Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria N I G E R I A G E N D E R I N N O V AT I O N L A B 1 KEY MESSAGES • Women farmers produce 30 percent less per hectare than their male counterparts. • Among various factors, there are three key drivers of gender gaps in agriculture productivity in Nigeria: women use fewer inputs and have limited participation in extension services, farm less-valuable crops, and hire less productive labor. • The four value chains receiving the largest budget allocations are among those with the lowest participation of women farmers. • These gaps can be closed via adjustments at fundamental stages of budget allocation and policy formulation, such as the following: “Harvesting cassava root” by Milo Mitchell/IFPRI » Increasing spending on direct provision of physical inputs and training to women farmers via reallocation of any inefficient spending under other budget headers » Increasing the budget allocated toward agriculture extension services designed to meet women farmers’ information, input, and market needs » Identifying innovative solutions and organizations for public-private partnerships to increase women’s access to markets » Targeting more funds to incentivize women to cross over to high-value crops » Investing in gender-disaggregated data collection, especially budget and expenditure data, to facilitate analytics and evidence-based policy making photo credit: Olubukola Olayiwola / World Bank 1 This note was prepared by a World Bank team from the Nigeria Gender Innovation Lab (GIL), including Ayodele Fashogbon, Laurel Morrison, Abhilasha Sahay, and Julia Vaillant.  Zuzana Johansen copyedited the note, Amy Geist provided editorial assistance, and Six Half Dozen Design Studio led the design and layout of the note. The team thanks Miguel Angel Saldarriaga Noel, Samer Naji Matta, and Nyda Mukhtar for their valuable comments and guidance. The team is also grateful for the close collaboration and budget data provided by the Government of Nigeria’s Budget Office of the Federation and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Finally, the team would like to acknowledge the generous support of the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE). The UFGE is a multi-donor trust fund administered by the World Bank to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment through experimentation and knowledge creation to help governments and the private sector focus policy and programs on scalable solutions with sustainable outcomes. The UFGE is supported with generous contributions from Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the Wellspring Philanthropic Fund. Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 1 1 - Women’s Participation in Agriculture DESCRIPTION OF DATA In Nigeria, 20 percent of the workforce is engaged in the agriculture sector, and the sector is characterized by low female participation. Women are 10 percent less likely to work in the agricultural sector than men (World Bank 2022). Compounding This technical note utilizes two data sources, FMARD budget data and 2018–19 Nigeria GHS data. on and contributing to women’s lower participation, women are 25 percent less likely to be primary plot managers (i.e., The analysis in this note focuses on crops for which we have data from GHS and the Budget Office. persons primarily responsible for making decisions for the plot) than their male counterparts, and among women who do manage plots, they produce less per hectare than male plot managers do. Nationally, women plot managers produce 30% Budget data provided by the Budget Office of Survey data from the 2018–19 wave of the Nigeria less than their male counterparts, while regionally, women plot managers in the North produce 35% less, and women plot the Federation, Government of Nigeria include General Household Survey (GHS) conducted by managers in the South produce 25% less than male plot managers (World Bank 2022). Women’s low participation and (i) macro-level budget appropriations to value chain the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) represent productivity in the agricultural sector come at a high economic cost to Nigeria. As per findings from a Gender Diagnostic development from 2016 to 2020, (ii) youth and a nationally representative data set of 5,922 plots analysis conducted by the Nigeria Gender Innovation Lab (NiGIL)—using the 2018–19 Nigeria General Household Survey gender extension programming that provides inputs managed by 2,852 plot managers, of whom 21 percent (GHS)—it is found that the forgone earnings resulting from the gender gap in agricultural productivity are 0.6 percent of the and training, and (iii) gender-disaggregated input are women (37 percent in the South and 9 percent in total gross domestic product (GDP), or US$2.3 billion annually (World Bank 2022). Further, accounting for GDP multipliers, distribution within priority value chains. The macro- the North). GHS data analysis is conducted at the plot closing the gender gap in agriculture could represent a total annual increase of up to 2 percent of the GDP, approximately level budget appropriations provide a macro view of level and focuses on gender gaps between female and US$8.1 billion (World Bank 2022). Thus, it is imperative for Nigeria to target investments toward boosting women farmers’ budget appropriations by crop value chain, yet cannot male plot managers. The GHS data includes data from participation and productivity to capitalize on the potential economic gains. be directly correlated with the micro input provision postplanting and postharvest stages of the agricultural While multiple factors contribute to gender gaps, three key factors emerge which are salient for women’s lower productivity, data. As such, the macro- and micro-level analyses are cycle, encapsulating household characteristics, labor as per findings from the Nigeria Gender Diagnostic, namely (i) limited use of inputs such as fertilizer and herbicides, (ii) conducted and presented separately. Additionally, the and time use, plot and crop information, and input engagement in less valuable crop value chains, and (iii) use of less productive farm labor (World Bank and ONE Campaign extension programming budget data are incomplete. use. The GHS data can shed light on women plot 2014). Among various policy solutions, one fundamental and essential step to close the gender gap in the agriculture sector Seemingly only training programs that explicitly target managers’ participation in value chains and quantifies in Nigeria is to adopt gender-equitable budgeting and create fiscal space to address the drivers of the aforementioned women and youth were included and, for the most gender gaps in productivity and input use. Findings productivity gaps. part, were not gender disaggregated. To conduct a from the GHS survey are layered over the budget thorough gender analysis of extension programming, data provided by the Budget Office to identify gaps This technical note aims to analyze the gender dimensions of participation, input distribution, and budget allocation across gender-disaggregated data would be required for and opportunities in public spending and provide various crop value chains supported by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD). Specifically, all extension programming funded by FMARD. recommendations for directing investment toward the underlying analysis aims to (i) examine women’s participation in the crop value chains for which FMARD provides input Finally, additional data providing a comprehensive closing the gender gap in agricultural productivity. support; (ii) quantify the gender gaps in agricultural input use, extension services, and labor productivity; (iii) examine women’s understanding of spending on input