WORLD BANK GENDER THEMATIC POLICY NOTES SERIES: EVIDENCE AND PRACTICE NOTE CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN TRANSPORT KARLA DOMINGUEZ GONZALEZ, NATO KURSHITASHVILI, KARLA GONZALEZ CARVAJAL, AND LAURIE PICKUP OVERVIEW Transport services and infrastructure can be enablers or deterrents for women’s empowerment. Women and men have different mobility patterns and experience different risks when using public transport. Transport-related barriers, such as availability, affordability, acceptability, physical access, safety, and security, disproportionally impact women due to existing structural inequalities in terms of time use and household decision-making and task distribution based on gender roles and stereotypes. Lack of safe transport can translate into girls missing schools, women not looking for jobs far away from home, giving up their jobs, or being unable to access health or childcare services. For example, according to International Labour Organization (ILO), lack of safe transport reduces the probability of women participating in the labor force by an estimated 16.5 percent. In addition, women represent only about 16 percent of employees in the transport, storage, and communication sector worldwide, excluding them and their priorities from transport planning. This is when, globally, based on limited available data, women tend to make a higher proportion of trips using public transport and walking than men do. Care responsibilities, less access to cars, and less disposable income all shape women’s transport choices and have the unintended result of them having a lower carbon footprint than men. At the same time, women often use public transport out of necessity, suggesting that primarily women are so-called “captive” transit users, and highlighting an environmental imperative for promoting gender equality in mobility to support sector decarbonization. This policy note provides a framework for incorporating gender- responsive transport and mobility into the World Bank’s Gender Strategy 2024-2030. It offers policy makers a number of key takeaways based on existing evidence and promising World Bank practices that address gender in mobility: • Affordability (cost) of transport can constrain women’s access to health, education, and employment opportunities. Direct subsidies and other targeted interventions can promote women’s mobility and access to economic opportunities and education for women and girls. • Availability of transport and in particular whether transport options have adequate first- and last-mile connectivity- is a game changer. It is a key factor to improving women’s ridership of public transport, their access to and the quality of economic opportunities available to them, reducing their time poverty, and improving their access to education and health services. • Safety and security prevail as some of the main barriers to women’s mobility. Promising practices to prevent and respond to sexual harassment and other forms of violence in transport services include the development of mechanisms to ease reporting of transgressions, communication campaigns and better coordination of referral pathways. • Mobility barriers that disproportionately affect women are interrelated. Women spend a significant share of their daily trips on the so-called “Mobility of Care”, which is an amount of travel associated with care work performed predominantly by women to accompany dependent persons and to do household chores. Women’s complex multipurpose and multimodal daily trips and heavier reliance on public transport compared to men often result in higher travel costs for them. For instance, evidence from several cities reveals that women must pay for more expensive transport options (so-called “pink tax”, which is an extra amount women pay for certain products and services, in this case transportation) to increase their safety when traveling. • Other non-transport mobility barriers, such as social and gender norms, affect women’s decision to move and use public transport. These barriers include unequal shares of unpaid household and care work, and gender roles that condition women and girls’ mobility or individual aspirations, among others. Building childcare facilities close to transport hubs or implementing behavioral change interventions can potentially promote women’s use of transport under specific circumstances. NOVEMBER 2023 TABLE OF CONTENTS OVERVIEW I INTRODUCTION 1 WHY A GENDER FOCUS ON TRANSPORT IS IMPORTANT 14 BUILDING A NARRATIVE ON GENDER AND TRANSPORT 14 COLLABORATING WITH STAKEHOLDERS 14 CONCLUSIONS: CLOSING THE GAPS AND AREAS OF RESISTANCE 27 REFERENCES 28 This thematic policy note is part of a series that provides an analytical foundation for the new World Bank Gender Strategy 2024-2030. This series seeks to give a broad overview of the latest research and findings on gender equality outcomes and summarizes key thematic issues, evidence on promising solutions, operational good practices, and key areas for future engagement on promoting gender equality and empowerment. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work are entirely those of the author(s). They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank or its Board of Directors. This policy note was prepared by Karla Dominguez Gonzalez, Nato Kurshitashvili, Karla Gonzalez Carvajal, and Laurie Pickup with contributions from official peer reviewers Adriana Maria Eftimie and Muneeza Mehmood Alam. Additional comments were received from Ariana Maria Del Mar Grossi, Diana Jimena Arango, Laura B. Rawlings, Mary Dominic, Meg McClure, Mirai Maruo, and Sundas Liaqat. INTRODUCTION Gender equality is a core development objective. In 2015, It recognizes the role of adequate transport in improving the World Bank developed its Gender Strategy (FY16-23): women’s access to better jobs, but it does not sufficiently Gender Equality, Poverty Reduction and Inclusive Growth account for the role that transport and mobility play in highlighting the critical link between gender equality and the daily lives of women and girls globally. Since 2016, the Bank’s goals of reducing poverty and boosting shared the World Bank has taken major steps in incorporating prosperity. The strategy lays out a roadmap for reducing gender considerations into its urban and rural transport gaps between men and women in four pillars: improving operations (see Box 1). It has defined analytical frameworks human endowments, removing constraints for more and and collected preliminary evidence to develop a more better jobs, removing barriers to women’s ownership robust narrative on the nexus between gender-responsive and control of assets, and enhancing voice and agency. transport and development. BOX 1. THE EVOLUTION OF GENDER IN TRANSPORT In fiscal year 2017, the World Bank’s Transport Global Practice (GP) created a Gender Taskforce to have a structured approach to promoting gender equality in transport through the following work: • Raising awareness internally and internationally about transport not being gender neutral • Enhancing both the quality and quantity of interventions in the transport sector to promote gender equality • Collecting data and developing analytical products to fill critical knowledge gaps in the area of women’s and men’s mobility and employment in the sector • Leading policy dialogue to create an enabling environment for greater gender equality in the sector • Leading global discussion through events and outreach to change mindsets and social norms that perpetuate gender inequalities in the transport sector • Strengthening existing partnerships and forging new ones internally and externally to maximize the impact of its work on the ground • Raising donor funds to support this work These concerted efforts have resulted in the Transport Global Practice having a high level of gender compliancy in its projects since FY2019. The GP has raised awareness about the importance of a people- centered approach to sustainable mobility that includes a gender perspective, and has encouraged other organizations, like the International Transport Forum (ITF) and the World Road Association (PIARC), to embrace it. It has also designed the first transport-related component in a Development Policy Operation (Jordan), worked with UN Women to develop a successful e-learning training course on gender equality in transportation, and supported the Labor Code reform in Azerbaijan with analytics that flagged hundreds of job restrictions on women’s employment, especially in infrastructure sectors. Transport, and the mobility it offers, provide access to transport provides freedom and allows people to access the activities that underpin the three strategic areas of and exercise their fundamental human rights (see Box 2). the Bank’s proposed 2024–30 Gender Strategy: ending People’s access to transport and their level of mobility are gender-based violence and elevating human capital, important components in determining their opportunities expanding and enabling economic opportunities, and in life and their livelihood decisions, as well as their access engaging women as leaders, as well as each objective’s to schools, health centers—all resources for building associated outcomes. Increased mobility through and protecting human capital. Transport is also essential 1 for access to economic opportunities, particularly jobs fundamental human rights. It is essential for daily life and and markets. The critical role of transport in expanding for helping people and societies achieve their development and enabling economic opportunities is reflected in outcomes. The evidence is clear that realizing an individual’s the strategy’s fifth outcome, which seeks to “expand mobility potential requires overcoming a mix of barriers access to and use of services that enable economic that goes beyond the availability and quality of transport participation,” which highlights the importance of public modes and networks. Transport barriers interact with other and private investments “enabling services,” including safe barriers, such as peoples’ self-efficacy, their income level, and accessible transportation. Transport is an equalizer, the forms of discrimination they face based on their social enables people to overcome spatial constraints, promoting identity (such as race) or their gender identity, and a mix of social cohesion. Conversely, lack