S O U T H S U D A N Natural Resources Review   | 01 S O U T H S U D A N Natural Resources Review © 2024 The World Bank Group 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank Group with external contributions. “The World Bank Group” refers to the legally separate organizations of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Associ- ation (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). The World Bank Group does not guarantee the accuracy, reliability or completeness of the content included in this work, or the conclu- sions or judgments described herein, and accepts no responsibility or liability for any omissions or errors (including, without limitation, typographical errors and technical errors) in the content whatsoever or for reliance thereon. 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Photos: Cover—Boma and Badingilo National Parks, © Marcus Westberg; p. 1—landings from a single canoe in flooded area near Bentiu, Unity State, in November 2023, © Niklas Mattson/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; p. 43—landscape overlooking Southern National Park, © Benoit Morkel/Fauna and Flora International; p. 59—giraffe migration, © Marcus Westberg Editing, design, and layout: Nita Congress Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v 2.2 Good practice example: Biodiversity offset in Sierra Leone hydroelectric dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Extended Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii 2.3 Good practice example: Oil project in Chad- Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 1: Importance and potential of 2.4 Good practice examples: Natural gas and natural resources.....................................1 minerals in Norway-Germany and Ghana . . . . . . . . . 56 Overview of renewable natural resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3.1 Successful co-management of the Mexican Pacific lobster fishery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Status and value of renewable natural resources . . . . . . . . 8 3.2 Good practice example: Seven phases of CFM in Barriers to realizing potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.3 Financing needed to establish sustainable forest management systems in South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 2: Trade-offs and complementarities with other development sectors..........43 3.4 Experience with community conservancies: resilient communities and ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Patterns of development and potential impacts . . . . . . . . 44 Managing trade-offs and mitigating impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Figures 1.1 Approximate physical transfers of products between actors, marketing networks and 3: Pro-job and peace-building distribution channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 interventions........................................59 1.2 Indicative declines of wildlife in select areas Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 across South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 1.3 Migratory antelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Wildlife and tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2.1 Average daily output of crude oil (barrels per day) . . 50 References ............................................79 Maps 1.1 Protected areas, major waterways, and Boxes topography of South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1 The challenge of assessing the level of illegal 1.2 Human footprint in West, Central, and East Africa . . 3 logging in South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.3 Population density in South Sudan (number of 1.2 Rights and responsibilities devolved to people per km2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 communities in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 1.4 Annual precipitation in South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.1 Good practice example: Biodiversity offset in South Africa’s road sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 1.5 Extent of recent flooding in South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . 4 iii 1.6 Drought hazard for South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Photos 1.7 Estimated numbers of fishers by state and 1.1 Fishing in the Nile River near Terekeka town, major fish trade flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Central Equatoria State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.8 Forest cover and tree height by ecoregion . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.2 Domestic trade in wood in Juba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.9 Estimated location and size of teak plantations 1.3 Kob migration in southeast Badingilo National established (2008 data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Park and adjacent areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.10 South Sudan’s protected area network . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Tables 1.11 Antelope migration, human settlements . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.1 Estimates of South Sudan fish consumption and 1.12 Migration patterns of antelope species observed fish export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 in 2023–24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.2 Estimated total of fishers and primary fishers, 1.13 Large predators observed during the 2023 and primary fishers’ catch, by state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 systematic reconnaissance and Recce flights . . . . . . 30 1.3 Physical and quality postharvest losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.14 Current threats to the BBJL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.4 Tree cover loss in South Sudan and neighboring 2.1 Major natural assets in South Sudan: forests, countries, 2001–23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 wetlands, protected areas, and the BBJL . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1.5 Forest types by management system and 2.2 Land use in South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 indicative sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.3 Impact of road quality improvements in South 1.6 Overview of major protected areas in South Sudan 22 Sudan on net travel time to markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 1.7 South Sudan protected areas by IUCN category . . . . 23 2.4 Potential changes in land use for 50 percent increase in population and improved transport 1.8 Annual economic value of the direct and network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 indirect uses of the Sudd wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.5 Approximate locations of main areas at threat 1.9 Approximate tourism numbers versus estimated of agricultural expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 near-term growth potential in major protected areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.6 Approximate locations of main areas at threat of large-scale water infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1.10 Requirements on forest concessions in South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.7 South Sudan’s key oil infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.1 Area for land use by category, as modeled under 2.8 Greenfield opportunities for mineral exploration . . 50 different national land use objectives, km2 . . . . . . . . . 46 2.9 Mineral exploration licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.2 Potential environmental trade-offs in the productive sectors and indicative mitigation 2.10 Approximate locations of main areas at threat measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 of expansion of oil production and mineral exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.1 Summary action plan for fisheries sector . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.1 Planning for community conservancies to link 3.2 Summary action plan for forestry sector . . . . . . . . . . . 72 formal protected areas in the BBJL (proposed stage of development by 2028) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.3 Summary action plan for wildlife and tourism sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 iv |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Acknowledgments T his review captures the interplay between This review draws extensively on three in-depth development and natural resource manage- sector reports prepared for the World Bank by the ment in the wider context of political and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United social instability. The report was developed Nations, Indufor, and African Parks on the fisheries, to promote sustainable and resilient development forestry, and wildlife sectors, respectively. of South Sudan’s renewable natural resources in service of inclusive economic growth and diversi- The team would like to thank colleagues in the fication. government of South Sudan who provided guid- ance and technical inputs to this work—in particular, Report preparation was led by Stephen Ling (Lead the focal points from the Ministries of Environment Environment Specialist) with a core team consisting and Forestry, Livestock and Fisheries, and Wildlife of Ross Hughes (Senior Natural Resource Manage- Conservation and Tourism. ment Specialist), Tuukka Castrén (Senior Forestry Specialist), Katherine Polkinghorne (Consultant, The report benefited from studies on fisheries environmental economist), and Michael Vaislic and forestry and wildlife funded by PROBLUE and (Consultant, environmental economist). Key contri- PROGREEN, respectively, as well as economic and butions were made by Tamru Temam (Senior trade-off analyses supported by the Multi-Donor Environmental Specialist), Desta Solomon (Consul- Transitional Trust Fund for South Sudan. The team tant, gender specialist), Rory Morrison (Fragility also thanks peer reviewers Miguel Angel Jorge, and Conflict Specialist), Thamesha Tennakoon Andrew Zarakharenka, Ruth Tiffer-Sotomayor, and (Consultant, social/gender specialist), Bryan Land Erik Reed for their constructive and valuable inputs. (Consultant, extractives industries specialist), and Brian D’Silva (Consultant, political economy specialist). v Abbreviations BBJL Boma-Badingilo-Jonglei landscape m meter CAMP Comprehensive Agricultural Master mm millimeter Plan MLF Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries CFA community forestry association MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forestry CFM community forest management MT megaton EAC East African Community MtCO2e metric ton of carbon dioxide EIA environmental impact assessment equivalent ETC Equatoria Teak Company MWCT Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism g gram NGO nongovernmental organization GDP gross domestic product NRMG Natural Resources Management Group ha hectare NTFP nontimber forest product IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature R-ARCSS Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of Conflict in South Sudan KBA key biodiversity area SPLM/A Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/ kg kilogram Sudan People’s Liberation Army km kilometer SSFA South Sudan Forest Authority kt kiloton t metric ton kWh kilowatt-hour All dollar amounts are US dollars unless otherwise indicated. vi Extended Summary Natural resources nutrition, and generates significant local government income. Roughly 2.1 million people are estimated to abundance and be members of households where at least one person dependence is fishing (RSS 2016b), with around a quarter of a million active fishers, some 10 percent of whom are full time. In the states with the most productive fish- South Sudan’s extensive renewable natural resources are eries (the Upper Nile, Jonglei, and Unity States), the critically important to its predominantly rural popula- proportion of the population engaged in the sector tion, which relies on largely subsistence livelihoods and reaches 30 percent or more. Fishing is also a vital has limited access to the market economy. Until recently, coping livelihood strategy for communities affected almost all South Sudanese lived directly off the by flooding. Mean per capita fish consumption has land, while the limited urban centers were inhab- been estimated at around 17 kg per year, roughly ited by colonial and then northern administrators equivalent to 46 and 20 percent, respectively, of the and traders. Recent decades of conflict have seen average animal and total protein consumption in widespread displacement and rapid urban growth, South Sudan.2 Micronutrients in fish also play an but most of the population is still rural and relies important role in growth and cognitive development. largely on subsistence lifestyles. A low human pres- ence has left the country with vast areas of largely Harvested products are critical to the livelihoods of the natural habitat that remain critical to sustaining rural population. Wood-based fuels provide around livelihoods. Approximately 75 percent of the popula- 96 percent of the household energy used for tion relies directly on local ecosystems for essentials cooking (RSS 2016a). Wild foods from forests and like food, clean water, and energy (Fedele et al. 2021). grasslands— fruits, honey, vegetables, nuts, and bush- Large Nilotic tribes like the Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk meat—make significant contributions to dietary all depend on their livestock resources and access diversity and nutrition, and provide a sustainable to vast areas for grazing,1 as well as wild foods and source of protein and vitamins in local diets, espe- medicinal plants (Grosskinsky and Gullick 2000). cially during periods of food insecurity. Many forest Populations along the Nile and its major wetlands products are also important sources of cash income, depend to a large extent on fish, and some commu- including poles, timber, fuelwood, and thatching; and nities in areas of richer soils have substantial histories commercial nontimber forest products (NTFPs), such of sedentary agriculture. Communities displaced or as shea, gum arabic, honey, and bushmeat. Tradi- cut off from regular livelihoods during conflict often tional medicine is also an important element in the turned to bushmeat for survival. South Sudanese society. Fishing is key to the livelihoods of more than one in six South Sudan’s formal economy is based on oil produc- South Sudanese, makes a huge contribution to overall tion, but mineral wealth has not effectively supported broad-based national development. The oil sector accounts for 70 percent of gross domestic product Source: United Nations Operation Lifeline Sudan 1  Southern Sector Food Security surveys, 1995–2005, avail- able from the Sudan Open Archive, accessed September 2  Source: FAOSTAT, South Sudan—Food Security and Nutrition 2024. Indicators, accessed March 2024. vii (GDP), almost 90 percent of exports and more Decades of conflict and displacement have not only left than 90 percent of public revenues; but per capita much of the population dependent on local resources, but GDP has fallen by over a third since independence also undermined their management and the contribution in 2011, due to the war from 2013 to 2018 and a of renewable resources to lifting the South Sudanese out of variety of oil price and climate shocks.3 There is dire poverty. Despite its wealth of land and resources, little evidence that oil revenues are effectively chan- South Sudan has not achieved food self-sufficiency neled toward national development. Every auditor since 2009, largely because of conflict and climate general report issued since 2006 has documented shocks (Saidi et al. 2020). Nearly 2 million people are systematic corruption, and these reports have not internally displaced, including 600,000 from recent been publicly released since 2008. South Sudan flooding, and over 2 million live as refugees abroad. experienced a decrease in adjusted net savings of Despite vast tracts of arable land, only 5 percent is around 10 percent from 2015 to 2019 (World Bank cultivated. As of September 2024, 9 million people, 2021), largely because the ongoing exploitation of representing 73 percent of the country’s popula- nonrenewable resources has not been used to build tion, require humanitarian assistance (WFP 2024), other forms of capital. Since early 2024, oil exports similar to the proportion recently estimated to live have been disrupted because of challenges in main- in extreme poverty (UNICEF 2023). Over 7 million taining the pipelines through Sudan, resulting in an people were severely food insecure in the April-July acute fiscal crisis for government, and emphasizing 2024 lean season (IPC 2023). South Sudan’s human the ongoing need for South Sudan to diversify its development index value for 2022 is 0.38, posi- economy away from dependence on oil. tioning it at 192 out of 193 countries and territories.4 Women and girls are disproportionately affected Renewable and nonrenewable natural resources have in terms of poverty, lack of access to basic services, also been entwined with the almost continual history and overall constraints in becoming active partici- of conflict in the country since Sudan’s independence in pants and contributors to economic activities.5 Only 1956. Under Sudanese rule, Southern Sudanese were 7.7 percent of the population has access to elec- largely excluded from government and commerce, tricity (2021), paying some of the highest tariffs in including the control and use of resources; by the Sub-Saharan Africa at $0.4/kWh. second war for independence, resentments had crystallized around the lack of oil revenue sharing and the development of the Jonglei Canal, which was perceived to threaten the livelihoods of many Renewable natural assets and potentials South Sudanese for the benefit of downstream Sudanese and Egyptian farmers. The new ruling class that emerged from the independence movement was also fractured by old tribal rivalries over land, further exacerbated by competition over access to Fisheries oil revenues; this precipitated a new civil war in 2013, South Sudan is estimated to have one of the most produc- just two years after full independence. Since the end tive freshwater fisheries in the world, driven by the highly of the second civil war in 2018, ongoing tribal and variable annual flood dynamics. The country is centered political rivalries have continued to fuel low-level on the White Nile floodplain, with the vast Sudd conflict, particularly in rural areas, and are often triggered by disputes over land and resources. United Nations Development Programme Human 4  Development Index, accessed November 2024. Source: US Agency for International Development, South 5  Source: African Development Bank, South Sudan Economic 3  Sudan: Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment web page, Outlook web page, accessed March 2024. accessed November 2024. viii |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew wetland at its heart (map ES.1). Tropical floodplain more lucrative regional markets. Around a sixth of fisheries are conservatively estimated to produce the catch is exported, particularly to the Democratic around 100 kg fish/ha, and are relatively robust to Republic of Congo, where prices are roughly double exploitation. In recent times up to 2019, an area of those in South Sudanese markets. around 40,000 km2 was often inundated, providing a potential sustainable yield of around 400,000 t. Modest improvements in the management of the fisheries Since 2019, more extreme floods—driven primarily sector could potentially generate tens of millions of dollars by higher upstream flows in the White Nile, coming in added value for South Sudan. Reducing postharvest from the Lake Victoria and Albertine Great Lakes losses (including opportunity costs) by even a modest basins—have inundated areas of between 100,000 amount could save tens of millions of dollars per year and 200,000 km2. Recent potential yield might at current catch levels. In addition, if robust moni- therefore be in the range of 1–2 million t, rivaling toring and management of fish stocks is established the most productive inland fisheries on the planet. and confirms that a sustainable increase in average catches is feasible, there is considerable potential for Current catch is estimated to be significantly lower, at expanding exports. Doubling the volume of exports around 300,000 t per year, with much of its potential value and capturing 50 percent of the value of export lost due to poor handling and very limited cold chain infra- markups would grow the value of fish exports from structure. The catch may potentially be worth at least perhaps around $30 million to something closer to $300 million at local market prices for fresh fish. $100 million per year. Longer term, there should also However, roughly 70 percent of this potential value be opportunities to access higher-value interconti- is lost through postharvest physical and quality loss, nental export markets that are already served by the and (accounting for the largest part) the opportu- Lake Victoria fishery, such as the Chinese market for nity cost of inability to transport fresh fish to market. swim bladders and the European market for frozen Over 80 percent of fish sold is processed to facili- fish fillets. Ultimately, an ability to dramatically ramp tate preservation and transport, involving around up production and exports in high-flood years could a 40 percent loss of value in fresh weight equiva- generate much more substantial additional value lent terms. In addition, foreign traders dominate in the sector, and enhance economic resilience to fish export and capture most of the value added in flooding at the national level. Map ES.1  Extent of recent flooding in South Sudan a. Flooding extent, 2019–20 b. Flooding extent, 2021–23 Source: United Nations Satellite Center, Flood monitoring over South Sudan, accessed November 2024. E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | ix Forestry are available for the production potential of some important NTFPs: South Sudan has extensive forest cover with globally unique l Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa ssp. nilotica) production ecosystem integrity and low deforestation. South Sudan’s potential is estimated at 500,000 t per year, with forest cover of around 30 percent of the national about 30,000 t consumed domestically. Average land area (map ES.2) has been stable, and forests annual exports of 100,000 t could generate an are a carbon sink. However, deforestation hotspots average of between $460 to $720 million per exist locally,6 particularly associated with charcoal year. production around urban centers. South Sudanese forests have exceptionally high ecosystem integrity l The three key gum arabic production states have and may still contain commercially valuable native about 4,596,000 ha of gum acacia resources, species, which neighboring countries have largely with an estimated annual gum production poten- lost. tial of 25,700 MT. The potential export value could reach around $150 million.7 South Sudan had the oldest and most extensive teak l Honey‘s annual production potential is 100,000 (Tectona grandis) plantations in Africa, but after decades t and 5,000 t of beeswax, which would be worth of unmanaged harvesting, they are no longer a commer- around $550 million.8 cial resource. No systematic inventory has been carried out, but it is estimated that there are only l Bamboo‘s annual production potential could be 20,000–30,000 ha of forest plantations remaining $452,000 (Indufor 2024). on government land. Most of these are unman- aged and in a state of disrepair, although still able to provide some poor-quality teak for local use. Wildlife and tourism The Equatorial Teak Company manages the only South Sudan retains vast and varied natural habitats with long-term active plantation management conces- the potential to support world-class nature-based tourism sion, which covers around 3,000 ha under a 20– to attractions; but in most locations, wildlife populations have 25-year rotation, with harvesting in the oldest stands been reduced to a tiny fraction of their original numbers. scheduled for the early 2030s. In total, 27 protected areas exist in South Sudan, Restoration of the teak plantation industry could generate covering over 98,200 km² (15 percent of the total close to $1 million per year and 150 jobs per 1,000 ha on land area) and a good selection of ecosystems. This average. Close to a third of the country has the includes one of the world’s largest seasonal wetlands, potential for community forest management (CFM), the Sudd (map ES.3). However, most of these are which could potentially generate over $1 billion per typical “paper parks,” with little active management year in sustainable revenue from NTFPs. Sustain- on the ground and without clearly defined legal or able management of forest and woodland resources physical boundaries. Overall, evidence from recent through community forestry could provide wild national surveys and historical documentation indi- food, construction materials, wood-based energy, cates a 90 percent decline of large wildlife across employment, and income-generating opportunities the country, despite vast remaining natural habitats to local communities. The potential for harvesting and low human population densities. The prolifera- commercial timber—for example, mahogany (Khaya tion of automatic weapons since the 1980s and the spp.)