical sensors and LiDAR, they can be used for surveying (for example, bathymetry measurement). • Autonomous loading/unloading operations through automated cranes and self-driving vehicles among others, which can operate without putting any human crane driver, vehicle driver, etc. at risk. • Shipborne measurements performed on board commercial vessels can provide insights into navigation performance in different conditions. • Internet of Things (IoT) can facilitate real-time monitoring of operations, vessel movements, cargo handling, and energy use. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note117 Maritime and inland waterways 3.3. Promote smart waterway and port infrastructure management systems ‰ Develop modern Internet of Things (IoT) solutions [Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) and River Information Systems (RIS)] to provide continuous insights into the navigability of waterways and the operability of ports allowing visualization and optimization of transport performance. Such platforms collect and process various information levels relevant to: • Fairway condition (navigation depths, topology of currents etc.) • Location of infrastructure and vessels •  eather forecast and early warning alerts for extreme events (storms, hurricanes, W tsunamis) • Vessel journeys, cargo loads •  nergy consumption performance (AIS systems provide a dataset that facilitates the E energy consumption related analysis but does not fully determine it, it requires to be combined with other data and model) • Data on asset condition and maintenance logs •  elevant financial data (for example, capital expenditures, maintenance costs, R and operations costs) • U  seful statistical data (for example, disaster registry including damage/loss records from past events) • nformation about key hinterland stakeholders such as logistics hubs and locations of key I third-party providers ‰ Ensure regular updating of the infrastructure management system – which must be designed as a dynamic instrument, and related data. 3.4. Monitor the efficiency of the O&M plan ‰ Evaluate the applied strategies against assigned targets (Step 3.1) and relevant O&M performance indicators as systematic and objectively as possible. For example: frequency of preventive maintenance actions, cost and environmental impact of maintenance activities (refer to Appendix A for other relevant O&M indicators). ‰ Consider the stakeholders’ feedback on the implementation of the O&M plan. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note118 Maritime and inland waterways   Contingency planning 4.1. Develop and implement emergency plans ‰ Develop contingency and emergency plans that are coordinated and communicated effectively between all relevant entities, regardless of who leads them (Ship, Terminal, Port Facility, Port Authority, Maritime Administration, etc.) or which risks they address. ‰ Review and update plans regularly to reflect changes in the port/waterway environment, emerging risks, and evolving Best practices. ‰ Develop procedure manuals for all relevant hazards, including emergency berth applications and detailed instructions on the gradual securing and shutdown of port/waterway facilities upon alerts on forthcoming extreme weather events. ‰ Develop evacuation plans (for example, map the route to areas with safe height above sea level during tsunamis). ‰ Develop a program of frequent exercises and drills (for example, every 6 months or 1 year). 4.2. Ensure availability of resources Emergency plans must ensure the availability of essential resources and equipment during potential disastrous events. For communities whose only mode of transportation is waterborne (for example, those living on small islands), the availability of emergency vessels is of paramount importance to avoid population isolation. Other essential resources include: ‰ Emergency vehicles/vessels for post-disaster port/waterway inspections ‰ Demountable flood defenses (for example, sandbags, pallets, bricks, or similar materials) ‰ Trained staff on standby to accelerate restoration efforts ‰ Sufficient food and water supplies. 4.3. Plan for redundancies ‰ Plan for a certain port storage overcapacity, which will be used during demand peaks in the aftermath of a disaster event. Cargo may have to be stored for longer periods of time in the port due to weather-related downtimes, until transshipment to other modes of transport can be performed. ‰ Enhance hinterland connectivity and identify alternative detour options in the case of disaster-related accessibility restrictions. ‰ Develop back-up power generation facilities and consider placing/relocating satellite port facilities (for example, container depots and inland terminals) to lower-risk areas. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note119 Maritime and inland waterways ‰ Develop appropriate strategies to ensure continuous supply of key services or equipment in the aftermath of a disruption. For example: • Diversify suppliers for such services/equipment (for example, the supply of piloting services or port equipment spare parts) • Hold a buffer stock of critical resources at the port or at a convenient local storage facility (for example, fresh-water, fuel, spares for moving equipment) ‰ Foster collaboration between terminal operators within the same port or in neighboring regions/countries by adopting mutual support agreements. This approach allows a share of a terminal’s capacity to be made available to another terminal on a reciprocal basis in the event of disruption to help ensure continuity of cargo movement to the extent possible during extreme climate events. 4.4. Exploit advances in ICT technology to better communicate the emergency ‰ Implement/broaden emergency warning systems to encompass all considerable hazards. ‰ Ensure the timely issue of weather warnings to port infrastructure users (vessels, freight trucks and passengers), for example, via mobile phone alerts, social networks etc. ‰ Establish an effective Port Community System (PCS)6 to allow for automatic data sharing between all system stakeholders on various operational aspects (including weather-warning information or supply-chain logistics). ‰ Establish mechanisms for rapid information exchange between ships, incident command post and emergency control centers during a disruptive event (for example, communication with ships should preferably be via VHF to enhance communication network redundancy). ‰ Implement digital solutions to reduce/eliminate the burden of bureaucratic procedures during the restoration period (for example, online/automatic processes for the application and approval of building permits). Pave the legal & knowledge grounds for innovative procurement and supply models to 4.5.  quickly make response & recovery funds available For further guidance refer to Appendix A. An electronic platform that connects individual existing systems and databases to allow for automatic data sharing and 6 collaboration between port stakeholders (port operators, shipping lines, shipping agents, customs authorities, freight forwarders, logistics specialists, rail/road transport services providers etc.). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note120 Maritime and inland waterways 4.6. Explore disaster risk/contingent financing instruments Adaptation contingent finance can be delivered from various sources through different mechanisms and instruments. A non-exhaustive list of innovative contingent financing solutions includes: ‰ Reserve or emergency fund accounts to cover the rising cost of climate-induced disruptions. ‰ Contingent credit line provisions to secure financing and support recovery efforts after climate disasters. ‰ Financial de-risking instruments (state guarantees or DFI’s de-risking) to incentivize private- sector participation in high-risk projects. ‰ Immediate response instruments, such as the World Bank’s Contingent Emergency Response Components (CERCs) and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (CAT-DDOs). 4.7. Explore tech-enabled solutions for rapid damage assessment ‰ UAVs and sensor-equipped aircrafts for rapid, low-cost damage mapping of port or waterway assets. ‰ Remote sensing (via LiDAR or satellites) providing visually interpretable images. ‰ Underwater drones for subsea damage assessment of structures, such as berths, wharves, and foundations. Evaluate seaports and riverports as part of a network of systems, considering the resilience of regional inter-dependent infrastructure to ensure supply-chain continuity. Foster cross-collaboration between the industry, the scientific community and policy makers to develop of resilient strategies for the maritime & inland waterways sector. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note121 Maritime and inland waterways   Institutional capacity and coordination Establish/rationalize the institutional framework for facilitating Private Sector 5.1.  Participation If structured correctly, PPPs can offer innovative solutions to bolster resilience and provide well-informed and well-balanced risk allocation between partners. Indicative PPP contract provisions that may increase the attractiveness of projects having strong adaptation component: ‰ Inclusion of climate provisions in tender documents (RFPs, RFQs). ‰ Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) specifying recovery targets and climate-related inspection/ maintenance goals. ‰ Tariff incentives/tax exemptions for enhanced alignment with resilience targets. ‰ Provisions for flexible payment mechanisms to facilitate climate interventions during the O&M phase of the project. ‰ Third-party monitoring of climate-adaptation works. ‰ Establishment of clear dispute resolution mechanisms for climate risks. 5.2. Incorporate resilience considerations in engineering design standards and guidelines ‰ Capture climate variations (for example, changes in river morphology or discharge patterns) in designing engineering work. ‰ Promote the concept of “future-proof design” to ensure that infrastructure will be able to withstand the projected future effects of climate change over its design life Increase awareness in relevant authorities and key stakeholders and endorse knowledge 5.3.  sharing Examples of support actions include: ‰ Promote proactive collaboration on risk management planning with those responsible for critical infrastructure, utilities/services, and interconnected transport modes within the supply-chain network to protect business continuity. ‰ Inform stakeholders on the impacts of climate change on waterborne transport infrastructure. Indicatively: • Issue guidelines, leaflets or other information material on maintenance, preparedness, contingency planning, and procedures in emergency cases • Endorse climate adaptation strategies through pilot demonstrations ‰ Enhance professional qualifications in the sector to ensure availability of skilled personal and attractive job opportunities. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note122 Maritime and inland waterways ‰ Provide port personnel with training in the use of demountable defenses (placing sandbags, raising assets). ‰ Provide relevant parties with the required information to improve safety, optimize resource management, enhance the use of waterways, and protect the environment. 5.4. Foster stronger collaboration between waterways administrations ‰ Encourage the permanent and pro-active cooperation of river basin commissions. ‰ Propose/Facilitate the establishment of a joint ‘task force’ for rapid reaction in case of severe disturbances in navigation caused by climate-related phenomena. ‰ Motivate cross-collaboration with research partners to establish a dialogue between the scientific community, industry, and policy makers, and advance development of resilient strategies for the maritime and inland waterways sector. 5.5. Promote sustainable policies & governance frameworks ‰ Create a business environment of the highest safety standards. ‰ Make suggestions for creating an inland waterway space with minimal administrative barriers and with a maximally harmonized legislative and regulatory framework. ‰ Encourage the formation of multi-sector clusters and promote technological innovation for fleet modernization, fleet operation, port & terminal infrastructure. ‰ Incentivize the adoption of sustainable and climate-resiliency practices (for example, license fees might be reduced for vessels meeting certain emissions or design criteria). ‰ Communicate the need to recognize ports and waterways as strategic assets of national importance that require long-term, secured finance for infrastructure development. Encourage investments in digital infrastructure and promote interoperability between 5.6.  trans-agency data collection platforms ‰ Standardize weather information and hazard warnings across the system of systems, by establishing a common hazard classification protocol, recognizable across different stakeholders (port operators, shipping agents, freight carriers, inland transport services providers, power supply companies etc.). ‰ Facilitate/harmonize the online exchange of post-disaster damage assessment data among different stakeholders. ‰ Secure green funding for investments in digital infrastructure that underpin resilience objectives and help the maritime and/or inland waterway infrastructure adapt to the climate- change effects (for example, building smart monitoring networks). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note123 Maritime and inland waterways Case studies International best practice Ports and Planning for Resilience: Port of Lake Charles (PLC) – Louisiana Hurricane Rita made landfall on the border of Louisiana and Texas as a Category 3 storm in the early morning of September 24, 2005, causing damage to the infrastructure as well as the operations at the Port of Lake Charles (PLC) in Louisiana. However, leveraging its existing practices, PLC demonstrated swift response, efficient recovery, and timely restoration of services. Best practices Operations & maintenance • Advanced asset management system including video inventory of the assets on an annual basis (which is also used to assist with damage assessment and insurance claims after a disastrous event). [Step 3.1/3.3] Contingency planning • Hurricane Preparation, Response and Recovery Plan, which is reviewed each year and is made available to the public for their awareness. [Step 4.1] • Enough Meals Ready to Eat (MREs) and water for 20 people for seven days. [Step 4.2] • PLC grants emergency berth applications to vessels seeking shelter on the port premises during hurricanes. For response vessels, a designated location is available on the PLC’s wharf for mooring. [Step 4.1] • Updates to employees about weather warnings, Coast Guard alerts, obstructions in the channel, and anything else that might cause interruption to operations. [Step 4.4] • Recovery strategy including: • Purchase power generator to power its own facilities. [Step 4.3] • Acquired a cadet training ship from Texas A&M University with 200 bunks that became available for port employees, emergency workers, and displaced families and college students. [Step 4.2] • 55 acres of PLC’s property were leased to FEMA to build a trailer park with 500 mobile homes and temporary trailers to secure living space. [Step 4.3] Institutional capacity & coordination • Participation in two groups facilitated by the U.S. Coast Guard – the Port Coordination Team and the Calcasieu River Waterway Harbor Safety Committee. [Step 5.2] • Clear structure of responsibilities: the Port Coordination Team activates before, during, and after an emergency whereas the Harbor Safety Committee meets regularly throughout the year. [Step 5.2] • PLC participation in regular emergency planning exercises with the local parish Emergency Operations Center. [Step 5.3] More information at: https://www.alwelaie.com/website/thesesFiles/Ports%20Resilience%20 Index%20Participatory%20Methods%20to.pdf Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note124 Maritime and inland waterways Case studies World Bank Group operation Southern Waterways Logistics Corridor (P169954) The demand for inland waterway traffic in the southern region of Viet Nam has experienced robust growth in recent years. However, the existing infrastructure, including canal geometry, siltation, and water depth, along with navigation systems, lack the efficiency and capacity to meet this demand growth. This lending project aims to address some of the key challenges faced by inland waterways in Southern Viet Nam. Best practices Engineering & design • Design of a wide set of adaptation options for the inland waterway system: • Widening and deepening of the waterways. • Construction of embankments of about 37.5km. • Reconstruction of three bridges for higher and wider vessel clearances. • Reconstruction of 16 ferry landing stages. • Reconstruction of about 18 km access roads to connect with existing roads. • Construction of 86 irrigation and drainage-related items. • Installation of navigation aids along the entire route. • Roads upgrade to local roads class III and reconstruction of 0.6 km roads. • Increase of the drainage capacity of the canal systems. • Incorporation of climate and disaster risk factors in the design. [Steps 2.2/2.3] Contingency planning • Installation of a vessel traffic management system (VTMS) along the Cho Gao canal to provide: • Information services about the fairway (layout, depths), tides, weather, navigation rules and waiting facilities at both ends. [Step 4.4] • Traffic services. [Step 4.4] • Communication services through Very High frequency (VHF) radio between the control center & vessels. [Step 4.4] More information at: https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P169954 Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note125 F. Aviation Adverse weather events – exacerbated by climate change – pose a tangible challenge for the aviation sector, a reality that stakeholders are already confronting through rising temperatures, altered patterns of rainfall and wind, more frequent and persistent droughts, sea-level rise, and thawing permafrost. These climate-induced stressors, whether acute or chronic, may lead to physical infrastructure damage and impair airport operations. Reduced airport serviceability can cause substantial disruptions in regional or global supply chains, leading to shortages for industries and communities dependent on the airport’s import/export activities. Partial or complete airport shutdowns can generate cascading impacts for other airports and transport modes, engender loss of connectivity for populations in remote areas (for example, in small island states where airports serve as a critical mode of transport), and pose broader socio-economic challenges to the regional economy. For airport operators, the impact of adverse weather events incurs not only substantial operational and direct losses but also indirect losses stemming from reputation loss, which can in turn affect their demand patterns and reduce the facility’s attractiveness to the private sector. For passengers, flight delays or cancellations result in welfare losses, while airport tenants (airlines, ground handling service providers, air cargo agents) experience decreased revenues due to compensations, lost fares, or inventory losses. In this context, this guidance note offers a roadmap aimed at enhancing the resilience of airport systems across the five pillars of a project’s lifecycle, while promoting adaptive strategies to accommodate the increased uncertainty inherent in future climate projections. Highlights System planning & financing • Evaluate airports and air transport as key nodes of a global supply chain network, vital for ensuring business continuity and connectivity. • Consider both current and future climate scenarios in climate risk assessments, based on relevant climate change projection models. Engineering & design • Design resilient solutions for all airport components, including surrounding access infrastructure, electrical systems, and drainage capacity of runways and terminals. Strive to promote sustainable interventions that don’t expand the airport’s environmental footprint. • Encourage adaptive design strategies and appropriate economic evaluation techniques amid significant uncertainty over future climate projections. Operations & maintenance • Complement traditional asset management approaches with risk-based activities. • Leverage innovations in ICT (such as landing systems and capacity balancing tools) to predict and optimize landing and operations during adverse weather events. • Foster cross-collaboration between multiple airports and/or other transport agencies to optimize maintenance, repairs, and rehabilitation. Contingency planning • Develop protocols for adjusting operations and securing airport assets in response to alerts for upcoming extreme weather events. • Exploit advances in ICT to better communicate the emergency to passengers and airport tenants. Institutional capacity & coordination • Foster collaboration between multiple institutions (airport authorities, airport tenants, weather agencies, emergency management centers) for a coordinated approach during disruptions. • Establish communication protocols and utilize new ICT systems to facilitate rapid real-time data sharing between stakeholders when a disaster strikes. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note127 Aviation System planning and financing 1.0. Build awareness among key stakeholders and review existing policies ‰ Conduct specialized stakeholder workshops: Organize targeted workshops for public authorities, universities, and private sector stakeholders to highlight specific vulnerabilities in aviation transport systems and the urgency of adopting climate-resilient measures. Tailor content to the expertise and roles of each group. ‰ Integrate resilience into policy agendas: Review existing policies and advocate for the inclusion of climate-resilient transport as a priority in development and infrastructure policies, linking it to economic growth, disaster preparedness, and community well-being. ‰ Showcase local and global success stories: Promote and share relevant case studies and pilot projects from around the world with high-level decision makers to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of climate-resilient transport systems. Use these examples to inspire action and provide a practical roadmap for implementation. 1.1. Set measurable disaster resilience targets linked to system-level performance indicators ‰ Acknowledge the significance of airports and interconnected facilities as pivotal economic and employment hubs, multimodal transportation nodes, vital components of the national/ international commerce system and essential service providers for a wide range of stakeholders (that is, passengers, airlines, air cargo handlers, ground transportation providers, retailers etc.). ‰ Consider the potential impacts of climate change on system operations and define priorities for enhancing resilience. Priorities should focus on: a. Safeguarding operational and supply-chain continuity b. Maintaining inter-modal connectivity and passenger mobility c. Ensuring the safety of air navigation and personnel d. Complying with legal and environmental regulations e. Strengthening physical assets and improving emergency preparedness ‰ Link priorities with measurable system-level performance indicators (for example, maximum tolerable time to reach 100 percent of pre-disaster airport capacity). Appendix B summarizes pillar-and hazard-specific resilience indicators to consider in this step. 1.2. Identify the natural hazards affecting the airport system and its operations ‰ The sector is primarily impacted by acute weather events, including prolonged heavy precipitation, thunderstorms, snowfalls, and heat waves, as well as chronic climate-related hazards such as sea level rise, changing wind patterns and drought. Hazard assessments should take into account both current and future climate trends, using appropriate emission scenarios. For an indicative list of hazards affecting the aviation sector, refer to Appendix A and B, respectively. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note128 Aviation ‰ Align the timeframe of the hazard assessment and the emission scenario with the investment cycle (short or long-term) and the risk tolerance level of the facility (for example, an airport in a Small Island Developing State that is critical for the country’s livelihood and economy and has therefore very low-level of tolerance for disruptions, will choose a long-term planning horizon and a higher emission scenario to be better prepared for greater climate variability and extremes). 1.3. Assess the system vulnerability to hazard-related disruptions ‰ Compile an inventory of the airside (runways, taxiways, aircraft parking aprons, navigational and visual aids, air traffic control towers etc.) and landside airport infrastructure (terminal and administrative buildings, access roads, parking lots etc.), supporting facilities and systems (for example, drainage systems, energy distribution systems, fueling and de-icing facilities, ICT) and associated operations (for example, air traffic control, ground operations, airport slot management, baggage handling, fuel management, route development/planning etc.). ‰ Map the interdependent socio-economic environment: Employ a system of systems approach to map the transport/supply-chain networks in which the airport is embedded as a key node, considering among others: a. The annual volume of passengers and air freight transported b. The air connectivity to other domestic or international airports c. The primary road/rail corridors providing access to/from the airport d. The interdependencies with other sectors (for example, the energy sector) in view of cascading failures e. The system’s role in fostering regional economic development and driving GDP growth (for example, via support of commodity markets) ‰ Identify critical infrastructure components/operations considering the financial impact of a potential failure/interruption and secondary impacts on the broader system’s operations/ resilience targets (for example, the safety of users/personnel, business continuity, delivery of goods, accomplishment of sustainability initiatives etc.). ‰ Map hazard exposure and estimate the severity of potential disruptions: Identify any critical components of the airport and its interdependent environment that are within the threat zone of the hazards identified in Step 1.2. Create hypothetical but plausible ‘what if’ scenarios to fully appreciate the potential consequences of experiencing failure or temporary malfunction in any of the above components. For example, how would ground operations be affected if there was a prolonged heatwave? ‘What-if’ scenarios may also describe changes in passenger/ freight demand, permanent/temporary loss of connectivity with other nodes of the transport network triggered/exacerbated by the changing climate. For example, how would the air traffic be affected if the coastal access route to the airport was frequently inundated by storm surges during the high season? The output of this step will assist prioritization decisions by highlighting critical points of failure calling for immediate adaptation actions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note129 Aviation 1.4. Understand the physical infrastructure vulnerability ‰ Rate the sensitivity of airport and inter-connected transport infrastructure to climate or disaster-induced stressing. Assets with a low criticality score, as well as low magnitude and relatively uncertain hazards may be screened out at this stage. If a refined (asset-specific) vulnerability assessment is not feasible due to the lack of appropriate data, employ qualitative vulnerability indicators such as: a. Residual asset life b. Compliance with up-to-date design standards c. Evidenced-base vulnerabilities witnessed during past disaster events d. Lack of adaptation measures ‰ Estimate the expected asset damage/loss of functionality for different hazards and levels of stressing (exceeding the operational/design thresholds of the assets): for example, damage of communication equipment or electrical systems due to lightning strikes, structural damage to hangars or terminals due to hurricanes, runway damage due to inundation in heavy rainfalls, pavement buckling due to heat waves. 1.5. Assess the potential impacts and losses on the airport system ‰ Based on the knowledge of hazard exposure, assets’ vulnerabilities, and the criticality of each network component, assess potential impacts for each Hazard type (and level of stressing) in terms of: • Direct Losses due to damage to the airport (airside or landside) infrastructure. • Operational losses due to decreased airport throughput as a result of reduced runway usage, air navigation limitations or restrictions on ground handling services. • Logistics losses for commercial airlines and the aviation cargo transport (including lost fare revenues, passenger compensations, inventory losses) as a result of increased turnaround times or flight cancellations. • Passenger welfare losses due to itinerary changes and potential rebooking costs. • Decreased revenue for airport service providers (for example, parking operators and retailers) due to reduced flight activity or airport closures. • Cascading socio-economic losses due to for example, supply shortages for industries/ communities dependent on the airport import/export activities, decreased visitor numbers in tourism-dependent regions, isolation of small island states or other remote areas where airports are a critical mode of transport. • User and personnel safety: Failure of large structures or equipment (for example, cranes) may result in loss of life. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note130 Aviation • Externalities: Even in cases where the airport system is not directly impacted, losses/ disruptions may arise due to the damage of interrelated network components (for example, damage to ground transport access or utilities supply; ripple effects in the aviation system due to redirection of flights of alternate airports). • Where relevant, consider overlapping hazards as well (for example, low visibility conditions combined with freezing fog). 1.6. Develop integrated, high-level adaptation strategies ‰ Map high-level adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts and losses identified in Step 1.5. Possible adaptation solutions could, indicatively, include limiting new developments in high-risk areas (such as those near the coastline), planning for equipment upgrades to meet severe weather requirements, plan for redundancies, increase efficiency/modernize service management and operations (for example, adding flexibility in the booking/re-booking process). Note that adaptation strategies may vary depending on the demand and supply ratio of the facility as well as the type, duration, and intensity of the disruptions. ‰ Appraise the alternatives using a Multi-Criteria Analysis (or similar). Employ a set of suitable assessment criteria, for example, correlated with the cost efficiency, assessed over the asset’s life cycle and at the system level, the timeliness, the flexibility (whether the strategy is sufficiently flexible to adjust to the high uncertainty of climate change projections), the environmental impacts of the solution (for example, construction intensive solutions may create air quality compliance issues, when added to the operational airport emissions), and negative trade-offs (for example, moving departure times for heavier aircraft to cooler times of day to adapt to rising temperatures may increase noise disturbance). ‰ In case of high-impact unmitigated risks consider abandoning or relocating the project. 1.7. Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resilience A non-exhaustive list of innovative aviation project financing solutions includes: ‰ Public-private partnerships (PPPs): PPPs can be used to finance resilience measures by leveraging private sector investment and expertise (for example, PPP framework for the development and operation of a flood-proof airport). ‰ Pricing incentives and taxes on operators can help financing adaptation works. ‰ Passenger facility charge revenues (typically imposed as a surcharge on each enplaned passenger) to finance infrastructure investments that enhance the overall passenger experience and airport operations. ‰ Green bonds and sustainability linked bonds issued by airlines or airport operators (for example, in 2018 Amsterdam airport issues a $ 500M bond to finance energy-efficient buildings) ‰ General obligation bonds (backed by the full faith and credit of the issuing entity) or revenue bonds (backed by the revenue generated by the airport’s operations). ‰ Concessional Grants to finance expensive adaptation works that otherwise would breach the project’s affordability (for example, construction of major flood defenses in the airport perimeter). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note131 Aviation ‰ Developing and leasing airport property for both aeronautical uses (for example, aircraft maintenance facilities, fixed-base operator facilities, hangars, training centers, and cargo facilities) and nonaeronautical uses (for example, light industrial and commercial facilities). ‰ Climate funds for developing countries, such as the Green Climate Fund or the Adaptation Fund. ‰ Carbon pricing mechanisms, by placing a monetary value to greenhouse gas emissions and using the revenue to fund adaptation measures. ‰ Any type of risk-transfer mechanism (including, traditional insurance, parametric coverage, and weather derivatives), and advisory support, offering financial protection against a wide range of shocks: droughts, floods, tropical cyclone, earthquake, tsunami, etc. ‰ Project bundling. Overcome the barrier of financing less commercially attractive with limited revenue potential by bundling them with projects having a more favorable risk-return profile. ‰ Government subsidies (for example, tax incentives) to a private party for climate-resilient projects. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note132 Aviation   Engineering and design 2.1. Downscale hazard ‰ Update hazard maps (climatological, geomorphological etc.) at the project level to capture the effect of local environmental parameters that may potentially aggravate hazards (for example, global climate models do not provide information on regional variations in elevation and terrain features that may impact wind flow, precipitation patterns, and temperature gradients) to inform the engineering design. Collaborate with research institutions and governmental agencies, to obtain high resolution regional-level climate data, both historical and projected. 2.2. Design adaptation measures and build a comprehensive implementation plan ‰ Conduct a detailed, engineering analysis of the airport facility for different hazard scenarios and measure its performance in terms of the resilience targets of Step 1.1. ‰ Design adaptation measures/interventions that help minimize disruptions and increase the resilience of the facility. Make efforts to: • Promote sustainable practices (for example, replace gray with green infrastructure). • Explore innovative technologies & materials, for example, the use of permeable runways. • D  evise solutions that are flexible/adaptive to facilitate easy future upgrades or modifications as conditions demand. For example, additional length allowances in runways could facilitate extensions without the requirement for extensive reconstruction if the extreme heat projections materialize. Refer to Appendix A for guidance on adaptive strategies. ‰ Combine the adaptation measures of this step with the operational/planning interventions/ arrangements (of step 1.6) to build comprehensive climate adaptation plans targeting short and long-term investment horizons. 2.3. Appraise/prioritize adaptation plans ‰ Employ Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) to identify plans that maximize the benefit-cost ratio of the investment – cf. Part 1. During the process, incorporate all disaster-related costs & benefits: capital expenditures, O&M costs, cost of externalities, direct adaptation benefits (for example, reduction of asset damage and operational losses), and indirect benefits (for example, growth of nearby land value, which is also likely to benefit from such measures, safety of users, certainty of revenue, etc.). ‰ Incorporate CBA results as sub-criterion in a multi-criteria assessment that will also cover non-financial aspects (for example, environmental co-benefits, social factors), if necessary. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note133 Aviation Indicative list of adaptation solutions for aviation Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Flooding • Upgrade of storm water • Minimum elevation threshold • Installation of sustainable infrastructure (for example, above mean sea level for the drainage systems (SuDS) installation of flood-storage development of new terminals/ • Green roofs to minimize basins/detention ponds) runways run-off • Man-made bunding of the • Implementation of advanced • In coastal areas, retain or surrounding road network to weather observation systems, introduce natural barriers act as a fixed flood barrier for including automated weather against coastal flooding district level flood protection stations and access to satellite (mangroves, coastal • Permeable or grooved pavements data for early warning vegetation) • Elevation of critical equipment • Improved Air Traffic (for example, airside electrical Management (ATM) systems systems, navigation system to adjust capacity and demand batteries) above the 100-year imbalances during disruptions flood elevation (or similar) and plan for flight re-routing or cancellation • Installation of flood/tidal gates in culverts • Smartphone apps providing multi-modal transport • Installation/upgrade of pumping solutions for passengers stations for excess water removal from runways/taxiways   Hazard type | High temperatures • Surfaces treatment (example, • Use of SCADA to monitor • Creation of more vegetation anti-skid surface, porous/ temperatures or irrigated green spaces reflective coating, high albedo • Cooling of pavements with surfacing materials) against recycled water excessive heat • Runway length expansion to compensate for reduced aircraft take-off performance (due to reduced lift and thrust) • Increase of cooling capability in buildings • Reinforce the design of runways, taxiways, and aprons (example, surfacing materials, embankment materials, drainage) to mitigate thaw subsidence or buckling due to heat Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note134 Aviation Indicative list of adaptation solutions for aviation Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | excessive cold (ice or snow) • Upgrade/construct new de-icing • Warming of pavements with facilities recycled water during icing • Upgrade wastewater facilities conditions to ensure compliance with water • Advanced weather observation quality regulations following systems and early warning increase in the regular use of de-icing fluids • Realignment of runways/ taxiways based on recurring frost heaves   Hazard type | Extreme winds/Changing wind patterns/Convective weather • Change of the current runway • Advanced weather observation • Retain or introduce natural position/orientation or systems and early warning wind barriers (example, construction of crosswind • Improved Air Traffic wetlands, mangroves) runways to adjust to changing Management (ATM) systems wind patterns to adjust capacity and demand • Hardening facilities for higher imbalances during disruptions wind loads (example, building and plan for flight re-routing or shell replacement, aerodynamic cancellation load analysis of building complexes, extra tie-downs for aircraft and containers)   Hazard type | Drought/Desertification • Construction of reclaimed water • Implement water conservation facilities to ensure sustainable strategies to reduce water water supply for cooling during consumption (example, drought periods drought-tolerant landscaping, • Rainwater harvesting through efficient air-conditioning water-saving basins/water systems with closed-loop reservoirs technologies) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note135 Aviation Indicative list of adaptation solutions for aviation Hard-engineering Soft-engineering Nature-based   Hazard type | Fog/Low-visibility conditions • Installation of enhanced • Employ augmented low approach lighting systems visibility procedures [example, (example, high-intensity runway ground-based augmentation lights and touchdown zone lights) systems (GBAS), or enhanced • Runway surface treatments Instrument Landing Systems (example, anti-fog coatings, or (ILS)] for precise guidance to aggregate mixtures that reduce aircrafts during approach and the formation of surface water landing films). • Fog Dispersion Systems Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note136 Aviation   Operations and maintenance 3.1. Develop resilient O&M strategies and plans ‰ Adapt O&M practices/protocols to the changing climate. Examples of climate adaptive O&M strategies includes: update snow and ice removal protocols to ensure safe aircraft movements during winter conditions (for example, by maintaining adequate stocks of de-icing agents); optimize heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems to increase energy efficiency; increase the frequency of runway pavement condition assessment). ‰ Promote preventive maintenance activities for assets, equipment, and operations to improve the system’s performance in day-to-day operations and extreme events. Accommodate appropriate monitoring and assessment tools for the timely implementation of maintenance activities. Example: pavement condition forecasts correlating weather indicators with projected maintenance needs. ‰ Establish a risk-based framework for the prioritization of O&M activities, considering criteria such as: • Safety of users and personnel • Operational continuity • Contractual obligations (for example, federal grant obligations requiring that pavement and other facilities must be maintained) • Minimization of environmental impacts ‰ Secure the required resources for the efficient implementation of the O&M plan, including funding, staffing, equipment, and outside contracts. Establish a strong partnership between the airport, the government, and the private sectors to support the plan through financing (for example, PPPs, state funding), advisory and technical support. ‰ Foster collaboration between key stakeholders responsible for infrastructure O&M within or across airports to optimize coordination and resource allocation (for example, synchronization of drainage and ditch cleaning with pavement repairs to minimize disruptions, or combination of maintenance work across several airports under a single federal grant). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note137 Aviation Examples of intervention actions (preventive, corrective, emergency) for the aviation sector. Sealing of pavement cracks and joints; clearing of grass and weeds around visual and navigational aids; cleaning of inlets and outlets of Preventive culverts and stormwater systems; testing and maintenance of the maintenance electrical wiring of visual and navigational aids or other electrical equipment; periodic inspections of terminals and administrative buildings, including utility systems maintenance. Pavement rehabilitation or replacement (for example, due to gradual damage from flooding or due to accelerated cracks induced by Corrective freeze/thaw cycles); replacement of airfield signs or visual and maintenance navigation aids due to wind/storm damage; repair of eroded ditch/ swale areas. Clearing of runways, taxiways, and aprons from accumulated snow; removal of trees or other foreign objects from pavements; clearing Emergency of drainage inlets and outlets from trash and debris in the aftermath maintenance of extreme weather events; repair of damaged or malfunctioning airfield lighting systems; de-icing/anti-icing fluids on aircrafts to prevent ice formation or remove existing ice. 3.2. Leverage innovative ICT solutions for data collection, condition inspection, and monitoring ‰ Employ state-of-the-art solutions in automation and digitalization to increase efficiency. Examples include: • Demand-Capacity Balancing Tools to enhance flight predictability by using advanced predictive algorithms to forecast jet streams, cancellations, and delays. • Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) procedures, such as Required Navigation Performance (RNP) and Area Navigation (RNAV), to optimize aircraft routes, reduce fuel consumption, and enhance airspace capacity. • Flight Rescheduling Control Systems (FRCS) to handle the airlines’ rescheduling requests in an orderly manner. • Early Alarm Systems to assist the early communication of emergencies and extreme weather events to airline operators and air navigation systems, such as the LLWAS (Low Level Wind Alert Systems) that observe sudden changes in low wind speed and intensity. • Enhanced Instrument Landing Systems (eILS) to improve the number of aircrafts that can land under low visibility conditions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note138 Aviation 3.3. Promote the adoption of smart airport infrastructure management systems Modern IoT solutions and data-driven technologies can enhance airport management by providing real-time insights and optimization opportunities. Such systems can enable continuous monitoring and analysis of various data levels relevant to airport operations, including: ‰ Continuous monitoring of runway and apron conditions, including surface conditions and friction levels to ensure safe aircraft movements and optimize maintenance activities. ‰ Real-time location tracking of aircrafts and vehicles within the airport premises. ‰ Integration of weather forecast data and early warning systems to proactively manage weather-related risks and improve response capabilities to extreme weather events. ‰ Air traffic and passenger analytics (including air traffic demand, airspace capacity, passenger flows, and wait times). ‰ Maintenance tracking of critical airport infrastructure assets to detect anomalies, and schedule proactive maintenance activities. ‰ Integration of financial data related to capital expenditures, operational costs, maintenance budgets, and revenue streams to enable efficient financial management and informed decision-making. ‰ Historical data analysis (including records of past incidents, disruptions, and emergency events). 3.4. Monitor the efficiency of the O&M plan ‰ Employ relevant key performance indicators (KPIs) measuring: • Outputs (for example, time required to de-ice aircrafts) • Outcomes (for example, percentage of assets having a condition score above a minimum threshold) • Impacts (for example, reduction in throughput capacity, or the number of cancelled flights during an extreme weather event). Relevant examples are provided in Appendix B. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note139 Aviation   Contingency planning 4.1. Develop and implement emergency plans (generic plus specific to each Hazard type) ‰ Develop comprehensive procedure manuals for all relevant hazards, including instructions on modifying operations and/or securing airport assets in response to alerts for upcoming extreme weather events. ‰ Review and update plans regularly to reflect changes in the airport environment, emerging risks, and evolving Best practices. ‰ Organize and conduct regular emergency response drills involving airport staff, emergency responders, and relevant stakeholders to test the effectiveness of emergency plans and identify areas for improvement. Indicative list of actions that may be embedded in airport emergency management plans. • Deploy Time Based Separation procedures (that is, replace aircraft distance separations with time separations) to counteract the effect of strong headwinds on landing rates,7 thereby, reducing flight delays. • Move departure times of heavier aircrafts earlier or later within the day or implement payload Operations restrictions to avoid aircraft take-off challenges during periods of extreme heat. • Increase aircraft turnaround times to allow sufficient brake cooling in high ambient temperatures. • Establish a streamlined coordination process among stakeholders involved in emergency management (air traffic controllers, airline operators, air navigation service providers etc.) for the early development of capacity-based flight adaptation plans (for example, by using larger aircrafts to combine flights). • Use foaming runways for emergency landing. Physical assets • Deploy temporary flood barriers/gates in areas prone to flooding (for example, entrances to underground facilities and lower building levels) to prevent water intrusion during heavy rainfall or storm surges. • Secure or remove loose objects, equipment, and debris from the airfield, to prevent them from becoming hazards during strong winds or storms. 4.2. Ensure availability of resources Emergency plans must ensure: ‰ Availability of essential resources and equipment including, for example: • Emergency vehicles for post-disaster airport inspections • Snow/ice removal equipment and/or demountable flood barriers (for example, sand bags, inflatable bladder dams) With fixed distance-based separation, in strong headwinds, the ground speed drops so it takes longer to travel the same distance. 7 This results in reduced landing rates and is a significant cause of arrival delays. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note140 Aviation • Emergency lighting systems and signage (for example, for low-visibility conditions) • Portable power generators, pumps and hoses • Trained staff on standby to accelerate recovery efforts ‰ A sufficient inventory of spare parts for the rapid replacement of critical equipment. Examples include: runway lightning components (bulbs, lenses, electrical equipment for runway edge lights etc.), spare parts for navigational aids (backup antennas, transmitters, receivers, cables etc.), spare parts for power generators (for example, engine components, alternators, control panels, batteries, etc.) 4.3. Plan for redundancies ‰ Install and maintain emergency power generation systems, such as backup generators or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, to ensure continuous power supply during power outages or other disruptions. ‰ Establish agreements with multiple fuel suppliers to ensure a diversified and reliable fuel supply for aircraft operations and reduce the risk of disruptions due to supply chain issues or localized shortages during emergencies. ‰ Ensure the availability of reliable communication systems (including backup communication networks and equipment) and provide communication protocols to facilitate effective coordination of airport authorities, emergency responders, and relevant stakeholders during crises. ‰ Collaborate with neighboring airports, airlines, and the government to establish mutual aid agreements and facilitate the sharing of resources, personnel, and equipment during emergencies. Good practice example: the Caribbean Aviation Resilience and Recovery Group formed by 16 SIDs. ‰ Define contingency routes that can be used temporarily to circumvent airspace impacted by a significant event (for example, major hurricane, complete power outage, satellite outage, etc.). Good practice example: The Planned Airway System Alternatives (PASA) routes of the CADENA – the CANSO ATFM Data Exchange Network for the Americas – initiative. ‰ Identify potential transit alternatives for short-distance flight connections (for example, high-speed rail). 4.4. Exploit advances in ICT technology to better communicate the emergency ‰ Implement/broaden emergency warning systems to encompass all considerable hazards. ‰ Coordinate with meteorological agencies and establish channels to receive real-time weather forecasts. ‰ Ensure timely communication of flight plan adaptations to passengers through various channels, including online platforms (mobile app alerts, social networks, press releases, airport website, etc.) and local sources (announcements and digital displays in terminals). Whenever feasible, provide suggestions for alternative travel options and recommendations on how to proceed in the event of significant disruptions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note141 Aviation ‰ Offer flexible re-booking options to passengers (for example, ability to change one segment of a multi-segment flight without having to change the entire itinerary, multi-modal transport solutions) ‰ Create an online platform that provides direct access to emergency information for all stakeholders involved in operational planning (for example, air traffic controllers and airport tenants) to allow for a rapid and integrated response to disruptions. Pave the legal & knowledge grounds for innovative procurement & supply models to quickly 4.5.  make response & recovery funds available For further guidance refer to Appendix A. 4.6. Explore Disaster Risk/Contingent Financing instruments Adaptation contingent finance can be delivered from various sources through different mechanisms and instruments. A non-exhaustive list of innovative contingent financing solutions includes: ‰ Reserve or emergency fund accounts to cover the rising cost of climate-induced disruptions. ‰ Contingent credit line provisions to secure financing and support recovery efforts after climate disasters. ‰ Financial de-risking instruments (state guarantees or DFI’s de-risking) to incentivize private- sector participation in high-risk projects ‰ Immediate response instruments, such as the World Bank’s Contingent Emergency Response Components (CERCs) and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (CAT-DDOs). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note142 Aviation   Institutional capacity and coordination Establish/rationalize the institutional framework for facilitating Private Sector 5.1.  Participation Indicative PPP contract provisions that may increase the attractiveness of projects having strong adaptation component: ‰ Inclusion of climate provisions in tender documents (RFPs, RFQs) ‰ Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) specifying recovery targets ‰ Tariff incentives/tax exemptions for enhanced alignment with resilience targets ‰ Provisions for flexible tariff models and cost-sharing mechanisms to facilitate climate interventions during the O&M phase of the project ‰ Third-party monitoring of climate-adaptation works ‰ Establishment of clear dispute resolution mechanisms for climate risks 5.2. Develop adaptive capacity of Air Navigation Service Providers and Airport Operators ‰ Create a climate-change task force comprising subject-matter experts (internal and external), safety experts and operational personnel and assign clear roles and responsibilities. Integrate meteorological experts into the operations team to provide real-time data in disruptive weather situations. ‰ Issue guidelines, leaflets and other education and information material on maintenance, good preparedness, contingency planning and procedures in emergency cases. ‰ Hold workshops relevant to the vulnerability and risk identification associated with all areas of operations. ‰ Promote the documentation and sharing of Best practices in climate adaptation in the form of guidebooks. ‰ Encourage research efforts related to the analysis of disruptive effects to the aviation sector to allow an estimation of the influence and propagation of climate-related disruptions to the broader network. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note143 Aviation 5.3. Promote the update or development of new climate-related design guidelines and standards For example: • Development of dimensioning criteria for safety areas close to the sea • D  evelopment of guidelines for low-lying coastal runways and strengthened requirements for potential runways • P  rovisions for runway realignments based on recurring frost heaves, geological and climate conditions. Facilitate stakeholder engagement and foster a coordinated approach to disruption 5.4.  management ‰ Propose the creation of a government-wide adaptation strategy task force for the aviation sector. ‰ Plan and develop effective communication channels with relevant stakeholders, including airlines, air navigation service providers, off-airport service providers, communities, municipal authorities, and meteorological agencies, to assist in disaster assessment and management procedures. ‰ Develop coordination protocols between airport sub-systems (be it is communications, operations, emergency management or coordinating teams) to develop a more resilient system, capable of reducing infrastructure vulnerabilities both airside and landside. ‰ Enhance inter-airline and intermodal cooperation, for example, through the generation of a new ticket category allowing intermodal flexibility. ‰ Establish standard operating procedures that outline the roles and responsibilities of each agency and stakeholder involved in maintaining and supplying resources for rapid response actions and for post-disaster recovery. ‰ Establish mutual aid arrangements between authorities. ‰ Promote the improvement of regulations that foster stakeholder centric-behavior and compromise a wider socioeconomic lens on climate adaptation (for example, the distribution of flight fees among air navigation service providers, or the cooperation among stakeholder alliances). 5.5. Prepare protocols for timely and broad communication with the users ‰ Have communication plans in place applicable to the different hazards. Publish information relevant to other service providers and passengers as early as possible to help them plan their response to disruption. ‰ Identify a broad range of communication channels (text messages, mobile apps, social networks, etc.,) and exploit a variety of them to target diverse audiences. ‰ Train staff responsible to communicate with the public in case of emergency. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note144 Aviation Encourage investments in digital infrastructure and promote interoperability between 5.6.  trans-agency/trans-region data collection platforms ‰ Develop an Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM) platform to improve the efficiency of airport operations by facilitating real-time data sharing between airport operators, aircraft operators, ground handlers and air traffic control (for example, information relevant to snow clearing, de-icing, towing and turn-around management). ‰ Standardize weather information and hazard warnings across the region, by establishing a common hazard classification protocol, recognizable across the different stakeholders and trans-region airport authorities. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note145 Aviation Case studies International best practice Istanbul airport The number of airports affected by extreme weather events is increasing, with rainstorms causing runway flooding and overwhelming storm water systems, heat waves damaging runways and aircraft tires, and winter storms necessitating extensive snow removal efforts. These events leave thousands of passengers stranded, as approximately 70 percent of airport delays can be attributed to extreme weather conditions. The economic impact on airports can amount to billions of dollars. Although climate change adaptation legislation is currently lacking in Türkiye, Istanbul Airport (IGA) has proactively initiated a climate change adaptation plan. As a result of this endeavor, IGA has implemented comprehensive control measures and contingency plans to effectively manage climate- related risks. These measures are considered sufficient for addressing climate change risks in both the short-and long-term. Best practices System planning & financing • Identification of main climate hazards: precipitation, wind, temperature, and humidity/fog [Step 1.2] • Definition of current climatic baseline and modelling of future climate change for 2030, 2050 and 2080 [Step 1.2] • Risk identification and analysis with respect to airport assets/operations: • Physical disruption: abrupt disturbances and impact to business continuity due to loss of function (service disruption) caused by extreme weather events and natural hazards [Step 1.5] • Loss of performance: gradual loss of performance from variations in normal weather patterns such as increases in peak electricity demand, excessive wind, less water availability for cooling purposes [Step 1.5] Engineering & design • Integration of flooding scenarios in the design of all landside, airside and storm water infrastructure components, fuel jetty and pipelines [Step 2.3] • Design of terminal buildings considering conservative assumptions for wind and snow loading. [Step 2.3] Operations & maintenance • Use of new technologies and approaches for operating, maintaining, managing, and sustaining the infrastructure like the Internet of Things (IOT)-based management system. [Step 3.3] • Development of Early Alarm Systems: LIDAR and C-band radar to get early information and to communicate with the airline operators and air navigation systems. [Step 3.2] • Implementation of Low-Level Wind Alert System (LLWAS), a system that observes the sudden changes in low wind speed and intensity in the final approach. [Step 3.2] More information at: https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Documents/EnvironmentalReports/2019/ ENVReport2019_pg268-274.pdf Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note146 Aviation Case studies World Bank Group operation Caribbean regional air transport connectivity project (CATCOP) — P170860 and P171224 The project entails a Series of Projects (SOPs) for Caribbean Regional Air Transportation, with the overarching objective of enhancing regional air transport connectivity through the implementation of safety and resilience improvements. This SOP encompasses Dominica, St Lucia, Grenada, and Haiti, all of which face exposure of their airport infrastructure to diverse hazards, including floods, sea-level rise, and storms. These hazards adversely impact airport operational capacity, increase travel costs, and impede economic activities and post-disaster recovery. The project endeavors to bolster air transportation safety and resilience, thereby facilitating economic recovery within the broader context of the international response to the pandemic crisis in these islands. Best practices System planning & financing • Compliance screening on the Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) set by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to identify critical safety gaps. [Steps 1.1] • Planning support (including preparation of a Master Plan refinement study for the planned new airport). [Steps 1.6] Operations & maintenance • Installation of an Instrument Landing System (ILS) for Runway. [Step 3.2] • Deployment of Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B). [Step 3.2] • Repairs and modernization of Crash, Fire, and Rescue (CFR) equipment. [Step 3.1] • Re-equipping the Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT). [Step 3.1] • Installation of a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) non-precision instrument approach for the Dominica Canefield Airport (DCF). [Step 3.2] Institutional capacity & coordination • Gap analysis of institutional and operations management capacity of airport agencies. [Step 5.2] • Capacity building in the areas of air traffic control and airport management, including natural disaster and climate change resilience, response to health crisis, and air traffic safety and security oversight. [Step 5.2] • Provision of independent experts. [Step 5.2] More information at: https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P170907?lang=en Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note147 G. Coastal transport infrastructure The geographical context of coastal transport systems (including seaports, airports, roads, and railways) renders them highly susceptible to the multifaceted challenges stemming from climate- related hazards such as rising sea levels, high temperatures, coastal erosion, and wind and precipitation patterns. Such chronic hazards as well as extreme weather events, exacerbated by climate change, have the potential to cause substantial direct damage to the coastal infrastructure itself (for example, runway and track buckling, port area inundation, and road pavement subsidence). Moreover, they can lead to significant disruptions in operations, resulting in extensive economic losses, isolation of local communities, and far-reaching socio-economic consequences that span from regional to international supply chain disruptions and from a setback to a full regression in overall economic development. Understanding the climatic risks and their inherent uncertainty, therefore, is vital for developing efficient ways to mitigate them and build resilient coastal transport systems, capable of withstanding climate-related challenges. Against this background, this guidance note offers a roadmap aimed at enhancing the resilience of coastal transport infrastructure across the five pillars of a project’s lifecycle, while promoting adaptive strategies to accommodate the uncertainty in future climate projections. Highlights System planning & financing • Evaluate the criticality of the transport components (either per network segment/node or per individual element/facility within the transport system) by considering the broader role of the coastal infrastructure on the local communities, supply chains, and the economy overall. • Account for current and future hazard intensities and trends by utilizing site-specific projection models that align with the project’s investment horizon and timeframe. Engineering & design • Promote integrated resilience measures that protect the environment, respect the local ecosystem, and lower the project’s carbon footprint when setting up the adaptation strategy. • Utilize methodologies that effectively incorporate climate change uncertainty in the economic evaluation and prioritization of adaptation alternatives. Operations & maintenance • Set up a long-term O&M plan that considers the changing climate over the lifecycle of the project and adapts to its potential risks. • Use smart asset management tools that combine data from various sources (weather information, asset condition data, historic records, financial data) to improve operational performance. • Incorporate resilience-related key performance indicators and consider the stakeholders’ feedback for the evaluation of the O&M plan. Contingency planning • Establish a robust crisis management strategy with emergency plans and communication protocols and ensure its feasibility by performing periodic reviews, regular drills and securing sufficient resources. • Exploit technological advances to better communicate the emergency to all parties involved and to perform rapid damage assessments. Institutional capacity & coordination • Foster collaboration by establishing a regional ‘task force’ comprising key persons from transport authorities, meteorological organizations, coastal experts, governmental and emergency response agencies and promote coordinated efforts in proactive actions and rapid reactions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note149 Coastal transport infrastructure System planning and financing 1.0. Build awareness among key stakeholders & review existing policies ‰ Conduct specialized stakeholder workshops: Organize targeted workshops for public authorities, universities, and private sector stakeholders to highlight specific vulnerabilities impacting coastal transport infrastructure and the urgency of adopting climate-resilient measures. Tailor content to the expertise and roles of each group. ‰ Integrate resilience into policy agendas: review existing policies and advocate for the inclusion of climate-resilient transport as a priority in development and infrastructure policies, linking it to economic growth, disaster preparedness, and community well-being. ‰ Showcase local and global success stories: Promote and share relevant case studies and pilot projects from around the world with high-level decision makers to demonstrate the effectiveness and feasibility of climate-resilient transport systems. Use these examples to inspire action and provide a practical roadmap for implementation. 1.1. Set measurable disaster resilience targets linked to system-level performance indicators ‰ Think of the possible ways the changing climate may affect the system operations and determine the resilience priorities of the system. Priorities should address: • S  afeguarding operational and business continuity through minimum acceptable levels of service and functionality after disasters strike • Strengthening physical assets and enhancing preparedness of operational processes • Securing long-life sustainability • Safety of passengers and personnel • Alignment with environmental goals ‰ Link these priorities with measurable system-level performance indicators/thresholds, such as recovery time objectives for critical operations. Appendix B summarizes resilience indicators to be considered in this step. 1.2. Identify the climate hazards affecting the system and its operations Coastal transport infrastructure is susceptible to disruptions arising from a range of chronic and acute climate-related hazards such as sea level rise, storm surges, coastal flooding, tidal waves, coastal erosion and sedimentation, extreme heat and drought, permafrost thaw and ice melt, extreme cold, and high winds and hurricanes. ‰ Account for both present and future hazard intensities, employing site-specific projection models that follow the investment horizon and timeframe of the project. ‰ For further details and an indicative list of hazards affecting the coastal transport infrastructure, refer to Appendix A and B, respectively. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note150 Coastal transport infrastructure 1.3. Assess hazard exposure and system criticality ‰ Map the coastal transport system and interdependent infrastructure. ‰ Determine the interdependencies between the coastal system, the community, and the economy. Consider the broader scope of the infrastructure. For example: • Coastal roads connect communities, support local businesses, and facilitate the transportation of goods. • Coastal rails transport passengers and freight, facilitate trade, and contribute to coastal region industries. • Seaports serve as trade gateways, attract shipping companies, and generate employment opportunities. • Coastal airports offer air connectivity, support tourism, business travel, and foster economic development. ‰ Map hazard exposure: Overlay hazard maps that affect the coastline with the critical transport network (ports/waterways, highways, rail network, airports as well as their interdependent infrastructure and access points) to identify whether the coastal parts of the network and its coastal assets are impacted by each one of the hazards identified in the previous step. ‰ Determine the criticality of individual system components (in the case of seaports and airports) and/or the criticality of specific network segments or nodes (in the case of roads, railways or waterways), considering disruption impacts on (indicative list of criteria): • Safety • Operational continuity • Economy and local communities Criticality assessments should consider the whole transport network (that is, also including the parts that are not coastal) to realistically capture the disruption impacts on the system and conclude on the criticality of the coastal segments and assets (system of systems approach). ‰ Estimate the likely severity and implications by exploring hypothetical but plausible ‘what if’ scenarios. For example, what would happen to coastal assets, if double of the projected sea level rise occurred? The output of this step will assist prioritization of decisions by highlighting critical points of failure calling for immediate adaptation action. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note151 Coastal transport infrastructure 1.4. Assess the physical vulnerability of coastal infrastructure ‰ Perform vulnerability assessments in qualitative terms during the planning phase to assist a high-level identification of potential adaptation strategies and are revisited during the engineering phase when design details are clarified. ‰ Rate the sensitivity of coastal infrastructure to climate-induced stressing, employing vulnerability indicators such as: • Residual asset life • Operational thresholds (for example, extreme wind under which facility operations are impaired) • Compliance with up-to-date design standards • Historic data on damages or good performance during disaster events • Lack of adaptation measures against the identified hazards ‰ Estimate the expected asset damage for characteristic levels of stressing associated with a range of possible climate scenarios for example, coastal erosion leads to damages to airport runways (sinking, cracking, deformation), road pavements (uneven surface, subsidence), rail tracks (deformation, misalignment), docks and wharves (instability). 1.5. Assess the potential impacts and losses on the system ‰ Based on the knowledge of hazard exposure, assets’ vulnerabilities, and the criticality of each network component, assess potential impacts for each Hazard type (and level of stressing) in terms of: • Direct Losses due to damage to the transport infrastructure and fleet. • Operational (or capacity) loss, leading to decreased functionality of the coastal transport infrastructure or reduced quality of the network service. • Logistics losses due to downtime (losses due to late delivery, inventory loss, etc.). • Cascading socio-economic losses due to supply shortages for industries dependent on the import/export activities dependent on the coastal transport routes and raised prices for consumers. • Loss of connectivity for local populations: Coastal disruptions may result in the isolation of local populations, especially when alternative routes of transport are very limited or unmaintained. • User/passenger and personnel safety: Failure of large structures or equipment may result in loss of life (for example, collapses of electricity poles along the rail or road corridors, port cranes, and airport terminal roofs). • Externalities: Even in cases where coastal transport is not directly impacted, losses may arise due to the damage/functionality loss of interrelated network components (for example, damages to access roads or power outages). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note152 Coastal transport infrastructure 1.6. Develop integrated, high-level adaptation plans ‰ Map high-level adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts identified in Step 1.5. Promote the notion of ecosystem-based adaptation to support resilience and generate multiple benefits including biodiversity protection, environmental restoration, social cohesion. Apply an interdisciplinary planning approach that combines “landscape and green infrastructure” (for example, coastal wetlands, sand dunes, beaches for flood management) with “grey infrastructure” (for example, levees, breakwaters, seawalls, tide gates, etc.) to effectively meet the strategic goals (Step 1.1) and the different stakeholder objectives (for example, grantors/investors, users/passengers, environmental organizations). ‰ Appraise the alternatives using a Multi-Criteria Analysis (or similar). Employ a set of suitable assessment criteria, for example, correlated with: the cost efficiency, assessed over the asset’s life cycle and at the system level; the timeliness; and the flexibility (whether the strategy is sufficiently flexible to adjust to the high uncertainty of climate change projections). ‰ Come up with ways to manage the externalities identified in Step 1.5 (for example, by coordinating disaster relief efforts, exploring risk-transfer options). In case of high-impact unmitigated risks consider abandoning, relocating the project, or planning a managed retreat. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note153 Coastal transport infrastructure   Engineering and design 2.1. Downscale hazard ‰ Update hazard maps (climatological, geomorphological etc.) at the project level to capture the effect of local environmental conditions (for example, global climate models do not provide information on hydrodynamic effects, such as wave impacts, during storm surges) to inform the engineering design. Leverage local climate hazard studies and collaborate with research institutions and governmental agencies to obtain locally tailored data on present and future climate conditions. Consider evidence from past disasters and extreme weather events. 2.2. Identify climate adaptation measures & design adaptation pathways In accordance with the nature of hazard and its anticipated impacts, the planning horizon, the available technical and financial resources, and the resilience targets set in Step 1.1. The proposed interventions should: ‰ Promote sustainable solutions (that is, nature-based solutions (NBS), soft-engineering measures, eco-friendly alternatives) that protect the environment, respect the local ecosystem, and lower the project’s carbon footprint. ‰ Explore innovative technologies & materials to minimize risk of disruption (for example, using eco-friendly revetments can help safeguard coastal transport infrastructure from the damaging effects of erosion and wave action). ‰ Be flexible/adaptive to facilitate easy future upgrades or modifications as conditions demand. For example, rather than locking into a single worse-case climate change scenario and investing in a breakwater with certain dimensions, it may be preferable to design a modular structure that can be easily raised, widened, or otherwise modified when the sea level rises above a pre-determined threshold. Refer to Appendix A for guidance on adaptive planning strategies. ‰ Build a comprehensive adaptive management plan combining short and long-term adaptation measures. Where possible, the plan shall prescribe thresholds for the stepwise implementation of the adaptation plan and include a monitoring program of selected environmental parameters to assist/validate decisions on future actions. 2.3. Check the economic soundness of adaptation alternatives considering uncertainties ‰ For shorter investment horizons or when evaluating alternatives facing low uncertainty in climate risk probabilities, employ Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) to identify the adaptation strategy (or combination of strategies) that maximizes the benefit-cost ratio. CBA calculations shall incorporate all disaster-related costs & benefits, namely capital expenditures, O&M costs, cost of externalities (for example, indirect cost caused by broken supply chains), direct adaptation benefits (for example, reduced physical damages), and potential co-benefits (for example, artificial reefs protect the infrastructure against erosion and wave-induced damage, while improving ecological habitats for marine organisms, and contributing to tourism by attracting divers, snorkelers, or other recreational visitors). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note154 Coastal transport infrastructure ‰ For long-term investment horizons or when evaluating large-scale/irreversible adaptation alternatives facing significant uncertainty in climate change trends and patterns, utilize methodologies that can effectively incorporate high uncertainty with the support from experts knowledgeable in more advanced evaluation techniques (for example, the World Bank Climate Change Group’s climate and disaster risk stress test methodology, the Decision-Making under Deep Uncertainty (DMDU) approach, the Robust Decision Making (RDM) approach, Real Options Analysis, etc.). List of Hard-Engineering Solutions for Coastal Transport Infrastructure Adaptation strategy Sector   Hazard type | Mean Sea Level Rise/Coastal Flooding/Tidal Waves • Elevate/relocate critical assets and equipment All • Build static water barriers: seawalls, dikes, caisson breakwaters • Build dynamic water barriers (that move into position only when needed): storm surge and tidal gates • Build coastal infrastructure on static landforms (levees, raised mounds) or increase the height of existing ones. • Create dynamic landforms (example, artificial sand delta, marshes, sand dunes, wetlands) that may successfully deliver multiple benefits, including habitat, recreation, and other ecosystem services. • Increase the capacity of stormwater retention and drainage systems to cope with future flooding conditions • Install on-site, raised, and protected backup power supplies • Install pumping systems for yards or runways Ports/Airports • Build tidal barrages (channeling increased tide into a large basin behind the dam Ports holding a large amount of potential energy)   Hazard type | Coastal erosion and sedimentation • Build coastal erosion control structures (example, groynes, seawalls, revetments) All • Gradual retreat/relocation • Embankment erosion control (example, silt fencing, ripraps, turf grass, Roads/Rail slow-forming terraces) • Dredging to handle the increased quantity of sediment shifting Ports • Use sediment traps, buffer strips, etc. to reduce sediment run-off into watercourse Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note155 Coastal transport infrastructure List of Hard-Engineering Solutions for Coastal Transport Infrastructure Adaptation strategy Sector   Hazard type | Extreme winds/hurricanes • Wind-proofing of hanging signals, lights, lightweight equipment All • Installation of wind breaks • Move overhead electrical lines underground • Provision of adequate fendering systems Ports • Improve tie down systems for cranes • Improve cranes’ braking systems and wind speed prediction systems • Change of the current runway position/orientation or construction of crosswind Airports runways to adjust to changing wind patterns   Hazard type | Excessive cold • De-icing agents to prevent ice formation of surfaces (pavements, rail tracks, port  All aprons) • Upgrade traction motors with models less likely to be affected by snow ingress Rail • Upgrade wastewater facilities to ensure compliance with water quality regulations Airports following increase in the regular use of de-icing fluids • Installation of insulation materials (such as foam boards), beneath the road surface Roads • Installation of geotextiles to improve soil stability and prevent frost heave   Hazard type | extreme heat/drought • Surface treatment to reduce heat-sensitivity (example, anti-skid surfaces, porous/ All reflective coating, high-albedo surfacing materials) • Ventilation and air-conditioning   Hazard type | Ice melt • Installation of expansion joints on bridges or rail tracks Roads/Rail • Upgrade engine cooling systems for the rolling stock Rail   Hazard type | Permafrost Thaw • Thermal insulation (such as geotextile frost blankets) or heating systems All (embedded Permafrost Thaw electric heating elements or geothermal heating) over critical areas to reduce heat transfer Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note156 Coastal transport infrastructure List of Hard-Engineering Solutions for Coastal Transport Infrastructure Adaptation strategy Sector • Install tubes to preserve iced condition beneath road pavements Roads/Rail • Increase the thickness of the top gravel layer (to improve stability conditions) List of Soft-Engineering Solutions for Coastal Transport Infrastructure Adaptation strategy Sector   Hazard type | Mean Sea Level Rise/Coastal • Advanced weather observation systems and early warning systems for extreme All weather conditions • Set up of automatic reporting mechanisms on sea water levels   Hazard type | Flooding/Tidal Waves • Monitor the condition of drainage systems • Install sensors to monitor surfaces degradation from flooding (example, road pavements, rail tracks, port yards or runways) • Account for sea level rise when doing inventories for replacement and refurbishment of equipment and infrastructure • Install large-scale inflatable structures to protect the entry segments of Rail underground stations. • Update climate change design considerations for ship clearance under bridges Ports or other obstacles, space between top of vessel and crane arm during unloading, wharf heights, etc. • Close port and stop handling operations before operating thresholds for equipment are reached • Monitor changes in shoreline position, morphology, sediment transport, and water level   Hazard type | Coastal Erosion and Sedimentation • Install monitoring systems in erosion-prone areas for early detection of All instabilities (i.e., set specific actions/warnings linked to predefined thresholds) • Use aerial mapping methods (example UAV’s) for remote monitoring of precarious slopes • Update Erosion and Sediment Control Plans Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note157 Coastal transport infrastructure List of Soft-Engineering Solutions for Coastal Transport Infrastructure Adaptation strategy Sector   Hazard type | Extreme wind/hurricanes • Monitor and keep record of location-specific sediment or debris-related metrics Ports • Re-negotiate dredging contracts • Install early warning (for extreme winds and low visibility conditions) All • Install redundant signalling • Increase construction standards to deal with higher winds • Use of new wind-resistant mooring technologies (example, vacuum Ports mooring systems) • Improved Air Traffic Management (ATM) systems to adjust capacity and demand Airports imbalances during disruptions.   