provision would Details on specific measures and indicators can be participation and inputs use against budget allocations; and (iv) thereby, formulate recommendations for increasing fiscal deepen this analysis and its interpretation. found in the appendix. space and investments to close the agricultural gender productivity gaps in Nigeria. Gender Gaps in Farm Participation The GHS data analysis depicts gender gaps at all levels of farm participation. This analysis is focused on the 21 percent of primary plot managers who are women and identifies trends in their agricultural participation. There are consistent differences between male and female plot managers and their engagement in crop value chains. Differences in the household characteristics of women plot managers are essential to understanding the constraints to agricultural productivity that women plot managers face. Women plot managers live in houses with, on average, 0.64 fewer adults than their male counterparts; most are either widowed, separated, or divorced. In contrast, nearly all male plot managers are married. On average, women plot managers are four years older and 13 percentage points less likely to have attended school than male plot managers. The gender gap in farm participation across various crop value chains is measured using the proportion of plots managed by women versus men cultivating specified crops. This analysis includes only those crop value chains supported by FMARD through budget allocation rather than all crops included in the GHS data set or all crops sold in markets. The analysis is organized by crop value (value per kg before processing). Based on GHS data, returns to production are highest among cocoa, acha, and soybean and lowest in the oil palm nut, creating the basis of our high-value and low-value description of crops in this note. Hence, this analysis will reflect certain crops that are high value after processing, such as oil palm, at a lower value. Cocoa and oil palm differ from the rest as plantation or permanent crops, meaning that they are harvested from the same plant for many seasons rather than planted annually, like arable crops. The smallest gender gaps are among the least valuable crops, such as oil palm and white yam (figure 1.1). Women primarily grow staple food crops, while men engage more in cash crops. For example, women plot managers are 38 percentage points more likely to farm roots and tuber crops, many of which are lower in value, and 19 percentage points less likely than male farmers to cultivate cereals, which are higher in value (World Bank 2022). Women’s limited access to labor, labor-saving machinery, extension services, and ability to travel contribute to their participation in less valuable crops (World Bank 2022). Several high-value crops, such as photo credit: Arne Hoel / World Bank 2 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 3 cocoa, also require up-front investments. Due to limited access to credit and finances, women farmers often cannot make 2 - Gender Gaps in the Use of Agricultural Inputs targeted investments at the appropriate time of the agricultural cycle. Additionally, crop choices may be influenced by gender differences in risk preference around crops traditionally cultivated by men and associated with higher risk due to their higher Low input use among women managing crop cultivation is one of the contributing factors, among others, to women’s lower value and up-front investment (World Bank 2022). agricultural productivity. This note focuses on three critical aspects of input use: (i) use of physical inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, and certified seeds; (ii) participation in extension services, which increase awareness of and access to inputs; and Figure 1.2 depicts the gender gap in yield. With the exceptions of rice, acha, and cotton, which all spike upward, the gender (iii) use of labor. Women face myriad constraints in accessing and using farm inputs, such as restrictive gender norms, limited gaps in yield decrease as the crop value decreases. The relatively higher participation of women in less valuable crop value resources to purchase inputs, and unequal distribution of information and resources between men and women withinand chains, such as white yam and oil palm (figure 1.1), and their lower productivity in more valuable value chains (figure 1.2) between households (World Bank 2022). demonstrates gender segregation by crops, likely contributing to gender differences in earnings in the Nigerian agricultural sector. Some gender differences may also exist at different stages of production. For example, processing oil palm yields a higher return than harvesting. The negative gender gap in yields within oil palm compared to a similar plantation or 2.1 Physical Input Use permanent crop, such as cocoa, may be connected to women’s concentration in the processing stage of the value chain. Women dominate oil palm processing and usually lease oil palm plantations for a fee. This form of backward integration, Increasing the use of physical inputs is critical to increasing agricultural productivity. On average, doubling the quantities of occupying the processing stage of the value chain, may explain why women are more productive in the oil palm value chain. fertilizer and herbicide used increases agricultural productivity by 6 percent and 18 percent, respectively (World Bank 2022). Figure 1.1 - Gender gap in value chain participation Additionally, regional evidence indicates that the provision of certified and improved seeds, coupled with information, can increase seed adoption and yields of farmers (Quarshie, Abdulai, and Fraser 2021; IFPRI 2022; World Bank 2022). There are 100% Note: The gender gap in 92% substantial costs to not using adequate physical inputs, including lower yields, lower ability to scale production or transition 90% 88% value chain participation is the 90% 84% to market-based produce, and increased risk of producing crops with unsafe contaminant levels, such as aflatoxin, due to difference between the share 80% 76% using uncertified seeds, which are considered to be less safe. Critically, a result of women using fewer physical inputs than of plots managed by men and 71% men is that the gender productivity gap widens as men adopt inputs at a greater rate than women. 70% women that harvest a particular 64% 64% 57% crop. The crops are listed by 60% value/kg prior to processing, in 50% 45% descending order. 41% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% a ha an ut ize lle t e m m n alm Co co Ac be dn Ma Mi Ric hu ya tto lp So y ou n rg hit e Co Oi Gr So W Figure 1.2 - Gender gap in yield 100% Note: The gender gap in yield is the difference between men’s 80% and women’s harvest value/ 72% hectare. In descending order, 60% the crops are listed by value/kg 60% 47% 46% before processing. 