—from community forests on a sustainable basis exists in some locations, but cannot be quantified Source: World Integrated Trade Solution, Natural Gum 7  without inventory data. However, rough estimates Arabic exports by country in 2021, accessed July 2024. 8  Authors’ calculations based on prices for the main East Source: United Nations Environment Programme South 6  African producers from IndexBox (2024a, 2024b), KNA Sudan Community Forestry web page, accessed February 2024. (2022), and Koch and Appotive (2016). x |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Map ES.2  Forest cover and ecoregions in South Sudan Source: R. Samapriya, T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, Community Dataset, accessed November 2024. high prices of ivory and rhino horn have been the around dry season water sources, even while popula- driving force behind significant declines in seden- tions of sedentary species have declined in the BBJL. tary wildlife populations, including the extirpation The landscape also supports significant populations of rhinos. Throughout the protected area system, of predators, especially lions and cheetahs, and permanent water sources are rare and increas- probably the largest remaining vulture population ingly monopolized by humans, squeezing wildlife in Africa. Including the Sudd, it also contains globally into restricted zones. significant populations of waterbirds, including the vast majority of the global shoebill (Balaeniceps rex) The Boma-Badingilo-Jonglei landscape (BBJL) in the population. southeast of South Sudan is an exception to the national picture of decline, supporting around 6 million migratory South Sudan’s natural ecosystems support all rural liveli- ungulates—more than twice the number in the Serengeti. hoods, but current direct financial revenues are very small. The BBJL borders the Sudd and covers ecologically The hydrological and climate systems on which all pristine floodplains of over 150,000 km2 in South agropastoral livelihoods depend are regulated by Sudan, extending into a much smaller area of Ethi- the country’s vast natural habitats. Although there is opia. Systematic aerial surveys completed in 2023 no systematic valuation of South Sudan’s ecosystems, revealed that the BBJL is home to approximately some initial estimates have valued the ecosystem 5 million white-eared kob (Kobus kob leucotis), services of the Sudd alone at around $2.3 billion per making them the most populous species of large year. Direct financial flows from biodiversity and ungulate on Earth; 347,000 mongalla gazelle wildlife are very small, however. Although signifi- (Eudorcas albonotata); 300,000 tiang (Damaliscus cant profits were undoubtedly made in the past lunatus tiang); and 160,000 bohor reedbuck from commercial poaching of wildlife, this rapidly (Redunca redunca). The mobility of these species depleted populations on which tribal communities allows them to avoid concentrated hunting pressure depend without returning value to them. Tourism E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | xi Map ES.3  South Sudan protected area network Source: African Parks 2024. within South Sudan remains nascent, with a handful world—vast and beautiful landscapes supporting of local companies running a total of 200 short tours traditional tribal lifestyles and the largest mammal per year, mostly close to Juba. migration on the planet, with ample opportuni- ties to further enrich wildlife populations; and one The potential for sustainable extractive use is estimated of the world’s largest wetlands supporting glob- in the tens of millions of dollars, and longer-term poten- ally outstanding bird populations. Connectivity tial for nature-based tourism is vast if security conditions to regional transport hubs and tourist destina- were to improve. In the BBJL alone, well-managed tions is good, and there are also opportunities for harvesting of migratory antelope populations could transboundary tourism from Uganda. There may provide for a sustainable annual offtake valued at already be opportunities to develop high-end fly-in around $61 million. If additional sedentary species tented camps in remote locations where secu- such as elephant, giraffe, buffalo, zebra, hartebeest, rity can be managed. If security improves, South roan, or others could be recovered to the levels Sudan’s long-term potential could compare to of the 1980s, the overall offtake could potentially Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, where the tourism increase by between 10 and 20 percent. Much of sector has in recent years contributed between 6.9 this production would be consumed primarily locally, and 11.1 percent of GDP in recent years. For example, but opportunities to market sustainable bushmeat in 2024, tourism in Tanzania has recovered from are also available. South Sudan has some of the the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, most outstanding potential tourism assets in the contributing an estimated $8.15 billion, or 10 percent xii |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew of the economy, and is projected to grow to about introduction of invasive species, and the cumula- $12.4 billion over the next decade (WTTC 2024c). tive hydrological impacts of water infrastructure. Furthermore, in 2023, the sector employed over While these threats are undoubtedly lower in South 4 percent (Uganda), 5.7 percent (Tanzania), and Sudan than in most countries, given low population 7.8 percent (Kenya) of the total workforce, showing densities and levels of economic activity, there are almost a full recovery to pre-pandemic levels (WTTC very little data and no routine monitoring to actu- 2024d, 2024b, 2024a). ally assess them. Map ES.4 shows forest cover, major wetlands and protected areas (including the BBJL) in South Sudan Challenges in relation to approximate areas of threat from agricultural development, water infrastructure, oil Prolonged conflict has undoubtedly had negative impacts production, and mining. on natural assets, and hinders their sustainable devel- opment; it has also restricted access to large areas and South Sudan needs to exploit development potential across impeded land conversion. Conflict has weakened multiple sectors; it has extensive resources and space to do traditional authorities and customary manage- so without critically affecting its natural assets, but needs ment systems, caused a proliferation of weapons to carefully plan and integrate development to avoid and lawlessness, and prevented investment in and unnecessary damage. Significant potential trade-offs establishment of modern management systems— with growth of other critical development sectors leading to rapid depletion of high-value resources in include the following: many locations, including wildlife and teak. Ongoing l Land use change, especially agricultural expansion weak security and governance pose multiple chal- associated with new roads which could fragment the lenges. Unpredictable transport, including multiple BBJL. Modeling suggests agricultural expansion checkpoints and informal taxation, greatly hampers and land conversion will occur primarily in those the internal movement of goods; this is particularly areas that already have relatively high popula- problematic for highly perishable commodities like tion densities, but could increasingly encroach on fish. Development of a large-scale tourism sector key natural assets. Upgrading the road network will remain impossible without significant improve- ments in general security. Nevertheless, instability has restricted access and land development in Map ES.4  Major natural resource assets and many parts of the country, allowing natural ecosys- principal areas of threat from competing tems to persist. development sectors As South Sudan emerges from conflict and builds a modern state, the challenge is to institutionalize robust and inclu- sive natural resource management—building where possible on traditional systems—before increasing acces- sibility causes irreparable loss. At present, the main threat—at least to wildlife and forestry resources— comes from poaching by external actors who have no stake in the sustainability of the resource base. But pressures from competing land use, pollution, and increasing access and disturbance are rising and will continue to accelerate as South Sudan Sources: Dinerstein et al. 2017; Protected Planet protected stabilizes and develops. Aquatic habitats and fish- areas database, accessed March 2024; R. Samapriya, eries are particularly vulnerable to pollution, the T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, Community Dataset, accessed November 2024. E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | xiii would also lead to greatly increased disturbance affect renewable natural resources, but to develop and rapid extension of the agricultural frontier them in a way that avoids unnecessarily reducing along the transport corridors passing through the benefits and potential from renewable natural the center of the BBJL, posing a major threat to resources, and carefully weighs, reduces, and miti- its ability to support large-scale ungulate migra- gates those trade-offs that remain. The primary tions. tools are environmental impact assessment (EIA) of individual investments, and strategic environmental l Major water infrastructure. Completion of the assessment of sector policies and plans. For land- Jonglei Canal could potentially have major scapes of outstanding importance, such as the BBJL impacts on the Sudd, with the loss of wetlands and the Sudd, upstream spatial planning will also be and functional floodplains not only affecting critical. The country’s 2013 Environmental Protec- local fisheries and biodiversity, but also disrupting tion Management Bill introduces the requirement regional climate and groundwater recharge for EIA, but has not been ratified. Nor does it specify systems. South Sudan has considerable potential the detailed technical and institutional require- for hydropower, and a number of potential dam ments for an EIA, and very little human capacity projects have been identified, mostly in the more exists at present. hilly borderlands where the Nile and other rivers enter South Sudan. Development of the larger Climate change is an accelerating threat to South Sudan’s Fula Rapids scheme would potentially have major renewable natural resources, with increased annual impacts on the Nile and surrounding habitats in flooding being the most obvious and impactful manifes- Nimule National Park. Smaller-scale dam devel- tation. Unprecedented (in recent times) flooding opments on the border with Ethiopia could also has boosted fish production, but more variable have an impact on the hydrology of the Machar and unpredictable fish production will be harder marshes. to manage efficiently and sustainably in the longer l Extractive industries. Oil infrastructure is currently run. Flooding has also destroyed vast areas of other located in limited areas, but these are close to wildlife habitats, such as acacia savanna, and major wetlands, have been associated with restricted the ability of wildlife to move within deeper several instances of local pollution, and have been wetlands. The physical and economic displacement affected by recent flooding. Expanding existing of around 600,000 people due to flooding has put fields would bring them closer to the core areas of additional pressure on natural resources, and could the Sudd and Machar wetlands. Development, or exacerbate natural resource conflict. Drought risks even significant prospecting within current explo- remain significant and unpredictable in South ration blocks, could have major impacts in many Sudan alongside flooding. These may lead even- parts of the country, including the rest of the Sudd tually to the dying of forests and spread of forest and most of the BBJL. Artisanal gold production fire, but also pose a direct threat to wildlife popula- already occurs at a significant scale, and affects tions—especially migratory species, which depend protected areas in the south. Extensive minerals on predictable patterns of water availability, and exploration licenses could lead to a large expan- will become increasingly vulnerable to heat stress if sion of mining activities with major impacts to also water stressed. land and rivers in the northwest and the south, including the southern BBJL. Within each renewable natural resource sector, the key constraint is the lack of active and legally institutional- Establishment of environmental risk management systems ized natural resource management systems, leaving a high is critical to maximizing aggregate development poten- degree of open access to resources. Traditional resource tials across sectors. South Sudan has a critical need management systems have been weakened by to sustainably diversify its economy. The objective conflict and displacement, and cannot effectively is thus not to hinder sectors that could potentially manage highly mobile and/or commercial resources xiv |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew alone. As South Sudan completes its transition from Capacity is lacking at the government, private a largely tribal society to a modern state, the role of sector, community, and individual levels: traditional authorities and the rights of individuals need to be formalized—and supported by govern- l Government institutions are critically weak, lacking ment and technical expertise—to provide for secure financial and operational resources and qual- tenure, adaptive management, and investment in ified staff, especially at subnational levels. Very sustainable natural resource exploitation. few routine functions, such as monitoring natural resources, take place, except where supported Natural resource management legal frameworks by external projects. Agencies responsible for exist in some areas, but often lack detailed imple- fisheries and forestry at the central and local menting legislation and contain inconsistencies: levels have very few staff. The Ministry of Wild- life Conservation and Tourism has over 10,000 l A fisheries policy is under finalization, but will need staff, but these are mostly ex-combatants to be complemented by local fisheries regulations who are poorly trained; often located far from that respond to fishers’ needs and build on diverse conservation areas; and typically left without local tenure systems. Fisheries exports are threat- transport, operational budget, or even a salary. ened by the lack of any quality control systems or Poor coordination between communities and competent authority to certify exports. government institutions at all levels results in l The Forest Policy (2015) recognizes the importance fragmented resource management, with plans of sustainable management and community often excluding key stakeholders, particularly at participation, but has not been approved by the the local community level. legislature and remains largely unimplemented. l Community leaders and chiefs lack the necessary A Forest Bill (2023) has been drafted to establish a organizational and technical skills for reducing South Sudan Forest Authority; further clarification conflicts, and institutions vary across the country of mandates across central and local govern- with local cultures and the impacts of conflict ment will be needed, as well as more specificity on and displacement. Communities have limited the regulation of private plantation development awareness of the benefits of scientific sustainable and the legal definitions and framework for CFM. management practices in fisheries, forestry, and l The Wildlife Conservation and Protected Areas Bill wildlife, or experience of effective external support— (2023) is before parliament, but does not define leading to limited confidence and participation in boundaries for protected areas or a clear process natural resource management programs. for their legal establishment. It does provide for l The still-emerging private sector faces severe landscape planning and community conser- capacity and institutional challenges including vancies outside of protected areas, but does a poor governance environment; lack of access to not provide a detailed framework for either—or finance, including to foreign exchange for exports; allow people, including indigenous communi- lack of entrepreneurial and management skills; ties, to use or reside in existing protected areas, and marketing and branding challenges in light despite their long-standing presence in some. A of the country’s largely negative image. Tourism Bill (2024) and policy was recently passed by l There is also a critical lack of individual capacity parliament and is awaiting being signed into law. to manage resources, and to identify and exploit It provides a legal basis for developing tourism market opportunities. There is a general lack of and establishing a directorate of tourism respon- technical expertise in scientific natural resource sible for preparing and implementing a national management concepts and systems beyond a tourism strategy. However, the legislation contains small cadre of academics. There is little technical several gaps, including provision for promotion of expertise in hygienic handling or high-quality community livelihoods and benefits. processing of fish or NTFP harvesting, processing, E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | xv and markets. High-quality management of BBJL, based on a network of conservancies, would plantations is dependent on foreign managers. add a similar amount. Education opportunities exist for all sectors, but attractive job opportunities and technical/voca- Poorly developed general infrastructure is a major tional training are lacking. hindrance to the development of all sectors, partic- ularly fisheries and wood processing, given rapid Investment needs in the renewable resource sectors spoilage in the absence of hygienic cold chains and are substantial, and require state investment to the need for electricity to power sawmills, respec- establishment core management systems for public tively. Transport costs and delays are a major assets, as well as to facilitate community involve- barrier to export and accessing hinterland domestic ment and private investment in developing supply markets for fish traders, exacerbated by informal chains and products: taxation at roadblocks. A lack of clean water is another cause of concern and quality loss. l In the fisheries sector, in addition to participatory resource management and monitoring systems, there are substantial investment needs in value chain facilities—including functional landing sites, Action agenda feeder roads, cold chain storage, and market structures—in order to facilitate a wider range Renewable resource potentials in South Sudan remain of private investment to retain more value in vast, and could play a significant role in diversifying the the sector. Institutional investment is required to economy and delivering appreciable increases in rural support training and capacity, as well as quality living standards, if developed in a manner that supports control and certification of fish products. stabilization and livelihoods. The country context is complex and fragile. Insecurity and weak gover- l Forest sector investments would need to cover: nance may continue to act as significant constraints (1) building a national institutional and regu- on natural resource development, including the latory framework, and institutional capacity; ability to access key export markets—for example, (2) improving management of existing forest for fresh products or tourism. It is also important resources, particularly in natural forests, notably that sectoral interventions support broader efforts in developing and implementing CFM systems; to enhance stability and governance, necessitating (3) reestablishing productive capacity of plan- adherence to cross-cutting principles and safe- tation forests; and eventually (4) establishing guards: domestic processing and value-addition timber, mostly from the private sector with support from l Ground up and inclusive. Natural resource an improved business environment. management must be based around the active l In the wildlife and tourism sector, substantial invest- participation of communities, and ultimately ments are required for