Hazard type | Excessive cold • Improved signage to warn drivers about icy conditions and advise appropriate Roads speeds • Laser measurement systems with wireless data communication to measure snow Rail and water level along the rail tracks. • Warming of surfaces with recycled water during icing conditions Airports/Ports   Hazard type | Extreme heat/drought • Monitoring and record keeping of location-specific temperature-related metrics All • Warnings for extreme heat to passengers/users • Implementation of water conservation strategies to reduce water consumption (example, drought-tolerant landscaping, efficient air-conditioning systems etc.) • Procure land to allow for future runway extensions (to the accommodate reduced Airports aircraft lift and thrust forces of during extreme heat) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note158 Coastal transport infrastructure List of Nature-based Solutions for Coastal Transport Infrastructure Adaptation strategy Sector   Hazard type | Mean sea level rise/coastal flooding/tidal waves • Beach nourishment All • Use natural coastal flood barriers such as reefs, coastal wetlands, sea grass buffers, berms and dunes • Install sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) • Plant vegetation (trees, marshes/mangroves)   Hazard type | Coastal erosion and sedimentation • Dune stabilization by planting vegetation All • Sand dune fencing perpendicular to the shoreline • Living shoreline techniques, such as oyster reefs, mangroves, or salt marshes, to dissipate wave energy, reduce erosion, and promote sediment • Slope plantation and vegetative reinforcement Roads/Rail   Hazard type | Extreme wind/hurricanes • Windbreak forests in strategic locations All • Coastal dune restoration acting as natural barriers against coastal wind • Proactively manage lineside vegetation and trees to reduce risk of falling Roads/Rail branches/uprooting   Hazard type | Extreme heat/drought • Restore/maintain greenery All • Use of native drought-resistant vegetation • Sustainable drainage systems such as swales, retention ponds or green roofs Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note159 Coastal transport infrastructure   Operations and maintenance 3.1. Develop O&M strategies incorporating resilience ‰ Promote risk-based O&M strategies under a long-term management plan that considers the changing climate and adapts to it. Example actions includes: • Develop irregular operation protocols (for example, Halting port, airport or rail operations and restraining road traffic before specified operational thresholds are met; Re-scheduling port and airport operations to early morning or evening to avoid extreme heat conditions). • Adjust the frequency of maintenance actions (for example, cleaning ditches and clogged drains, dredging of ports to reduce loss of draft clearance). ‰ Secure availability of the required resources for the implementation of resilience-related actions in the O&M plan (funding, staffing, equipment, external contracts). ‰ Prioritize maintenance interventions based on agreed criteria such as: • Optimization of operability (that is, minimization of climate-induced disruptions on the system) • Safety of users/passengers and personnel • Asset condition and subsystem criticality • Minimization of environmental and societal impacts ‰ Foster collaboration among the operators and the public authorities to achieve coordinated action (for example, synchronization of different repair works) to optimize resource allocation and minimize traffic disruptions. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note160 Coastal transport infrastructure Examples of intervention actions (preventive, corrective, emergency) for coastal transport infrastructure Preventive • Regular inspection of port structures, such as docks, breakwaters, maintenance and piers, to identify and address potential issues before they become major concerns. • Regular assessment of runway conditions at coastal airports and pavement maintenance at roads to prevent surface deterioration and ensure safe operations. Corrective • Timely restoration of assets (runway surfaces, rail tracks, bridges, maintenance fenders, berths, etc.) and replacement of damaged equipment (lightening/signal systems). • Repairing and reinforcing coastal road foundation and sea walls to mitigate erosion, subsidence, or structural damage. Emergency • Evacuation procedures and emergency response plans for ports, maintenance including the availability of emergency berthing options or temporary shelter for vessels during severe weather events. • Temporary closures or rerouting of coastal roads in case of immediate threats, such as storm surges or coastal flooding, to ensure public safety. • Emergency repairs or alternative transportation arrangements for disrupted coastal rail services due to natural disasters. • Activation of emergency protocols, such as runway clearance, diversion of flights, or coordination with relevant authorities, during severe weather conditions or other emergencies at coastal airports. Invest in instrumentation and explore innovative approaches for data collection, condition 3.3.  inspection, and monitoring ‰ Employ state-of-the-art solutions in automation and digitalization to increase efficiency and to overcome accessibility restrictions, such as: • Geospatially monitoring of coastline changes using airborne mapping. • Rapid damage screening of coastal assets via drones and sensor-equipped aircrafts. • Measurements of local meteorological, morphological, oceanographic, or hydrological data. Such information is invaluable in determining if local trends are in line with projected rates of climate change, as well as informing decisions on ‘when’ an adaptation action or adaptive management response is needed across an adaptation pathway (relevant to Step 2.3). • Sensing instruments measuring asset condition to reduce the risk of climate-induced failures via the timely triggering of maintenance (in combination with the data measurements mentioned above). Where relevant, consider also subsea monitoring using underwater drones and sensors, for condition assessment of underwater structures, such as berths, wharves, foundations, artificial reefs, revetments, etc. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note161 Coastal transport infrastructure • Intelligent Transportation Systems leveraging artificial intelligence, machine learning, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things (IoT) to assist operational decisions (for example, combine predictive analytics for traffic flows with real-time weather data to early predict potential issues and act in time to avoid road crashes or traffic congestion). 3.4. Promote the use of smart asset management tools ‰ Integrate IoT-and GIS in asset management systems to: • Continuously monitor the condition of important assets and effectively act once critical risk thresholds are met (or predefined levels of selected local environmental indicators are reached) • Ensure efficiency in day-to-day operations and sufficient service levels during extreme weather events. ‰ Combine data from multiple datasets including for example: • Asset location and condition data (including damage/loss records from past events) • Financial data (for example, capital expenditures, O&M costs) • Real-time weather information • Climate risk maps (current and projected) • Time series from Installed sensing equipment • Aerial photos from UAV/UAS ‰ Ensure regular updating of these asset management systems, which must be designed as dynamic systems, and related data. 3.5. Employ O&M key performance indicators (KPIs) to assess resilience ‰ Evaluate the applied strategies against assigned targets (Step 3.1) and relevant O&M performance indicators as systematic and objectively as possible. For example: frequency of preventive maintenance actions, cost and environmental impact of maintenance activities (refer to Appendix B for other relevant O&M indicators). ‰ Consider the stakeholders’ feedback on the implementation of the O&M plan. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note162 Coastal transport infrastructure   Contingency planning 4.1. Develop and implement emergency plans ‰ Develop and implement robust crisis management strategies by establishing coordinated and efficient contingency and emergency plans for coastal assets, fostering effective communication and collaboration among all relevant stakeholders, including both public and private parties involved. ‰ Conduct periodic reviews and updates of the plans to ensure alignment with the dynamic coastal environment, evolving risks, and industry Best practices, maintaining their effectiveness and relevance over time. ‰ Create comprehensive procedure manuals encompassing various potential hazards, offering detailed instructions for the gradual securing and shutdown of coastal facilities, assets or segments in response to alerts or impending extreme weather events. ‰ Design and implement evacuation plans that identify safe routes to areas with suitable elevation above sea level, particularly during tsunamis or other relevant scenarios. ‰ Establish a program of regular exercises and drills, scheduled at appropriate intervals such as every six months or annually, to enhance preparedness and validate the effectiveness of the contingency and emergency plans. 4.2. Ensure availability of resources Effective emergency plans for coastal infrastructure must prioritize the availability of critical resources and equipment in the event of potential disasters. This is particularly crucial for communities and supply chains that are heavily reliant on coastal transport. Key resources to consider include: ‰ Emergency vessels to assist evacuation efforts via sea and access to essential services ‰ Emergency vehicles for rapid post-disaster inspections ‰ Deployable flood defenses, such as sandbags, pallets, or similar materials, to mitigate the impact of flooding ‰ Trained personnel on standby to expedite restoration and recovery efforts ‰ Emergency repair equipment (for example, mobile cranes, excavators) 4.3. Plan for redundancies ‰ Enhance connectivity with the mainland and identify alternative detour options in the case of disaster-related accessibility restrictions. ‰ Develop back-up power generation facilities and if possible, consider placing/relocating critical coastal facilities (for example, container depots and inland terminals) to lower-risk areas. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note163 Coastal transport infrastructure ‰ Develop appropriate strategies to ensure continuous supply of key services or equipment in the aftermath of a disruption. For example: • Diversify suppliers for such services/equipment (for example, the supply of fuel or equipment spare parts) • Hold a buffer stock of critical resources at a convenient local storage facility (for example, fresh-water, fuel, spare traffic signage, etc.) ‰ Foster collaboration between transport operators and authorities in neighboring regions/ countries by adopting mutual support agreements. 4.4. Exploit advances in ICT technology to better communicate the emergency ‰ Implement/broaden emergency warning systems to encompass all considerable hazards. ‰ Cooperate with meteorological institutions to receive real-time weather forecasts. ‰ Improve/establish communication channels with passengers and key stakeholders for the timely issue of emergency warnings, for example, via mobile phone alerts, social networks, etc. Pave the legal and knowledge grounds for innovative procurement and supply models to 4.5.  quickly make response & recovery funds available post-disaster For further guidance refer to Appendix A. 4.6. Explore instruments for scaling up finance for resilience A non-exhaustive list of innovative project financing solutions includes: ‰ Reserve or emergency fund accounts to cover the rising cost of climate-induced disruptions. ‰ Resilience Bonds issued by subnational governments and other public institutions to finance or refinance projects that address climate change. ‰ Revenues from associated services (for example, port revenues from hinterland transport and recreational activities, airport revenues from airport parking or terminal rental fees, road revenues from tolls). ‰ Green-bonds or sustainability-linked loans to finance nature-based solutions. ‰ Natural sequestration schemes (like mangrove planting) in exchange for carbon credit payments. ‰ Financial de-risking instruments (state guarantees or DFI’s de-risking) to incentivize private- sector participation in high-risk projects, such as the World Bank’s Contingent Emergency Response Components (CERCs) and Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Options (CAT-DDOs).xiv ‰ Any type of risk-transfer mechanism (including traditional insurance, parametric coverage, and weather derivatives). Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note164 Coastal transport infrastructure   Institutional capacity and coordination Establish/rationalize the institutional framework for facilitating Private Sector 5.1.  Participation If structured correctly, PPPs can offer innovative solutions to bolster resilience and provide well- informed and well-balanced risk allocation between partners. Indicative PPP contract provisions that may increase the attractiveness of projects having strong adaptation component: ‰ Inclusion of climate provisions in tender documents (RFPs, RFQs). ‰ Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) specifying recovery targets and climate-related inspection/ maintenance goals. ‰ Tariff incentives/tax exemptions for enhanced alignment with resilience targets. ‰ Provisions for flexible payment mechanisms to facilitate climate interventions during the O&M phase of the project. ‰ Third-party monitoring of climate-adaptation works. ‰ Establishment of clear dispute resolution mechanisms for climate risks. 5.2. Promote improved design standards that incorporate resilience ‰ Modify design requirements based on an understanding of potential climate change effects: for example, update design standards for drainage systems based on future flood risk predictions, increase the required setback distance for structures, establish minimum asset height thresholds above mean sea level. 5.3. Increase/develop adaptive capacity of coastal transport authorities and stakeholders Examples of support actions include: ‰ Inform stakeholders on the impacts of climate change on coastal transport infrastructure. Indicatively • Issue guidelines, brochures, or other informational resources on maintenance, preparedness, contingency planning, and procedures in emergency cases • Organize educational workshops that highlight the short-term impacts of climate change and the costs of inaction; encourage open discussions and provide practical insights into climate change challenges • Endorse climate adaptation strategies through pilot demonstrations • Raise awareness by sharing success stories from infrastructure projects in similar coastal environments ‰ Establish the legal and institutional framework to incorporate climate change: Create a clear structure of roles and responsibilities associated with climate adaptation among the various stakeholders; Establish coordination groups to support and implement disaster recovery plans. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note165 Coastal transport infrastructure ‰ Ensure knowledge transfer from senior to junior staff and empower lower-level personnel to problem solve and report climate-related issues upwards. ‰ Mainstream adaptation activities into existing planning and decision-making processes. Adaptation strategies may be more effective if integrated into pre-existing plans and actively managed by the responsible parties. 5.4. Foster a collaborative & coordinated approach to disaster management ‰ Propose/Facilitate the establishment of a regional ‘task force’ for rapid reaction in case of severe disturbances caused by climate-related phenomena. The task force may comprise key persons from transport authorities, meteorological organizations, governmental and emergency response agencies. ‰ Promote proactive collaboration on risk management planning with those responsible for critical infrastructure, utilities/services, and interconnected transport modes to protect business continuity. ‰ Develop coordination protocols between different transport authorities and disaster management agencies. ‰ Facilitate/harmonize the online exchange of post-disaster damage assessment data among different authorities. ‰ Standardize weather information and hazard warnings, by establishing a common hazard classification protocol, recognizable across different stakeholders (operators, users, other transport services providers, emergency responders etc.). ‰ Motivate collaboration with research institutions to assist in the understanding of climate change impacts on coastal transport infrastructure and the identification of relevant sensitivity/operational thresholds for the infrastructure at risk. 5.5. Prepare protocols for timely and broad communication with the users ‰ Have communication plans in place applicable to the different hazards. Publish information relevant to other service providers and passengers as early as possible to help them plan their response to disruption. ‰ Train staff responsible to communicate with the public in case of emergency. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note166 Appendix A Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note167 Appendix A A1. Hazard mapping methodology Identify, map the geospatial extent, and estimate the intensity of climate-related hazards that could lead to considerable impact, either by causing direct physical damage to the infrastructure or by indirectly disrupting the accessibility of users and the serviceability of the transport system. At this stage, it is recommended to follow the step-by-step process proposed in WBG’s Climate Toolkits for Infrastructure PPPs: Road Sector (2023):8 1. Identify hazard sources exploiting the local knowledge and global platforms such as: (a) The Climate Change Knowledge Portal (World Bank Group) (b) Think Hazard! (GFDRR - World Bank Group) (c) The Global Risk Data Platform (GRDP). 2. Map their geospatial extent and zone of influence. 3. Rate the intensity of each hazard using a qualitative scoring system (from low to high) considering the intensity and the likelihood of the impact, assuming a reasonable timeframe, consistent with the expected lifetime of the infrastructure. 