40% 34% 36% 27% 21% 20% 18% 1% 0% -20% -40% -60% -80% -88% -100% a ha an t ize t e m n co nu lle Ric hu am tto alm Co Ac y be nd Ma Mi rg ey Co lp So ou So it Oi Gr Wh “This road in Obudu, Nigeria weaves back and forth up the steep mountainside.” by ©IFPRI/Ian Masias 4 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 5 Fertilizer Pesticides The use of fertilizer and the amount used vary significantly by region. Nationally, 25 percent of women plot managers and 47 Nationally, 5 percent of female plot managers and 15 percent of male plot managers report using pesticides on their plots, percent of male plot managers report using any fertilizer on their plots, yielding a gender gap of 22 percentage points (figure yielding a gender gap of 10 percentage points. Like fertilizer use, the gendered use of pesticides varies significantly between 2.1).2 The national average obscures some regional disparities. Notably, fertilizer use is higher among women farmers than the Northern and Southern regions of the country (figure 2.3). Gender gaps are significantly wider regarding the quantity of their male counterparts in Southern Nigeria, as women use 34 percent more fertilizer per hectare and slightly more women pesticide used per hectare (in kilograms). On average, men use over eight times as much pesticide per hectare as women plot managers than men use any fertilizer. Further, these gaps are wider when considering the quantity of fertilizer used (in plot managers. kilograms). Nationally, men use an average of 87 percent more fertilizer (kg/ha) than women plot managers; again, gender gaps are wider in the North. As depicted in figure 2.4, despite smaller gender gaps in pesticide use (1–10 percentage points for most value chains), the quantity of pesticide used by female farmers is substantially lower than that used by their male counterparts (in the range of As depicted in figure 2.2, for most value chains, the gender gap in the quantity of fertilizer used is larger and varies more by 20 percent to 100 percent). The maize value chain is a good example of this trend, with a pesticide use gap of 9 percentage crop than the gender gap in fertilizer use. The gender gap concerning fertilizer use and quantity of fertilizer used is among points and women using 95 percent less pesticide per hectare than men. Similarly, 7 percent of women plot managers use the highest for maize. White yam is an exception to this trend; despite fewer women who cultivate white yam using fertilizer, pesticides in the groundnut value chain, and the average quantity used is 0.2 kg/ha. In comparison, 16 percent of male plot those who do use more per hectare than male plot managers. Notably, the smaller gender gaps in fertilizer use among the managers use pesticides, and the average amount men use is 0.56 kg/ha. Cocoa is the only crop in which more women plot millet (-2 percent) and white yam (6 percent) value chains likely contribute to those crops having some of the smallest gender managers (83 percent) than men (65 percent) use pesticides, resulting in a -18 percentage point gender gap. yield gaps (figure 1.2). Figure 2.3 - Regional gender gaps in pesticide use 2 The tree crops, cocoa, and oil palm are excluded from this fertilizer use analysis as fertilizer is only used at the time of planting for these tree crops, while fertilizer use for arable crops is annual. 100% Note: The pesticide use gap is the difference 92% 89% between the share of male and female plot 90% Figure 2.1 - Regional gender gaps in the use of fertilizer managers who use and pesticide. Quantity 80% of pesticide use gap is the average difference 100% Note: The fertilizer use gap is the difference between the between the quantity of pesticide used per 88% 87% 70% share of male and female plot managers who use any hectare (in kilograms) between men and 80% fertilizer. The quantity of fertilizer use gap is the average women farmers divided by the average 60% difference between the quantity of fertilizer used per hectare amount used by male plot managers. 60% (in kilograms) between men and women farmers divided by 50% the average amount used by male plot managers. North 40% 40% 22% 22% North 30% South 20% 20% South 13% Nationally 0% 10% 10% 8% -1% 4% Nationally -20% 0% Pesticide use gap Quantity of pesticide use gap -34% -40% Fertilizer use gap Quantity of fertilizer use gap Figure 2.4 - Pesticide use gaps 100% Figure 2.2 - Gender gaps in the use of fertilizer 100% 95% Note: The pesticide use gap is the difference between the 100% 94% Note: The fertilizer use gap 80% share of male and female 90% 66% 71% 71% is the difference between the plot managers who use 60% 80% 77% 74% share of male and female 60% 56% 56% any pesticide. Quantity of 61% plot managers who use pesticide use gap is the 60% 60% any fertilizer. The quantity of 40% average difference between fertilizer use gap is the average 24% the quantity of pesticide used 38% 20% 40% difference between the quantity 20% 17% 17% 15% 10% per hectare (in kilograms) 9% 8% 8% 23% 24% 21% of fertilizer used per hectare (in 3% between men and women 18% 19% 0% 0% 20% kilograms) between men and 0% farmers divided by the 8% 6% -2% women farmers divided by the average amount used by 0% -20% -17% average amount used by male male plot managers. -2% plot managers. -20% -40% Pesticide use gap -22% -33% Fertilizer use gap -40% -60% Quantity of pesticide -60% < 59% Quantity of fertilizer -80% use gap ha an t ize t e m n use gap a ha an t ize t e n nu lle Ric hu am tto co nu lle Ric hu m am tto alm Ac y be nd Ma Mi rg ey Co Co Ac y be nd Ma Mi rg ey Co lp So ou So it So ou So it Oi Gr Wh Gr Wh 6 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 7 Certified Seeds Mechanization Use Nationally, 10 percent of female plot managers and 7.5 percent of male plot managers report using certified seeds on their Like certified seeds, the use of mechanization on agricultural plots in Nigeria is low regardless of gender. Only 9 percent plots, yielding a gender gap of -2.5 percentage points.3 The small reverse gender gap in certified seed use reflects how of plot managers report using machines and tools, of which fewer women plot managers (3.3 percent) use mechanization few men and women plot managers use certified seeds rather than depicting a significant uptake among women farmers than men (10.4 percent). As with other inputs, the gender gap is smaller in the South, where 6 percent of men and 2 percent compared to fertilizer or pesticides. Unlike other physical inputs, the gender gaps in the use of certified seeds generally do of women use mechanization, than in the North, where 12 percent of men and 5 percent of women plot managers use not vary much by the value of crops (see figure 2.5). Cotton is a noteworthy exception to the trend of low uptake and small mechanization on their plots. As a result of such low usage rates, the gender gaps appear relatively small, even though gender gaps. Thirty-three percent of male plot managers who farm cotton used certified seeds, while none of the women plot nationally, three times as many male plot managers as female plot managers use machines (figure 2.6). managers in the sample reported doing so, creating a gender gap of 33 percentage points. Notably, the negative gender gap in the soybean value chain results from more women plot managers using certified seeds than men. Ten percent of women The variation of gender gaps in mechanization across value chains is likely influenced by how labor-intensive crop production plot managers who cultivate soybeans used certified seeds, while just under 5 percent of male plot managers did so. is. For example, acha has no gender gap because no men or women cultivating acha reported using any mechanization on their plot. The gender gap for groundnuts is the lowest after acha, as just over 9 percent of women plot managers and 11 percent of men plot managers used any mechanization. The largest gender gaps are found in cotton and rice, as 44 3 The tree crops, cocoa, and oil palm are excluded from this certified seed use analysis as seeds are only used at the time of planting for these tree crops, while seeds are used on an annual basis for arable crops. percent of male plot managers cultivating cotton and 19 percent of male plot managers cultivating rice used mechanization on their plots, while no women plot managers who produced either crop used mechanization (figure 2.7). The gender gap in technology may be linked to women having less access to capital to buy or hire equipment and machinery, less control over Figure 2.5 - Gender gaps in certified seed use household agricultural assets, being less likely to purchase mechanization thought to be inappropriate for women in areas with restrictive gender norms, and the fact that mechanization technologies are frequently designed with the physical build of 33% 33% Note: The gender gap in a man in mind, requiring significant additional physical effort to maneuver by women (FAO and AUC 2019; Njuki et al. 2014; certified seed use is the UN Women, UNDP, UNEP, and the World Bank Group 2015). difference between the share of male and female 31% Figure 2.6 - Gender gaps in the use of mechanization plot managers who use certified seeds. Note: The use of mechanization gap is 8% the difference between the share of male 7% 7% and female plot managers who use any 29% 7% mechanization. 