management facilities, deliver benefits to them. It must be inclusive infrastructure, staff training, and tourism infra- of all ethnic groups with customary rights to structure development. New parks generally resources, and promote the inclusion and benefit require more capital expenditure in the early of marginalized groups including women and years to establish systems and infrastructure, and youth. Applying a gender lens to interventions, local conditions (taxes, logistics, and insecurity) and strengthening women’s tenure rights, will be demand a premium over typical protected area key. management costs. The total estimated require- l Pro-peace. Management systems should actively ments to manage South Sudan’s protected area contribute to peace and stabilization in rural network comes to around $50 million per year; areas through (1) establishing the credibility of a comprehensive management program in the government as a service provider, (2) formalizing xvi |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew tenure rights through consultative systems Governance that support conflict resolution, (3) supporting the development of effective and responsive Any efforts to enhance fisheries production, either community-level institutions, and (4) enhancing directly or indirectly, must be predicated on core employment opportunities for young men. monitoring and management systems for fisheries l Integrated and balanced. Development of natural resources and the aquatic ecosystems on which they resources cannot come at the expense of vital depend: growth sectors including transport, energy, and l Policy framework. Update and implement the agriculture; conversely, natural resource manage- fisheries policy (with guidance for a new sector ment must respond to a wide range of potential strategic action plan) in a way that formalizes challenges. South Sudan is in desperate need of local resource tenure and dispute resolution basic infrastructure, which can either support or systems, supported by local government. harm the renewable natural resource sectors. Coordination is key (1) at the national level l Collaborative management models. Develop a through the reestablishment of interministerial number of Boma fisheries management models, coordination structures, and the development including enacting simple area-specific bylaws of environmental and strategic environmental on the use of fisheries and wetland habitats, with assessment systems; (2) at the regional/land- the broad consent of local users. Map and agree scape/watershed level through the use of on Boma management boundaries. integrated land use and development planning l Training and capacity building. Train local leaders instruments, and (3) at the community level (including in dispute resolution), government, through the establishment and capacitation of academic, NGO, and value chain actors in the integrated resource user/management groups. ecosystem approach to fisheries. l Resilient. Management systems should be l Data collection and monitoring. Develop a simple climate-informed and responsive, and robust to and affordable community-based fisheries and natural, social, and market shocks. Diversifying aquatic environmental data collection system. resource management and livelihood systems will be important. The key elements in building forest sector regulatory l Partnerships. As internal technical capacity certainty and capacity include the following: remains very weak, South Sudan should continue l Update Forest Bill. Incorporate missing technical to collaborate with external partners that can elements (climate change, forest carbon, clearer mobilize international expertise and support definition of key concepts, etc.) into the update increased exposure and training for national of the Forest Bill and implementing legislation. experts. A history of working with international Revise the Forest Policy of 2015 to ensure align- conservation nongovernmental organizations ment. (NGOs) can be built on in the wildlife sector, but there are few international partners currently l Strengthen government implementation capacity at engaged in fisheries and forestry—although Equa- all levels. Capacity needs assessments at selected toria Teak Company is providing a model for sites could help develop a capacity-building plan. modern teak plantation management. Govern- l Establish a forest information management system. ment should also aim to enable private sector This should include demarcating and mapping investment in natural resource value chains, while national forest reserves, carrying out forest providing the regulatory base to support robust management planning, and mapping and resource management, competitive markets, and assessing woodlots and plantations under farm environmental and social safeguards. E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | xvii forestry. A national forest inventory would provide Restoration the baseline data needed in sector planning. l Define a CFM approach and build systems. Broad Fisheries and natural forests are generally consid- consultation would be required, but robust CFM ered to be in good condition. However, the forest models are already in existence. Piloting and plantation sector requires significant investment for experimentation within South Sudan should be restoration—ultimately from the private sector—but kept to a minimum before rights, guidelines, and with government support, including the following: operating procedures are codified to provide l Facilitating community/smallholder commercial tree clarity and reliability. Both government and prac- growers in targets areas (e.g., in Western Equa- titioner capacity would need to be built; given the toria) would involve (1) strengthening service vast areas of community forests and woodlands, delivery (seedlings, etc.) to smallholders through critical community forest areas should be prior- initial project-type interventions and engaging itized. formal private sector operators; (2) building Wildlife and tourism governance improvements should the capacity of smallholder tree growers; and center around the following: (3) engaging entrepreneurial smallholders in the rehabilitation of government plantations. l Policy framework. To strengthen and implement l Promoting plantation development through the policy framework, clarification and enact- private sector investment in industrial forestry ment of the Wildlife Conservation and Protected involves much larger individual transactions Area Bill (2023), the Tourism Bill (2023), and the than in smallholder plantations, and public Environmental Bill (currently in draft) should actions are more likely to be tailor-made to indi- focus on (1) processes for formal and collabora- vidual investor needs. Key steps would include tive delineation and gazettement of protected (1) promoting awareness of investment opportuni- areas, (2) the legal framework for community ties, (2) preparing standard operational practices conservancies, (3) retention and use of eventual for soliciting and responding to proposals, and protected area revenues, and (4) wildlife-friendly (3) de-risking investments through improving the environmental safeguards for development plan- physical safety and business climate. ning and investments. Government should also consider clarifying and separating the regula- Restoration of wildlife populations is critical to the tory role of the ministry from the implementing future development of tourism and sustainable use: role of a protected area authority, as has proven more effective elsewhere in Africa, including in l The top priority should be securing and restoring neighboring Uganda. the BBJL through the development of a network of community conservancies anchored by l Partnerships. Collaborative partnerships with well-managed protected areas (including specialist NGOs are likely to remain critical to Ez Zeraf Game Reserve in the Sudd). African supporting the protected area system in the short Parks has proposed establishing up to 21 commu- to medium term. These should be strengthened, nity conservancies, following tried and tested including with development partner support approaches in Kenya and Namibia; as well as where possible. up to 19 conservation service nodes equipped l Training. Training the wildlife service is critical and with offices, basic equipment, airstrips, commu- should go beyond monitoring and enforcement nications, and trained community conservancy skills to include collaborative approaches, social liaison staff. Strengthening community resource risks, and human rights. Much can be learned tenure will be essential to ensuring the continued from experienced wildlife services in East Africa, functionality and productivity of ungulate migra- including the Uganda Wildlife Authority. tion and other wildlife in harmony with local xviii |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew cultural norms to provide long-term and sustain- trainers and provide networking hubs—can lower able benefits for local communities. This will the costs of traditional extension services. require protection and maintenance of breeding, l Credit and insurance. Offer credit and insurance grazing, and movement spaces; targeted habitat services tailored to the needs of women, youth, restoration; reintroduction of sedentary species and others with limited access to collateral. that have largely been extirpated from the Create village savings and loan associations to landscape, such as buffalo and elephant; and support microenterprise ventures. introduction of regulated sustainable offtake agreements at the conservancy level. l Access to export markets. Improving access to export markets would involve (1) establishing a compe- l Additional priority areas include restoring tent authority to promote and regulate fishery remaining major protected areas—Nimule National product quality, safety, and trade, including Park and its associated training center, Southern setting up accredited laboratories; (2) improving National Park, Imatong Forest Reserve, Lantoto critical river and all-weather road transport National Park, Kidepo Game Reserve, Shambe infrastructure; (3) assessing the feasibility of National Park and surrounding lands, and the establishing secondary fish markets in strategic wider Sudd wetland system. Although there is border towns, such as Nimule, to encourage easier general understanding of the status, challenges, access and competitiveness within the export and ballpark management costs, focused and trade; and (4) securing access to existing trade costed management plans should be prepared. arrangements, notably the African Continental Free Trade Area, and arranging for provision of Value addition sealed container transshipment of fish through Uganda to the Democratic Republic of Congo. A set of coordinated interventions are necessary to In the forest sector, development of CFM systems reduce postharvest loss and capture additional value should be accompanied by support for forest-based in fisheries: livelihood development, particularly the identifica- l Key value chain infrastructure. Upgrade landing tion and development of NTFP market potential, sites and trading structures at key nodes (e.g., improved handling and processing, and marketing Bor, Malakal, and Munga ports) to include potable requirements. Development of timber processing and water, proper storage facilities and cold chain value addition is a longer-term concern, given the systems. Public investment is to provide a minimal time required for reestablishment of the planta- base of critical infrastructure to catalyze business tion sector. Similar activities here to improve the engagement and investment. investment and operating environment are crucial, including through general and forestry-specific l Business environment. A favorable business envi- business climate diagnostics and interventions, and ronment is needed to crowd in private sector promoting the engagement of both domestic and investment, including general pro-business and foreign investors at all stages of the value chains. sector-specific reforms, including high tax rates, such as the 18 percent tax fish exports, and expo- Wildlife-based tourism development has the greatest sure to roadblocks and informal taxes. long-term economic potential of any renewable l Training. Institutional and vocational training resource industry in South Sudan. The current should be offered for collectives and small enter- security environment and lack of suitable facilities prises to help fishers, including women, establish and infrastructure pose major constraints, but the collectives and develop basic business skills. Incu- development of high-end, remote tented camps bation centers—local business and technical may already be possible; and improvements in skills training centers to train community-based national security could open much wider market E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | xix opportunities. A tourism master plan would help to potential of renewable natural resources in South identify tourism assets, market opportunities, and Sudan, drawing heavily on background reviews investment needs to develop different tourism prepared for three focal sectors: fisheries, forestry, segments in a phased manner, as well as to iden- and wildlife and tourism. Chapter 2 assesses some of tify strategic measures to ensure tourism benefits the additional pressures on natural resources that both wildlife and communities. Such a plan could might occur as South Sudan develops, reviewing also help identify tourism assets and products and potential spatial patterns of development in land related markets, and put in place a rational strategy use, water infrastructure, and oil and mineral explo- for developing this sector with the support of the ration and extraction; and approaches to managing private sector. Tourism promotion and training are trade-offs to support balanced and sustainable usually best done by an entity that is institutionally development. Chapter 3 outlines priority actions in close to the private sector, rather than by regular each of the three focal sectors. Summary action government agencies. It will be important for the plans for fisheries, forests, and wildlife and tourism Tourism Bill to clearly define roles and responsibil- are provided in tables ES.1, ES.2, and ES.3, respectively. ities. Much of the material in the report is based on back- South Sudan does not have a system in place to ground reviews that were prepared for each of the measure and monetize carbon sequestration in its focal sectors. For fisheries, the sector review was natural habitats, though an initial REDD+ Strategy prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organiza- and Action Plan has been prepared. Nevertheless, tion of the United Nations (FAO), and involved visits the potential is significant, and should be pursued to all 10 states to conduct a variety of key informant alongside other forms of revenue. Between 2001 interviews. For forestry, the review was prepared by and 2023, forests in South Sudan represented a Indufor in close consultation with the Department net carbon sink of −36.9 MtCO2e/year, which could of Forestry; it included limited field visits in the be worth around $250 million per year on volun- high-forest areas in the southwest of the country. tary markets. If it were to follow a similar forest loss For wildlife and tourism, the review was prepared by pathway as its neighbors, projected greenhouse gas African Parks, and included collation of extensive emissions due could reach a range between 22.1 and wildlife survey data from recent years, as well as 29.5 MtCO2e/year. The dynamics of emissions from some limited additional field surveys. Unless other- South Sudan’s wetlands are not well understood, but wise referenced, data in the report are based on it is possible that flood reduction measures could these three sector reviews. In addition to reviewing produce major methane emission reductions. existing information on the locations of current and potential minerals and water infrastructure devel- opment, chapter 2 also includes new modeling on patterns of potential agricultural expansion in rela- Report outline and tion to population growth and improvements of the methodology transport network. The report comprises three chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current importance and xx |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Table ES.1  Summary action plan for fisheries sector Theme Action Indicative public cost Short-medium term (1–5 years) Strengthen local resource management and monitoring $10–$20 million l Update Fisheries Bill and develop sector action plan l Capacity-building and long-term focused on small-scale fisheries management operational costs for co-management Resource l Enact legal framework for collaborative manage- would be main expenses governance ment l Technical assistance from partners l Establish participatory resource and ecosystem with international expertise in monitoring system small-scale fisheries co-management l Build community and government capacity would be critical Reduce postharvest loss l Detailed value chain and market surveys $20–$30 million l Key value chain infrastructure investments Core infrastructure and capacity l Policy reforms to improve business environment and building to facilitate further private access to credit sector investment would be main l Institutional capacity and vocational training for expenses cooperatives and micro, small, and medium-size Value enterprises addition Secure and expand export valuea l Establish competent authority and laboratories to regulate sanitary and quality standards $5 million l Assess feasibility of new/improved border export markets Institutional establishment and capacity building would be main expenses l Bilateral and regional trade agreements to support reduced inspection times, closed container trans- shipments, etc. Longer term (5–20 years) Capacity to ramp up production in high-flood yearsa l Multiuse cold storage and logistics capacity invest- l Substantial, but most costs would be ments borne by the private sector and infra- l Improvements to key transport links, including structure sectors Value border crossings l Direct costs to fisheries management addition authorities to identify and lobby for Access high-value export marketsa priority investments and promote l Transport, energy, and trade infrastructure private sector investment could be l Policy and institutional reforms to remove trade modest barriers and promote access (e.g., trade fairs) a. Predicated on strengthened resource management and monitoring to facilitate and permit sustainable catch increase. E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | xxi Table ES.2  Summary action plan for forestry sector Theme Action Indicative public cost Short-medium term (1–5 years) National capacity building l Institutional and legal development (Forest Bill and policy) l Investments in ministry and local $5 million government technical capacity Capacity-building, technical assistance, and opera- l Development of forest data collec- tional costs would be main expenses tion (e.g., mapping) and monitoring system (technical assistance and Resource investments) governance CFM establishment l Technical assistance for CFM planning $10 milliona and system development l Technical assistance, operational costs, and l Developing guidelines community incentives would be main expenses l CFA establishment and management l Community members would allocate time and planning in-kind community resources l Forest management operations $2 million CFM activities l Operational costs and community incentives Value l Forest management operations would be main expenses addition l Livelihood activities l Communities would provide labor and, depending on livelihood activities selected, other inputs Longer term (5–20 years)b Plantation development $1.25 million l Institutional and legal development l Designing support systems Capacity-building and technical assistance would Resource be main expenses l Developing guidelines governance $1.5 million CFM activities l Ongoing support and monitoring Operational costs, technical assistance, and commu- nity incentives would be main expenses $8.4 million Plantation development l Operational costs, technical assistance, and l Plantation establishment producer incentives would be main expenses to Restoration facilitate private investments l Incentives to smallholders l Private beneficiaries would allocate both in-kind l Incentives to commercial plantations and financial contributions based on agreed cost-sharing formulas $7.15 million Plantation development l Producer incentives would be main expenses facili- Value tating private investments l Incentives to smallholders addition l Incentives to commercial plantations l Private beneficiaries would allocate both in-kind and financial contributions based on agreed cost-sharing formulas a. CFM activities are scalable, and additional resources would allow faster expansion of the CFM model to larger areas. b. Plantation technical assistance could start earlier if there is certainty of implementation finance. xxii |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Table ES.3  Summary action plan for wildlife and tourism sector Theme Action Indicative public cost Short-medium term (1–5 years) Strengthen framework for protected area management l Enact Wildlife Conservation and Protected Area Bill (2023), Tourism Bill (2023), and Environment Bill, and prepare instruments (regula- tions and guidelines) to guide implementation $5–$10 million l Undertake a comprehensive survey of protected areas, including biodiversity survey, socioeconomic and threat assessment Field surveys, consultations, and l Formalize the legal status of major protected areas, starting with boundary demarcation to formalize priority areas for wildlife conservation and management (specifi- protected areas would be main cally Boma and Badangilo National Parks) expenses l Reconvene the Natural Resources Management Group to enable Resource governance interministerial consultation on development projects and to discuss potential environmental implications of sector development projects Strengthen wildlife management capacity $10–$20 million l Rationalize the wildlife service and increase budget to establish a functional corps of staff Not including regular budget l Develop standard operating procedures and training curricula, and allocations for staff salaries and deliver in-service training, including in working with communities operating costs, consistent delivery and on social risk management of capacity building to the wildlife l Renovate, equip, and provide operational costs for the wildlife service would be main additional expenses of the wildlife service service training center at Nimule National Park $40 million BBJL landscape planning and management l Livelihoods and capacity support, l