4. Determine likely future trends, considering climate change projections, and re-evaluate hazard intensity for different scenarios of future carbon emissions. Country-level information on future climate trends may be retrieved from the Climate Change Knowledge Portal (World Bank Group). Spotlight: Future climate projections based on Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). Future climate change projections are commonly based on the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). Available through Phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6), the SSP framework contains a total of eight different multi-model climate trajectories based on alternative/plausible scenarios of future emissions and land-use changes, by which society and ecosystems will evolve in the 21st century. Fathom 2.0 and 3.0 serve as valuable resources offering global, detailed, fluvial and pluvial flood hazard maps with historical and future projections (available for World Bank projects). Alternatively, global scale predictions of climate parameters for different SSPs are available in the WorldClim database. It is essential to note that the selection and interpretation of climate scenarios are influenced by several factors, including asset lifespan, investment criticality, and the potential consequences of asset failure. It is advisable to consider a range of climate scenarios—both optimistic and pessimistic—particularly for assets with lifespans exceeding 30 years, those that are crucial to the broader transportation network, or where the consequences of failure are substantial. Available at: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099051723155518424/ 8 p1746330a9bba90960873404d3b4e4dbd8b Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note168 Appendix A A2. Adaptive planning and innovative project financing An adaptive planning strategy (or an ‘adaptation pathway’) treats the design of adaptation measures in a staged manner: an initial adaptation plan is implemented today (and is expected to perform acceptably for some years, provided that the climate will not change dramatically in the near future), accompanied by adaptive measures that could be activated in the future if climate conditions demand it (sequential implementation of 2-3 interventions may be required during the lifetime of the project). In this case, Capital Expenses (CAPEX) associated with adaptation and resilience measures are not disbursed upfront but spread throughout the project’s lifespan based on certain climate-dependent indicators. Constant monitoring and evaluation of climate stressors and infrastructure performance is an indispensable step in identifying signs for activating sequential adaptation measures. Adaptive planning typically incurs lower life cycle costs than static plans that involve the implementation of robust (and, in some cases, conservative) adaptation options at the beginning of the project, with all climate-related CAPEX disbursal upfront. It does come, however, with two significant challenges that are addressed during the project planning stage: • Adaptation solutions that can be modular for future interventions are not always technically feasible. • The contractual arrangements, financial structure, and project payment mechanism should display appropriate provisions to support this type of planning. Innovative financial structures may need to be deployed to ensure the project’s bankability. A2.1. Innovative financial schemes to support adaptive planning Innovative approaches, such as reserve accounts (possibly in the form of a Climate Contingency Account [CCA]), may be required to finance future adaptive works in case these are required. The CCA, first defined by the World Bank in the 2022 ‘Climate Toolkits for Infrastructure PPPs’ guidance document, reserves funds from regular cash flows (from the beginning of the project up to a certain pre-agreed level) to pay for the periodic adaptive works planned in line with the gradual increase of risk exposure. If not utilized, reserve funds are released as dividends to the project’s shareholders. Example from the urban transport sector If a city’s bus transit system is experiencing extreme heat events at increased frequency, the first stage of an ‘adaptation pathway’ could involve implementing simple, low-cost measures to reduce the impact of extreme heat on passengers, such as providing water stations at bus stops, installing shade structures, and improving ventilation on buses. The second stage could involve more substantial measures, such as retrofitting buses with air conditioning or transitioning to electric buses that produce less heat. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note169 Appendix A A3. Green infrastructure for the urban environment Green infrastructure (GI) offers a multitude of climate environmental and social co-benefits to urban environments and their residents. They offer protection against climate threats, while decreasing carbon emissions and the negative externalities of traffic, improving aesthetics, changing the spatial patterns for accessibility and social equity, and increase the capacity and redundancy of urban transport networks. Indicative examples of multi-functional GI may include: (a) The construction of green bridges and eco tunnels, which can provide infrastructure for flood control and pedestrian/bicycle paths, while also improving urban accessibility. (b) The development of bike-sharing systems, which provide a sustainable short-trip transit alternative to traditional transport modes (thus, increasing redundancy during emergency events), while also enhancing the first-and-last-mile connectivity for less accessible neighborhoods. (c) Green traffic islands, which mitigate stormwater runoff, while enhancing the urban landscape, reducing pavement temperatures, and creating a better microclimate for city residents during extreme heat. A4. Innovative procurement and supply mechanisms to support post-disaster recovery As the transport sector confronts the increasing risks posed by climate change, there is a critical need to reimagine procurement and supply mechanisms to support effective post-disaster recovery. An indicative set of actions towards this direction is proposed below: (a) Integrate climate priorities and measures into the procurement framework to increase accountability for environmental commitments. (b) Establish ‘green budgeting’ procedures that are robust, transparent, and consistent with established international standards. (c) Revise the procurement evaluation framework to objectively judge the capacity of the contractor/supplier to implement climate resilience practices (example, prefer contractors possessing sustainability certification). (d) Implement whole-of-government approaches to incentivize collaboration between agencies and departments and accelerate disbursement of funds for climate preparedness and/or disaster- relief operations. Appendix B Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note171 Appendix B B1. Tier 1 indicators Pillar Example metrics Hazard Relevant sector Number of people provided with all-weather access along All Inland transport the project infrastructure sections systems (including coastal infrastructure) Percentage change in average free-flow speed compared Climate Highways to pre-event conditions, measured at peak disruption and hazards over the first 24 hours of recovery: % Rural Access Index (RAI) : Percentage of rural population All Rural roads living within 2 km from an ‘all-weather’ road (i.e., motorable all year round by the prevailing means of rural System Planning & Financing transport) as a proportion of the total rural population Number of bus, tram, or rail stations/stops fully All Urban Transport/ inoperable for at least 24 consecutive hours during and Railways up to 72 hours after an extreme event Percentage change of average vessel dwell time All Maritime (depending on the severity/likelihood of the event): % infrastructure and Waterways Number of cancelled flights (depending on the severity/ Acute Aviation sector likelihood of the event): No/event weather (including coastal hazards airports). Area mapped using spatial technology to predict future Flooding, All flood/drought risks (precising resolution of the mapping, Drought e.g. 1m², 10m², 100m²): m2 Disruption of economic activity-GDP Loss in percent All All Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note172 Appendix B Length (or number) of project infrastructure incorporating All All climate-resilient measures Percentage of retrofitted assets (out of the total network All Inland transport considered) systems (including coastal infrastructure) Engineering & Design Area coverage of BRT or tram lanes with green Flooding, Urban Transport infrastructure such as trees and vegetation: m² of green Heat infrastructure per km² of transport corridor Percentage of assets above the minimum height threshold Flooding/ Aviation sector above mean sea level (for coastal airports) Sea Level (including coastal Rise airports) Maximum repair days of critical assets Flooding All / Maritime / Storms, infrastructure and Tidal Waterways waves, Wind gusts Number of road kilometers inspected within the yearly All Highways/Rural roads maintenance schedule, as a percentage of the entire network length Percentage change of trains/vessels/planes arriving on All Railways & Urban Operations & Maintenance time in the aftermath of a disaster event Rail / Maritime infrastructure and Waterways / Aviation sector Percentage change of accessibility index for local All Maritime communities along the project waterways corridor after a infrastructure and disaster event (with respect to the intensity/likelihood of Waterways the event) Average length of flight delays in minutes All Aviation sector (including coastal airports) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note173 Appendix B Climate change adaptation action plan implementation: All All Institutional % of measures implemented Capacity Capacity building on climate change resilience planning All All and implementation: % of relevant stakeholders trained Relevant ministries with contingency budgets for disaster All All response Time elapsed between the issuance of a transport- Fire, Inland transport relevant early warning by an official forecasting body Flooding systems (including Contingency Planning (example, national meteorological service, disaster coastal infrastructure) response agency) and its public broadcast to X% of users via designated alert channels (example, SMS, mobile apps, digital road signage) in minutes Post-disaster railway operating speed as a percentage All Railways & Urban rail of the pre-disaster average speed, measured at peak disruption and at [24h, 48h, and 72h] post-event, differentiated by rail corridor type (example, high-speed, commuter, freight) Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note174 Appendix B B2. Tier 2 indicators B2.1. Results framework sample indicators for inland transport systems (including coastal infrastructure). Pillar Example metrics Hazard Relevant sector Mobility targets Functional recovery time with respect to the intensity of the event and the criticality of the system assets: All All Time required to reach 100% capacity: Days Percentage route change due to extreme weather events in comparison to a threshold percentage of the total route All Urban Transport length per year: % Quality of service Percentage of avoided road crashes in extreme weather Climate All conditions: % hazards Connectivity targets System Planning & Financing Connectivity failures per event (depending on the severity/ likelihood of the event): No/event All All Weather-related connectivity failures per capita per annum: No/Population Highways/Rural All-weather critical links/routes: Number All roads/Urban Transport Stakeholder participation targets Number of stakeholders participating in community Rural roads/Urban All meetings: Number Transport Economic activity targets Economic loss (due to disrupted supply chains) as a All All percentage of the regional/country GDP: % Toll road performance recovery: No of days for toll traffic All Highways to recover to pre-disaster levels No. of tickets lost during extreme events and their All Urban Transport recovery: Number Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note175 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Relevant sector Indirect impacts Change of accessibility index after a disaster event (with All All respect to the intensity/likelihood of the event): % Travel time increase: % All All Post-disaster (peak of off-peak) headway9 as a % of Railways & All scheduled headway during normal operations: % Urban rail Canceled trips on the network: Number/year All All Canceled trips on the network per climate event (with All All respect to the intensity/likelihood of the event): Number Revenue loss as a percentage of annual revenues: % All All Physical damage Total replacement cost (associated with an event): USD or % of total repl. cost Flooding All Annualized replacement cost: USD/year Engineering & Design Maximum repair days of critical assets: Days Technical details Percentage of retrofitted assets (out of the total portfolio All All examined) Flooding, Rural roads/ Unpaved roads in rural areas or the urban environment rebuilt Drought, Urban for all seasons, or upgraded to climate-resilient standards: km Snow Transport Number of bus rapid transit stations with improved Flooding, Urban stormwater drainage Cyclones Transportation Percentage of coastal area (out of the total examined) with Coastal All erosion control measures implemented erosion Urban Percentage of public transport vehicles equipped with air Heat Transport/ conditioning systems: % Railways Sustainable landscape management practices: All All Area coverage (m2) Flood; Coastal Erosion, Restored water courses and degraded catchments: % All Strom/Tidal surge Headway is a measure of the distance or time between vehicles operating in the railway system. While the minimum headway 9 is constrained by the design of the infrastructure, the system should be designed to allow headways that meet the regional accessibility goals. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note176 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Relevant sector Maintenance of assets to meet specific performance standards Periodic condition assessments: Number/year Minimum asset condition score above a minimum threshold: score Climate depends on asset type example, for pavement the International All Hazards Roughness Index (m/km) may be used for the ride quality Frequency of preventive maintenance actions: Number/year Emergency response Time to clear road: Minutes/km Snowfall/ hail, Dust Time required to de-ice road surface in case of extreme cold: storms, Highways Rurral Minutes/km Landslides, roads Time required to clean road surface of debris, rockfalls, material Tornadoes/ transported by flood water, etc.: Hours cyclones Time taken to deliver financial, food, or medical support to Highways, Rural All households affected by climate-related emergency: Minutes roads, Railway Highways, Rural Response time of emergency vehicles: Minutes All roads Operations & Maintenance Time to evacuate passengers and staff from public transport All Urban Transport facilities (including underground systems): Minutes Urban Transport/ Bus and rail stations with backup power supply systems: Number All Railways Preparedness Frequency of emergency drills: Number of evacuation/emergency response exercises per year All acute All Existence of procedures for post-event assessments: Yes/No hazards Climate early warning systems installed and operational: Number Operating spare ratio above or equal to predefined target: Yes/No All Railways & Urban Rail Recovery (following disruptive climate events) Time to resume construction: Days Flooding, Landslide, Highways Rural roads Time to resume a certain percentage of operability (as a function of Tornadoes/ the event intensity): Days cyclones Average post-disaster dwell time at station platforms compared to Railways & Urban All normal operations: Minutes Rail Post-disaster station capacity (maximum number of passengers that can be accommodated by the station in a given amount of time, All Railways & Urban Rail example, per hour), as compared to pre-disaster standards: % Complaints received (after climate-related events): Number/event All All Cancelled or affected bus/train services (due to climate events): Railways/Urban All Number transport Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note177 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Relevant sector Resourcefulness Highways, Rural Post-disaster supply chain efficiency: Hours All roads, Railways Alternative routes (inc. other modes of transport) in case Railways/Urban a railway line or public transport lane is severely damaged All Transport during a disaster: Number Contingency Planning Disaster management Emergency water supply points for firefighting: Number per km Pumping stations: Number per km Climate All Fleet and maintenance plan of emergency vehicles: Number Hazards of emergency vehicles per km, frequency of maintenance activities Access to safety net programs: % of drought-affected Drought All population Access to emergency shelter and evacuation routes: All All %Population, %Beneficiaries Pillar Example metrics Hazard Relevant sector Area mapped using spatial technology to predict future Flooding All flood/drought risks: m2 Drought Meteorological stations installed to improve drought and Flooding All flood forecasts: Number Drought Number of climate education courses and workshops Institutional Capacity attended by staff to enhance their knowledge and expertise: All All Number/year Public consultations held with the community on climate All All change resilience: Number/year Budget allocation allocated to climate change adaptation All All measures: % of revenue Climate change adaptation action plan implementation: % of All All measures implemented Capacity building on climate change resilience planning and All All implementation: % of personnel trained Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note178 Appendix B B2.2. List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible impacts on inland transport infrastructure systems. Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Seal level/Wave • Temporary • Temporary loss of • Temporary loss of Coastal Flooding height disruption of traffic serviceability due serviceability due to • Frequency & duration due to inundation to rail inundation inundation of storm surges • Damage to road • Track damage • Road closures due • Proximity to surface due to (example, to transferred shoreline erosion buckling, warping, debris, fallen trees, • Unseating/ misalignment) collapsed signage • Precipitation movement due to differential • Disruption of public of structural movements transport services River Flood • River discharge induced by ballast components due to blockages • Water height (example bridge loss and pothole along their routes or • Frequency/duration decks) due to formation flooding of the depot of flood events hydrodynamic • Damage on stations impacts bridges, culverts, • Reduced access to • Precipitation embankments, • Damage to bridges public transport due • Existence of dams and culverts due to and retaining to compromised upstream foundation scour structures, due accessibility/safety Flash Flooding and backfill erosion. to hydrodynamic for pedestrians • Existence of glacial impacts and/ lakes upstream • Loss of support/ or foundation • Partial or complete • Steep ground collapse of roads movements due to failure of bridges, morphology due to embankment scour embankments and (torrential failure. retaining systems. • Disruption due environment) • Partial/total to damage to failure of retaining electrical power/ • Precipitation structures leading signalling systems • Peak water height to road movement • Blockages due to Urban Flooding • Low proportion of • Road blockage debris/soil masses unpaved areas due to debris/soil falling upon tracks masses • Proportion of vegetated areas • Frequency of flood events • Low atmospheric pressure Tidal Waves • Frequency of sea- level fluctuations • Duration of tidal sea- level rise Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note179 Appendix B Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Sea level rise • Gradual • Loss of track • Deterioration of • Water flow velocity deterioration of support leading roads, cracks/ roads to differential holes, impacting the • Riverbank/shoreline movement comfort of users, ground material • Differential settlements, followed by traffic flow speed, • Rate of erosion leading to road buckling, warping, private and public progress cracks, potholes, and misalignment, vehicles and structure which can cause • Damage to bridges River/Coastal Erosion distress derailment and and retaining significant damage systems potentially • Loss of support to the tracks from foundations causing long-term and abutments • As with highways road closures leading to reduced and rural roads, • Debris movement capacity, and damage to leading to road potentially bridges, culverts blockages destabilization and retaining structures • Blockage of drainage of structural systems aggravating components leading flood hazard to partial or total collapse of bridges, culverts and retaining structures • Precipitation • Differential • Track failure due • As in the case of Landslides & Rockfalls • Seismic acceleration movements leading to differential highways and rural to cracks, holes, movement or loss roads: • Soil type collapses of roads, of support • Damage to roads, • Slope angle bridge elements, • Damage to bridges bridge elements, and and retaining due to foundation retaining systems • Existence of systems ground movements • fractures, slip Impact failures surfaces • Impact failure of • Damage to tracks of primary and structures and and blockages due auxiliary structures • Precipitation signage to falling soil/rock • Traffic disruptions Debris/Mud • Soil type • Blockage of roads due to blockages by flows • Vegetation due to fallen soil/ fallen debris rock masses • Lack of drainage • Ground slope Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note180 Appendix B Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Peak daily air • Road/rail lines buried by snow leading to service disruptions and temperature damage to infrastructure, potentially threatening the safety of users/passengers Avalanches • Temperature variation within season • Ground inclination • Snowfall • Air temperature • Bumps and holes • Misalignment or • Reduced • Average/extreme on the road due failure of tracks accessibility yearly temperature to permanent due to movement due to broken, Ice Melt/Permafrost Thaw variations deformations of the of the supporting cracked roads and supporting soil ground and loss of pavements • Duration of heat support waves • Slope • Traffic delays/ displacements • Blockage of blockages due • Sub-surface leading to debris railways covered to damaged temperature closures or road by sliding soil infrastructure collapse masses • Reduced comfort of • Damage to bridges users and delays due due to excessive to road deterioration distortion of the foundations • Monthly/yearly • Operational • Service delays/ • Operational snowfall disruption due disruption due to disruption due • Snowfall duration to excess snow snow accumulation to excess snow and seasonal change coverage of road on tracks coverage of precipitation • Impact damage of • Train skid • Heavy snow/hail patterns auxiliary assets. accidents events can damage • Maximum hail size • Road crashes due • Accidents due to bus stops (or other Snowfall/Hail to ice/snow on the low visibility outdoor stations) • Duration of hail event impacting the safety road and reduced • Failure of exposed • Frequency of hail visibility. of users events or extreme power lines leading to power outages • Power outages due snowfall per year to lifeline failures • Speed of ice, etc. affecting public transport schedule • Road crashes due to ice/snow on the road and reduced visibility. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note181 Appendix B Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Fog thickness • Road crashes due • Accidents due to • Accidents due to • Fog duration to reduced visibility reduced visibility reduced visibility • Service delays • Public transport Fog • Visibility distance schedule disruptions • Time of day • Time headway • Maximum wind speed • Road crashes • Sway and even • Accidents due to • Maximum wind gust due to car drift, derailment of car drift, especially speeds per month/ especially at tunnel trains when at tunnel exits or year exits or viaduct crossing exposed viaduct crossings. crossings. areas such • Accidents due to • Number of as bridges or consecutive days • Road crashes due flying objects to flying objects viaducts. with extreme wind • Blockages due to (i.e., speed > 70 mph) • Blockages due to • Truck damage or impacts with flying per month/year, etc. impacts with flying service blockages objects objects due to fallen debris/trees • Damage to signalling • Damage to equipment signalling • Service disruptions • Damage to Wind gusts equipment and delays due to danger lightweight bridges • Damage to lightweight bridges • Damage to trains, such as blown-off roofs or windows • Damage to overhead power infrastructure causing outages and signalling failure • Passenger safety risk due to flying objects, especially around stations. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note182 Appendix B Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Number of lightning • Damage to power • Service disruption • Damage to power strikes to ground per supply lines and due to power supply lines and km2 per year communications outages caused by communications • Altitude leading to operation damage to power leading to operation Thunderstorms/Lightening disruptions and lines disruptions and safety issues • Track damage safety issues • Damage to signage due to lightning • Damage to signage can cause breakage strikes potentially can cause breakage and collapse of causing service and collapse of objects potentially blockages and objects potentially impacting vehicles even derailment impacting vehicles and users • Communication and users • Increased risk system failures • Increased risk of fire of fire affecting operations and safety • Minimum • Asphalt • Icy tracks reducing • Asphalt temperature per deterioration traction can cause deterioration month/year affecting vehicle accidents or lead affecting vehicle • Number of cold speed and tire to speed reduction speed and tire days (example, days lifetime and delays lifetime with maximum • Road crashes • Slippery platforms • Accidents due poor Excessive Cold temperature due poor friction causing passenger friction of the road <200C), etc. of the road (ice safety issues (ice conditions) conditions) • Damage to • Passenger safety equipment due to issues due to freeze slippery conditions • Health risk for in stations and passengers in pavements absence of heating • Health risk for passengers in absence of heating Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note183 Appendix B Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Maximum • Asphalt and • Deformation • Road and pavement temperature per pavement of trucks, even deterioration month/year deterioration buckling, due to affecting travel • Number of summer affecting vehicle temperature loads times/vehicle days (for example, speed and tire • Reduced train lifetime days with maximum lifetime speed leading • Power supply temperature >25°C) • Increased risk of to delays problems due to per year, etc. power outages due failure of overheated Excessive Heat • Power supply to fire problems due equipment to failure of • Health risks overheated for passengers equipment in absence of • Health risks ventilation/air for passengers conditioning. in absence of • Increased risk of fire ventilation/air conditioning. • Increased risk of fire • Standardized • Risk multiplier for erosion and fire risk. precipitation index • Risk multiplier for flash flood due to eliminated vegetation cover (SPI) • Combined with excessive heat it causes discomfort and aggravates Drought • Soil moisture, health risks (example chances of heatstroke) for users/passengers. • Groundwater and • In combination with temperature rise, drought may cause asphalt reservoir storage deterioration in roads and equipment deterioration in trucks/trains • Length of dry period and public transport fleets. yearly Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note184 Appendix B Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Total number of • Partial/total • Track damage • Partial/total fires per month/year operational causing service operational (frequency) disruption of road disruptions, disruption of road • Total land area network potentially network burned (magnitude) • Smoke induced derailment and • Smoke induced health risks and accidents health risks and • Age of forest and plantation reduced visibility • Smoke reduces reduced visibility • Power outages visibility and can • Power outages • Humidity of the cause respiratory area, etc. affecting affecting issues, potentially Wildfires communications communications and and safety systems fatal, especially in safety systems tunnels • Power outages due to damage power lines and electrical equipment • Destruction of plantation along road alignments aggravating flood and erosion risks • Dust particle • Risk of road • Risk of accidents • Risk of accidents concentrations, crashes due to due to reduced due to reduced • Dust storm average reduced visibility. visibility visibility duration, etc. • Power outages due • Operation • Operation Dust Storms to failure of power disruptions and disruptions and lines or equipment delays delays damage • Power outages due • Power outages due to failure of power to failure of power lines or equipment lines or equipment damage damage. • Health risks due to poor air quality Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note185 Appendix B Impacts on Hazard Hazard Intensity Impacts on urban highways and Impacts on railways type Indicators transport systems rural roads • Peak Ground • Damage to bridges, • Potential damage • Damage to roads, Acceleration tunnels, retaining to bridges, tunnels, bridge • Proximity to active structures, and tunnels, retaining elements, and seismic faults roads leading structures and retaining systems. to partial/total tracks leading • Damage to operational to operational Earthquakes underground disruptions. disruptions. stations and • Power outages • Risk of train terminals. due to the failure derailment • Power outages of power lines • Potential power affecting affecting lighting outages, affecting communication and communication communication systems and systems. systems and train services. operations. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note186 Appendix B B2.3. Results Framework Sample Indicators for maritime infrastructure and waterways. Pillar Example metrics Hazard Supply-chain continuity/Connectivity targets Functional recovery time with respect to the intensity of the event and the criticality of the system assets: All -Time required to reach a certain percentage of port capacity: Days -Time required to reach 100% capacity: Days Number of isolated nodes within the inter-connected port/hinterland supply-chain network (depending on the severity/likelihood of the event): All No/event Quality of service & Safety Targets System Planning & Financing Average ratio of post-disaster throughput demand (measured in cargo or All number of vessels handled per day) to the total demand: % Flooding; Storms Tidal waves; Percentage of avoided accidents in extreme weather conditions: % Wind gusts Economic activity targets Economic loss due to disrupted supply chains as a percentage of the All regional/country GDP: % Port performance recovery: No of days for port operations to recover to All pre-disaster levels Ecosystem services Sustainable land use/water resource management practices: Area All coverage (m2) Number of environmentally friendly port infrastructure (equipment and All facilities), as a percentage of the total port inventory: % Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note187 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Indirect impacts Percentage increase of freight delivery time as compared to normal All operations (depending on the severity/likelihood of the event): % Cancelled shipments due to disruptions on the supply-chain network: Tons/year All Cancelled shipments on the supply-chain network per climate event (with respect to the intensity/likelihood of the event): Tons Carriers inventory loss as a percentage of annual revenues: % Port revenue loss as a percentage of annual revenues: % All Disruption of economic activity: Regional GDP Loss Engineering & Design Physical damage Total replacement cost (associated with an event): USD or % of total repl. Flooding; Storms; cost Tidal waves; Annualized replacement cost: USD/year Wind gusts Flooding; Storms; Maximum repair days of critical assets: Days Tidal waves; Wind gusts Technical details Percentage of retrofitted assets (out of the total portfolio examined): % All Percentage of coastal area (out of the total examined) with erosion/ Erosion/Sediment sediment control measures implemented: % transfer Flood; Erosion, Sediment Restored water courses and degraded catchments: % transfer; Strom/ Tidal surge Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note188 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Maintenance of assets to meet specific performance standards Periodic condition assessments: Number/year Frequency of preventive maintenance actions: Number/year All Minimum asset/equipment condition score above a minimum threshold Time elapsed between a predicted event and a warning announcement to All acute hazards port customers: Minutes Response time of emergency vehicles: Minutes All Efficiency Berth occupancy rate in the aftermath of a disruptive event All (as a function of the event intensity): % Wharf productivity in the aftermath of a disruptive event All (as a function of the event intensity): 103 tons/meter Time required to de-ice port locks in case of extreme cold: Hours Ice; Dust storms; Time required to clean port surfaces from material transported by flood Flooding; Storms; Wind gusts Operations & Maintenance water, dust storms etc.: Hours EDI (electronic data interchange) connectivity in the aftermath of a All acute hazards disruptive event (as a function of the event intensity) : % Percentage increase of Vessel Turnaround Time (VTT) in the aftermath of All a disruptive event: % Gantry cranes post-disaster capacity: TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent Flooding; Storms; units) Wind gusts Flooding; Storms; Yard capacity loss: TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units) Wind gusts Accessibility Port access from hinterland corridors in comparison to normal All acute hazards operations: % Number of blank and skipped sailings (as a result of an extreme climate All acute hazards event) during a given reporting period: Number/event Shipping route density (as a ratio of the number of operating lines All acute hazards during normal operations): % Recovery (following disruptive climate events) Time to resume a certain percentage of operability (as a function of the All acute hazards event intensity): Days Time required to restore power, following outages in the aftermath of a All acute hazards disruptive event (as a function of the event intensity): Hours Complaints received (after climate-related events): Number/event All Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note189 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Preparedness Frequency of emergency drills: Number of evacuation/emergency response exercises per year Climate hazards Existence of procedures for post-event assessments: Yes/No Climate early warning systems installed and operational: Number Contingency Planning Redundancy Percentage of supply-chain network links damaged versus the network All performance: % Percentage of nodes damaged versus the supply-chain network All performance: % Electric power supply in the aftermath of a disruptive event (as a function All of the event intensity): % Gas supply in the aftermath of a disruptive event (as a function of the All event intensity): % Pillar Example metrics Hazard Institutional Capacity Area mapped using spatial technology to predict future flood/drought risks: m2 Flooding, Drought Meteorological stations/River Information Services (RIS) systems installed to improve drought and flood forecasts: Number Scheduled emergency management training workshops for personnel: All Events/year Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note190 Appendix B B2.4. List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible impacts on maritime infrastructure and waterways. Hazard type Hazard intensity indicators Likely impacts • Seal level/Wave height • Increased frequency and severity of inundation of port flooding areas and infrastructure Coastal • Frequency & duration of storm surges • High in-channel river flow velocities or changes in • Proximity to shoreline sea state • Damage to port and waterway infrastructure due to • Precipitation hydrodynamic impacts River flood • River discharge • Vessel damage • Water height • Damage to utilities (stormwater systems, lifelines, etc.) • Frequency/duration of • Closure, downtime, delays, loss of function, business flood events interruption • Precipitation • Change in salinity leading to increased corrosion rates Tidal waves • Frequency of sea-level and degradation of roads and pavements fluctuations • Increased maintenance (example, clean-up) costs • Duration of tidal sea-level rise • Sea level rise • Changes in river and bank morphology impacting navigation and vessel safety River/costal erosion & • Water flow velocity • Damage of infrastructure foundations supported on sedimentation • Riverbank/shoreline ground material the riverbed/seabed or banks (example, dams, berths, ramps, stairs) • Clogging, or sedimentation of equipment and navigation signs • Increased maintenance cost (example, increased dredging frequency) • Maximum wind speed • Increased risk of infrastructure failure due to high • Maximum wind gust speeds lateral loads per month/year • Risk of accidents and failures due to collisions Wind gusts • Number of consecutive days • Increased side forces on vessels and cargo on deck with extreme wind (i.e., speed > impacting vessel maneuverability 70 mph) per month/year, etc. • Suspension or interruption of navigation • Increased risk of power failure and degradation of electrical and communications infrastructure • Delays in operations • Dust particle concentrations, • Reduced visibility/safety storms Dust • Dust storm average duration, • Delays in operations etc. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note191 Appendix B Hazard type Hazard intensity indicators Likely impacts • Fog thickness • Reduced visibility/safety • Fog duration • Delays in operations Fog • Visibility distance • Time of day • Time headway • Minimum temperature per • Local appearance of ice and ice jams month/year • Possible damage to navigation signs and infrastructure Excessive cold • Number of cold days • Freezing of locks and mooring devices (example, days with maximum temperature <200C), etc. • Disruption of operations • Delays • Increased maintenance costs (example, due to need for ice breaking) • Maximum temperature per • Increased risk of power failure and degradation of month/year electrical and communications infrastructure Excessive heat • Number of summer days • Increased health and safety risks for personnel (example, days with maximum • Disruption of operations temperature >250C) per year, etc. • Delays • Increased maintenance costs associated with vegetation clearing • Standardized precipitation • Low river discharge, water height and flow velocities index (SPI) • Reduced cargo-carrying capacity of vessels Drought • Soil moisture, • Increased power demand due to shallow water • Groundwater and reservoir resistance storage • Delayed/interrupted navigation • Length of dry period yearly • Damage/grounding of vessels • Air temperature • Increased risk of flooding permafrost • Average/extreme yearly • Increased risk of river erosion Ice melt/ thaw temperature variations • Increased risk of damage to vessels/collision • Duration of heat waves • Changes in water salinity • Sub-surface temperature • Precipitation • Damage to river infrastructure (dams, banks, drainage Landslides & • Soil type systems) rockfalls • Slope angle • increased erosion and sedimentation • Existence of fractures, slip surfaces Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note192 Appendix B B2.5. Results Framework Sample Indicators for the aviation sector (including coastal airports). Pillar Example metrics Hazard Operational continuity targets Functional recovery time with respect to the intensity of the event and the criticality of the system assets: Acute weather Time required to reach a certain percentage of airport capacity: Days hazards Time required to reach 100% capacity: Days Quality of service Number of passengers waiting in the terminal facilities during a disruptive event, as a percentage of total passenger demand (depending on the All System Planning & Financing severity/likelihood of the event): % Average ratio of post-disaster cargo throughput demand (measured in air cargo volume) to the total demand (depending on the severity/likelihood of All the event): % Economic Activity Targets Economic loss due to disrupted airport activity as a percentage of the All regional/national GDP: % Airport performance recovery: No of days for airport operations to recover All to pre-disaster levels Ecosystem services Percentage of water supply originating from sustainable water All management practices (example, reclaimed water facilities): % Days of Air Quality (AQ) Daily Index higher than 5 in a month: Days All Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note193 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Indirect impacts Percentage increase of on-time departure/arrival times (depending on the severity/likelihood of the event): % All Passenger bookings cancelled: Number Percentage increase of air freight delivery time as compared to normal All operations (depending on the severity/likelihood of the event): % Cancelled air freight deliveries per climate event (with respect to the All intensity/likelihood of the event): Tons Logistics losses for commercial airlines and aviation cargo carriers as a percentage of annual revenues: % All Airport revenue loss as a percentage