6% 5% 27% 4% 4% 25% 3% 5% 2% 1% 3% 0% 2% 2% 2% North South Nationally 1% 1% 1% Figure 2.7 - Gender gaps in the use of mechanization 50% Note: The gender gap in the 45% 44% use of mechanization is the 0% 0% 0% 0% difference between the share of 40% male and female plot managers 35% who use mechanization on their agricultural plots. -1% 30% -1% 25% 20% 19% -3% 15% 10% 9% 9% 6% 5% 4% 4% 3% 3% -5% < -5% 1% 0% t t 0% oa ha ea n nu ize lle Ric e um am tt on alm Co c Ac b d Ma Mi h y Co il p a ha n nu t ize lle t e m am n alm oy o un org ite O co Ac ea nd Ma Mi Ric hu ey tto lp S Gr S Wh Co yb ou rg it Co Oi So Gr So Wh 8 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 9 2.2 Gender Gaps in Extension Services Figure 2.9 - Gender gaps in participation in extension services 50% Note: The gender gap in Extension services are a powerful mechanism for introducing farmers to and training them in new techniques, sharing market individual participation in information, and providing access to agricultural inputs, such as fertilizer, pesticides, and certified and improved seeds. 45% 44% extension services is the 43% Information sharing is especially critical for the uptake and efficient use of agricultural inputs, which can, in turn, improve difference between the 40% share of male and female agricultural yields and impact crop choice. 35% plot managers who directly participated in extension We analyze participation in extension services of plot managers and their households. The distinction between plot 30% services. The gender gap managers and households is pertinent as evidence shows women’s direct involvement in extension services increases their in household participation knowledge, decision-making, and agricultural outcomes compared with women who depend on receiving information from 25% in extension services is a male household member (Lecoutere, Spielman, and Van Campenhout 2020). Additionally, inequitable intra-household 19% 20% 19% the difference between the 20% 17% resource allocation between male- and female-managed plots is a potential constraint to women’s use of inputs and could 16% share of male and female 16% 15% plot managers who report be compounded by women not receiving the inputs or information directly (Doss 2001). 15% 113% someone in their house 10% participating in extension The analysis focuses on extension services during the planting season when they most impact decision-making and input 7% 7% 5% 6% services. use. Nationally, there is a 9 percentage point gender gap in direct participation in extension services, driven by women’s low 5% 3% 4% 2% participation rates in the North. Seventeen percent of male plot managers’ households received extension training during the 0% Individual 0% planting season, nearly all of whom were direct recipients. In contrast, only 11 percent of women plot managers’ households a ha n ut ize lle t e um am n alm received extension services, of whom only 8 percent were direct recipients, yielding a gap of 6 percentage points (figure 2.8). Co co Ac b ea dn Ma Mi Ric rgh ey tto lp Household oy ou n it Co Oi S Gr So Wh It is also worth acknowledging that only 1.5 percent of female and 5 percent of male plot managers’ households received extension training during the harvest season. The unequal participation in extension services is especially critical in Northern Nigeria, where fewer than 6 percent of women plot managers participated directly in extension services during the planting 2.3 Gender Gaps in Labor Productivity season, compared to 20 percent of men (World Bank 2022). The participation gap in extension services is a driver of the gender productivity gap in the North. Plot managers who participated in extension services in the North within the last year Despite a comparable portion of male and female plot managers hiring labor, women’s profits are lower due to the lower experienced 18 percent higher productivity than those who did not (World Bank 2022). Across crops analyzed in this report productivity of labor employed by women. Of plot managers who hire labor, slightly fewer women plot managers hire male (and supported by FMARD), most plot managers, irrespective of gender, did not receive extension services.4 While overall labor than male plot managers (90 percent vs. 92 percent), and 44 percent of women plot managers employ female labor participation is low among plot managers receiving extension services, significant gender gaps exist. The gender gap for versus 29 percent of their male counterparts (figure 2.10). Of plot managers who hire labor, male plot managers hire larger direct participation in extension services is greater than or equal to that of household participation, indicating that women numbers of laborers: on average, 26% more male laborers and 19% more female laborers than female plot managers are disadvantaged in their ability to benefit from extension services directly or indirectly (figure 2.9). Such low participation nationally (figure 2.11). among women plot managers may be due to (i) current extension services focusing on crops predominantly cultivated by men; (ii) social norms preventing women from interacting with men outside their communities or families, while most extension workers are men, precluding women from participating; or (iii) current outreach activities skewed in favor of male Figure 2.10 - Use of male and female labor by plot managers social networks (World Bank 2022). 90% 86% Note: The gender gap in male labor is the difference 4 Analysis of extension services was not limited to those offered by FMARD but rather focused on whether the plot manager received any services, regardless of funding or between the share of male organization. 70% and female plot managers who hire male labor. The Figure 2.8 - Gender gaps in participation in extension services 50% gender gap in female labor is the difference between the 16% Note: The gender gap in individual share of male and female 30% participation in extension services plot managers who hire 14% 12% 14% is the difference between the share female labor. 10% 7% 7% 7% of male and female plot managers 5% 4% Hired female labor 12% who directly participated in extension 3% 0% services. The gender gap in 0% 10% household participation in extension -1% Hired male labor 9% 9% -3% services is the difference between -6% 8% -10% -7% the share of male and female plot -9% -9% 6% managers who report someone in -16% 6% -21% -21% their house participating in extension -30% services. 4% -38% -50% 2% 1% Individual -64% -70% 0% Household a t t co ha an nu ize lle Ric e hu m am tto n alm -1% Co Ac y be nd Ma Mi rg ey Co lp -2% So ou So it Oi Gr Wh North South Nationally 10 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 11 Figure 2.11 - Quantity of labor used gap 30% Note: The quantity of labor used gap is the 26% difference between the number of laborers 25% hired by male and female plot managers who hire labor, divided by the average number 20% hired by male plot managers. 