Participatory strategic land use management plan for the BBJL and infrastructure and equip- Restoration covering anchor protected areas and conservancies ment would be main expenses l Establishment of a first batch (nominally, 10) of community conser- l Community members would allo- vancies cate time and in-kind community resources Wildlife tourism establishment Value Modest public cost, but around l Preliminary assessment of tourism potential (products and markets) addition $5 million from private operators l Pilot high-end tented camps and initial marketing activities Longer term (5–20 years) Consolidate and expand protected area management capacity l Expand partnership arrangements with conservation international NGOs to support management of major protected areas Resource l Consider establishment of a protected area management agency Few million dollars to establish new governance with an independent governance structure and authority to retain agency and reinvest revenues and raise external financing l Establish a national conservation endowment trust fund to support reliable funding for major protected areas $100–$200 million CFM activities l Estimate largely depends on scale Resource l Bring remaining major protected areas under active manage- of infrastructure development and restoration/ ment, in partnership with international NGOs where appropriate, number of protected areas brought management including community engagement, patrolling and improving infra- under active management structure and communications l Community members would allo- cate time and in-kind community resources Wildlife tourism development l Prepare a tourism master plan with a strong focus on environmental and cultural sustainability l Consider establishing a tourism promotion agency Substantial investment costs Value for tourism development, but l Expand and improve tourism infrastructure in and around major addition should mainly be borne by private protected areas as security conditions allow, including in support of operators transboundary tourism offerings with Uganda l Develop programs for carbon financing to support conservation and habitat management E x te n d e d S u m m a r y  | xxiii 1 Importance and potential of natural resources Overview of renewable the entire Nile Basin), and around half within the Nile floodplain at around 400–500 m altitude with natural resources the vast Sudd wetland at its heart. The Sudd is the world’s second largest seasonal wetland, expanding from around 30,000 km2 up to over 100,000 km2 South Sudan’s geography: depending on the size of the annual flood pulse, resource abundance and making it larger than the Okavango Delta in dependence Botswana and Cambodia’s Tonle Sap combined. Beyond the Sudd, most of the floodplain consists The physical geography of South Sudan has given rise to a of a mosaic of grasslands and savannas, grading rich tapestry of ecosystems, encompassing vast wetlands, to denser woodlands in the higher lands along the floodplain grasslands, savannas, and montane forests western and southern boundaries. The highest peaks (map 1.1). South Sudan lies just south of the Sahel reach over 3,000 m in the Imatong Mountain Range and spans an ecological gradient from subtrop- on the border with Uganda. ical Northern Congolian forests in the southwest to The country’s human geography is equally diverse, and semiarid Sahelian savanna in the north. Almost all also dynamic. South Sudan is home to over 60 ethnic its land area (97.5 percent) falls within the White groups, with the largest being the Dinka, Nuer, and Nile Basin (South Sudan comprises 20 percent of Shilluk. The history of settlement is marked by a Map 1.1  Protected areas, major waterways, and topography of South Sudan Source: African Parks 2024. 2 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew mixture of migration, displacement, and conflict. Map 1.2  Human footprint in West, Central, and Many ethnic groups have long-standing ties East Africa to specific regions; while others have migrated over time in response to environmental changes, conflict, and economic opportunities. Until recent times, urban centers such as Juba, Wau, Bor, and Malakal were mainly trade and administrative hubs for the Anglo-Egyptian and then Sudanese authorities. However, following the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005, which paved the way for independence in 2011, Juba and other towns have witnessed a remarkable growth in population. Widespread internal displacement, due to conflict and increasingly in recent years to flooding, has also accelerated movement to the towns. Moreover, the conflict in Sudan has created an influx of refugees and returnees. As of April 2024, 640,688 returnees, refugees, and asylum seekers have arrived in South Sudan, approximately 78 percent of whom are Source: R. Samapriya, T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, South Sudanese refugee returnees.1 Community Dataset, accessed November 2024. Note: The most extensive blocks of relatively undisturbed A low human footprint has left vast tracks of habitat in sub-Sahelian habitat are in South Sudan and the Central African Republic. generally good condition. Approximately 80 percent of the population of around 13 million is rural, but South Sudan’s extensive land area (approxi- Map 1.3  Population density in South Sudan mately 644,000 km2) means the human footprint (number of people per km2) remains low, even by Sub-Saharan African stan- dards (map 1.2 and map 1.3). Outside of the main towns and small settlements spread along major roads, much of the rural population and settled agricul- ture is concentrated in the western and southern edges of the lowlands, and in the extreme north of Population count (est.) the country, where the Nile crosses into Sudan. This n0 n 1–5 leaves vast areas of wetter floodplain grassland n 6–25 n 26–50 n 51–100 and savanna, and of forested hills, with very low n 101–500 n 501–2,500 n 2,501–5,000 population densities. Although most of the land is n 5,001–185,000 potentially arable, only around 5 percent is used for Source: R. Samapriya, T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, cropping; however, pastoral and agropastoral live- Community Dataset, accessed November 2024. lihood systems are extensively practiced. Most land in South Sudan remains de facto communal land, held and managed collectively by communities or traditional authorities. This encompasses land used communities, while individuals within the commu- for grazing, farming, and other communal activities nity may have customary rights.2 vital to the livelihoods and cultural practices of local 2  Source: Intergovernmental Authority on Development Source: The World Bank in South Sudan: Overview web page, 1  Land Governance Portal, South Sudan Land Governance Country accessed September 2024. Profile, accessed March 2024. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 3 South Sudanese are highly exposed to variable climate Map 1.4  Annual precipitation in South Sudan cycles and disasters. Rainfall is concentrated over the highlands in the southwest (map 1.4), and the wet season lasts from May to October. With its vast floodplains and seasonal wetlands, extensive annual floods are a feature of large parts of central and eastern South Sudan. As with much of East Africa, fluctuating rainfall patterns have increased the magnitude and unpredictability of cycles of flood and drought in South Sudan. In recent years, vast floods have inundated large areas of the flood- plain, leading to loss of life, massive displacement of people, and severe disruption to agricultural and pastoral livelihoods. Floodwaters inundated exten- sive areas from 2020 to 2023, with the submerged region probably around 200,000 km²2 in 2022, encompassing more than 30 percent of the country Source: Original calculations based on TerraClimate. (map 1.5). The primary driver of the annual flood pulse (October through February) are the upstream flows South Sudan has considerable mineral wealth, but has in the White Nile, originating from the Lake Victoria not been able to effectively capitalize on it to support Basin with additions from Uganda and the Alber- broad-based national development. The oil sector tine Great Lakes; although local rainfall over South accounts for 70 percent of gross domestic product Sudan and the borderlands of western Ethiopia and (GDP), almost 90 percent of exports, and more southwestern Sudan also contribute. It is possible than 90 percent of public revenues; but per capita that environmental changes in the Sudd, including GDP has fallen by over a third since independence spread of water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes), in 2011, due to the war from 2013 to 2018 and a could be contributing to increased flooding (Rebelo variety of oil price and climate shocks.3 There is and El-Moghraby 2016). Notwithstanding the recent flooding, drought remains a hazard across much of the country, particularly in the northeast (map 1.6). Source: African Development Bank, South Sudan Economic 3  Outlook web page, accessed March 2024. Map 1.5  Extent of recent flooding in South Sudan a. Flooding extent, 2019–20 b. Flooding extent, 2021–23 Source: United Nations Satellite Center, Flood monitoring over South Sudan, accessed November 2024. 4 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Map 1.6  Drought hazard map for South Sudan of people from all parts of South Sudan. During the civil war, communities in Boma, Nimule, and Western Equatoria turned to bushmeat for survival. Popula- tions in Nimule, being close to the Uganda border, depend upon trade as well as fish from the Nile for their food security and livelihood needs. Populations in Western Equatoria have depended upon the rich agricultural and natural resource base to meet their livelihood and food needs. The agricultural growing season in Western Equatoria is 270 days, and an average household can grow between 10 and 15 field and tree crops on an annual basis. Large Nilotic tribes like the Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk all depend on their livestock resources and access to vast areas for Source: GMV, 2024. grazing,4 as well as wild foods and medicinal plants (Grosskinsky and Gullick 2000). little evidence that oil revenues are effectively chan- neled toward national development. Every auditor Renewable natural resources could make a much larger general report issued since 2006 has documented contribution to lifting the South Sudanese out of poverty systematic corruption, and these reports have not if better managed. Despite its wealth of land and been publicly released since 2008. South Sudan resources, South Sudan has not achieved food experienced a decrease in adjusted net savings of self-sufficiency since 2009, largely because of around 10 percent from 2015 to 2019 (World Bank conflict and climate shocks (Saidi et al. 2020). As 2021), largely because the ongoing exploitation of of September 2024, 9 million people, representing nonrenewable resources has not been used to build 73 percent of the country’s population, require other forms of capital. Bringing transparency to the humanitarian assistance (WFP 2024). Over 7 million management of oil revenues is a key objective of the people were severely food insecure in the April-July latest national peace agreement and a priority of 2024 lean season (IPC 2023). Nearly 2 million people many development partners, but progress has been are internally displaced, and over 2 million live as limited. Since early 2024, oil exports have been refugees abroad. The poverty rate is very high, with 7 disrupted because of challenges in maintaining the in 10 people living in extreme poverty (UNICEF 2023). pipelines through Sudan, resulting in an acute fiscal South Sudan’s human development index value for crisis for government, and emphasizing the ongoing 2022 is 0.38, positioning it at 192 out of 193 countries need for South Sudan to diversify its economy away and territories.5 Women and girls are disproportion- from dependence on oil. Gold is one of the largest ately affected in terms of poverty, lack of access to non-oil exports, but almost all of the exploitation is basic services, and overall constraints in becoming informal, and only a fraction of exports are likely to active participants and contributors to economic be captured in official figures. activities.6 Only 7.7 percent of the population has Low rates of urbanization and access to the market economy leave the majority of the population directly Source: United Nations Operation Lifeline Sudan 4  Southern Sector Food Security surveys, 1995–2005, avail- dependent on renewable natural resources. Approxi- able from the Sudan Open Archive, accessed September mately 75 percent of the population relies directly 2024. on local ecosystems for essentials like food, clean Source: United Nations Development Programme Human 5  water, and energy (Fedele et al. 2021). Natural Development Index, accessed November 2024. resources like forests, livestock, fisheries, and wildlife Source: US Agency for International Development, South 6  all have been of crucial importance for the survival Sudan: Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment web page, 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 5 access to electricity (World Bank 2021), paying some Peace Agreement in 2005, which mandated oil of the highest tariffs in Sub-Saharan Africa at $0.4/ revenue sharing between Sudan and South Sudan, kWh. and provided the basis for a referendum and subse- quent full independence in 2011. In addition to its agricultural potential, the country also has abundant fisheries, wildlife, and forest The new ruling class emerging from the leadership of resources, which are largely unmanaged and in the SPLM/A was highly dependent on oil revenues and some cases could be readily developed. This report fractured along tribal lines. Long before the Compre- examines these potentials in detail. hensive Peace Agreement, the SPLM/A had exercised effective control over large territories, and suffered intertribal rivalries and conflict, with fighting Conflict and social history of between Nuer- and Dinka-led factions breaking natural resources out in the early 1990s. Some tribal militia were also co-opted by the Sudanese government, such South Sudan has suffered from almost continual conflict as Nuers engaged to protect oil fields in the north, since Sudan’s independence in 1956, which has been and were only reconciled with the SPLM/A after the tightly bound to its natural resources. During the period war. During the interim period from 2005 to 2011, between Sudan’s independence and the creation attempts were made by development partners to of South Sudan, Southern Sudanese were largely strengthen governance structures and diversify the excluded from government and commerce, and economy, but the main focus remained on imple- resented the imposition of Arabic culture and Islam menting the peace agreement and preventing by the northern government. These were the main renewed conflict with Sudan. Governance remained factors that motivated the Southern Sudanese weak and contestation for oil revenues acute, and Anyanya-1 movement to rebel against the central the split in the SPLM/A ultimately led to a new civil government in Khartoum, leading to the first civil war just two years after independence, in 2013. war from 1956 to 1972 (Rolandsen 2005). By the time of the second civil war between the Sudan People’s The Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of Conflict Liberation Movement/Sudan People’s Liberation in South Sudan (R-ARCSS) in 2018 formally ended the civil Army (SPLM/A) and the government of South Sudan war; but with economic and political power still based (1983–2005), oil had been discovered, and the lack on a zero-sum contest for control of natural resources, of revenue sharing added a major new source of the pattern of intertribal conflict persists. Greater resentment. The development of the Jonglei Canal, transparency on the use of oil revenues was a key which was perceived to threaten the livelihoods of provision of the R-ARCSS, but has not been imple- many South Sudanese for the benefit of downstream mented, and major external shocks from COVID and Sudanese and Egyptian farmers, was another.7 The flooding have not helped to build a more inclusive second civil war ended with the Comprehensive economy. New armed groups have continued to emerge, and no state has avoided local conflicts. Conflict between tribal groups is often related to the accessed November 2024. legacy of the wars and related displacement, but The Nile Waters agreement of 1959 determined that any 7  commonly precipitates around contestation for land augmentation of the flow of the Nile was to be divided and resources—and is often exploited by political equally between the Arab Republic of Egypt and Sudan. leaders. The internal split within the SPLM/A in 1991 The Jonglei Canal was designed to increase the flow of led to a large-scale displacement of the Bor Dinka the Nile by about 6 billion m3. John Garang, the leader of the SPLM/A during the second civil war, studied the impli- (together with their cattle) to Central and Eastern cations of the planned Jonglei Canal diversion project Equatoria, which brought conflict between the Dinka during his PhD studies, and the SPLM/A brought an end herders and Equatorian farmers that continues to to its construction by blowing up the machine excavating this day. Cattle rustling is a particularly common the canal early in the war. 6 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew form of intertribal conflict (EEAS 2022). With an The proliferation of guns and armed groups during end to the R-ARCSS coming in December 2024 and the 2013–18 conflict is believed to have exacerbated the probability of elections very low, prospects for wildlife poaching (UNEP 2018). Patterns of animal reducing internal conflict remain uncertain. movement have been significantly constrained by conflict, including around the northern and western Prolonged conflict has undoubtedly had negative edges of the Boma-Badingilo-Jonglei landscape impacts on natural assets, but has also restricted access (BBJL). Ongoing insecurity, particularly along roads, to large areas and impeded land conversion. Conflict has hampers accessibility and safety, preventing pilot weakened traditional authorities and customary tourism activities from expanding beyond a 50 km management systems, caused a proliferation of radius from the capital. South Sudan’s reputation of weapons and lawlessness, and prevented invest- instability and fragility, with ongoing harassment by ment in and establishment of modern management authorities against foreigners, further deters tourism systems—leading to rapid depletion of high-value and investment. resources in many locations, including wildlife and teak. On the other hand, ongoing instability has also The fisheries sector has been less directly affected by restricted access and land development in many conflict, but intercommunal violence in December 2013 parts of the country, allowing natural ecosystems severely reduced fisheries production in the Upper Nile, to persist. This includes large buffer areas between Unity, and Jonglei States and around the Sudd wetland. tribal territories where activities such as cattle The Lakes and Warrap States experienced less grazing are limited due to the risks of hostile action. severe impacts, highlighting the context-specific nature of conflict on fisheries activities. Local fish- In the forest sector, the expansion of government teak eries management has also been weakened. plantations in the national forest reserves ceased in 1983 with the onset of the second civil war, and insecurity and The intersection of gender equality and conflict continues resource scarcity hampered management efforts. Forest to constrain women’s access to an economy dominated by resources were used to fund the conflict, resulting natural resources. With millions of internally displaced in significant environmental degradation. The persons and refugees, the impact on family struc- SPLM/A’s capture of border areas in the south- tures and livelihoods is profound, disproportionately west from the government of Sudan in 1997 led to affecting women and children.8 In many instances, an increase in illegal logging and export of teak women have been forced to adopt primary provider logs through Uganda to international markets. The roles—including in subsistence agriculture and chaotic situation continues to impede management resource harvesting—yet are hindered by limited interventions and law enforcement. Under current access to land and resources, restrictive cultural conditions, significant private sector investment in norms, and a legal system that often fails to protect forest plantations is unlikely. Even existing opera- their rights. Although women are entitled to own tions, such as Equatoria Teak Company (ETC), could and inherit land according to the 2009 Land Act, be affected by newly formed militias like the Zande enforcement of these rights is highly insecure in the in Nzara, Western Equatoria. During the immediate face of armed groups and government reluctance— postwar period (2005–11), some existing forest plan- for example, to honor widows’ claims to inherited tation concessions were given to individuals from leasehold rights. Gender-based violence is one Kenya and Uganda who had assisted the SPLM/A of the most critical threats to the protection and during the war; few of these were commercialized, well-being of women and children in South Sudan and most have been abandoned. and is fueled by militarization and societal norms. Widespread conflict in rural areas has also disrupted wildlife migration patterns and tourism routes, threat- 8  Source: US Agency for International Development, South ening biodiversity and undermining tourism potential. Sudan: Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment web page, accessed November 2024. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 7 Almost 50 percent of married women ages 15–49 forestry, and fisheries, and the South Sudan Land in South Sudan experience physical and/or sexual Commission in 2005. As petroleum was controlled intimate partner violence (UNFPA 2023). Non–inti- by the government of Sudan, it was not included mate partner cases of gender-based violence are at that time. Over the 2005–11 period, the NRMG mostly associated with attacks and raids, with one functioned as an interministerial group. An institu- in four reported victims of conflict-related sexual tional and legal framework was being developed violence being a child. In total, about 65 percent of to formalize the NRMG into law when the entire women and girls have experienced physical and/ cabinet and the vice president were dismissed in or sexual violence in their lifetime, and the majority July 2013, as the country descended into civil war. first experience sexual violence under the age of 18 Although a number of broad sectoral laws have (Gardsbane and Atem 2019). been passed more recently, there remains much to be done to institutionalize a coordinated gover- In renewable natural resource sectors, women are often nance framework for natural resource management relegated to secondary roles, such as processing and that would formalize tenure rights, support conflict marketing, while cultural norms and domestic respon- resolution, and institute transparency in the use of sibilities limit their direct involvement in more lucrative state revenues. activities. In fisheries, women handle and market the catch, but face barriers to fishing itself because of cultural prohibitions and resource constraints. In forestry, women’s rights to forest products are limited Status and value of renewable natural to less profitable goods, and they are often excluded from decision-making processes. The management of forest resources is influenced by broader socio- economic and environmental factors, which further resources marginalize women. In wildlife and tourism, women’s As South Sudan emerges onto the global stage, a compre- participation is minimal, with sustainable manage- hensive understanding of its natural resource landscape ment practices offering some potential for increased becomes increasingly vital, serving as the foundation involvement. However, gender norms and a lack of for informed decision-making and sustainable develop- data on successful interventions pose significant ment initiatives in this dynamic and resource-rich nation. challenges. Determining the status of this report’s three focal sectors—fisheries, forests, and wildlife and tourism— As South Sudan emerges from conflict and builds a modern is challenging, as published literature and data are state, the challenge is to institutionalize robust and inclu- scarce and logistics for field visits and data collec- sive natural resource management—building where tion timely, costly, and complex. As such, assumptions possible on traditional systems—before increasing acces- and estimates have been adopted using available sibility causes irreparable loss. Some steps toward a data and supported by local stakeholder consulta- modern natural resource management framework tions held throughout December 2023 to May 2024 have already been put in place. As early as 1999, for each of the focal sector deep dives. John Garang, the leader of the SPLM/A, appointed a technical committee to develop an institutional framework for natural resource management (later Fisheries called the Natural Resources Management Group [NRMG]), but a natural resource governance frame- South Sudan is estimated to have one of the most produc- work that promotes conflict resolution and inclusive tive freshwater fisheries in the world—although, as a benefits remains a critical need. The work of the predominantly tropical floodplain system, production is NRMG led to the establishment of natural resource highly dependent on the extent of the annual flood pulse. ministries covering minerals, agriculture, livestock, Fishing is highly seasonal, with two-thirds of the 8 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew catch being caught during the rainy season from coupled with resource mapping. Across the Sudd, May to September. FishBase lists 101 fish species for there are approximately 500 bomas controlling South Sudan,9 but less than two dozen comprise access to fishery resources. Fishers generally move the main commercial species, many of which have between different fishing camps within the boma high intrinsic growth rates (K value > 0.3). The species in which they reside, based on the presence of fish caught include Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and floating vegetation. Fishing camps are mainly and Nile perch (Lates niloticus), but during the characterized by basic shelters lacking clean water current high-flood period, air-breathing species supplies or health facilities; fishers’ families typically that are well adapted to the floodplain habitat remain in home villages where they can access appear to be dominating the catch—for example, schools. Although most fishers own mobile phones arowana (Heterotis niloticus) and catfish (Clariidae to facilitate communication with their customers, family). Based on general knowledge of tropical network connectivity remains limited in most fishing floodplain fisheries, a conservative estimate of a sites. There may be one or more initial landing sites sustainable fisheries yield would be 100 kg/ha. Thus, in each boma, where the catch from individual in a flood year representative of the pre-2019 period, fishing canoes (mostly dugouts with a few fiberglass where close to 40,000 km2 were inundated, a poten- canoes from previous fishery projects—photo 1.1) is tial sustainable yield could be around 400,000 t. aggregated for transport, often by motorboat, to the Considering the more extreme case of the recent main landing sites on the Nile riverbank and in the floods, with a flooded area between 100,000 and Sudd, including Bor,11 Malakal and Bentiu, Shambe 200,000 km2, potential yield might be in the range in Lakes State, and Pariak and Malual-Agorbar in of 1–2 million t, which would rival the most produc- Jonglei. Facilities at the local level are rudimentary tive inland fisheries on the planet.10 to nonexistent, with a few fish storage units in some locations to keep salt, fuel, and replacement fishing Fisheries organization and infrastructure are extremely gear.12 At the major landing and market sites, such limited. Bomas (the lowest administrative level in as Bor and Juba, limited cold storage facilities are South Sudan, corresponding to a cluster of villages available. or hamlets with a population of at least 1,500) have immediate control over local fishing territo- Women’s socioeconomic inclusion is limited in the fisheries ries and activities, although their management role sector. Women play an important role throughout is not well formalized in law. Local leadership and the fisheries value chain, particularly in postharvest dispute resolution systems vary by location. Tradi- activities including sorting, processing, and retail tional or boma chiefs (who may or may not be the marketing. However, key activities such as fishing, same) may exercise effective authority over local transport, and wholesale marketing are dominated fishing grounds. In some locations, fishers them- by men; and few women hold a leadership or influ- selves have selected leaders, who may be referred ential position. For instance, none of the 500 fishing to as head or chief fishers, or as fisher group chair. camps in Bor County is headed by a woman. Of the Agreement at the local level on the delineation of 130 members of the Jonglei Fisheries and Traders which resources belong to each boma is needed, Union and the 53 Ojekogoweh group members, no Bor takes in about half the catch from the swamps, 11  9  Source: FishBase (R. Froese and D. Pauly, eds.) “All fishes representing almost one-third of total national produc- reported from Sudan (South) (landlocked),” accessed January tion. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the 2024. United Nations, Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles: South Sudan web page, accessed November 2024. 10  Lake Victoria and the Lower Mekong Basin, both of which are multicountry fisheries with catchment populations 12  A USAID (2013, 9) fisheries project report notes that “It numbering several tens of millions, have approximate is not critical for fish storage buildings to be constructed annual fish production of around 1 and 2 million t, respec- for future programs. Storage can be rented in the major tively. towns in the Sobat Corridor or in payam tukuls.” 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 9 Photo 1.1  Fishing in the Nile River near Terekeka town, Central Equatoria State Credit: © Albert Gonzalez Farran/FAO. woman occupies a leadership position. As a result, observations from recent fieldwork and other studies women capture a much smaller fraction of fisheries suggest the fishery is not generally overexploited. revenues compared to men. These indicators of healthy fish stocks include good catch per unit effort, large net and body size, and Assessments of fish catch remain ballpark estimates, but no reports of declining trends (Benansio et al. 2021). suggest South Sudan’s fishery industry is perhaps under- exploited at the national level.13 Combining earlier Fisheries are one of the most valuable renewable natural estimates of domestic fish consumption with esti- resources in South Sudan.14 Assuming total annual mates of exports based on the fieldwork for this landings of around 300,000 t and a typical first study, the total annual catch is expected to be market price of fresh fish within South Sudan of around 300,000 t (table 1.1); this is roughly in line around $1 per kg (£1,500 in mid-2023, when the with reported estimates of the catch of full-time majority of fieldwork was undertaken), the total fishers in each of South Sudan’s 10 states (table 1.2). local value of the catch may be estimated at at least Although these are just indicative estimates, they $300 million. Although significant fish production suggest that rates of catch are likely to be broadly occurs across much of the floodplain in high-flood sustainable even in lower-flood years, and that years, the biggest single production area is the biological production under current flood conditions Sudd, accounting for perhaps two-thirds of the may be considerably larger than the amounts fishers total catch. Major fish markets occur at the north are able to exploit. Although there may be local (Malakal and Bentiu) and south (Bor) ends of the impacts of stock depletion near urban centers or Sudd (map 1.7), from where fish is further transported in areas where the security situation is more stable, Value chain data presented here are based on estimates 14  There are no comprehensive catch assessment studies 13  triangulated from key informant interviews, rather than conducted in the country; existing fish yield estimates are systematic surveys or primary data collection. They should largely based on data for the Sudan pre-independence. therefore be considered rough approximations. 10 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Table 1.1  Estimates of South Sudan fish consumption and fish export Consumption/export component kt/year Data source and comments RSS 2016b: 17 kg/capita/year; population as per National Consumption of fish in South Sudan 211.5 Bureau of Statistics for 2023 Export of wet-salted/dried fish to Fresh fish equivalent; wet-salted and dried product; key Uganda/Democratic Republic of Congo 25.3–67.5 informants: fish trader unions in Jonglei, Nimule border from Jonglei State, Bor customs office Export of fresh fish to Sudan from Upper According to Upper Nile State Directorate of Fisheries: 0.8–8.4a Nile Statea 200 t/quarter; key informants: 700 t/month Export of sun-dried fish to Sudan from Fresh fish equivalent; key informants: Munga port traders 25b Unity Statea and port manager, Unity State Export of fresh fish to Sudan by truck Key informants: Munga port traders and port manager, 2.34b from Unity Statea Unity State Sum of consumption and export 265–315 Corresponds to 61–72 kg/ha/year in a normal flood year Note: Fresh fish equivalent was calculated from wet-salted/sundried and sundried fish using a factor of 2.5. Some 4–10% of landed fish is lost to various causes of spoilage (FAO 2023). According to customs officials at Nimule, there is currently very little formal import of fish and fish products to South Sudan. It is estimated that informal imports and limited aquaculture contributes less than 2.5 kt. a. Export volumes have been reduced due to conflict in Sudan. b. Export paused due to conflict in Sudan. Table 1.2  Estimated total of fishers and primary fishers, and primary fishers’ catch, by state Number of Number of Fish catch by State  Population % of fishers fishers  primary fishers primary fishers (t)  Central Equatorial 1,545,679  13  200,938  20,094  28,131  Eastern Equatorial 1,125,346  2  22,507  2,251  3,151  Jonglei  2,031,778  30  609,533  60,953  85,335  Lakes  1,209,754  24  290,341  29,034  40,648  Northern Bahr el Ghazal  935,156  7  65,461  6,546  9,165  Unity  1,123,634  28  314,618  31,462  44,047  Upper Nile  1,522,253  35  532,789  53,279  74,590  Warrap  1,248,033  12  149,764  14,976  20,967  Western Bahr el Ghazal  662,897  6  39,774  3,977  5,568  Western Equatorial 944,431  9  84,999  8,500  11,900  Total  12,348,961  18.7  2,310,723  231,072  323,501  Sources: FAO 2024; population as per National Bureau of Statistics for 2023; % of fishers as per Balli 2019. Note: The number of primary (full-time) fishers is assumed to be 10% of the estimated number of total fishers, based on general estimates from key informant interviews. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 11 Map 1.7  Estimated numbers of fishers by state and Republic of Congo.15 The largest portion of the catch major fish trade flows (close to two-thirds) is sundried or smoked for sale in urban and rural markets within South Sudan. Postharvest loss, including the opportunity cost of having to cure fish for preservation, reduces the overall value of the catch by over two-thirds. Physical losses (including discards) account for around 6 percent of the catch before first landing, and around 8 percent of the remainder at later stages of transport and processing (see table 1.3 for more detail). Around 24 percent of the landed value of the catch is also lost due to quality Source: FAO. losses (i.e., having to sell products at a steep discount due to not being able to sell while in prime condition or damage during processing). Having to process fish by drying or curing represents a substantial opportu- to the hinterlands, and north and south for export nity cost to selling them fresh. Although the price per to Sudan and Uganda, respectively. Less than a weight of processed fish is around 50 percent higher fifth of the catch is consumed as fresh fish within than fresh fish, around 60 percent of the fresh weight fishing communities or urban centers with major fish markets (figure 1.2). A similar amount is exported as salted fish, of which the vast majority flows south The balance of exports is likely to have changed consid- 15  from Bor and Juba to the Ugandan border at Nimule, erably in recent years as the improved Juba-Bor road has from where it is transshipped to the Democratic facilitated southern trade, while the conflict in Sudan has restricted exports to the north. Figure 1.1  Approximate physical transfers of products between actors, marketing networks and distribution channels End Fishing Urban market Rural market Regional market markets communities (2%) (43%) (40%) (15%) Third line Wholesalers in major Wholesalers/agents in Regional & local (2%) (15%) towns (28%) rural areas (40%) traders (15%) trading (15%) Fresh Local traders in (2%) Second line production centers Agents working for foreign trading fishmongers (17%) (68%) traders (15%) (66%) Minced Processing Sold fresh Sundried Smoked product Salted (17%) (50%) (13%) (3%) (17%) Imports Primary Domestic supply (fishing) (about 0.2%) of trading (100%) domestic supply Source: FAO 2024. 12 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Table 1.3  Physical and quality postharvest losses Cause of loss % of catcha Comments Shallow fishing grounds characterized by large Predators during fishing 4 number of predators Long soaking time and inefficiencies of Spoiled during transport to land sites 2 nonmotorized canoes Rotten after failure to sell fish in its fresh Fishers attempting to sell fish in fresh condition 0.3 condition without ice Insect infestation particularly during Use of insecticide as coping strategy (adultera- 1.5 storage tion and toxicity) Physical loss Poor storage condition exacerbates fish loss Theft during storage and marketing 0.8 problem Spoilage during distribution (e.g., break- Short distances compared to markets for cured 0.3 down or floods)—fresh fish products Spoilage during distribution (e.g., break- Long distance exacerbated by poor and high 1.5 down or floods)—cured fish cost of transport Lead time is unpredictable, forcing traders to Spoilage due to prolonged storage 3.1 stock large quantities Market malpractices including Includes confiscation of consignments of fish in 0.2 confiscation of fish export market Quality loss of fresh fish at fishing-landing % of landed value is lost due to underdeveloped node, and when attempting to sell it in 20 cold chain storage fresh condition without ice Fragmentation and burnt (charring) during fish smoking process mainly due 0.3 % of optimal value for smoked fishery product to using poorly constructed ovens Quality loss Fragmentation of smoked fish during distribution (transportation) mainly due 0.1 % of optimal value for smoked fishery product to poor and high cost of transport Spoilage due to inefficient sun drying 3 % of optimal value for sun-dried product process, especially during rainy season Spoilage occurring due to inefficient 0.3 % of optimal value for salted fishery product salting and drying process Source: FAO 2024. a. Based on equivalent fresh weight for physical loss and value of landed catch for quality loss. is lost in the process, representing a net loss in value Fish is likely to be one of the largest non-oil exports from of around 40 percent; this translates to an overall South Sudan, but much of the value is captured by foreign cost of around 33 percent of the potential value traders. Fish exports are not systematically reported, of the landed fish. Hence, processing fish in South but are conservatively estimated at around 20,000 t Sudan does not represent value addition, but rather per year (roughly 50,000 t fresh weight equivalent a way of avoiding total loss of the roughly 83 percent or one-sixth of total catch), based on reports of key of the landed catch that cannot be sold fresh due to informants from the Nimule crossing. The value of the lack of cold chain infrastructure. The aggregate these exports at South Sudanese market prices would total postharvest loss, including this opportunity cost, be in the order of $30 million; but in export markets, comes to around 70 percent of the total potential where prices for the equivalent cured fish prod- value of the catch. ucts are typically at least double those in domestic 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 13 markets, that would rise to about $60 million. Little accounts for around two-thirds of the annual local of this additional value is being captured by South market value of the catch of roughly $300 million; Sudanese, however, as the export trade is dominated reducing it by even just 20 percent—for example, by Ugandan and Congolese traders. through improved handling practices and cold chain storage facilities—could save tens of millions Fishing is key to the livelihoods of more than one in six of dollars per year at current catch levels. South Sudanese, makes a huge contribution to overall nutrition, and generates significant local government There is major long-term potential in expanding fish exports, income. Roughly 17.3 percent of the total population predicated on improved fisheries resource science and (2.1 million people) are estimated to be members management. If improved monitoring of fish stocks of households where at least one person is fishing confirms that they are currently underexploited, (RSS 2016b), which implies around 300,000 fishers, then an increase in fish catch alongside reductions assuming that the average household size in South in postharvest loss could significantly increase the Sudan is six to seven persons. This very roughly tallies volume and value of overall production. Given the with the indicative figures collected during the already high contribution of fisheries to domestic fieldwork that the total number of fishers is around protein consumption, and the inaccessibility of 230,000, with some 10 percent of these full-time large parts of the country, it is possible that (physi- fishers (table 1.2). It is also a vital livelihood coping cally accessible) domestic demand for fish may not strategy for communities affected by flooding. In the be able to expand much further in the near term, and states with the most productive fisheries (Upper Nile, therefore expansion of exports would be needed to Jonglei, and Unity), the proportion of the popula- accommodate increased production. In the short tion engaged in the sector reaches 30 percent or to medium term, expanding exports to regional more. The 2015 Comprehensive Agricultural Master markets (particularly the Democratic Republic of Plan (CAMP) household surveys estimated mean per Congo, where demand is extensive) and capturing capita fish consumption at around 17 kg per year, a greater share of export revenues are realistic goals. or over 300 g per week (RSS 2016b). This is roughly Improvements in handling and quality control are equivalent to 60 g of pure protein per week, or also needed to safeguard the export market, which 20 percent of average total protein and 46 percent fails to meet published but currently largely unen- of average animal protein consumption in South forced East African Community (EAC) standards. Sudan.16 Micronutrients in fish play a key role in Doubling the volume of exports and capturing growth and cognitive development. The fisheries 50 percent of the value of export markups would sector contributes 15–20 percent of government grow the value of fish exports from perhaps around revenue at the state level (based on those states that $30 million to something closer to $100 million per provided estimates). The 18 percent general sales tax year. Longer term, there should also be opportuni- levied at the Nimule implies that this border post ties to access higher-value intercontinental export alone may generate the equivalent of several million markets that are already served by the Lake Victoria dollars in federal government revenue. fishery, such as the Chinese market for swim blad- ders and the European market for frozen fish fillets. Modest improvements in the management of the fisheries Ultimately, an ability to dramatically ramp up sector could potentially generate tens of millions of dollars production and exports in high-flood years could in added value for South Sudan. The first priority is to generate much more substantial additional value reduce the extensive postharvest value loss, while in the sector, and enhance economic resilience to improving understanding and management of fish flooding at the national level. Achieving this sustain- resources at the local level. Postharvest loss currently ably would require significant investment in resource management and export value chain infrastructure— perhaps including multiuse cold storage facilities that Source: FAOSTAT, South Sudan—Food Security and Nutrition 16  Indicators, accessed March 2024. 