of transport and low social factors relating to gender-based discrimination, such mobility restricts opportunities and divides societies, as cultural and religious norms about “a woman’s place” and thus deepening inequalities. Transport, as a sector, is an expected behavior of women. If barriers can be removed, important component of the global economy and a major then transport can enable women and girls to accumulate employer, primarily of men. and maintain their level of human capital (e.g., education, health) and their ability to access job opportunities and Transport has an intrinsic value for addressing gender achieve employment. equality. The ability to move around represents a basic freedom that allows everyone to enjoy and access their BOX 2. WHAT IS MOBILITY? Transport provides the systems and infrastructures that enable movement to happen, and for mobility to be realized. Mobility is not just about building roads but about creating thriving communities and propelling economies. It involves everything we do from day to day: driving to work, walking to school, getting produce to markets, and visiting families and friends (World Bank 2017). Mobility should be equitable, efficient, safe and climate responsive to ensure that the mobility needs of the current generation will not be met at the expense of future generations (i.e. that it will be sustainable (SUM4ALL, 2017). It is important to differentiate between mobility and the actual decision to move, which can be influenced by other elements that are not necessarily transport related. Women’s agency in mobility can be defined as a woman’s ability to make and act upon decisions related to her mobility and make full use of public transport systems. Factors influencing women’s decision to move and use public transportation can be external (e.g., those related to transport and infrastructure, family support, gender norms) and internal (e.g., aspirations, self-efficacy, and previous experiences on mobility). The interaction of these factors shaping women’s decisions to access jobs has a direct impact on women’s economic empowerment (Dominguez- Gonzalez, et al, 2020). Transport has always had major implications for gender characteristics like disabilities, poverty or non-binary equality, but the transport profession has not often sexual identity are even more disproportionally affected considered gender in its planning. Only in the last decade by the absence of inclusive approaches into planning. It is has transport started to be viewed through a gender lens by therefore important that the WB Gender Strategy 2024- national governments, regional and local authorities, and 2030 consider e transport as an issue that cut across all other key stakeholders in the sector. While there was a body three strategic objectives, affecting women’s foundational of expertise in the transport and gender field prior to this, wellbeing, economic opportunities, and participation in most analyses and interventions were gender-blind (i.e., decision-making and leadership. did not account for gender in the very design of transport networks to cater to women’s complex travel needs, which This note is structured into five sections. It starts by often go beyond regular Monday to Friday business hour emphasizing why a gender focus on transport is important commute). This blindness is still prevalent in many areas for development and outlines the beneficiaries of greater of the transport profession globally. In many cases where gender equality in transport. It then develops an approach a gender perspective is incorporated into transport, there and narrative for incorporating gender-responsive is an omission to the fact that women with overlapping transport into the Bank’s proposed Gender Strategy, by 2 outlining an analytical framework to deconstruct the under the current Gender Strategy to highlight promising mobility barriers that disproportionately affect women, practices toward closing gender gaps in mobility and and by showcasing the evidence on how these barriers employment for women. It then explains how stakeholders can facilitate or constrain the closing of gender gaps and can make a positive difference in reducing gender blindness achieving gender equality and empowerment outcomes. in the transport sector, followed by concluding remarks on The note then turns to some of the projects undertaken closing the gaps and areas of resistance. 3 WHY A GENDER FOCUS ON TRANSPORT IS IMPORTANT Transport impacts women and men differently. Mobility, responsive transport can help women better access and the transport systems that provide it, have been, and jobs, education, and health services. Conversely, mobility remain, a key factor in differentiating the lifestyles and quality barriers that disproportionately affect women constrain of life of women and men in all regions. Women’s mobility their human capital potential. levels, their use of different transport modes, the barriers they encounter, and the risks they face differ sharply from Women’s contribution to the economy would be those of men, in both the developing and developed world. significantly improved by reducing barriers to mobility. While this gender gap has been closing in the developed In both absolute and relative terms, mobility deprivation world over the last 30 years, it remains significant. In the greatly reduces the contribution that women can make to developing world, large differences persist, some of which the global economy, and to smart, sustainable economic have broadened after the COVID 19 pandemic. These issues growth. Mobility barriers hinder women’s access to jobs and have been documented in a review of literature spanning key services, such as health and education, which affects both 20 years on gender and transport studies and initiatives their own and their children’s human capital accumulation. completed by the Gender Taskforce of the World Bank’s For instance, research shows that parents’ concern about Transport Global Practice (Alam et al, 2022). girls’ safety while traveling to and from school appears to Women and men have different mobility patterns. While lower girls’ school enrollment in settings, such as South Asia, the quality of data on the mobility patterns of women and Africa, and the Middle East (Morrison et al, 2007). A 2017 men in many developed countries has markedly improved report by the International Labor Organization identifies in recent years, this cannot be said of developing countries lack of transport as the greatest challenge to female labor where there remains a paucity of data. Nonetheless, it is force participation in developing countries, reducing the generally recognized that compared to men, women have probability of women participating in the labor force by less access to cars and motorized two-wheelers; they an estimated 16.5 percent (ILO 2017). Globally, about 49 make a higher share of their trips using formal and informal percent of women participate in the workforce, compared public transport services or by foot (CIVITAS, 2020; Munoz- with 75 percent of men, with a high degree of variance Raskin et al, 2022). across regions and countries. A report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) concludes that countries see significant However, these patterns are not universal. In Jordan, for macroeconomic gains when women can develop their example, men use public transport more than women full labor market potential (Elborg-Woytek et al, 2013). A (World Bank, 2022). Deficiencies in the country’s public McKinsey report finds that in a “full potential” scenario in transport and social norms around women’s mobility which women play an identical role to men in labor markets, have pushed women to rely on private transport.. In the global annual GDP could be increased by as much as $ most developed and developing countries, where data 28 trillion, or 26 percent, by 2025 (Woetzel et al, 2015). are available, men tend to have priority use of bicycles (ITDP, 2022). Differences in the mobility levels of men and Transport systems that are not gender-responsive can women lead to equally strong differences in their ability also contribute to increased absenteeism and decreased to access opportunities. Addressing gender barriers to productivity among women, due to the psychological mobility benefits economies and societies at large and can effects of sexual harassment they may face while using yield gains for everyone, not just women. transport (World Bank, 2015). In urban areas of the Middle East and North Africa (MNA) region, a large number of the Transport systems that are gender-responsive1 are non-working women state that the lack of affordable, essential for gender equality. Public transport is a clear comfortable, safe, time-efficient, and reliable transport example of how the development of inclusive transport options prevents them from looking for work. This systems can bring enormous benefits to all and help close corresponds to three in five women in Amman, one in two poverty gaps between men and women globally.. Gender- in Beirut, and two in five in Cairo. (Alam, 2023). The note defines gender-responsive transport as transport that integrates the needs of its diverse user base, including women and girls,  1 and men and boys, by understanding and addressing the causes of gender inequality in mobility project, program or policy design. This would be different from gender-sensitive transport, which recognizes the different needs of women, men, boys and girls but does not necessarily address these differences other than to try and integrate an understanding of these differences within project, program or policy design (Adapted from UNICEF/UNFPA 2021). 