20% 19% 19% 16% Number of female laborers 15% Number of male laborers 10% 9% 5% 0% North South Nationally The data show that male labor used by female plot managers is significantly less productive than male labor used by male plot managers (World Bank and ONE Campaign 2014). Interestingly, this trend is driven by hired male labor in the North and household male labor in the South being less productive for women plot managers. In the North, hired male labor produces less per hour for female plot managers than it does for male plot managers, while in the South, household labor produces less per hour for female plot managers than for males (World Bank 2022). Several reasons could explain why male labor is less productive for female plot managers: female plot managers may not have time to supervise workers effectively; male “Farmer operates his tractor outside Abuja” by Milo Mitchell/IFPRI laborers working for a woman supervisor may exert lower effort; women may have less funds to pay sufficient labor; and women may lack resources to hire a sufficient number of more productive workers (World Bank 2022). This analysis shows that male labor is more expensive than female labor and that nationally, women plot managers pay higher daily rates for 3 - Budget Allocation to Boost Gender Equity among Nigerian Farmers labor than their male counterparts (table 2.1). This trend is driven by the North, where women plot managers pay an average It is imperative to make concerted efforts to narrow the above-described gender gaps in agricultural participation, productivity, of 140 naira per day more for male hired labor and an additional 190 naira per day for hired female labor than their male and input use through targeted policies and programs. The government of Nigeria has demonstrated its commitment to counterparts. In the South, women, on average, pay 280 naira per day less for males and 126 naira per day less for female fostering a more gender-equitable agricultural sector. Toward that goal, FMARD has adopted the National Gender Policy hired labor than their male counterparts. The higher rates paid in the North may result from several contributing factors, in Agriculture (NGPiA), which aims to equalize access to land and publicize existing credit services, facilitate access to such as restrictive social norms women must overcome to attract male labor, financial competition women face in accessing mechanization, make input distribution more gender sensitive, promote the production of small livestock and agribusiness, productive labor, or women having lower bargaining power, to name a few. The higher daily rate for male labor in the northern develop women farmers’ business skills, and disseminate information on market access and extension services through and southern regions may reflect women’s inability to hire more productive labor and their increased likelihood of hiring farmer field schools. Still, more investment is needed. Expanding ongoing FMARD priorities, such as improved and certified female labor. seed distribution and increased fertilizer use, coupled with improved targeting of input recipients, are critical opportunities A further explanation, supported by existing evidence, suggests that women Table 2.1. Average hired labor daily rates for FMARD to close gender gaps. plot managers may be constrained in employing male labor during the optimal Average paid to Average paid to To examine existing budgetary support to women farmers, the Nigeria Gender Innovation Lab has overlaid budget data harvest season due to capital constraints and labor shortages as male plot hired male labor hired female labor provided by FMARD and the Office of Budget Federation with plot-level agriculture data from the GHS. The findings from managers engage hired labor during preferred times of the harvest season (naira/day) (naira/day) this analysis are presented in subsections below. (Anderson and Donald 2022). This analysis found that among FMARD- supported crops, the time spent harvesting was comparable between men and women and was completed in under a month (not including cocoa or oil palm, which are, on average, harvested over three months and four-plus Men plot 3.1 Budget Appropriation months, respectively). However, the timing of the harvest is variable. On managers N1,391 N1,223 Using macro-level budget appropriation data provided by the Office of Budget Federation in partnership with FMARD in average, women plot managers began harvesting acha, maize, and cotton Nigeria for five years (between 2016 and 2020), this analysis examines budget allocation trends through a gender equity two to five weeks earlier than male plot managers. White rice, sorghum, white lens. To ensure adequate comparability, this analysis only includes those value chains for which data were available in the yam, and oil palm were harvested by women plot managers on average one budget data set as well as the agriculture data set (GHS). This analysis was not conducted at the program level due to a lack to two weeks later than by male plot managers. The timing of harvest among of programmatic budget data. women plot managers may be due to competition in hiring labor at optimal Women harvest times. If the timing of harvest negatively impacts the value of crops, plot N1,598 N1,342 We first find that the top four value chains that received the highest investment, i.e., cotton, rice, sorghum, and cocoa, are the lack of availability or access to more productive labor during optimal managers among those with the lowest female farmer participation, with gender gaps in participation ranging from 64 percentage harvest times may contribute to their lower productivity (Pierotti, Friedson- points to 88 percentage points. Figures 3.1 and 3.2 depict the budget appropriations by value chain during 2016–2020 and Ridenour, and Olayiwola 2022). in 2019 and 2020 individually. In 2020, three of the four value chains with the largest budget allocations (400–600 million 12 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 13 naira) were the value chains with the largest gender gaps in participation and yield: rice, acha, and millet/sorghum (figure 3.2 Input Provision 3.2). From a policy perspective, these allocations were in line with priorities to increase food security (millet/sorghum), boost export for foreign exchange earnings (acha), and substitute imports (rice). However, other crops, which received less funding Input use and adoption of crops are heavily influenced by access to and participation in extension services. Unfortunately, and have higher female participation, also align with these policy goals. For example, maize was highlighted along with rice as the provided budget lacked detailed gender-disaggregated data on extension services, it was not included in this budget and soybeans for increased food security, while oil palm was prioritized along with cocoa and acha for increased foreign analysis. The provision of inputs to farmers is generally associated with one of two goals: (i) to increase agricultural productivity exchange earnings through exports. From a gender perspective, such investments into more male-dominated crops risk the or (ii) to encourage farmers to adopt new crops. Due to the numerous barriers women face in acquiring and using inputs, perpetuation or expansion of existing gender gaps if they are not designed to encourage women to adopt priority crops and it is pertinent to target and provide physical inputs to women farmers to increase their productivity and encourage them to target female as well as male farmers. In 2020, maize and yams, two of the value chains with the highest female participation, adopt more valuable crops. The micro-level budget appropriation data indicates that the most common inputs provided by were among those receiving the smallest budget allocations (100–200 million naira). These correlations suggest a concerning FMARD are certified