14 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew could switch between serving meat and fish exports Table 1.4  Tree cover loss in South Sudan and as terrestrial and aquatic production fluctuate. neighboring countries, 2001–23 Country % loss Forests South Sudan 1.2 Central African Republic 2.2 South Sudan has extensive forest cover, particularly in the Congo, Democratic Republic 9.9 western parts of the country, and the forests have glob- Ethiopia 4.2 ally unique ecosystem integrity and low deforestation. South Sudan’s forest cover of some 30 percent of the Kenya 12.0 national land area has been stable,17 and forests are Sudan 1.7 a carbon sink. However, deforestation hotspots exist Uganda 14.0 locally.18 Compared to some regional peers, natural Source: Global Forest Watch website. forests in South Sudan are in comparatively good Note: Tree cover loss does not differentiate temporary condition, largely thanks to low population pres- loss of canopy cover from more permanent deforesta- sure and inaccessibility. As a result, South Sudanese tion and does not fully capture forest regrowth. forests have exceptionally high ecosystem integrity and have been compared to some high-forest- cover tropical countries like Guyana, French Guiana, impact on forests and woodlands. Dryland forests and Gabon in their forest quality (Grantham et al. may die back if flooded frequently without time to 2020).19 The national-level deforestation rate is recover. Improving the sustainable management estimated to be low and well below that of regional and governance of South Sudan’s forests could allow peers (table 1.4). There is anecdotal evidence that the the country to avoid the same type of forest loss as natural forests still contain commercially valuable neighboring countries have faced. native species, which neighboring countries have largely lost.20 Charcoal production is estimated to Forest types and their threats differ from region to region, be the major driver of forest and tree cover loss and with the most dense and best-stocked forests found in the degradation, particularly around urban centers in western parts of the country, particularly in the Northern Western Equatoria, Central Equatoria, and Eastern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, but also in the East Equatoria States. Also, increased flooding has an Sudanian savanna ecoregions (map 1.8). The Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic covers vast areas of over 145,000 km2 of the southwestern part Global Forest Watch reports South Sudan’s forest cover 17  of the country, which is the hilly land leading into to be as high as 59 percent, using a canopy cover threshold the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central of 10 percent. South Sudan does not have a national forest definition and no national forest inventory has ever been African Republic. From a biodiversity conservation done; further, overall data availability on its forests is poor. perspective, these forests are probably the most This report uses best available estimates, but notable significant. Important tree species in these forests uncertainty remains. include African mahogany Khaya senegalensis and Source: United Nations Environment Programme South 18  Afzelia africana—both listed as vulnerable in the Sudan Community Forestry web page, accessed February 2024. International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Forest integrity is the degree to which a system is free 19  (IUCN’s) Red List of Threatened Species.21 These from anthropogenic modification of its structure, compo- forests also support populations of a number of sition, and function. primate species, including the endangered eastern 20  For example, White (2008) estimated the annual chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Most allowable cut for economically harvestable areas only in the Wau/Raja area of Western Bahr el Ghazal to be of the natural hardwoods currently being used in 449,725 m3 (equivalent to 179,690 m3 of sawn wood at a 40 percent sawn wood conversion rate), assuming a 60-year rotation or regeneration cycle. 21  Source: IUCN Red List, accessed September 2024. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 15 Map 1.8  Forest cover and tree height by ecoregion Source: R. Samapriya, T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, Community Dataset, accessed November 2024. South Sudan come from these unmanaged forests, of pristine forest—making it among the most intact and there is anecdotal evidence of considerable large blocks of Podocarpus in Africa. The other forests cross-border traffic in timber (Mimbugbe 2022). to the east are highly degraded, except for one small The East African montane forests are restricted to patch of montane forest on the Boma Plateau that the Imatong Mountains and surrounding areas in contains native or wild Arabica coffee; this is highly the southeast of the country; they also extend their endangered, losing at least 20 percent of its area coverage to adjacent areas in northern Uganda. of just over 100 ha a year (Fay 2023; Krishnan et Very little information is available on the biodiver- al. 2021).23 An interesting subtype of forested land- sity supported by these forests, but at higher altitudes scapes is the savanna woodland recently derived (above 1,500 m), they are thought to retain popu- from rainforests. It is a localized ecosystem found in lations of mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufala), higher-rainfall areas (> 1,300 mm) along the Congo listed as endangered in the IUCN Red List and known border and in some small patches of rainforest in to be experiencing population declines across their other areas. These high-rainfall forests have expe- range.22 Other species of conservation interest rienced human-influenced degradation over the include plum pine (Podocarpus milanjianus), the years (RSS 2018b). only source of coniferous timber in the country; and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris). Bamboo trees are Forests are largely natural, and they are mostly under very large in size and can be good for commercial community and other customary management (table 1.5). purposes (RSS 2018b). A survey of these forests by State-managed gazetted forest reserves constitute African Parks revealed that the only block that is intact is that of the Imatong, with about 40,000 ha Krishnan et al. (2021) show that the Boma Plateau is part 23  of a center of origin and natural distribution for Arabica coffee, as well as being genetically distinct from Ethiopian Source: IUCN Red List, Mountain Reedbuck, accessed 22  Arabica. This allows for the potential for crop improve- September 2024. ment through selection and use in breeding programs. 16 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Table 1.5  Forest types by management system and indicative sizes Total area Type of forest (km2) Comments Gazetted government-managed 19,500a forests and woodlands Community/customary forests and Forests on communal/customary land (i.e., not gazetted 207,000a woodlands as forest reserves) without systematic management Largely unmanaged; 3 active concession or harvesting Government plantations 200–300b contracts with private sector covering < 40 km2 Smallholder forest plantations 22–50b Average size of woodlots is 1–2 ha a. RSS 2016b. Different documents provide somewhat different forest areas. For example, RSS (2018b), the national communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, gives a total forest area of 207,422 km2, of which 3% (6,220 km2) would be gazetted; plantations would be 1,900 km2. b. Consultant estimates from the background report. a relatively small part of the forests. However, irre- without proper management and of extensive uncon- spective of the formal arrangements, there is little trolled harvesting, they are no longer a commercial or no systematic forest management on the ground. resource. Most of the plantation sites can be found in the three Equatoria states and in Western Bahr Forest products are critical to the livelihoods of the el Ghazal. No comprehensive inventory has been rural population, and wood-based fuels provide carried out, and there is a general lack of reliable for some 96 percent of household energy used for data on locations and conditions,24 but it is esti- cooking—86 percent fuelwood and 10 percent charcoal mated that there are only 20,000–30,000 ha of (RSS 2016a). Wild foods from forests and woodlands— forest plantations remaining on government land. fruits, honey, vegetables, nuts, and bushmeat—make Map 1.9 presents an estimate of the location and significant contributions to dietary diversity and size classification of the plantations as they were in nutrition, and provide a sustainable source of protein 2008. Most government plantations are in a state and vitamins in local diets. Hunting and gathering of disrepair and are unmanaged, but unmanaged of wild products from forests and woodlands is also regrowth still provides some poor-quality teak that is a key coping strategy during food insecurity, while used for local construction and small-scale domestic the strategies differ somewhat between states. carpentry (photo 1.2). Many forest products are also important sources of cash income, including poles, timber, fuelwood, and There are 68 official forest reserves in South Sudan, although thatching; and nontimber forest products (NTFPs) many of these reserves have never been actively managed such as shea, gum arabic, honey, and bushmeat. for production or protection;25 the long-term conces- Traditional medicine remains important in South sion contract with the ETC is the sole exception in terms Sudanese society, with plant species such as Aloe of plantation management. The Ministry of Environ- vera (Sabbar) used to treat dermatitis; Sclerocarya ment and Forestry (MoEF) oversees three concession birrea (Anacardiaceae) for glycemia control; Aris- contracts with private entities, two of which are tolochia bracteolate (Dekery-timylo) used against malaria and fever; Calotropis procera (Uhsahr) for treating cholera, asthma, and wounds; and Vernonia An attempt was made to do a satellite data-based 24  assessment of the plantations, but differentiating plan- kotschyana against gastric ulcers (Lako et al. 2020). tations from natural forests without additional field data collection was not possible. South Sudan had the oldest and most extensive teak This observation applies to the entire forest domain, 25  (Tectona grandis) plantations in Africa, but after decades except for ETC plantations in Western Equatoria. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 17 Map 1.9  Estimated location and size of teak plantations established (2008 data) Source: White 2008. Photo 1.2  Domestic trade in wood in Juba Credit: Indufor. 18 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew effectively harvesting concessions totaling less than workshops. A rough estimate is that 2.5 million m3 1,000 ha. The ETC concession is the only long-term, is harvested annually from forest plantations and active plantation management enterprise. It covers natural forests for poles and timber; 75 percent of around 3,000 ha of active plantation under a 20- to this could be estimated as illegal (box 1.1). 25-year rotation, and harvesting in the oldest stands is scheduled for the early 2030s. The company has Statistics available from the MoEF and South Sudanese plans to double the plantation area to 5,000–6,000 customs authority reveal discrepancies in trade volumes, ha. The total ETC concession area is close to 19,000 and cross-checking the data suggests that all trade is not ha within four national forest reserves in Western captured in the figures (Neumeister 2019). MoEF data are Equatoria State. The contract includes both (1) forest obtained from issuances of phytosanitary certifi- management obligations for the active plantation cates and certificates of origin and include teak areas, based on a management plan with reporting only. According to the data, the product is “logs or requirements to the MoEF; and (2) social obliga- beams.” Customs data include teak wood “in rough tions toward the surrounding communities. The (customs code 4403),” which is mainly logs or beams. ETC currently provides around 650 permanent jobs According to data from the MoEF, teak has been (30–40 percent held by women), which will increase when harvesting and processing starts. It also has corporate social responsibility investments including building schools, maintaining roads, and various Box 1.1  The challenge of assessing the other activities; and supporting local smallholder level of illegal logging in South Sudan farmers with advice and teak and coffee seedlings. Discussion of illegal logging in South Sudan There are no specific management responsibilities is made problematic by the lack of any for the natural forests found in the ETC’s concession clear legal framework, and unclear roles area outside the plantations themselves. and mandates between national and state authorities. This lack of a regulatory Smallholder private tree growers have established teak framework makes it difficult to distinguish plantations, particularly in Western and Central Equa- between legal and illegal logging. toria States and Western Bahr el Ghazal. Smallholder The formal custodian of the national forestry covers all forest plantation management forest reserves is the national government. that involves private individuals and their families. Formally, only the national government The management may be on woodlots and/or plan- has the right to allocate concessions and tations allocated on community land or leased on harvesting rights; in reality, state and local government land. A rough estimate of the area of authorities also have been allocating these smallholder forest plantations is 2,200–5,000 ha by rights. This leads to legal ambiguity when 1,000 or more farmers.26 Smallholder teak planta- loggers have a permit to harvest, even tions are typically managed with a shorter rotation though the permit was issued by an insti- than traditional teak management. While the quality tution that does not have a mandate to of plantation management varies and is generally issue such permits. low, smallholder plantations generally seem to be of Logging without any authorization better quality than unmanaged government forest (whether from national or state author- plantations. The domestic use of wood from forest ities) is clearly illegal. This is occurring at plantations is in the form of poles of various sizes the moment—at least (as confirmed during for construction and small-scale logs for carpentry study fieldwork) in Western Equatoria and Western Bahr el Ghazal—and is supplying poles and small, poor-quality logs to the This estimate was made by the review team based on 26  domestic market. stakeholder expert opinions and should be treated with caution. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 19 exported annually. In 2022–23, the trade balance a well-managed teak plantation estate, a rotation/ in wood products was heavily negative, with sawn cycle period of 25 years,31 two commercial thinnings, timber imports increasing tenfold, while the customs a mean annual increment of 10 m3 per ha, and data did not record any exports. However, data from average removals in the steady state of 200,000 the Observatory of Economic Complexity indicate m³/year, the average annual cashflows in the steady that sawn timber exports in South Sudan accounted state over five years would reach around $21 million for around $240,500 in 2022, with rough wood from 25,000 ha of teak plantations. This implies that, exports reaching $1.22 million.27 The inconsistent and if managed sustainably, government teak planta- fluctuating trade data imply that the statistics are tions could generate around $850,000 per 1,000 ha not presenting an accurate or complete picture. The per year. They would also generate an average of Observatory of Economic Complexity also mentions around 150 jobs per 1,000 ha, based on the ETC’s reports that South Sudanese wood products have experience. Reaching this level of production would been—at least in the past—relabeled as coming from require notable investments to reestablish the plan- other countries in the region (e.g., Uganda) to avoid tation sector over a longer period of time. Restoring linking them to illegal and uncontrolled harvesting the old plantation sites would have no additional in the country. adverse environmental impact, as the sites have already been converted from natural vegetation. Between 2001 and 2023, forests in South Sudan represented a net carbon sink of −36.9MtCO2e/year.28 If these credits Sustainable management of forest and woodland were properly managed and verified, they could resources through community forestry could signifi- currently be worth around $250 million per year on cantly contribute to rural development and community voluntary markets.29 However, South Sudan does not empowerment. It would offer wild food, construction yet have a system in place to monetize these sinks materials, wood-based energy, and employment through emission reduction transactions, though and income-generating opportunities to local a National REDD+ Strategy and Action Plan have communities including through exploitation of been prepared to facilitate future REDD+ imple- NTFPs. It could also provide significant carbon bene- mentation.30 The country also lacks the necessary fits by reducing the risk of forest degradation and legal and regulatory framework and implementa- deforestation. Were South Sudan to have a similar tion capacity to engage in carbon trading under forest loss pathway as its neighbors, the projected REDD+ schemes (Malok 2023). greenhouse gas emissions due to deforestation and forest degradation between 2023 and 2030 could In the long run, a restored teak plantation industry could reach 22.0–29.5 MtCO2e,32 which could be avoided generate close to $1 million per 1,000 ha, although signifi- by introducing systematic natural forest manage- cant shorter-term investment would be needed. Assuming ment in South Sudan. Countries such as Tanzania, Source: Observatory of Economic Complexity, South 27  Teak has traditionally been managed in rotations of 31  Sudan: Sawn Timber Exports, accessed July 2024. 80–100 years. However, the current rotation lengths have been shortened to 20 or 25 years for commercial 28  South Sudan’s Second Nationally Determined Contri- wood production in most areas where teak is grown and bution (NDC) strategies for a decarbonization pathway managed. aim at increasing the country’s sequestration potential by 2030 (MoEF 2021). As the NDC figures do not reflect the 32  Estimated by comparing the currently low deforesta- latest data, they are not displayed in the report. tion rate in South Sudan with regional peers. Under a business-as-usual scenario without improved forest 29  Assuming a price close to $7 per ton. Carbon prices have management, South Sudan could well reach the forest fluctuated considerably and are a small fraction of the and land use emission levels of neighboring Sudan, social value of carbon. leading to emissions of between 22.1 and 29.5 MtCO2e. 30  REDD+: Reducing emissions from deforestation and Authors’ calculations based on data from Global Forest forest degradation in developing countries. See United Watch, and Sudan’s 2021 updated nationally determined Nations Climate Change, What is REDD+? web page. contribution (Republic of the Sudan 2021). 20 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Zambia, and Mozambique could offer good lessons, of 25,700 MT. The potential export value could since the main objectives of community forestry in reach around $150 million.34 these countries are quite similar to those of South l Honey value chain. The annual production poten- Sudan: enhancing community engagement in tial for honey in South Sudan is 100,000 t and forest management, reducing rural poverty, and 5,000 t of beeswax, which would be worth around promoting forest resource conservation and sustain- $550 million.35 If developed, the honey produc- able management. tion in Western and Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Lakes, and Western Equatoria states could triple, The potential for harvesting commercial timber from from 9,611 to 28,833 t. This production capacity is community forest vegetation on a sustainable basis exists half that of Ethiopia, a major producer of honey. in some locations, but cannot be quantified without inven- tory data. Previous studies indicate that some of the l Bamboo value chain. The potential annual produc- natural forests in South Sudan could be commer- tion of bamboo in South Sudan could be cially harvested for timber—for example, mahogany $452,000, close to the one in Ethiopia (Indufor (Khaya spp.). Different case studies have given 2024). varying information on the harvesting potential in natural forests.33 An inventory to determine the commercial viability of timber from community Wildlife and tourism forests is needed to assess the full economic poten- South Sudan is extremely rich in biodiversity with a wide tial of sustainable wood production. range of key habitats, species, and populations of conser- The major commercial NTFPs have the potential to generate vation significance. Unfortunately, due to the long over $1 billion per year for community-managed forests. history of conflicts and security restrictions, there Important NTFPs include shea nut—locally known are significant gaps in the availability of robust and as “lulu”—fruits, fibers, grasses, honey, oils, resins and up-to-date biodiversity survey data. Much avail- gums, along with sand, gravel, and forest soils. Key able information is now dated, and recent data are commercial NTFPs include the following: largely from aerial surveys which, by their nature, can only provide data on habitat quality and on l Shea. Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa ssp. nilotica) grows larger, open-country inhabiting species that are widely in South Sudan in an area referred to as visible from the air. Table 1.6 summarizes information the shea belt. Production potential is estimated on eight major protected areas that are believed at 500,000 t per year, with about 30,000 t to have significant biodiversity importance, and on consumed domestically. Average annual exports which somewhat more information is available. The of 100,000 t could generate an average of Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) partnership has iden- between $460 and $720 million per year. tified 12 KBAs in South Sudan which largely occur within or around these major projected areas. These l Gum arabic. The three key gum arabic–producing areas are recognized for their rich ecosystems, states in South Sudan (Upper Nile, Northern Bahr unique species, and critical habitats for endangered el Ghazal, and Eastern Equatoria) have about or threatened wildlife. They are primarily concen- 4,596,000 ha of gum acacia resources, with an trated around wetlands, forests, and national parks. estimated annual gum production potential Source: World Integrated Trade Solution, Natural Gum 34  Arabic exports by country in 2021, accessed July 2024. For example, White (2008) and a 2012 MoEF survey in 33  Torit County, Ifwoto Payam, under the Community Natural Authors’ calculations based on prices for the main East 35  Forest Pilot Project funded by the United Nations Environ- African producers from IndexBox (2024a, 2024b), KNA ment Programme. (2022), and Koch and Appotive (2016). 