4 Addressing gendered mobility barriers is also critical for When women and girls do travel, unsympathetic transport decarbonization (Kurshitashvili et al, 2022a). The transport systems expose them to gender-based violence transport sector is currently the largest producer of global (GBV), including sexual harassment. Women’s exposure to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the sector where intimate partner violence (IPV) also increases when there progress to reduce them has been the slowest. In most is a scarce supply of transportation services, and research countries, women make a higher proportion of trips using found that transportation is used as a means of control public transport and walking than men, who make more and coercion among IPV perpetrators. Transportation trips by car, motorcycle, and bicycle. Women’s mobility barriers increase dependence on perpetrators, putting patterns are often not a matter of preference but necessity. mobility decisions in their hands, and limiting women’s The amount of travel associated with care work that women independence, which thwarts the possibility of exiting an undertake (or the so-called “mobility of Care” as coined by unhealthy relationship. Insufficient and inconsistent access Sánchez de Madariaga, 2013) al, reduced access to a car, and to transport impedes the process of exiting IPV situations less disposable income shape women’s transport choices and regaining independence and stability (Nahar and and have an unintended (albeit environmentally desirable) Cronley, 2021). This has emerged as a major global problem. result of a lower carbon footprint than men’s. Gender-responsive transport makes good business sense. However, without positive intervention, a steady increase The transport industry is one of the largest economic sectors of women in the paid workforce could see women’s car globally. If transport operators can make their services more use converge with that of men’s over time. Evidence gender-responsive, enabling women and girls to safely gain is also starting to reveal that women also prefer safer better access to and choice of quality professional training and faster options when they can afford them, like ride- and jobs, they can greatly expand their market and improve hailing services, even if they are more carbon intensive overall performance. Businesses also stand to benefit from (Dominguez et al, 2020). Also, while women’s lower carbon providing greater job opportunities and better working footprint may be desirable environmentally, it reduces environments for women in the transport sector, from back- their economic independence and participation in public office operations to front-line services. Such practices can and economic life. This suggests that addressing gendered also inspire women’s entrepreneurship in the transport mobility barriers would bring environmental dividends. sector, for example, tricycle and motorbike taxi services emerging in some African countries (Dominguez et al, 2023). The social inclusion of women and girls is central to transport and gender issues. Differences in mobility The challenge ahead is to define a transport-gender and transport have been identified as key indicators of narrative that articulates the key issues within existing a growing duality in many societies, and gender plays an social, environmental, and economic realities. The fact important role. The lack of sufficient mobility for many that transport is not gender-neutral is gaining increased women and girls restricts their ability to fully engage in global recognition. Building a narrative on gender and society. This, in turn, reinforces traditional gender roles, transport can leverage this momentum to call attention to limiting many women and girls to the home environment new challenges and opportunities. and its immediate surroundings. 5 BUILDING A NARRATIVE ON GENDER AND TRANSPORT From initial concept and design to operations, the In short, the approach has three dimensions: a mobility transport sector needs to address existing gender ecosystem, mobility barriers, and access to opportunities. inequalities. To date, this has remained an overlooked It defines: aspect, both in the transport sector and in other sectors • Three levels, or 3 Ms (Macro, Meso, and Micro), which addressing gender issues. Based on its exhaustive literature relate to the country, the community, and the individual review ( Alam et al, 2022), the World Bank’s Transport Global Practice has developed a framework to conceptualize • Two spatial levels (Urban and Rural), and possible how the transport system within the mobility ecosystem further categories interact with macro, meso, and micro level factors to explain women’s and men’s mobility needs, barriers, and • Five dimensions of accessibility: Availability, Affordability, choices, which, in turn, influence their access to economic Accessibility, Social Acceptability, and Safety and Security opportunities and basic services, such as education and health (see Figure 1). The approach is structured to show how transport and gender can interact with the four pillars of the Bank’s Gender Strategy. 6 The transportation system (infrastructure design personal income, disability, education, family structure and operation, and transport services) interacts with and sexuality) and power and agency (such as aspirations, environmental factors to determine women’s and capabilities, self-confidence, and decision-making). men’s usage of transport systems, which influences their economic and social aspirations. The macro level The framework demonstrates that a nuanced approach is the country-level enabling environment, consisting is required when addressing women’s varying rural and of the country context, norms for policymaking, legal urban mobility barriers. Lifestyles vary enormously within frameworks, income level, regional variance, and so on. urban and rural contexts, due to population density, The meso level describes the local enabling environment settlement patterns, climate, local economies, and social or community level, which, includes the context of structures, among other factors. The five dimensions of the community, whether it is urban or rural, and local accessibility vary considerably from a deeply rural area to economic, social, and cultural conditions. Both macro a city environment. Gender-friendly transport solutions and meso factors can act as either barriers to or enablers must be tailored to the spatial, economic, and social of women’s access to economic opportunities and basic context in which it is delivered. Geography, therefore, cuts services. Micro-level factors are individual and encompass across the five levels of accessibility and links to the three personal characteristics (such as gender, race, ethnicity, macro, meso, and micro layers of the mobility ecosystem. 7 BOX 3. FIVE CATEGORIES OF MOBILITY BARRIERS AND THEIR DISPROPORTIONATE EFFECTS ON WOMEN Availability: This relates to the coverage of the transport network in time and space, and the availability of different modes of transport. In rural areas, away from major inter-regional road and rail corridors, transport services remain sparsely distributed with few surfaced roads or defined walkways. Greater proximity to urban areas increases the quality and density of road and rail-based networks, and formal and informal transport services become more abundant. Public transport services are available to all, but mobility is dependent on the network density, service type, and frequency of the services provided. Since women rely on public transport more than men, these factors impact women more. For example, women may need to walk long distances or take informal modes of transport if public systems do not cover internal routes. This can be expensive and unsafe. A lack of evening transport may also mean that women working in the services sector are less likely to take night-shift jobs. Affordability: This dimension refers to travel costs and the extent to which people can afford to travel when and where they want. Affordability constraints on women’s mobility is visible in all global regions, but particularly in the developing world, where it is an outcome of high levels of poverty and inequality. Gender role-based constraints in poor communities starve women of both time and space to conduct basic daily activities. For those women who work, jobs tend to be low income, flexible and precarious, and often combined with care responsibilities. Unacceptably high travel costs, combined with care responsibilities, result in a pattern of local living and working, and the narrower life horizons that this produces for women. It can also make them captive to transport modes and traveling environments where sexual harassment and GBV are more prevalent. Physical and temporal accessibility: This refers to the accessibility of activities that people need or wish to do in time and space. It differentiates from availability, as accessibility has a strong linkage with transport connectivity and land use. Activity locations may be accessible, but not when they are required. Women’s gender role dictates that they must combine domestic, care, and job-related activities within a limited amount of time. This has a strong impact on the activities that women and girls can actually reach, limiting many girls to a more constrained choices of education and training, and women to jobs that are local, part- time, and lower paid. Social and cultural acceptability: Transport modes and networks provide access to all the basic needs for living and working, but women’s use of them is mediated by their perceived acceptability. A level of transport provision suitable for some groups may be wholly unacceptable to others, and yet there is the need for transport systems to be fully inclusive. There are four levels that shape people’s perceptions and use of the transport system: (i) the way the system is used, (ii) the perceptions and attitudes people have toward using the transport system, (iii) the deeper values and social mores that people have, which condition attitudes toward transport (often a factor of generations), and (iv) people’s personalities. All these four levels combine to show how acceptable the existing transport provision is, and areas for potential improvement. Safety and security: The lack of safety and security for women from sexual harassment and GBV when they travel is one of the biggest transport problems globally. This not only relates to the actual incidence of harassment and GBV, but also the general perception and fear that the transport system is unsafe for women and girls. Many professionals still do not view this element as a transport problem, despite many recent practical transport investments that have addressed this issue, and with very positive outcomes (Kurshitashvili et al, 2022b). 