and improved seeds, followed by fertilizer, pesticides, and mechanization (figures 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, and investment trend in value chains with lower female participation. Exceptions to this trend include both the groundnut and oil 3.6). FMARD has made an effort to target women with input provisions in certain value chains, such as cashew, coconut, palm value chains, which have relatively high value after processing, smaller gender gaps in participation and yield, and both acha, and soybeans which have postharvest activities that are both labor-intensive and generally performed by women. of which received mid-range budget allocations (200–400 million naira), likely highlighting the value FMARD has placed on Currently, 48 percent of seeds provided in the acha value chain were allocated to women; 35 percent of seeds, 33 percent of these export crops. pesticides/herbicides, and 50 percent of fertilizer were distributed to women in the rice value chain. Additionally, 36 percent of rice processing machinery and 34 percent of rice harvesting and planting machinery were distributed to women. Figure 3.1 - Budget appropriation, 2016–2020 2016–2020 Budget appropriation Gender participation gap Evidence suggests that FMARD allocates inputs to farmers at rates comparable to gender participation in most value chains. 8.0 100% As such, it is unsurprising to find that the majority of inputs in most value chains is allocated to male farmers, as they 90% constitute the majority of farmers. Such proportionality suggests that inputs are provided to farmers to increase productivity 7.0 rather than incentivize crop adoption. This approach may be insufficient to encourage women farmers to adopt more lucrative 80% Appropriation in billions (naira) crops or those crops which have been identified as a priority by the government of Nigeria. Cocoa, for example, is a high- Gender gap in participation 6.0 70% value crop with among the largest gender gaps in participation (76 percentage points) and yield (47 percentage points), 5.0 60% indicating that most plots harvesting cocoa are managed by men and that women plot managers obtain smaller yields than their male counterparts. Within the cocoa value chain, women received 33 percent of seeds distributed by FMARD, 4.0 50% a proportion likely sufficient to support existing cocoa farmers, yet unlikely sufficient to encourage adoption beyond that. 3.0 40% Similarly, maize, a relatively less valuable crop with smaller participation (57 percentage points) and productivity gaps (27 30% percentage points), received 34 percent of FMARD-distributed seeds and pesticides/herbicides and 35 percent of distributed 2.0 processing machinery. Conversely, oil palm is a low-value crop with the smallest participation and productivity gender gaps 20% (41 percentage points and -88 percentage points, respectively) among crops included in this analysis, indicating that women 1.0 10% are more engaged in this value chain and produce higher yields. Oil palm is one of the value chains in which FMARD targets 0.0 0% women with the highest distribution of inputs, allocating 65 percent of seeds and fertilizer to women farmers, as well as 33 o a e * n s u t aiz e hu m Ric e ms on lm percent of harvesting and planting machines, 33 percent of processing machines, and 35 percent of materials and tools. oc am ea dn Ya ott pa C es yb ou n M org C Oi l a /S So Gr t/S A ch M ille Figure 3.3 - Gender-disaggregated mechanization distribution * = The indicated crop was included in the budget analysis, but not the earlier GHS analysis. Women Men Figure 3.2 - 2020 Budget appropriation 2020 Budget appropriation Gender Participation Gap 100% 600 100% 90% 90% 500 80% 80% Appropriation in millions (naira) Gender gap in participation 70% 70% 65.0% 64.8% 65.0% 65.1% 400 60% 60% 300 50% 50% 40% 40% 200 30% 30% 20% 100 20% 10% 35.0% 35.2% 35.0% 34.9% 0 0% 10% * s t o a me n dn u aiz e hu m Ric e ms on lm oc a ea Ya ott pa C es yb ou n M org C Oi l 0% a /S So Gr t /S A ch M ille Irrigation Processing Materials, Harvesting and machines machines tools planting machines photo credit: Olubukola Olayiwola / World Bank * = The indicated crop was included in the budget analysis, but not the earlier GHS analysis. 14 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 15 Figure 3.4 - Gender-disaggregated FMARD seed distribution Women Men 100% 90% 26% 33% 35% 35% 38% 80% 40% 52% 51% 58% 58% 70% 67% 66% 65% 65% 70% 76% 60% 50% 40% 74% 62% 65% 65% 30% 60% photo credit for both: Scripted Optics Limited / World Bank 49% 20% 48% 42% 48% 4 - Policy Recommendations 33% 34% 35% 35% 30% 24% Based on the National Agriculture Promotion Policy (2016–2020), Nigeria has set goals to become self-sufficient and less 10% dependent on imported crops, create more jobs, and promote economic diversification. Increasing women’s productivity 0% and the number of women farmers engaged in priority crops is essential to improving the productivity of priority value ut ut er e* r* chains at the macro level. The overall low uptake of inputs and low participation in extension services, regardless of gender, co a w ha ns ize ea Ric e s alm ic* ea t* Co he on Ac ea dn Ma Sh Ya m Gi ng lp am sto ab Ca s Co c oy b ou n Oi Se s Ca Ar Wh indicates a need to increase access to all farmers. However, to close the gender gaps discussed in this technical note, it is S Gr Gu m essential that women be targeted within input distribution and extension service programming. To do so, sufficient funding * = The indicated crop was included in the budget analysis, but not the earlier GHS analysis. must be reallocated from less efficient areas of the budget toward increasing agricultural productivity with an emphasis on female farmers. Not all these subsidies are accounted for in the budget, which makes them difficult to track and scrutinize. Figure 3.5 - Gender-disaggregated Figure 3.6 - Gender-disaggregated FMARD However, available data suggest that they benefit primarily wealthy households while distorting incentives and discouraging FMARD fertilizer distribution pesticide/herbicide distribution investment (Hernandez et al. 2022). Reallocation of such subsidies is critical to (i) increase women’s access to and use of physical inputs, (ii) increase women’s access to and use of extension services, (iii) enhance women farmers’ access to Women Men Women Men markets, (iv) encourage women farmers to transition to higher-value crops, and (v) increase the collection and availability of gender-disaggregated data. 100% 100% 90% 20% 90% 20% 32% 80% 35% 80% 4.1. Increase Women’s Access to and Use of Physical Inputs 50% 50% 52% 70% 58% 56% 70% • Increase budget allocation—through the reallocation of inefficient spending—toward the distribution of fertilizer 65% 66% 67% and pesticides coupled with training on their use. Due to the significant barriers women face in acquiring and using 60% 60% inputs, sufficient investment must be directed toward providing inputs directly to women farmers. Direct provision of 50% 50% inputs or subsidized inputs to women plot managers has shown to increase use of inputs and reduce financial strains, enabling them to hire more productive labor (Ogunniyi et al. 2017; Beaman et al. 2013). The current budget allocation to 40% 80% 40% 80% crop value chains in which women are engaged is lower than that allocated to male-dominated value chains, compounding 68% 65% women’s constraints in accessing inputs. Closing gender productivity gaps can also yield significant economic gains, as 30% 30% 50% 50% 48% discussed above, and thereby aid the process of creating more fiscal space for the Government of Nigeria. 