of annual revenues: % Engineering & Design Disruption of economic activity: Regional GDP Loss Physical damage Total replacement cost (associated with an event): USD or % of total repl. cost Flooding; Storms; Winds Annualized replacement cost: USD/year Percentage of runways damaged in the aftermath of an adverse weather Flooding; Storms event (with respect to the intensity/likelihood of the event): % Flooding; Storms; Maximum repair days of critical assets: Days Winds Technical details Percentage of retrofitted assets (out of the total portfolio examined): % Percentage of stormwater system upgraded to future climate All standards: % The longest runway length in the airport: m Extreme Heat Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note194 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Periodic condition assessments: Number/year Frequency of preventive maintenance actions: Number/year All Minimum asset/equipment condition score above a minimum threshold Time elapsed between an early warning weather alert and the announcement to airport passengers and stakeholders (example, airlines, All acute hazards air navigation service providers, ground transportation providers): Minutes Response time of emergency vehicles: Minutes All Efficiency Runway occupancy rate in the aftermath of a disruptive event (as a All function of the event intensity): % Average passenger enplanement as a percentage to normal operations (as All a function of the event intensity): No. of enplaned passengers/hour Time required to de-ice aircrafts or runways in case of extreme cold: Ice; Dust storms; Operations & Maintenance Hours Flooding; Storms; Time required to clean runways from material transported by flood water, Winds dust storms etc.: Hours ICT connectivity in the aftermath of a disruptive event All acute hazards (as a function of the event intensity) : % Percentage increase of aircraft turnaround time in the aftermath of a All disruptive event: % Increase in aircraft separation distance or time (depending on the Storms; Winds severity/likelihood of the event): km or min Accessibility Airport access from main road/rail corridors in comparison to normal All acute hazards operations: % Direct and indirect connections affected per climate event Flooding; Storms; (with respect to the intensity/likelihood of the event): Number Winds Recovery (following disruptive climate events) Time to resume a certain percentage of operability All acute hazards (as a function of the event intensity): Days Time required to restore power, following outages in the aftermath of a All acute hazards disruptive event (as a function of the event intensity): Hours Passenger complaints received (after adverse weather events): Number/ All event Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note195 Appendix B Pillar Example metrics Hazard Preparedness Frequency of emergency drills: Number of evacuation/emergency response exercises per year Acute hazards Weather early warning systems installed and operational: Number No. of pumping stations available for pavement treatment after flooding: Flooding Contingency Planning Number Fleet and maintenance plan of emergency vehicles: Number of emergency All vehicles per km, frequency of maintenance activities Redundancy Electric power supply in the aftermath of a disruptive event Acute hazards (as a function of the event intensity): % ICT connectivity in the aftermath of a disruptive event Acute hazards (as a function of the event intensity): % Fuel supply in the aftermath of a disruptive event Acute hazards (as a function of the event intensity): % Pillar Example metrics Hazard Climate change adaptation action plan implementation: All % of measures implemented Institutional Capacity Budget allocation allocated to climate change adaptation measures: % of All revenue Capacity building on climate change resilience planning and All implementation: % of personnel trained Scheduled emergency management training workshops for personnel: All events/year Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note196 Appendix B B2.6. List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible impacts on airport infrastructure. Hazard type Hazard intensity indicators Likely impacts • Seal level/Wave height • Increased frequency and severity of inundation of flooding airport runways or terminals Coastal • Frequency & duration of storm surges • Damage to utilities (stormwater systems, • Proximity to shoreline electrical systems, etc.) aircraft navigation systems and instrument landing systems • Precipitation • Airport closure, downtime, delays, loss of function, River flood • River discharge supply-chain interruption • Water height • Change in salinity leading to accelerated • Frequency/duration of flood events pavement degradation • Increased maintenance (example, clean-up) costs • Precipitation waves Tidal • Frequency of sea-level fluctuations • Duration of tidal sea-level rise • Maximum wind speed • Increased risk of landside infrastructure damage due to high wind loads Extreme wind/change in wind • Maximum wind gust speeds per month/year • Suspension or flight activity due to turbulence and • Number of consecutive days with reduced visibility patterns extreme wind (that is, speed > 70 • Flight delays due to increased aircraft separation mph) per month/year, etc./ distances, re-routing or take-off/landing difficulties • Increased risk of power failure and degradation of electrical and communications infrastructure • Increased frequency of crosswinds/tailwinds reducing runway capacity • Number of thunderstorm days/ • Obstacles on runways/taxiways (Convective weather) Large-scale storms and thunderstorms year • Damage to aircrafts and equipment • Days of more than 10mm • Delays in operations or airport closures due to precipitation in a month lightning strikes • Maximum wind speeds • Reduced surface friction (in the case of storms) • Severe Weather Threat Index (SWEAT)10 • Fog thickness • Reduced visibility/safety • Fog duration • Delays in operations Fog • Visibility distance • Time of day • Time headway https://www.weather.gov/lmk/indices 10 Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note197 Appendix B Hazard type Hazard intensity indicators Likely impacts • Minimum temperature per month/ • Possible damage to navigation signs and Excessive cold (Ice & snow) year infrastructure due to icing • Number of cold days (example, • Reduced visibility and runway friction days with maximum temperature • Delays in operations < 200C), etc. • Icing of aircrafts • Days of ground frost in a month: Days • Increased maintenance costs (example, due to de-icing requirements or pavement deterioration) • Water quality compliance issues due to increased de-icing activity • Maximum temperature per month/ • Increased risk of power failure and degradation of year electrical and communications infrastructure • Number of summer days (example, • Increased health and safety risks for personnel Excessive heat days with maximum temperature > • Increased maintenance costs (example, due to 250C) per year, etc. pavement buckling) • Disruption of operations and delays due to aircraft take-off difficulties (reduced engine lift and thrust) • increased energy costs due to increased need for cooling of airport buildings • Standardized precipitation • Decreased water availability inhibiting cooling index (SPI) operations Drought • Soil moisture • Increased health and safety risks for personnel • Groundwater and reservoir storage • Increased energy costs due to increased usage of • Length of dry period yearly air-conditioning systems • Air temperature • Increased risk of flooding permafrost • Average/extreme yearly • Increased risk of erosion or subsidence of coastal Ice melt/ thaw temperature variations airstrips and access roads • Duration of heat waves • Sub-surface temperature • Dust particle concentrations, • Reduced visibility/safety Dust storms • Dust storm average duration, etc. • Delays in operations • Potential encroachment of sand dunes on the apron • Sand damage to airframes and engines Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note198 Appendix B B2.7. List of climate hazards, relevant intensity indicators, and description of possible impacts on coastal transport infrastructure systems. Impacts on coastal Impacts on seaports Hazard Hazard intensity Impacts on coastal type roads and coastal and coastal indicators airports railways waterways • Seal level height • Permanent inundation • Permanent inundation • Permanent Mean sea level rise of low-lying roads or of low-lying airport inundation of low- • Proximity to areas, railways. lying port areas, shoreline • Decreased traction on • Changes in • Damage to road runways. sea state surface due to erosion. • Frequency & • Change in salinity resulting in poor • Damage to rail leading to accelerated maneuverability duration of tracks (example, pavement degradation. and navigation of storms buckling, warping, • Increased frequency locks and vessels. Coastal flooding (Storm surges) • Wave/water misalignment) due to and severity of sudden • Increased frequency height differential movements inundation of airport and severity of induced by ballast loss buildings, terminals, • Wave velocity runways, taxiways, sudden inundation and pothole formation. aprons and other of port areas, • Wind direction • Increased frequency facilities or pavements infrastructure, and coastline (example, car parks). and equipment, orientation and severity of road- including inundation or railway inundation • Damage to utilities • Bathymetry (stormwater systems, of stockpiled leading to temporary cargos and release and coastline electrical systems, disruption of traffic of hazardous morphology etc.) aircraft and serviceability loss navigation systems material leading • Land elevation/ (example, closures or and instrument landing to environmental Low-lying reduced travel speeds). systems. impacts. regions • Unseating/movement • Increased maintenance • Increased erosion of structural (example, clean-up) and wave damage • Precipitation costs. to wharves, components (example • Frequency bridge decks) due • Temporary loss of container yards, of sea-level serviceability, flight bulk storage to hydrodynamic cancellations and facilities and other fluctuations impacts. delays. port facilities. • Duration of tidal • Damage to bridges • Airport closure, • Reduction in sea-level rise and culverts due to downtime, supply- Tidal waves clearance between foundation scour and chain interruption. ships and booms backfill erosion and below overhead • Loss of support/ obstacles (example, collapse of road- bridges). and railways due to • Damage to port embankment failure. and waterway infrastructure due to hydrodynamic impacts. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note199 Appendix B Impacts on coastal Impacts on seaports Hazard Hazard intensity Impacts on coastal type roads and coastal and coastal indicators airports railways waterways • Partial/total failure of • Partial or retaining structures complete failure leading to road of embankments, movement or track quay walls and misalignment. other retaining • Blockages due to systems. debris/soil masses • Damage to utilities falling upon tracks or (stormwater on the road. systems, lifelines, • Disruption due to power supply Tidal waves damage to electrical systems, etc.). power/signaling • Vessel damage systems. • Closure, downtime, • Saltwater intrusion delays, business onto roads rails and interruption and facilities leading to supply chain increased corrosion disruptions. rates. • Increased salinity • Reduced traction and leading to increased reduced travel safety. corrosion • Increased maintenance costs Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note200 Appendix B Impacts on coastal Impacts on seaports Hazard Hazard intensity Impacts on coastal type roads and coastal and coastal indicators airports railways waterways • Sea level rise • Gradual deterioration • Damage to airport • Changes in • Water flow of roads and rail runway due to erosion. river and bank velocity tracks, impacting • Increased maintenance morphology the comfort of users, costs. impacting • Riverbank/ traffic flow speed. navigation and shoreline ground • Blockage of drainage vessel safety. material • Differential systems aggravating settlements, leading to flood hazard. • Damage of road cracks, potholes, infrastructure and structure distress. foundations • Loss of track support supported on the Coastal erosion & stedimentation leading to differential riverbed/seabed movement followed by or banks (example, buckling, warping, and dams, berths, misalignment, which ramps, stairs). can cause derailment • Clogging, or and significant sedimentation of damage to the tracks. equipment and • Loss of support from navigation signs. foundations and • Increased abutments leading maintenance to reduced capacity, cost (example, and potentially increased dredging destabilization of frequency). structural components leading to partial or total collapse of bridges, culverts, retain. structures. • Increased maintenance. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note201 Appendix B Impacts on coastal Impacts on seaports Hazard Hazard intensity Impacts on coastal type roads and coastal and coastal indicators airports railways waterways • Air temperature • Bumps and holes • Increased risk of • Increased risk of • Average/ on the road or flooding. flooding. extreme yearly misalignment and • Increased risk of • Increased risk of temperature failure of tracks erosion or subsidence river erosion. variations due to permanent of coastal airstrips and • Increased risk of deformations of the access roads. • Duration of heat supporting soil. damage to vessels/ waves • Increased deterioration collision. Ice melt/permafrost thaw • Slope displacements of the infrastructure’s • Changes in water • Sub-surface leading to debris temperature structural integrity. salinity. closures or collapses. • Damage to bridges due • Slope instability to excessive distortion and drainage of the foundations. issues. • Traffic delays/ • Increased blockages due deterioration of the to damaged infrastructure’s infrastructure. structural integrity. • Reduced comfort of users and delays due to road and track deterioration. • Fog thickness • Accidents due to • Reduced visibility/ • Reduced visibility/ • Fog duration reduced visibility safety safety • Visibility • Service delays • Delays in operations • Delays in Fog distance • Public transport operations • Time of day schedule disruptions • Time headway Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note202 Appendix B Impacts on coastal Impacts on seaports Hazard Hazard intensity Impacts on coastal type roads and coastal and coastal indicators airports railways waterways • Maximum wind • Impacts due to flying • Increased risk of • Increased risk of speed objects including landside infrastructure infrastructure • Maximum wind car/train accidents, damage due to high failure due to high gust speeds per road/rail blockages, wind loads. lateral loads. month/year passenger safety risks • Suspension or flight • Risk of accidents (especially around activity due to and failures due to • Number of stations). consecutive turbulence and reduced collisions. days with • Damage to lightweight visibility. • Increased side extreme wind bridges. • Flight delays due to forces on vessels Wind gusts/extreme wind/hurricanes (i.e., speed > 70 • Accidents due to car increased aircraft and cargo on deck mph) per month/ drifts, sway or even separation distances, impacting vessel year, etc. derailment of trains re-routing or take-off/ maneuverability when crossing exposed landing difficulties. and berthing with areas such as bridges, • Increased risk of power ports. viaducts or tunnel failure and degradation • Suspension or exits. of electrical and interruption of • Truck/Road damage or communications navigation. service blockages due infrastructure. • Increased risk to fallen debris/trees. • Increased frequency of of power failure • Service disruptions and crosswinds/tailwinds and degradation delays due to danger. reducing runway of electrical and • Damage to trains, such capacity. communications as blown-off roofs or infrastructure. windows. • Damages to • Damage to overhead terminals and power infrastructure navigation and/or signalling equipment. equipment causing • Delays in outages and signalling operations. failure. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note203 Appendix B Impacts on coastal Impacts on seaports Hazard Hazard intensity Impacts on coastal type roads and coastal and coastal indicators airports railways waterways • Number of • Roads, tracks, • Obstacles on runways/ • Damage to power lightning strikes bridges and other taxiways. supply lines and to ground per infrastructure damage • Damage to aircrafts communications km2 per year due to direct or indirect and equipment. leading to operation • Altitude lightning strikes. disruptions and • Reduced surface safety issues. Thunderstorms/lightening • Damage to power friction (in the case of supply lines and storms). • Damage to signage communications can cause breakage leading to operation • Damage to electrical and collapse of disruptions and safety and communications objects potentially issues. equipment, including impacting the port airport lighting infrastructure, port • Damage to signage systems, leading to can cause breakage vehicles and users. operation disruptions and collapse of objects and safety issues. • Increased risk of potentially impacting fire. vehicles and users. • Delays in flight operations or airport • Increased risk of fire. closures due to lightning strikes. • Minimum • Asphalt deterioration • Possible damage to • Local appearance of temperature per affecting vehicle speed navigation signs and ice and ice jams. month/year and tire lifetime. infrastructure due to • Possible damage • Number of • Accidents, speed icing. to navigation signs cold days reduction and delays • Reduced visibility and and infrastructure. (example, days due to poor friction of runway friction. • Freezing of locks with maximum the road or icy tracks • Delays in operations. and mooring Excessive cold temperature (ice conditions). devices. < 200C), etc. • Icing of aircrafts. • Slippery platforms causing passenger • Increased maintenance • Disruption of costs (example, due to operations safety issues. de-icing requirements • Delays. • Damage to equipment or pavement due to freeze. • Increased deterioration). maintenance • Health risk for • Water quality costs (example, passengers in absence compliance issues due due to need for ice of heating. to increased breaking). de-icing activity. Disaster and Climate-Resilient Transport Guidance Note204 Appendix B Impacts on coastal Impacts on seaports Hazard Hazard intensity Impacts on coastal type roads and coastal and coastal indicators airports railways waterways • Maximum • Asphalt and pavement • Increased risk of power • Increased risk temperature per deterioration affecting failure and degradation of power failure month/year vehicle speed and tire of electrical and and degradation • Number of lifetime. communications of electrical and summer days • Deformation of trucks, infrastructure. communications (example, days even buckling, due to • Increased health infrastructure. with maximum temperature loads. and safety risks for • Increased health temperature • Reduced train speed personnel. and safety risks for >250C) per year, leading to delays. • Increased maintenance personnel. etc. Excessive heat • Health risks for costs (example, due to • Disruption of passengers in absence pavement buckling). operations and of ventilation/air • Operational disruptions delays. conditioning. due to aircraft take-off • Increased • Increased risk of fire. difficulties (reduced maintenance costs engine lift and thrust) associated with • Increased risk of vegetation clearing. power outages due to • Increased energy costs failure of overheated due to increased need • Changes to the equipment or due to for cooling of airport types and incidence fire. buildings. of marine pests at ports (example, introduction of more exotic tropical species). • Standardized • Risk multiplier for • Decreased water • Reduced cargo- precipitation erosion and fire risk. availability inhibiting carrying capacity of index (SPI) • Risk multiplier for flash cooling operations. vessels. • Soil moisture, flood due to eliminated • Increased health • Increased power • Groundwater vegetation cover. and safety risks for demand due to and reservoir • Combined with personnel. shallow water storage excessive heat it • Increased energy costs resistance. • Length of dry causes discomfort due to increased usage • Delayed/ Drought period yearly and aggravates health of air-conditioning interrupted risks (example chances systems. navigation. of heatstroke) for • Damage/grounding users/passengers. of vessels. • In combination with temperature rise, drought may cause asphalt deterioration in roads and fleet equipment deterioration. 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