8 The mobility barriers that women and men face, based on demonstrate that common gender issues affect the life their circumstances, needs, and choices determine their situations and chances of women and girls across all experience of the transportation system. These barriers fall regions. While there are local particularities, the level into five broad categories, all of which disproportionately of commonality allows for successful solutions to be affect women (See Box 3.) deployed across regions and within countries. A critical success factor in such interventions is the ability of The suggested approach provides a holistic framework stakeholders at all levels to co-create solutions that for assessing the gender dimensions of transport. While are effective and sustainable. In addition, the examples the different dimensions are described individually, also touch base on interventions aiming at promoting it is important to note that women and girls will women’s employment in the transport sector as an experience combined impacts of different dimensions. entry point to address employment segregation and to Transport-gender inequalities stem from compounded promote gender responsive transport planning. accessibility problems that manifest themselves in the lifestyles of women of different ages, abilities, Mobility and capacities, specific to their local environment. Affordability barriers can constrain women’s access Poor mobility and access across the five levels of to health, education, and employment opportunities. accessibility all underline the fact that, globally, too According to the literature, the cost of transport many women and girls are restricted to economic and is one of the main barriers to accessing maternal educational opportunities in the immediate local area, health services in some rural areas (Alam, et.al, 2022). and are deprived of wider social and cultural networks Transport problems have been a major cause of and good quality access to opportunities, such as jobs perinatal mortality in mountainous rural regions of and vital services (Alam et al, 2022). Nepal, where the cost of transport was deemed the second most significant factor after the cost of skilled Practical examples attendance (Hada, 2020). In rural Uganda, 45 percent of women who tested HIV-positive during antenatal The systematic literature review conducted by the care between 2007 and 2010 failed to attend the World Bank’s Transport GP showcases the existing clinic within a specified interval after a previous visit evidence on the impacts of mobility barriers on women’s (or were lost to follow-up as universally defined in access to education, health, and employment. This medical literature); high transport costs were often section provides a snapshot, together with promising mentioned as a major barrier to seeking continued practices of World Bank-financed operations that care (Lubaga et al, 2013). Data reveals that in extreme can contribute to addressing affordability, availability, cases of limited affordability, as is the case of South and safety and security concerns. These examples 9 Africa, transport costs have a significant weight in the health visits, increases the transport cost for them and selection of people’s transport modes and access to the person accompanying who, given the mobility of economic opportunities. 11.4% of urban respondents care, could be assumed to be a woman (UN, 2018). of the 2020 National Household Survey said that they walk all the way to home because they cannot afford Evidence shows that subsidies can promote women’s public transport, and 30.8% of households identified mobility and access to economic opportunities and travel cost as the main variable that influenced their education. Findings from study in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia decision to choose a mode of transport. Even if data is reveal that the provision of a transport subsidy increased not disaggregated by sex for this case, it can be inferred both the intensity and the efficacy of participant’s job that women’s time poverty, wage gaps and inequality search, and that the outcomes were stronger for women in decision making within the household make them (Abebe et al, 2016). Similar findings are reported from more vulnerable to expensive public transport. Lahore, Pakistan, where lower-income women are more likely to use buses or rapid transit to access employment Women with disabilities2 are disproportionately and are, therefore, more likely to benefit from fare subsidies affected by affordability constraints. Inaccessible (Zolnik, Malik, and Irvin-Erickson, 2018).A new Bank project transport services due to infrequent services -as in the is testing subsidized transport in rural Pakistan (see Box 4). last mile- and barriers from the inappropriate design Similarly, a promotional bicycle sale in Morogoro, Kenya, of transport and public related spaces force women which gave a 15–20 percent discount, proved to be very with disabilities to rely on private transport which popular among secondary school girls, suggesting that cost implies an additional cost. A study by the Universidad may be a bigger barrier than cultural norms in preventing Pedagógica de Colombia in Tunja revealed that people girls and women from riding bicycles in some settings with disabilities use public transportation 33% less (Alam et al, 2022). Other studies have revealed significant than the rest of the population and take taxis six times diversity in women’s transport needs, depending on their more than people without disabilities (Lynn et al, 2023). income and place of residence (Mejía-Dorantes, 2018; Finally, the need for some persons with disabilities to Mejía-Dorantes and Villagrán, 2020). have someone accompany them, for instance to the BOX 4. SUBSIDIZED TRANSPORT AIMS TO KEEP GIRLS IN SCHOOL IN PAKISTAN The World Bank-financed Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Rural Accessibility Project (KPRAP) will help address gender gaps in education by improving safe and climate-resilient all-weather access to schools, health facilities, and markets in rural districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province in Pakistan. The project also aims to improve school participation and regular attendance, through the provision of subsidized transport to schools for girls from marginalized communities in selected districts. Affordable transport is key to improving accessibility for the population of KP, specifically for girls. Data shows that 40 percent of the rural population in KP must travel 50 minutes to access a health facility. In 2016–17, the rate of out of school children was 34 percent, which included 49 percent of all girls and 21 percent of all boys. Rates increased with the level of education. Data collected during the project preparation revealed that among children who have never enrolled in school, 27 percent cited accessibility reasons, such as a difficult commute (i.e., long distances and high costs of transportation) and the absence of schools in villages. To address these accessibility issues, the project will subsidize up to 70 percent of children’s transport costs, with parents expected to cover the remainder. Parent Teacher Councils will be strengthened to sign and monitor contracts. The project will fund the development of contracts so they include key performance indicators, safety, and service standards. 2 A  ccording to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, persons with disabilities include those “who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.” 10 Availability of transport is a key factor to improving a simultaneous expansion of non-traditional agricultural women’s ridership of public transport, their access to export and food production (Evers and Walters, 2000). and the quality of economic opportunities available Rural women from the Tshitwe community in South to them, and the reduction of their time poverty. In a Africa indicated that they would like to travel farther afield study conducted in West Bengal, India, the participants to market their products, services, and labor to a wider (older women) reported that they wanted to avoid and more diverse clientele. They also wanted to acquire public transport due to various reasons but had no other further education and training, but it was not always alternatives available to them (Bhattacharya, 2018). In India, possible because of lack of access to transport. In rural women suffered greater livelihood erosion due to loss of northern Nigeria, women entrepreneurs emphasized that access to public transport after resettlement to areas on the poor condition of roads and consequent transport the fringes of the cities of Chennai and New Delhi (Alberts, challenges had a negative impact on the success of their Pfeffer, and Baud, 2016; Anand and Tiwari, 2006). businesses, affecting their ability to recruit employees, service customers, and deliver goods (Seedhouse, Johnson, In terms of time poverty and availability, evidence shows and Newbery, 2016). A pilot project in Mozambique is that reducing the amount of time women in rural Uganda rehabilitating rural feeder roads to improve mobility and spend in transport activities was a critical factor in enabling access to economic, health, and social services (see Box 5). BOX 5. ADDRESSING RURAL WOMEN’S MOBILITY CHALLENGES THROUGH GENDER-RESPONSIVE SERVICES Evidence shows that the rehabilitation of feeder roads can help make economic opportunities and services more accessible (World Bank, 2018a). However, without complementary interventions, women will not benefit equally to men from such projects (World Bank, 2018a). According to the Demographic and Health Survey, in Mozambique, 49 percent of women ages 15–19 and 51 percent of women ages 20–34 report that distance is the main factor limiting their access to health facilities. This not a minor issue, considering that Mozambique’s ratio of 1,500 maternal deaths to 100,000 live births is among the world’s highest. Mozambique Safer Roads for Socioeconomic Integration project will be financing the design of a pilot rural transport services program on selected feeder roads to improve mobility and access to economic, health, and social services to population groups in target areas. At the core of the pilot design is the recognition that women and men have different mobility patterns in terms of mode, affordability, quality, and social norms. Elements to be considered for the design of the pilot include financial sustainability, cultural adaptability, addressing of mobility barriers (affordability, availability, acceptability) by different groups (women, men, people with disabilities, elders and others), legal/formal arrangements (public, private, PPPs), willingness to pay by different users, existing risks for each scenario, and opportunities, barriers, and risks for e-mobility. Lack of reliable transportation has been reported as a of their children in a health center, second only to cost of significant barrier to both women’s access to reproductive services (Higgins-Steele et al, 2018). Community-based and maternal health services and girls’ access to education transport strategies and emergency transport schemes facilities. In the same vein, providing bicycles to girls in have emerged as useful, cost-effective, and replicable rural India improved their secondary school enrollment solutions for underserved rural and peri-urban areas significantly (reducing the gender gap in enrollment by to improve women’s access to health facilities in case of 40 percent) and improved their test participation and emergencies (Atuoye et al, 2015; Babinard and Roberts, scores (Muralidharan and Prakash, 2017). Research from 2006). In rural Sierra Leone, an emergency referral system rural communities in India (Murthy and Barua, 2004) and relied on specially-designed motorbike ambulances to Uganda (Musoke et al, 2015) identifies delay in care due to transport pregnant women to health facilities. The service lack of transport facilities, alongside inappropriate referrals was deemed accessible by local communities and was and poor emergency preparedness of referral facilities, as highly valued by those it served (Bhopal, Halpin, and important non-medical determinants of maternal deaths Gerein, 2012). A project in Haiti is improving road conditions Lack of transportation was also a key factor reported by to support women’s increased access to and use of health Women in rural Afghanistan who had not delivered any services (see Box 6). 11 BOX 6. ADDRESSING WOMEN’S HEALTH CHALLENGES THROUGH IMPROVED CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY The Haiti Rural Accessibility and Resilience Project is working to increase all-weather road access in selected sub-regions and improve the resilience of selected segments of the road network. Data from Haiti illustrates how accessibility is a key variable in increasing women’s use of health facilities. World Bank data suggests that accessibility is the second-largest challenge for women seeking treatment, immediately after lack of financial resources to pay for the medical services themselves. A 2012 World Bank household survey also found that in 62 percent of rural households with at least one woman ages 15 to 49, the decision to seek medical care is affected by distance. Poor road conditions also constitute a barrier for women to access health facilities, including for prenatal care. This explains in part why only 39 percent of women in the same age cohort deliver in a health facility, with poorer women being eight times less likely to do so (World Bank, 2018b). The project developed mobility plans informed by a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the barriers that women face in using the roads. Key among them were the condition of roads, insecurity, and time poverty. For instance, 44 percent of surveyed women, compared to 32 percent of surveyed men, said they do not feel comfortable with trips made alone. The methodology gave more weight to roads identified women and those leading hospitals and prenatal and postnatal health services. Prior to the 2021 earthquake, six contracts were underway to rehabilitate selected roads, but resources had to be relocated to address earthquake damage. Additional resources will be required to implement complementary interventions from the mobility plans, including adding lighting on the roads and constructing hospitals in areas identified by women. Women with disabilities are limited in their mobility due relationship between women with disabilities, transportation to the inability to access transport infrastructure services. and health, two studies from rural Ghana showed that Women with disabilities face challenges due to lack of lack of access to public transport has direct consequences universal access design and issues that go from high curb on the health of mothers and children (Ludici et al., 2017). heights, lack of warning in front of obstacles, pavements Finding revealed the need for patient-centered training for occupied by traders, lack of access for wheelchairs, poor healthcare providers as well as the provision of disability- lighting, among others (Alam et al, 2022). In terms of the friendly transport and healthcare facilities (Ganle et al., 2016). 12 Safety and security have prevailed as main barriers when Women also feel vulnerable when walking or waiting it comes to women’s decisions around their mobility. for transport at night in poorly lit areas. Younger women A national survey on violence against women carried out faced more harassment on the street, in transit, and at in Bangladesh in 2015 revealed that one in five women stations and terminals (Malik et al, 2020). Existing multi- perceived vehicles, roads, and streets as spaces where sexual country research also suggests a significant gender gap in violence occurs (Mazumder and Pokharel, 2018). Sexual the perception of safety on public transit based on the harassment on public transit in Pakistan was so widespread mode of travel: women are 10 percent more likely than that women had become accustomed to “routine groping” men to feel unsafe in metros and 6 percent more likely and worried about the possibility of its escalation to to feel unsafe in buses (Ouali et al, 2020). sexual assault (Mansoor and Hasan, 2016). A retrospective longitudinal study with women participating in the National A study of the SuperVia in Rio de Janeiro, a railway Violence Against Women survey showed that women with passenger service with a special car allocated for women, severe disability impairments were four more likely to be highlights the fact that women face a cost related to sexually assaulted than women with no disabilities (Casteel, sexual harassment when using public transport and et.al., 2008). Evidence shows that women, including women that they are willing to pay for safer options (Kondylis with disabilities tend to reorganize their life choices by et al, 2020). It also shows the unintended effects of this for instance taking longer routes or leaving work earlier kind of policy, as women who decided not to use the (Lucidi et al, 2017). Public transport offers perpetrators safer option were further stigmatized, indicating that both proximity and anonymity, with very little risk of segregated transport does not sufficiently address the consequence (Neupane and Chesney-Lind, 2013). Jordan is root cause of the problem, which is rooted in pervasive, trying to address this by enacting a code of conduct for its harmful gender norms. public transport system (see Box 7). BOX 7. DEVELOPING A GENDER-RESPONSIVE NATIONAL CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE TRANSPORT SECTOR In Jordan, only 14 percent of women ages 15 and above participate in the labor force, compared to 54 percent for their male counterparts (DSJ, 2021). Evidence from several studies indicates that a major barrier to women’s access to labor markets is the lack of a safe public transport system. In one study, 47 percent of women surveyed said that they turned down work opportunities because of a lack of affordable, secure transport options, particularly public transportation (Sadaqa, 2018). With the support of the World Bank through the Jordan Second Equitable Growth & Job Creation Programmatic Development Policy Operation, the Government of Jordan developed a code of conduct (CoC) for public transport drivers, operators, and passengers to increase the safety of women on public transport and enhance the overall quality of service. The CoC, which covers the entire bus transportation system in the country, identified sexual harassment as one of the key problems. The following measures are underway with the support of the Mashreq Gender Facility (MGF): • Development of a mobile application: The Government of Jordan recently finalized the development of a mobile application to allow users to report CoC transgressions. The app will allow the government to gather valuable intelligence and identify in real time hotspots of GBV and other violations related to public transport. This data can inform data-driven policy and strategy making, with the ultimate goal of providing a safer public transport service. • Analytics: Key performance indicators are being developed to measure public transport performance against the pre-defined areas of the application, using app-generated data to underpin indicator development and monitoring. • Training: Public transport stakeholders, including public transport operators and officials from the Ministry of Transport, Land Transport Regulatory Commission, Police Security Department, and Municipality of Greater Amman have been trained. • Communication plan: After the mobile application is approved, a detailed communication plan will raise public awareness of efforts being made to combat sexual harassment and give greater confidence to women using or considering using public transport. 13 The mobility barriers that disproportionately affect and people with disabilities (Dandapat and Maitra, 2020; women do not act in isolation, and there are clear linkages Mejía-Dorantes and Villagrán, 2020). For example, in Nepal between them, as in the case of safety and affordability. women university students reported pooling money to Being forced to pay for taxis and other private transport take taxis, which are significantly more expensive, to avoid due to the lack of reliable or safe public transport options, a the harassment they faced on public buses (World Bank, phenomenon known as the “pink transport tax,” is reported 2013). These linkages between mobility barriers require in many contexts and imposes additional costs on women holistic solutions, as seen in a project to improve urban and other transport-disadvantaged groups, such as seniors mobility in Quito, Ecuador (see Box 8). 