42% 44% 20% 20% 35% 34% 33% • Increase budget allocation through the reallocation of inefficient spending for labor-saving and processing 10% 10% mechanization for women farmers. Mechanization is a significant barrier to entry into market-based crop production. Women carry additional time constraints due to childcare and domestic responsibilities. Such constraints contribute to and 0% 0% t t r * t * compound upon women plot managers’ limited access to productive labor, hurting their efficiency, production capacity, e a s ize e nu nu Ric ge alm ea co an nu Ric me co nd Gi n lp w p Co be nd Ma sa and profits. Increasing access to technological inputs such as machinery can increase agricultural labor productivity Co ou Oi Co So y ou Se Gr Gr and reduce the negative impact of less productive labor on women’s agricultural profits (JC and FN 2021). Across all FMARD-supported crops included in the provided budget information, the allocation of irrigation, mechanization, and * = The indicated crop was included in the budget Note: Figures 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6 depict the proportion of FMARD’s input allocations to men analysis, but not the earlier GHS analysis. and women by value chain. Due to a lack of budgetary data, a more sophisticated crop-level tools to women is roughly 35 percent, regardless of women’s level of participation in value chains. Directly providing and input distribution analysis was impossible. subsidizing mechanization and the use of mechanization is critical to closing gender gaps in agricultural productivity. 16 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 17 • Bolster production and distribution of improved seeds BOX 4.1. THE GROUNDNUT VALUE CHAIN regular sensitization to make extension delivery more gender BOX 4.2. THE RICE VALUE CHAIN to women farmers. While Nigeria’s seed sector remains in responsive (Policy Objective 2 under NGPiA); (v) incentivizing the an early growth stage, FMARD has highlighted it as a priority development and uptake of innovative extension service provision The demand for rice in Nigeria far surpasses sector moving forward. Currently, seeds are the input that The world’s third-largest producer of through digital technology and public-private partnerships with local production, resulting in large quantities FMARD supplies within the most value chains and to both groundnuts, Nigeria, has been negatively input distributors (Ngige 2021); and (vi) providing additional of imported rice. There is a significant men and women farmers. Yet, certified seeds remain the input impacted by the European Union’s recent funding to increase women farmers’ risk tolerance by including opportunity for increased engagement least utilized by both men and women farmers in this analysis. ban on groundnuts from Nigeria due personal initiative and socioemotional skills training in extension of women farmers in the rice value chain. Improved seeds and starter vines can increase women’s to aflatoxin levels (Vabi et al. 2018). In services (Montalvao et al. 2017). Female plot managers manage only about 8 adoption of higher-value crops and more nutritious crop response, the government is engaged in percent of plots on which rice is cultivated. varieties. In Uganda, biofortified orange flesh sweet potatoes initiatives to provide training and inputs to Of FMARD-supported crops, input were adopted by women farmers through the provision of groundnut farmers to make the crop safer provision in the rice value chain is among subsidized input packages along with extension services for human consumption (The Guardian the most unequal, allocating 35 percent or (Buehren et al., forthcoming). In Benin, adopting Nerica, an 2021). To that end, certified and improved less of distributed pesticides, herbicides, improved rice variety, increased yields and profits for women seed distribution has been identified as key and seeds to women. Contributing to the farmers (Agboh-Noameshie, Kinkingninhoun-Medagbe, and to reducing the aflatoxin level in the crop issue, rice is among the crops with the Diagne 2007). Currently, the crops with the most varieties (Vabi et al. 2018). Despite 80 percent of largest gender gaps in extension service released in the country remain crop value chains with less pesticide and fertilizer inputs and 35 percent participation. Women farmers, currently female farmer participation, such as sorghum and soybeans. of processing machinery being distributed undervalued in the rice value chain, Increasing the production of improved seed varieties across to women farmers, only 30 percent of seeds represent a significant opportunity to value chains is essential to increasing the yields of both were allocated to women—proportionally increase Nigeria’s local rice production and male and female farmers. To increase the production of new less than the share of women cultivating reduce reliance on rice imports. varieties of improved seeds and increase the volume of seeds groundnuts. This is a missed opportunity. produced, the government must continue to collaborate with The unequal distribution of certified and photo credit: Scripted Optics Limited / World Bank research institutions and utilize public-private partnerships to improved seeds may (i) prevent existing increase seeds produced and distributed by seed companies. women groundnut farmers from producing 4.3 Enhance Women Farmers’ Access to Markets It is equally essential that the seed companies and the ‘safe’ crops and selling to an international BOX 4.3. THE MAIZE VALUE CHAIN government reach and provide improved seeds to smallholder market once the ban is lifted and (ii) be too Improving women’s access to markets is essential to increasing farmers. Low general access to extension services (see section small an amount to encourage the adoption women’s agricultural productivity and closing gender gaps in 4.2) could exacerbate constraints to increasing the uptake of the crop by women farmers. Nigeria. A key barrier women face is limited access to financial Maize, a staple crop in Nigeria, is used of improved seeds and other agricultural inputs among all services, constraining their ability to reach markets at various for household consumption and food farmers, especially among women farmers who generally have stages of the agricultural cycle. Funding can be targeted toward manufacturing and is a critical ingredient in less access to extension services. The Nigerian groundnut supporting or subsidizing innovative mechanisms to help women animal feed, especially poultry animal feed. value chain is an excellent example (box 4.1). access markets and overcome barriers to entry into more profitable As the poultry value chain has grown, the value chains. In Nigeria, fintech companies are filling this gap by demand for maize has risen and is expected creating innovative business models to help women overcome to continue to grow, while high domestic obstacles in accessing markets, inputs, training, and financial maize prices put the poultry sector at risk. 4.2 Increase Women’s Access to and Use of Extension Services Despite efforts by the Central Bank of services. Fintech has improved women farmers’ access to Nigeria lags other Sub-Saharan African countries in the number of farmers serviced through an individual extension officer. markets by securing up-front contracts with large produce buyers Nigeria to bring down the cost of maize and Estimates from the Department of Agriculture and Extension in 2020 were that one extension officer was estimated to be and then identifying a network of small-scale participating female reduce food inflation by releasing 300,000 working with more than 5,000 farmers. This ratio indicates that it is more challenging for Nigerian farmers to access extension farmers to fulfill the agreement.5 The business model identifies metric tons of maize (which it had accepted services than