14 BOX 8. A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO PREVENTING AND RESPONDING TO SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN PUBLIC TRANSPORT The Quito Metro Line Project sought to improve urban mobility in Quito, Ecuador to serve the growing demand for public transport. Data from Quito shows a 10 percent higher use of public transport by women. While women are more dependent on public transport to access economic opportunities, the level of sexual harassment they experience in transit adds additional barriers to accessing these opportunities. The project collected data on the prevalence of sexual harassment, and found that in Quito, over 91 percent of women have experienced verbal and physical harassment in public spaces, and 63 percent finish their activities no later than6:00 p.m. because of safety and security concerns. Women also reported modifying their mobility strategies to feel safer, for example, by changing their routes to avoid transfers and to reduce the risk of violence, even if this means longer journeys. A modal choice analysis carried out by the World Bank reveals that women would pay significantly less than men to switch to articulated buses from conventional buses. The reasons for this are unclear without further data, but one possible explanation is that articulated buses run along trunk lines, which happen to be more crowded, and data shows that sexual violence is more frequent in crowded vehicles. The project put into place several measures to prevent and respond to sexual harassment in the metro, including the following: • Prevention and Response Protocol developed and implemented by the metro operator to provide different entry points for women to report cases of harassment and to be referred to different support services that take a survivor-centered approach. • Installation of communication system to facilitate reporting incidents of harassment and to link to the different entry point for prevention and response. • Gender sensitization and capacity building of Quito Metro staff and operators at all levels, as well as requiring transport operators and platform employees to implement the protocol, • Internal and external communication strategy to inculcate a culture of non-violence within the metro organization and among users Additionally, given the existing gender employment gap in the transport sector, together with the potential for increased perception of safety and gender responsive planning from the addition of more female operational staff and women in technical and decision-making positions, the contract between the Quito metro and the operator included a quota of 20 percent for women. The implementation of an Organization and Employment Plan with a gender perspective allowed to significantly surpass the initial employment targets by achieving a 40 percent female workforce, including 50 percent representation of women in management roles, 35 percent in technical positions, and 22 percent as metro operators. Within the “Cero Harassment Strategy”, the municipality has also installed an interinstitutional space to enhance governance and coordination that includes the Municipal Passenger Company, the Quito Metro Metropolitan Public Company, the municipality, the Secretary of Inclusion and the Secretary of Mobility. Evidence is emerging on the role that gender norms play likely to leave home as early as 6:30 a.m., whereas their in facilitating or inhibiting women’s mobility. Research male counterparts leave home much later. Both women on commuting differences between working women and men who commute via bus and shared-taxi tend to and men stemming from both the gendered division of carry out household maintenance activities after work. household labor and socio-economic class (as signified by In contrast, both women and men who commute by access to public or private transport) has been conducted private car left for work much later in the morning and in a few settings. A study conducted in Amman, Jordan, did not combine household maintenance trips with work finds that female bus and shared-taxi commuters are commutes (Hamed and Olaywah, 2000). 15 In rural settings, cultural norms can constrain women to apps, highlighting an opportunity within this challenge: use solely non-motorized transport (NMT), whether for by increasing the proportion of women drivers, ride- personal or business use (Mulongo, Porter, and Tewodros hailing can become a more attractive option for women 2020). Despite their growing use, bicycles, scooters, and riders, potentially leading to a virtuous cycle where both motorcycles, for example, remain almost exclusively riders and drivers could reinforce safety. Under the right assets owned by men in rural settings in Asia and Africa circumstances, the ride-hailing sector can boost women’s (Rao, 2001). Even if there is still missing evidence on what income potential while also providing a broader section of works to address constraints around gender norms in female passengers a safer transport option and access to both the use of and employment in transport systems, places underserved by public transportation, covering the ongoing World Bank interventions are beginning to needs of first and last-mile connectivity currently unmet by respond to these challenge. For example, projects are mass transit systems. building or improving childcare facilities close to transport hubs, facilitating communitarian approaches to promote Employment women’s employment in road construction, and promoting Bringing women into the transport sector can contribute women’s usage of NMT in rural areas in Africa through to addressing employment segregation, reduce wage behavioral interventions. gaps, and promote gender-responsive transport services. Data around the world reveals that, even in countries where Lastly, when we assess the challenges and opportunities gender gaps in employment are closing, occupational to enhance women’s mobility, we must recognize the segregation still exists. Employment segregation depresses role the technology platforms play as well as the risks wages for women in markets (Das and Kotikula, 2019) and opportunities they bring. The ride-hailing industry is and can lead to non-sustainable transport policies, the playing an increasingly important part in the transportation absence of women’s priorities in transport planning, and ecosystem of many countries and in closing the gender gap the perpetuation of the gender employment gap in the in mobility and economic participation. For example, in Sri transport sector (OECD, 2020). Lanka, in the IFC study (2020), 64 percent of women riders of a local ride-hailing platform PickMe, said that they can A study from the OECD (2020) reveals, for instance, that access more or better jobs thanks to ride-hailing, and 88 there is a significant positive correlation between the percent said ride-hailing gives them access to new places. proportion of women managers in the transport sector and Yet, ride-hailing is not free of challenges. Women’s financial the total female participation in the transport workforce. and digital exclusion are some of the barriers preventing Transport policies and operations can contribute to many women from using ride-hailing apps. Also, women addressing the barriers that women face in accessing riders often report a lack of women drivers as a safety low, medium and high-skill jobs in be the transport and concern and one of the reasons they do not use ride-hailing infrastructure sectors (see Box 9). Evidence also reveals that 16 women in decision making positions can improve financial that start in the education sector, including measures to performance, innovation, employment retention, service attract more girls and women in science, technology, delivery and promote safer working environments. In engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and to ease the addition, companies with greater parity in senior leadership school-to-work transition. Activities can also support better manage environmental, social and governance risks measures to bring a gender perspective into recruitment, (Schomer and Hammond, 2020). To level the playing field retention, and promotion processes (World Bank, 2020c). for women, different interventions can address constraints BOX 9. AN OVERVIEW OF WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR On average, women make up only 16 percent of employees in the transport, storage, and communication sector across the world. Many of these women hold low-paying jobs, often among administration, sales, catering, and cleaning, while men dominate engineering, managerial, and driving roles. The barriers to women’s employment in the sector are many and layered. In some countries, there are laws that specifically bar women from doing certain jobs in the transport sector. For the most part, though, it is invisible factors, such as passive or hidden resistance to change, and harmful gender stereotypes, that convey the idea that certain work is not appropriate for women. The absence of women from careers and decision-making positions in the sector means women are largely excluded from this vital sector of economic, social, and environmental development. It limits their job opportunities and affects their income-generating capacity as many highly paid jobs can be found in the sector. Also the lack of women employees in the sector prevents women from shaping, planning, and helping to design transport services. The lack of women at all levels, and particularly in operations, prevents decision makers in the sector from connecting with the needs of women as passengers. There is, thus, a connection between getting more women into the transport sector and improved mobility for women. Several World Bank-financed transport and logistics projects around the world are creating opportunities to promote women’s employment in the sector through partnerships, while helping drive talent and bring new perspectives to the sector (see Section 4). These efforts are particularly important in the context of climate breakdown and the need to rapidly decarbonize transport, as bringing women’s voices into important policy discussions on subjects like sustainable transport could help drive a more inclusive and resilient future for the sector and the wider economy. Lastly, when we assess the opportunities for women’s employment in transport, we must recognize that today’s transport sector is evolving to encompass jobs beyond the “traditional” employment in the sector, which has involved the recognized transport modes by road, rail, air, sea, along with inland waterways and the necessary infrastructure—from design and manufacture to operation and maintenance. For example, the use of intelligent transport systems, or ITS, that harnesses technology to make our transit systems safer and more efficient, has been growing steadily in the sector since the early 1980s. These systems cover a multitude of services to provide information, management, and control of transport systems. The role of ITS in the transport sector is expected to expand even further and require qualified workers with technical expertise and multi-disciplined skills to fill planning and management positions, which is an opportunity women should not miss. Beyond the formal economy, many women have found new job opportunities in the shared transport economy. Benefits of working as a driver in the ride-hailing (also called ridesharing) sector include the flexibility it provides for women to work on their own schedules, low entry barriers via the rideshare app that make it relatively easy for women to begin working in an industry few have traditionally pursued, and the income and contacts to support their other entrepreneurial activities. 17 The transport profession globally has been almost totally services in parts of Africa, face harassment from their male dominated and presents a male face to the public, male competitors. Harassment and other barriers related which many women can find uncomfortable when to the glass ceiling remain prominent in many transport using transport services. Harassment by transport staff organizations for women who seek promotion to senior of women and girls is not uncommon. Even as women decision-making levels. However, this situation is beginning enter the transport profession to provide a female face to change, with some promising practices emerging. Boxes to services, they face barriers and prejudices, including 10 and 11 highlight examples from World Bank operations sexual harassment. Women transport entrepreneurs, a in Europe and Central Asia and Tonga. growing group that includes, for example, women’s taxi BOX 10. MAKING WAY FOR WOMEN IN TRANSPORT AND LOGISTICS On average, women make up 23 percent of employees in the transport, storage, and communication sector in the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region, with many engaged in low-paying jobs, often in administration, sales, catering, and cleaning roles, while men dominate engineering, driving, and managerial roles. With support from the World Bank, several countries in the region are taking steps to turn this around (World Bank 2023). For example, at the end of 2022, the Republic of Azerbaijan repealed 674 job restrictions on women’s employment, working with the World Bank to show that these roles (such as driving a large bus or laying asphalt) posed no specific threat to women’s health. As part of the Turkey Rail Logistics Improvement Project, the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure is running a female internship program, which has accepted 70 interns since 2021. The program involves a 20-day paid internship in roles across the ministry, and provides both whole-of-department training and project experience. In Armenia, through the Lifeline Road Network Improvement Project, the Ministry of Transport, Communication, and Information Technologies has built a program offering women six-month paid internships in engineering, design, and road safety, enabling interns to be immersed in a project life cycle. Similar initiatives are also underway in Albania and Serbia. Early reviews of these initiatives show that they are already contributing to better gender equality outcomes in the sector and having other positive impacts, including the following: • Increasing women’s capacity and interest in transport and logistics • Improving women’s employability, with employers more confident that these women have professional experience in the sector • Opening pathways to engineering and related roles, defying anecdotal evidence that women are often guided into back office roles in the sector • Strengthening links between public bodies and universities • Opening the sector to new perspectives, driven by women’s different lived experiences Despite the appetite for change in the ECA region, without strong support at senior levels, women’s internship programs risk being scaled down or discontinued. Realizing the benefits of legal reform and efforts to attract women to the sector will require a deeper commitment and cultural change within agencies, the private sector, and the wider public. In doing so, these types of initiatives will help revitalize the transport sector, while improving the lives of women across the region. 18 BOX 11. EMPOWERING WOMEN TO BECOME COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT DRIVERS With support from the Tonga Second Climate Resilient Transport Project II, the Government of Tonga has launched a program to encourage women to become qualified commercial driver’s license holders and take on commercial driving roles. As part of the project preparation, a study was conducted on improving the safety and resilience of the country’s transport infrastructure. In Tonga, women do not have equal access to economic opportunities in land transport-related industries. Analysis revealed cultural barriers in the country that discourage women from developing an interest in training and working in male-dominated professions. Only 0.5 percent of valid commercial driver’s license (CDL) holders are women. Without a CDL, women are excluded from a range of driving jobs, such as those in the trucking industry and the operation of commercial vehicles, such as buses or taxis. In this context, the Commercial Driver’s License Training Program began. A 2019 survey of potential female candidates found interest among women who already possessed a regular driver’s license and wanted to advance to the level of a commercial driver’s license. The project will support the Tongan Institute of Technology and the Ministry of Infrastructure in promoting the program, which will offer recognized and accredited commercial driving courses with qualified and well-trained local instructors to approximately 45 women per year. 19 COLLABORATING WITH STAKEHOLDERS Transport stakeholders, almost by definition, link women and girls face every day. Many community gender- with stakeholders across many other sectors at the based initiatives now exist across all regions and respond country, community and individual levels (see Figure to local problems, such as access to medical facilities or the 1). Governance processes and institutional structures need to transport produce to local markets. can place formidable barriers to the progress of the transport agenda (CEPAL, 2018), affecting the design Private sector stakeholders have a major role to play in and implementation of gender-responsive solutions. transport and gender issues. Through design-build and The best transport solutions are the ones that are operating concessions, the private sector has been able fully inclusive of the needs of all stakeholders across to provide needed financial investment to upgrade failing sectors. Working partnerships between transport transport infrastructure and services, and to innovate professionals and professionals in sectors, such as and introduce new ideas. In recent years, private sector health, education, and economic development, have stakeholders have become engaged in discussions on become more common over the last 20 years, as has transport and gender, as awareness of travel issues faced coordination with non-governmental organizations by women and girls has increased. In formal public (NGOs) and local community bodies. However, interaction transport, the competitive environment and the availability between transport professionals and those developing of subsidies for some operations provide strong incentives gender strategies and measures is a relatively recent for operators to improve their gender credentials to both phenomenon. The World Bank and other international win contracts and increase their female market share. In financial institutions have been making important strides contrast, women cite many problems using informal public to rectify this situation, working with stakeholders at all transport services, and engaging this sector has proved levels (Kurshitashvili et al, 2022b). more problematic. However, some promising practices are now emerging for engaging and organizing with these National governments issue critical top-level legislation stakeholders in the informal sector (Durant et Al, 2023). on gender equality. Such legislation establishes the framework and principles that local administrations adopt. It is essential that the public sector work closely with It can remove direct and indirect gender discrimination the full range of local private sector stakeholders in embedded in current laws and professional practices. addressing gender and transport issues. Such issues may While these broad gender equality laws apply to women also involve local employers, or parts of the commercial employed in the transport sector (in terms of working sector not directly involved in transport per se, but conditions and worker’s rights), they do not address the that could be an important part of the solution. In this wider transport issues that relate to accessibility. However, context, mobility management practices between local in some countries, local Mobility Laws, Prevention and authority stakeholders and local private employers are Response Protocols to prevent and respond to violence now widespread in developed countries to initiate gender- against women, and Codes of Conduct have been specified friendly transport measures for women workers and their at the national level as guidance for local administrations on families. Employers can subsidize transport measures and implementing their gender-based policies and measures. achieve win-win solutions for their women employees and Many of these codes of conduct have been developed with for their recruitment potential. In turn, land developers, the assistance of the World Bank Transport GP’s Gender working with public planning agencies, are providing Taskforce to specifically address gender and transport investments into new