for farmers in other Sub-Saharan countries, many of which have ratios of one extension officer to fewer than which crops are in demand and provides training and inputs to in place of cash as repayment from 1,000 farmers (Mabaya et al. 2021). Such low access to extension services likely exacerbates gender gaps in benefiting their network of women farmers. The model enables large-scale farmers), the demand for maize continued from extension services (section 2.2). Additional funding should be allocated to increase extension services throughout the collective bargaining power on behalf of women farmers while to surpass the national supply (Boluwade country and tailor extension services to meet women’s needs and overcome gendered constraints faced by women farmers. facilitating their access to inputs, training, financial education, 2021). Female primary managers manage Effective extension services must be both localized and gender targeted. and savings and credit mechanisms (Ngige 2021; HerVest 2022). only about 21 percent of plots that cultivate Targeted investments in such programs could include subsidized maize, and maize harvested by female plot Women’s direct participation in and benefit from extension services could be improved through increased and targeted access to inputs and mechanization, targeted extension services managers accounts for only 5.6 percent of funding for the following priorities: (i) increased funding for crop value chains in which women are engaged (as opposed to for participants, and promoting the provision of credit to women the total harvest. Increasing the number the current general budgetary prioritization of predominately male value chains); (ii) funding outreach activities designed to farmers. Such investments can help bolster women’s access to of women farmers growing maize could target female social networks to increase the transfer of agricultural practices, technology, and entrance into predominately markets, increase entrance into male-dominated value chains, significantly improve the supply of maize male value chains; (iii) increasing the extension service budget allocation to hire more female agents as a way to reduce and close productivity gender gaps. and help secure the growing poultry sector. women farmers’ exclusion based on cultural gender roles and practices (Kondylis, Mueller, and Zhu 2017); (iv) allocating a portion of the extension service budget toward reducing both implicit and explicit bias on the part of extension agents through 5 CoAmana and HerVest are two examples of such fintech companies. 18 Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria Gender Gaps in Agriculture Productivity and Public Spending in Nigeria 19 4.4 Encourage Women Farmers to Transition to Higher-Value Crops Appendix: Measures and Descriptions Women farmers’ entry into more profitable value chains is essential to increase women’s productivity and improve the country’s ability to be self-sufficient and less dependent on food imports. The maize value chain is a good example of Measure Description this opportunity (box 4.3). Targeted funding can minimize the barriers to entry faced by women farmers. Such barriers include (i) access to financial services and capital constraints, which can prevent women from making the necessary up- front investments when entering a new value chain; (ii) higher risk aversion among women farmers, which can prevent The person identified in the GHS Survey as being primarily respon- Plot Manager willingness to transition into more lucrative value chains; and (iii) insufficient production volume to supply larger contractual sible for decision-making regarding the agricultural plot agreements. Incentives and subsidized support to women farmer cooperatives, innovation platforms, and mechanisms, such as the fintech solutions described above, can help women farmers overcome the capital and production volume constraints Value of Crop Naira per kg (after harvest, not processing) that prevent women from entering more lucrative value chains (Mumbeya et al. 2020; HerVest 2022). Targeted financing for training modules on personal initiative and socioemotional skills for women can be added to extension training and has been shown to increase their likelihood of adopting more valuable crops (Montalvao et al. 2017). Increasing targeted funding Difference between the percent of plots managed by men and Gender Gap in Value Chain Participation women that harvest a particular crop within extension services to hire more women agents and reach more women farmers can increase women’s adoption of higher-value crops and address restrictive gender norms (Kondylis, Mueller, and Zhu 2017). Finally, given FMARD’s relatively Difference between the percent of the recorded harvest produced proportional gender distribution of inputs, seemingly to encourage productivity, the government of Nigeria may invest in Gender Gap in Proportion of Total Harvest by men and women a separate funding mechanism to supply agricultural inputs to women farmers with the explicit aim of encouraging their adoption of priority and higher-value crops. Gender Gap in Yield Difference between men’s and women’s harvest value/hectare 4.5 Improve Monitoring and Documentation of Budget Performance and Availability of Gender- Difference between the percent of men and women plot managers Fertilizer Use Gap (Percent) Disaggregated Data who use any fertilizer While the conducted analysis yields meaningful insights on the gender-incidence of public spending, the analytical process Difference between men and women plot managers of how many was constrained by limited and incomplete gender-disaggregated data. To undertake a more complete analysis and facilitate Fertilizer Use Gap (Quantity) kilograms of fertilizer were used per hectare evidence-based policy making, existing data could be improved in a few specific ways. First, on a micro level, input provision data should include key inputs provided within each value chain to both men and women farmers. Second, data on extension Difference between the percent of men and women plot managers service programming should consist of all extension services provided by FMARD rather than only those explicitly targeting Pesticide Use Gap (Percent) who use any pesticide women and youth. It is not possible to identify gender gaps in overall extension service programming when the only budget data provided are from programming that targets women. Further, extension service programming can generate, collect, and Difference between men and women plot managers of how many Pesticide Use Gap (Quantity) report gender-disaggregated data on participation in training and receipt of inputs. Finally, the micro-level input data and kilograms of pesticide were used per hectare the extension services data should include the monetary values of training and inputs provided to enable connections to be drawn between the macro-level value chain appropriations to the inputs and services provided by gender. Difference between the percent of male and female plot managers Gender Gap in Certified Seed Use who use certified seeds Moving forward, such data can help depict how funds are allocated and utilized, who the beneficiaries are, and how policy makers can prioritize spending. Critically, the continued collection and monitoring of such data can provide evidence on how Gender Gap in Individual Participation in Difference between the percent of men and women plot managers FMARD spending impacts agricultural productivity, specifically that of women plot managers, and can guide future budget Extension Services who directly participated in extension services and spending decisions to close key gender gaps in agriculture in Nigeria. 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