mixed-use, more sustainable issues, with positive impact (see Box 8). settlements that are more conducive to women’s activity patterns and needs. In addition to top-down initiatives, stakeholders are working from the bottom up to improve the traveling Stakeholder engagement involving both the public and environment for women and girls. Recent years have seen a private sectors on transport and gender issues will be proliferation of gender NGOs around the world, such as the essential going forward. Ensuring a consistent approach Nana Girls in Abuja, Nigeria, whose efforts are leading change between government and local-level actions is also in the transport sector from the grassroots level (Adamu, essential. Responding to grass-roots pressure from women 2022). More transport stakeholders at both the macro and and girls with good data and front-line experiences will meso levels are engaging directly with women and girls, allow stakeholders at all levels to build evidence-led collecting essential data and their stories to open the eyes of policies, strategies, and measures. transport professionals to the acute mobility problems these 20 BOX 12. INTERSECTORAL AND INTERINSTITUTIONAL COLLABORATION TO MEANINGFULLY SUPPORT WOMEN’S MOBILITY Not all the barriers hinder women’s mobility are directly related to the transport sector. For instance, gender norms play a key role in defining mobility patterns, including in the decision to travel outside home (Dominguez-González et al, 2020). Intersectoral collaboration can lead to policy interventions that meaningfully address the mobility barriers that women face in a more holistic way. Some examples include the following: • Planning for transport hubs that are accessible to daycare facilities • Prioritizing hospital or school locations for road rehabilitations • Coordinating strategies to prevent and respond to sexual harassment with existing referral pathways and services for survivors of violence • Working with the private sector to include procurement clauses in contracts to employ women or train operators on appropriate response to violence • Collaborating with universities to match the demand and supply of women in STEM for successfully implementing internship programs within transport agencies • Getting support from civil society to implement tested methodologies on community participation and behavioral change interventions to support, for instance, women’s use of intermediate modes of transport in rural areas • Linking targeted transport subsidies for low-income women to cash transfer programs These kinds of innovative approaches will require creativity and collaboration with non-transport stakeholders, such as the Ministries of Social Protection, Women, Youth, Health, Education, as well as universities, NGOs and the private sector. 21 CONCLUSIONS Transport, and the mobility it offers, are not gender neutral. Gender-based violence, including sexual harassment, has The last 10 years have seen rapidly increasing concern for been an issue of the greatest concern when discussing the ways in which transport provision, low mobility, and the ability of women and girls to get around. Studies unsafe traveling environments are significantly reducing conducted globally have identified the gravity of the the life chances for women and girls globally. While gaps in situation, which leads most women to avoid traveling data do exist, on some issues in some developing countries, alone, at certain times of the day, in certain places, or all the overall position is now clear. together. Furthermore, where women are employed in the transport sector, the incidence of sexual harassment Transport should be an important cross-cutting dimension is commonplace. It ranks as one of the biggest transport of the World Bank Gender Strategy 2024-2030. The problems globally, yet, until recently, the transport industry impact of transport further reduces choice and life-quality has not seen it as its problem. across all the strategic objectives and outcomes of the proposed Gender Strategy, exacerbating the inequalities Professional training in transport has been slow to that persist within each domain. In many countries, the acknowledge the need to embrace gender issues in lack of affordable, available, and safe transport options planning, design, and operations. In many countries, formal prevents women from accessing jobs, education and and informal barriers persist that prevent or discourage health services. Transport initiatives to reduce gender women from taking up employment in the transport constraints can bring together stakeholders linked to each industry. This issue is gaining prominence, and there is of the strategic objectives to co-create win-win solutions. now a strong movement to rectify this gender blindness, In this context, this paper has suggested an approach that such as the initiatives being undertaken by the World Bank can be used to capture all these cross-cutting impacts in partnership with national governments, the transport within a single assessment (see Figure 1). industry, transport professionals, local communities, and private sector stakeholders. Gender-role differentiation influences and is influenced by available transport opportunities. Women have Data collection can also move beyond disaggregated different activity and travel patterns from men, and data. As more and more data collection efforts on women’s access to and use of travel modes differs mobility start to disaggregate data by sex, it is time to significantly from that of men, particularly in car use. In methodologically move forward to ensure that gender countries where stronger gender-role differentiation exists, differences in mobility barriers are fully captured to inform this difference is greater. Taken together, the impact of transport planning. This can only be done by combining transport-gender constraints force many women and girls qualitative and quantitative methods to incorporate at to lead their lives in local areas with limited experience of the outset questions that capture gender differences in a wider world, while also shouldering the primary caregiver terms of affordability, availability and safety and security role. Taking this to the macro level, gender roles combined of public transport. More impact evaluations have to be with gender-responsive transport policies markedly reduce designed and implemented to measure what works and GDP and the ability of countries to maximize their human what doesn’t to address gender inequality in mobility and endowment potential. employment in the transport sector. There is also a need to invest in cognitive analysis to ensure that questions This paper has shown the gravity of the situation through capture what is intended and to disaggregate data in a way the work of the World Bank’s Transport Practice Group, its that captures intersectionalities, such as income levels, Gender Task Force, and other key initiatives. Women and sexual and gender minorities, or disability. girls experience reduced access to educational opportunities and job training, reduced access to job markets, reduced Technology solutions for data collection can better ability to engage in society and, prominent in the research, captures gender differences in mobility and accessibility. reduced access to health services, particularly relating to Innovative approaches for data collection can be used childbirth and early diagnosis. In summary, while transport to capture difference in mobility patterns, for example is not explicitly defined as a human right, it is an essential through smart cards or mobile applications that can map element in ensuring that women can exercise their human red spots located in routes and public spaces accessed rights to the same extent as men. Emphasizing transport by public transport. Mobile applications can also be used as a key cross-cutting element in the new WB Gender to anonymously and effectively report cases of sexual Strategy will help draw attention to the human rights harassment in public transport. Technology should not be dimension of transport. assumed as an immediate or perfect solution, as there are 22 other elements that need to be considered when using as dependents, older generations, poor households, the technology, such as privacy, data use, and gender gaps in disabled, ethnic minorities, migrants, gender minorities, access to smart technology. and others. Women experiencing the worst transport disadvantage are likely to be facing challenges stemming As awareness of gender and transport issues has gained from gender norms in combination with several of these prominence, so has the gravity of the climate emergency other social constraints. Conversely, gender-responsive and the need for greater sustainability and resilience in transport measures will have knock-on benefits to all the way people travel. Transport is the largest producer of transport-disadvantaged groups in the community. GHGs and the sector with the slowest mitigation progress. Gender-responsive transport is socially inclusive transport. By default, the current transport use of women and girls is more environmentally sustainable—for the wrong reasons. This paper has highlighted range of promising practices Men as main users of private transport modes are main that are now being implemented globally. With proper contributors of the carbon footprint. Little has been done adaptations, strategies and measures are potentially to address the behavioral aspects that lead to the use of exportable from country to country, or region to region. private cars. The transition pathways to more sustainable These measures often involve packages of smaller locally mobility and a zero-carbon future must also underline the based investments, rather than the larger strategic need for gender equality. This will also be an important infrastructure investments common to many IFI transport- element of incorporating transport as a cross-cutting related actions. While the number of initiatives has grown dimension of the new WB Gender Strategy. exponentially in recent years, diffusion remains low. There is a vital need going forward to continue these efforts and to Diversity is also an important component of the transport assist governments, cities, and regions to invest in gender- influence on gender. 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