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 21 Table 1.6  Overview of major protected areas in South Sudan Ez Zeraf Reserve/ Imatong Boma NP/ Sudd Badingilo Forest Bangangai Charac- BBJL East Southern Wetland NP/BBJL Reserve NP Nimule NP teristic (KBA) NP (KBA) (KBA) West (KBA) Lantoto NP (KBA) (KBA) (KBA) Area 19,747 km 19,400 km 9,700 km 8,935 km 1,556 km 1,150 km 198 km 120 km 1977 1939 1939 1986 1986 1952 1939 1954 Sudanese Anglo- Anglo- Sudanese Sudanese Anglo- Anglo- Anglo- Establish- govt Egyptian Egyptian govt (pre- govt (pre- Egyptian Egyptian Egyptian ment Sudan Sudan indepen- indepen- Sudan Sudan Sudan dence) dence) Protects kob Protects Protects Protects Protects Protects Protects Protects migration & savanna Sudd habitat of montane montane forest white rhinos significant ecosystems wetlands & kob & other forests & podocarpus species, & other Purpose wildlife & large kob, tiang, migratory endemic forest, particu- wildlife populations mammals Nile lechwe species species endemic larly bongo species (elephant/ species antelope buffalo) Jonglei, Western Jonglei, Greater Central Eastern Western Eastern Greater Equatoria, Lakes, Unity, Pibor AA, Equatoria, Equatoria; Equatoria Equatoria Pibor AA, Warrap, Upper Nile Central Western borders Eastern Lakes, Equatoria, Equatoria; Uganda States Equatoria; Western Eastern borders borders Bahr el Equatoria; Dem. Rep. Ethiopia’s Ghazal east of the of Congo Gambella NP White Nile SFG, ESS, NCFSM SFG SFG, ESS NCFSM EAMF NCFSM NCFSM Ecoregion NAC VBFSM, EAMF West: Hills Floodplain Floodplain Hills Mountains Hills Hills floodplain; Topography southeast: hills Murle, Azande, Dinka, Nuer, Murle, Kakwa, Acholi, Laku, Azande Kuku, Madi Dinka, Nuer, Baka, Dinka, Shilluk Dinka, Nuer, Mundi, Madi, Lango Tribes Anyuak, Jie, Bongo Mundari, Azande Kachipo, Bari, Pari, Toposa Lopit, Boya Elephant, Derby eland, Shoebill, Elephant, Potential Blue Chim- Elephant, lion, hippo- hartebeest, stork, birds, hippo- forest monkey, panzee, giraffe, potamus, roan, crane, kob, potamus, elephant, mountain bongo, buffalo, giraffe, wild dog, elephant, giraffe, chim- reedbuck, buffalo, zebra, wild dog, crocodile, hippo- wild dog, panzee/ Abyssinian duiker, hippo- Key wildlife migratory hippopot- potamus, migratory primates, black-and- forest potamus, species antelope, amus, birds crocodile, antelope, buffalo, white monkeys migratory oryx, kudu, fish, Nile kudu, oryx, kordofan colobus antelope, ostrich, lechwe cheetah, giraffe monkey birds cheetah, roan, ostrich, crocodile, crocodile, vultures lion II park only, II (official & II (official); II park only, II (official & VI (official & II (official); II (official & rest VI (offi- actual) VI (actual) rest VI (offi- actual) actual) VI (actual) actual) IUCN cial); VI cial); II park category (actual) in part, rest VI (actual) Conservation PA with Conservation Conservation PA with PA with PA with PA with landscape protective landscape landscape protective protective protective protective Conserva- with anchor buffer zones with anchor with anchor buffer zones buffer zones buffer zones buffer zones tion model PA PA; Ramsar PA Site 2006 Note: AA = administrative area; EAMF = East African montane forest; ESS = East Sudanian savanna; NAC = Northern Acacia-Commiphora; NCFSM = North Congolian forest savanna mosaic; NP = national park; PA = protected area; SFG = Saharan flooded grasslands; VBFSM = Victoria Basin forest savanna mosaic. See table 1.7 for IUCN categories. 22 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Brief summaries of the KBAs not included in the table Sudan has 27 protected areas (table 1.7),38 covering follow: over 98,200 km² (15 percent) of total land area.39 However, most of these are typical “paper parks,” l Ashana Wetlands, located in Northern Bahr el with little active management on the ground, Ghazal near the Sudan border, is a little-known and without clearly defined boundaries (either wetland ecosystem that provides important legally described or physically demarcated) (IUCN habitat for bird species and supports local fish- ESARO 2020). Map 1.10 shows the major protected eries. area network in South Sudan. During the colonial l Juba was designated an IUCN Category VI Game period, the purpose of creating protected areas was Reserve at the national level in 1939. It qualifies as primarily to protect large mammals and maintain a KBA of international significance for important hunting grounds for colonial officials. The establish- bird and biodiversity areas and sits at the south- ment of reserves like Ez Zeraf was part of broader west corner of Badingilo National Park. efforts to manage and conserve wildlife resources, habitats, and biodiversity as well as to promote l Kidepo Game Reserve is located in southeastern ecotourism in the Sudd wetland. After Sudan’s inde- South Sudan,adjacent to the border with Uganda pendence in 1956 and South Sudan’s independence and Kenya, and shares ecosystems with Kidepo in 2011, the focus shifted toward integrating conser- Valley National Park in Uganda. Its wildlife popu- vation with sustainable development and local lations have been hugely depleted, but there community involvement. remains potential for restocking and recovery. l Lake Abiad is 5,000 km²; located in the northern part of Unity State, it qualifies as a KBA as it holds Table 1.7  South Sudan protected areas by IUCN a significant proportion of the global population category of the vulnerable black-crowned crane (Bale- Category No. Description arica pavonina) and shoebill (Balaeniceps rex), Protected area with sustainable as well as other waterbirds.36 VI 13 use of natural resources l Radom National Park is in the southwestern corner II 9 National park of southern Darfur, near the border with the IV 3 Habitat/species management Central African Republic. Its hills are part of a V 1 Protected landscape range forming the watershed between the Nile and Congo River systems. The park hosts several Source: IUCN ESARO 2020. bird species as well as globally threatened mammals such as the African elephant and Most of the protected areas that exist in South Sudan, African wild dog.37 other than Southern and Nimule National Parks, were The establishment of South Sudan’s protected areas created with little regard to traditional land ownership during both colonial and post-independence eras or consultation. The 1939 National Parks, Sanctuaries aimed to conserve wildlife and habitats amid increasing human encroachment—and, more As per the 2003 Wildlife Conservation and National 38  recently, to enhance community resilience and the Parks Act. sustainable use of natural resources. In all, South 39  Source: World Database on Protected Areas, South Sudan Protected Area Profile, accessed September 2024. Some geographic locations have more than one designa- tion—for example, as both a national park (a national Source: Birdlife International Data Zone website, 36  designation) and a World Heritage site (an international Important Bird Area factsheet: Lake Abiad (South Sudan). designation). Such designations are counted as separate protected areas in the database, potentially inflating the 37  Source: Birdlife International Data Zone website, Radom. total. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 23 Map 1.10  South Sudan’s protected area network Source: African Parks 2024. Note: The protected areas shown are those with defined boundaries and conservation value, which account for about 60% of the country’s total protected area system. and Reserves Regulations and 1965 amendment by Since independence, management and conservation the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan government set out the efforts have been overseen by the Ministry of Wildlife physical descriptions and boundaries for Southern Conservation and Tourism (MWCT), alongside international National Park and Ez Zeraf Game Reserve, among conservation organizations. Fauna and Flora Interna- others; and later, in 1952 and 1954, Imatong Forest tional has been assisting the MWCT in managing Reserve and Nimule National Park, respectively. Southern National Park and the Mbarizunga, Between 1977 and 1986, as part of the National Bire Kapatuos, and Bangangai Game Reserves in Game and Wildlife Protection Act of 1986, the Suda- Western Equatoria; its total annual budget for these nese government gazetted Buma Reserve (which areas is around $1 million. Overall management on now forms two-thirds of the Boma National Park), the ground would need to increase two- to three- Shambe National Park, and Badingeru National fold for effective recovery of wildlife populations. Park. Despite having physical descriptions vali- The Enjojo Foundation has co-managed Kidepo dated in the early 1980s, no official documentation Game Reserve and Lantoto National Park with the was found for the gazettement of Boma or Badin- MWCT since 2022 and is finalizing a contract with gilo National Park. the European Union to implement projects and 24 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew a mentorship agreement with African Parks. The (Boitani 1981) were locally extirpated by 2007. The South Sudan Nature Conservation Organisation is proliferation of automatic weapons since the 1980s an implementing partner in the Global Environment and the high prices of ivory and rhino horn have Facility project in the Badingilo National Park and is been the driving force behind significant declines supported by the Swedish Cooperation. From 2007 in sedentary wildlife populations. Furthermore, the to 2021, the Wildlife Conservation Society assisted dependency on bushmeat as a key food source and the MWCT in managing the BBJL and eastern decades of conflict have spurred the mismanage- Southern National Park, spending over $70 million ment of resources and illegal hunting activities. in combating illegal wildlife trade; supporting the Throughout the protected area system, permanent MWCT in antipoaching efforts; conducting aerial waterholes, watercourses, and swamps are rare (the surveys; and supporting park infrastructure develop- eastern boundary of the Sudd and the Jwom Swamp ment, personnel, and mission. Minimal engagement in the northern part of Boma National Park are the between 2010 to 2021 led the MWCT to suspend largest) and become dry-season refuges for many the agreement. A 10-year memorandum of under- species. Yet throughout the landscape, wetlands standing was instead signed with African Parks in and water sources are increasingly monopolized 2022 for the BBJL, including Boma and Badingilo by humans, including permanent inhabitation by National Parks. Operations began in 2023 with an agropastoralists, squeezing wildlife into increasingly investment of $5.5 million. African Parks has also restricted safe zones with permanent water and little signed an agreement for a cross-border activity human disturbance. In recent times, four parts of between Gambella in Ethiopia and the BBJL in western South Sudan saw an enormous influx of South Sudan; this is funded by the European Union over 100,000 Mbororo cattle and Mbororo people for about $3 million. African Parks estimates that it who are becoming sedentary, burning land, killing would need a budget of over $50 million a year to wildlife, and degrading soils and rivers—as they implement a comprehensive conservation program have done in this ecoregion in the Central African and network of conservancies across the BBJL. Republic. These areas were not used by Nilotic herders in the past because of the prevalence of Overall, there has been around a 90 percent decline of large tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis, but habitation has fauna across the country, despite vast remaining natural become possible with the widespread use of iver- habitats and low human population densities. Evidence mectin.41 Various waves of, first Janjaweed in the from national surveys and historical documentation 1980s and 1990s, next local commercial hunting, indicates alarming declines in most large mammal and now Mbororo, have not only eliminated the species and populations as a result of unman- mega-herbivores, but well over 95 percent of the aged hunting (figure 1.2).40 In Southern National fauna since Watson’s aerial surveys in the late 1970s. Park, which has received international conserva- A similar influx of Mbororo is also occurring around tion assistance for over a decade, the majority of the Machar marshes to the north of the BBJL. large mammals—if not already nationally extinct (like rhino)—have been reduced to around 1 percent The one large-scale exception to the national picture of of their 1980s levels (figure 1.2a). Large populations dramatic wildlife decline is the BBJL in the southeast of of over 60,000 buffalo (Syncerus caffer aequinoc- South Sudan. It borders the largest wetland in Africa tialis) and 10,000 elephant (Loxodonta africana) and covers vast, ecologically pristine floodplains of over 150,000 km2 in South Sudan, as well as a smaller area in Ethiopia, including Gambella National Park. There has been no comprehensive survey of wildlife in 40  The BBJL is an asset of global importance in terms South Sudan since that conducted by Murray Watson in of carbon sequestration, ecosystem services, water 1975–76 (referenced in World Bank 1979). Several partial surveys were conducted in important areas in the 1980s and then in 2007–10; other surveys were done between 2010 and 2015. 41  Source: African Parks, field observation. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 25 Figure 1.2  Indicative declines of wildlife in select areas across South Sudan a. Southern National Park Thousands 1981 2007 2023 10 8 6 4 2 0 Elephant Harte- Water- Warthog Giraffe Baboon Roan Reed Oribi Common Giant White Elephant Hippo Crocodile Cattle/ beest buck antelope buck duiker eland rhino bones shoat b. Boma National Park Thousands 1980 2007 50 40 30 20 10 0 Buffalo Elephant Giraffe Bright’s Harte- Lesser Oribi Oryx Ostrich Tiang Water- Warthog Masai Roan gazelle beest kudu buck zebra antelope c. Jonglei State Thousands 1983 2007 40 30 20 10 0 Buffalo Elephant Reed Lechwe Water- Oribi Giraffe Roan Masai Sitatunga Hippo Harte- Bushbuck buck buck antelope zebra beest Source: African Parks 2024; from aerial surveys conducted of Southern National Park (Boitani 1981; Fay et al. 2007; and by Fauna and Flora International in 2023), Boma National Park (Fryxell 1980a, 1980b: and Fay et al. 2007), and Jonglei State (Cobb and Mefit-Babtie 1983; Fay et al. 2007). Note that the 2023 survey was not a complete systematic recon- naissance flight, but covered only the west and southern end of the east of the park. 26 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew conservation, and biodiversity. Systematic aerial made in the northern area; there were sporadic wildlife surveys completed in 2023—the first since small groups in Boma National Park, mostly in that by Grossman et al. (2010)—revealed that the the south. There were no tiang within the major BBJL is home to the world’s largest ungulate migra- concentration of kob between Waat-Akobo and tion, with at least twice the population in the the Sobat River. Serengeti, including the following species (figure 1.3): l Approximately 160,000 bohor reedbuck (Redunca redunca). The reedbuck is mainly concentrated l Approximately 5 million white-eared kob (Kobus in southeast Badingilo National Park and adja- kob leucotis). This places the white-eared kob cent areas outside the park. In addition, there (photo 1.3) as the most populous species of large are pockets in the southeast of Boma National ungulate on Earth. Kob cover an enormous area Park and lower numbers along the east side of of ground from east of the Sudd in a circular the Sudd flood areas. The northeast of the BBJL pattern centered on the Pibor area, where they was void of reedbuck. are absent, with a major concentration to the northeast, north of Akobo and up to the Sobat Even in the BBJL, however, wildlife populations have River. The major pocket of white-eared kob found not been immune from human impacts. Comparisons between Waat-Akobo and to the Sobat River was between Fay et al. (2007) and Grossman et al. (2010) previously unknown. indicate that the white-eared kob population has l Approximately 350,000 mongalla gazelle (Eudorcas significantly increased since those studies, while albonotata). There are major concentrations from other species have either stayed relatively stable or east of Badingilo National Park to the area west declined. A comparison with surveys done by Fryxell of Marawa and Kassangor in Boma National (1980a, 1980b) and Cobb and Mefit-Babtie (1983) Park. The northeastern sector of the survey areas show that despite the huge numbers of main species was more or less empty of mongalla gazelle as of migratory antelope, there have also been cata- they prefer the drier habitats. strophic declines of most sedentary species (see figure 1.2b and 1.2c). l Approximately 300,000 tiang (Damaliscus lunatus tiang). The tiang is predominantly concentrated Ungulate migrations in the BBJL follow general annual in areas with green grass in the plains north of patterns, but also adapt to changing patterns of water the Bor-Pibor road. Only a single sighting was availability and human activity. Collaring helped Figure 1.3  Migratory antelope White-eared kob Tiang Mongalla gazelle Bohor reedbuck (Kobus kob leucotis) (Damaliscus lunatus tiang) (Eudorcas albonotata) (Redunca redunca) Approximate survey totals Approximate survey totals Approximate survey totals Approximate survey totals 2010: ~2,000,000 2010: ~540,000 2010: ~470,000 2010: ~32,000 2023: > 5,089,000 2023: < 300,000 2023: < 347,000 2023: < 162,000 Source: African Parks 2024. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 27 Photo 1.3  Kob migration in southeast Badingilo National Park and adjacent areas Credit: Katherine Alvarez, African Parks, 2024. depict the movements of the main antelope species, season; and there were concentrations of mongalla elephants, and predators in the landscape. The ante- gazelle along the eastern side of the Marawa Hills in lope species migrate in different seasonal patterns, Boma National Park in the wet season. while adapting to local conditions and avoiding human activity—forming an overall donut-shaped The BBJL migration also supports important pred- distribution around the Pibor-Manyabol population ator populations (map 1.13). Current data for lions center, and including Boma, Badingilo, and Jonglei, (Panthera leo) and cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in with a small portion also going into Gambella the BBJL are limited. Between October 2022 and National Park in Ethiopia (map 1.11 and map 1.12). Of March 2024, lions were observed over 40 times the 58 collared white-eared kob, 21 (36 percent) and cheetahs 10 times on flights covering less than traveled more than 2,000 km in 12 months. The 10 5 percent of the landscape. These observations most-traveled kob ranged from 2,188 to 2,742 km. suggest several hundred lions and over 100 chee- Dry season activity is noticeably more concentrated tahs remain in the landscape. Targeted hunting for around perennial waterways. Data from recon- ceremonial purposes and cases of lion snaring have naissance flights done between October 2022 to been reported, but overall lions pose a low threat September 2023 showed basically the same spatial to livestock and are rarely poisoned. The highest distribution of white-eared kob, tiang, reedbuck, and remaining populations of elephant, buffalo, and gazelle except that there were higher concentra- giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) tions of tiang along the Lotilla River at the height remaining in the BBJL were found during the dry of the dry season, with the major concentrations in season in and south of Gambella National Park— the central north; there were more reedbuck at the confirming the need for transboundary planning western side of Badingilo National Park in the wet and management.  28 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Map 1.11  Antelope migration, human settlements The BBJL and the Sudd form an extremely important land- scape for large birds. Although not systematically surveyed, observations reveal some of most abun- dant populations of large birds in Africa, including massive populations of several storks, cranes, herons, and vultures, with large nesting colonies of Ruppell’s vulture (Gyps rueppellii). The Sudd supports the world’s largest population of shoebill—a vulnerable species at risk of extinction42—estimated at least 3,800, compared to the previous global population Source: Birdlife International Shoebills web page, 42  accessed November 2024. Source: African Parks 2024. Map 1.12  Migration patterns of antelope species observed in 2023–24 a. White-eared kob: north in dry season, south in wet b. Tiang: north in dry season, south in wet c. Mongalla gazelle: northwest and northeast in dry d. Reedbuck: northwest and north in dry season; south- season, southeast and south in wet east and south in wet Source: African Parks 2024; based on collaring data. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 29 Map 1.13  Large predators observed during the 2023 systematic reconnaissance and Recce flights Source: African Parks 2024. estimate of only between 3,300 and 5,300 mature because of competition between the tribes and the individuals left in the wild, with populations on the impacts of civil war. This competition is manifested decline (Fay et al. 2007; Grossman et al. 2010; Stuart, in raids that are often justified as counterattacks for Adams, and Jenkins 1990). It is also an important previous raids and revolve around the acquisition zone for many Palearctic migrants. of cattle and sometimes people; they occasion- ally result in an actual shift of human settlement Human population remains sparse in the BBJL, at around with one tribe replacing another (2023 and 2024 six to seven persons per km2, but is dynamic and has been have seen many of these raids). Major shifts in tribal strongly influenced by conflict. Around 1 million people distribution have occurred in the past 40 years, with inhabit the BBJL, with a slightly larger population massive movement of both fighters into the bush on its periphery within South Sudan. Human occu- and displacement of civilians to other areas of the pancy is concentrated around larger towns such as country or outside the country. Most of the people Juba, Bor, between Manyabol and Pibor, Akobo, and in the BBJL are agropastoralists with traditional between Ayod and Waat; and has historically been grazing sites and movements. Virtually the whole divided in tribal homelands. The Murle, Dinka, Nuer, landscape is actively burned by humans, some- Anyuak, Jie, Kachipo, Toposa, Mundari, Pari Lopit, times more than once in the year. All the tribes Bari, and Mundari peoples are the principal inhab- depend on the natural vegetation and fauna for itants of the landscape, each with their own lands. a large percentage of their subsistence, and tribes Over time, the boundaries of these tribal lands shift hunt and consume wildlife meat as a main source 30 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew of animal protein using traditional methods and, value to them. Tourism within South Sudan remains more recently, automated weapons. nascent, with a handful of local companies running a total of 200 short tours per year. Most of these The wildlife abundance in the BBJL appears to be the excep- involve short excursions to visit tribes close to Juba, tion that proves the rule. Although the overall human but visits to Boma, Badingilo, the Nile River/Sudd, the presence in the landscape appears to be very low, it Imatong Mountains, or Boya hills are also possible. is clear from the dramatic decreases in the abun- In the absence of suitable infrastructure, wildlife dance of many sedentary species that the region viewing opportunities are very limited, other than a is not exempt from the hunting pressures that few ultra-high-end helicopter tours run by African have affected the rest of the country. It is the high Parks, largely as a demonstration activity with its mobility of the migratory ungulate species, along donors. with the predators that track both them and large bird populations, that allows them to continue to The potential for sustainable extractive use is consider- thrive by avoiding concentrated hunting pressure. able. In the BBJL alone, well-managed harvesting of Specifically, the ability of these species to move long the current migratory antelope populations could distances between water points has allowed them provide for a sustainable offtake amounting to to avoid being trapped and easily located around around $61 million, assuming a 12 percent annual limited dry season water points. This dependence growth rate. If additional sedentary species such as on mobility, however, does make them vulnerable elephant, giraffe, buffalo, zebra, hartebeest, roan, or to future landscape-level changes. In particular, the others could be recovered to the levels of the 1980s, recent construction of the Juba-Bor highway has cut the overall offtake could potentially increase by herds off from the east bank of the Nile, shifting the between 10 and 20 percent. Much of this production western edge of their area of occupancy to around would be consumed primarily locally, but oppor- 40 km east of the road. Without robust manage- tunities to market sustainable bushmeat are also ment of hunting pressure, future road development available. within the landscape would likely be devastating for the remaining large mammal populations. Any longer-term potential for nature-based tourism is vast if security conditions were to improve. South Millions of South Sudanese depend on South Sudan’s Sudan has some of the most outstanding poten- natural habitats for their livelihoods, but direct financial tial tourism assets in the world—vast and beautiful revenues are very small. Agropastoralists rely on the landscapes supporting traditional tribal lifestyles natural vegetation to feed their flocks and on the and the largest mammal migration on the planet, consumption of wildlife as a main source of meat. with ample opportunities to further enrich wildlife More broadly, the hydrological and climate systems populations; and one of the world’s largest wetlands on which all agropastoral livelihoods depend are supporting globally outstanding bird populations. regulated by the country’s vast natural habitats, with Connectivity to regional transport hubs and tourist the Sudd at their center. Although there is no system- destinations is good, and there are also opportuni- atic valuation of South Sudan’s ecosystems, some ties for transboundary tourism from Uganda. There initial estimates have valued the Sudd’s ecosystem may already be opportunities to develop high-end services at around $2.3 billion per year, mostly fly-in tented camps in remote locations where secu- from regulatory services (table 1.8). Direct financial rity can be managed. If security improves, South flows from biodiversity and wildlife are very small, Sudan’s long-term potential could compare to however. Although significant profits were undoubt- Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, where the tourism edly made from commercial poaching of wildlife in sector has in recent years contributed between 6.9 the past—including high-value products like ivory and 11.1 percent of GDP in recent years. For example, and rhino horn—this rapidly depleted populations on in 2024, tourism in Tanzania has recovered from which tribal communities depend without returning the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 31 Table 1.8  Annual economic value of the direct and indirect uses of the Sudd wetland Size (ha) Income Total value Ecosystem service Indicator or pop. Unit value adjustment ($) Direct use 209,835,721 Crop Value of crop produced per year 131,112 347 1 45,445,471 Fish Value of fish harvested per year 89,352 116 1.21a 12,541,562 Value of papyrus harvested Papyrus 480,965 21 0.58b 6,016,239 from the wetland Value of mats and crafts Papyrus crafts 480,965 53 0.58 14,793,777 made of papyrus Value of water supplied to Domestic water supply 160,000 39 0.58 3,623,028 households Value of water consumed by Livestock watering 1,786,336 32c 0.58 33,459,772 livestock Livestock grazing Value of livestock grazing 1,786,336 80.4 0.58 83,649,431 Value of fuelwood collected Fuelwood 264,168 3 0.23d 191,970 from the wetland Value of natural medicine Natural medicine 2,985,750 1 1 2,627,460 from the wetland Value of charcoal from the Charcoal 5,000 904.2e 1 4,521,074 wetland Value of vegetation (reeds, Vegetation 1,141,263 1 1.21 1,153,032 bamboo) Value of grass for mulching Mulch 16,920 154 0.58 1,519,516 from the wetland Transportation Value of transportation using 89,352 3 1.21 293,389 services the open water of the wetland Indirect use 2,130,433,924 Microclimate Value of microclimate regula- 3,075,102 292 0.58 522,735,961 regulation tion service of the wetland Value of flood-controlling Flood control 3,075,102 798 0.58 682,553,940 service of the wetland Value of water regulation Water regulation 3,075,102 33 0.58 59,177,656 service of the wetland Value of habitat/refugia Habitat/refugia 3,075,102 484 0.58 865,966,366 service of the wetland Direct and indirect use 2,340,269,645 Sources: Adapted from Kakuru, Turyahabwe, and Mugisha 2013; Mulatu and Tadesse 2020; and Mulatu et al. 2022. a. GDP per capita adjustment with Malawi (2015). b. GDP per capita adjustment with Uganda (2015). c. Unit value: 2 20 l jerrican used per livestock per day (i.e., 730 per year) and $0.04 per jerrican. d. GDP per capita adjustment with Nigeria (2015). e. Unit value: kg of charcoal sack. Each household can process 0.27 50 kg sack of charcoal per week. 32 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew contributing an estimated $8.15 billion, or 10 percent conflict and instability. Customary systems also tend of the economy, and is projected to grow to about to struggle to effectively manage resources that are $12.4 billion over the next decade (WTTC 2024c). highly mobile (i.e., that are not contained within the Furthermore, in 2023, the sector employed over area of one community or tribal group) or that are 4 percent (Uganda), 5.7 percent (Tanzania), and exploited commercially rather than for subsistence. 7.8 percent (Kenya) of the total workforce, showing As a result, high-value resources—including teak almost a full recovery to pre-pandemic levels (WTTC plantations and much wildlife—have been severely 2024d, 2024b, 2024a). Table 1.9 shows the actual depleted, and other resources whose abundance tourism numbers for 2024 versus the growth poten- currently outstrips local demand are inefficiently tial in just two years. exploited. As South Sudan completes its transition from a largely tribal society to a modern state, the role of traditional authorities and the rights of indi- viduals need to be formalized to provide for secure Barriers to realizing tenure and investment in natural resource manage- potentials ment. The central issue in all three sectors is a lack of active and Governance frameworks legally institutionalized natural resource management systems, leaving a high degree of open access to resources. Framework laws exist in some areas, but often lack Traditional resource management systems—based detailed implementing legislation and contain inconsis- on tribal claims to exclusive territories, customary tencies. There is no definitive national environmental laws, and cultural practices—influence which species legislation, but draft documents exist including the are hunted, and in some cases also limit seasonal 2015–25 National Environment Policy and the and spatial patterns of resource use (NRC 2012). The 2014 Environmental Protection and Management maintenance of tribal territories, and low levels of Bill, which outline a framework for managing envi- human activity in the buffer zones between them, ronmental risks, but await budget allocation and may well have played a key role in maintaining implementation. the wildlife populations of the BBJL. However, large-scale armed conflict, widespread displace- The Land Act of 2009 governs all land types in South Sudan. ment and urbanization driven by both conflict and Communities can register their land in the commu- climate shocks, and wider societal and technolog- nity’s name; or under a traditional leader acting as ical change have weakened traditional authorities. trustee; or under a clan, family, or community asso- Tribal claims to land and resources may be over- ciation. Once registered, individual community ridden or contested, becoming a source of further members may claim individual land rights within Table 1.9  Approximate tourism numbers versus estimated near-term growth potential in major protected areas Badingilo Ez Zeraf Game Imatong Boma NP/BBJL Reserve/Sudd Nimule Forest NP/BBJL Lantoto Bangangai Southern  Tourism West Wetland NP Reserve East NP NP NP Actual 500 500 200 100 50 0 0 0 (2024) Possible 1,500 1,000 1,500 1,000 1,000 0 0 0 (2026) Source: Information from tour operators and African Parks. Note: NP = national park. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 33 the community land area (SSLC 2011). Private land quality standards for fish and increased value addi- ownership is more common in urban centers like tion for timber products. Meeting CAMP production Juba, Malakal, Wau, and Bor where land is demar- targets would require $200 million of public invest- cated and registered under statutory law. Land for ment to catalyze an estimated total $1.15 billion commercial farming and commercial and indus- investment (African Development Bank Group trial zones may be privately owned (e.g., specialized 2023). But private sector investment in agribusiness economic zones in Juba and Terekeka, Central Equa- and natural resources is hindered by a poor enabling toria State and Renk, and Upper Nile State); however, environment and a lack of investment finance. private investment remains extremely limited (US Department of State 2021). Protected areas are A fisheries policy is being finalized, but will need to be designated as state or public land, but ethnic groups complemented by additional steps. The current white may still inhabit them. Government may also desig- paper provides for the adoption and implemen- nate public land for infrastructure or other projects, tation of the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing including private concession agreements on public Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context land (e.g., the ETC). of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (FAO 2015). A centralized regulatory framework cannot Establishing formal land tenure and completing land capture the diversity in small-scale fishers across transactions remains challenging, and communities lack the country, requiring local fisheries regulations that formal recognition of land and resource rights, especially respond to fishers’ needs and build on traditional for women. These challenges are exacerbated by tenure systems. Fisheries exports are threatened by overlapping claims, lack of documentation, inad- the lack of any quality control systems or compe- equate land registration systems, and weak legal tent authority to certify exports—making it difficult frameworks and enforcement. These conditions for local traders to comply with EAC regulations lead to minimal incentives for long-term manage- and increasing the risk of loads being confiscated ment, heightened political and ethnic conflicts over or trade entirely shut down. land disputes, and risks of appropriation and land grabs. Inconsistencies exist between land laws and The 2015 Forest Policy recognizes the importance of sustain- customary land tenure systems. For example, the able management and community participation, but has 2009 Land Act allows land leases of up to 99 years, not been approved by the legislature and remains largely while the 2009 Investment Promotion Act restricts unimplemented. State governments have been given leases to 30–60 years (Water Journalists Africa a mandate by the Forest Policy to provide technical 2019). The Draft National Land Policy of 2023 support, supervise community forestry, and enforce proposes new measures to strengthen land admin- community forestry laws and regulations. The policy istration, including developing a Community Land provides for delineating community forests on Act, harmonization with environmental and forest community land at the boma and payam govern- sector laws, and inclusion of cross-cutting priorities ment levels and encourages the improvement of such as gender equality. There remains a need to forestry extension services at the local level. Staffing clarify the roles of government and customary insti- at all levels of government is low, and many states tutions when rights overlap. and counties do not have vehicles and equipment to facilitate mobility for supervision and monitoring. The 2015 CAMP outlines a 25-year investment framework The policy supports private sector participation, but with 110 projects for South Sudan’s crop, livestock, forestry, does not cover biodiversity protection and climate and fisheries subsectors, but it remains largely unimple- change (i.e., potential mitigation and carbon mented. The CAMP lays out putative investments to trade, and adaptation measures). According to improve rangeland and livestock management, land the policy, afforestation efforts on public land are tenure, conflict resolution, water infrastructure, and to be promoted through “replacing low-production crop production (RSS 2016b). It also envisages new natural wood vegetation with well-managed and 34 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew highly productive plantations efforts.” Although the bill also provides for community forest management need for environmental impact assessment and (CFM), but does not clearly define it. It promotes ensuring biodiversity conservation is recognized, the three forms of CFM—community-based, partici- policy presents a risk of promoting forest conversion patory, and collaborative—but does not provide with adverse biodiversity impact. definitions for these or explain their differences. It also introduces community forestry associations, but The Forest Bill (2023) is in an advanced draft, but has not does not define their structure, objectives, or func- been enacted. The bill establishes the South Sudan tions. In principle, the SSFA would aim to reach an Forest Authority (SSFA) to manage government agreement with the community forestry associa- forest reserves, including plantations. It also defines tions on co-management of forest resources at the the powers and functions of the MoEF and the SSFA, local level. The bill promotes benefit sharing with but some mandates are overlapping and remain communities as crucial for CFM, but provides no unclear. The SSFA is to be responsible for the “protec- guidance. Neither the Forest Bill nor policy articu- tion, conservation and sustainable management of late the rights and responsibilities that should be all forests and woodlands in South Sudan.” However, devolved to communities in community forestry. the Forest Policy grants local governments the power Experiences in other countries show the importance to establish county forest reserves.43 The bill implies of having these rights and responsibilities clearly that such reserves may also be under the manage- defined in relevant legislation (box 1.2). ment of the SSFA (“other forest reserves”); however, according to the Local Government Act, they would The Wildlife Conservation and Protected Areas Bill (2023) be managed by local government. The authority of is before parliament, but does not define boundaries for the SSFA over forests on nonpublic land—including protected areas, or a clear process for their legal estab- private plantations—needs clarification. There are lishment. It provides for landscape planning for no current regulations on private sector engage- migratory species and creating community conser- ment in managing government forest plantations. vancies outside of protected areas, but does not The first draft guidelines for forest concessions were allow people—including indigenous communities— developed in 2011, but lack sufficient detail for plan- to use or reside in national parks or game reserves, ning and implementation.44 While the draft Forest despite their long-standing presence in some Bill states that the SSFA may enter into manage- protected areas (e.g., Boma, Kidepo, Ez Zeraf, and ment agreements with an agency, it does not Shambe). Furthermore, there is a lack of clear stat- include sufficient detail to regulate private sector utes on hunting: it states that conservancies can only engagement in the management of government hunt Appendix III species, yet most targeted wild- plantations (table 1.10) or stipulate that such regula- life species are in Appendix II.45 Adjustments to the tions shall be developed in subsidiary legislation. The listed protected species and penalties for infractions should be made. Preserving large mammal popu- lations outside protected areas, particularly in the These would be new forest reserves. According to infor- 43  mation received during the mission in South Sudan BBJL, would require comprehensive management (November–December 2023), such reserves have not yet and legal frameworks, including the legal and insti- been established. tutional basis for community conservancies. The guidelines were developed in 2011 by the Land 44  Resources Survey and Information Centre under the Southern Sudan Forest Sector Programme funded by Norway. The guidelines outline the process for inventory of 45  The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of the forest assigned for concessioning as well as the process Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II includes species not for bidding, but do not include any information on the necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade process after the selection of the concessionaire—that is, must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompat- the duration of a concession, standards for a concession ible with their survival. Appendix III contains species that contract and for a management plan, or monitoring and are protected in at least one country, which has asked reporting procedures. other CITES parties for assistance in controlling the trade. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 35 Table 1.10  Requirements on forest concessions in South Sudan Good governance requirement Provisions in existing and draft South Sudan forestry regulations Regulation on types of concession l Draft Forest Bill defines concession “for a given time period”; Forest arrangements applicable (duration, Policy mentions long-term concessions dimensiona) l No framework is provided regarding dimensions of forest concessions Standards for awarding of conces- l No requirements in policy or legislation on procedures for information sions, including information to to tenderers.; draft guidelines define procedures for forest inventory tenders and procedures for tendering l Draft guidelinesb define procedures for tendering and selection; draft and selection procedures Forest Bill refers to the Procurement and Disposal Act Standards for contents in the forest No standard is available. The draft Forest Bill requires: concession contract l The agreement to specify terms and conditions; and l The SSFA determine the terms and conditions of the concession. Standard operating procedures for No requirements monitoring and enforcement a. “Forest concession contracts can have two dimensions: (1) utilization referring to harvesting and/or use rights; and (2) management referring to management obligations” (Tegegne et al. 2018). b. Guidelines developed in 2011 in the Land Resources Survey and Information Centre under the Southern Sudan Forest Sector Programme funded by Norway. Box 1.2  Rights and responsibilities devolved to communities in Zambia Rights Responsibilities l Recognition of the rights of households and Interested communities should: communities living close to or deriving their l Identify a noncontested area in consul- livelihood from or having strong traditional tation with all local forest users and other ties to forests to be allowed to join a commu- rights-holders of the proposed community nity forest management group forest area and with the consent of the local l Secure forest user rights that will enable traditional leaders the community forest management group l Democratically elect representatives and the right to issue community permits and ensure the operation of the community collect revenue for forest products and uses forest management group’s management provided for in the CFM plan and commu- of funds, sharing of benefits, and selection nity forestry agreement of leaders shall be based on transparency, l Economic rights for forest use and products fairness, impartiality, and nondiscrimination as set out in the community forestry agree- l Adhere to sustainable forest management ment principles under the community forestry l Rights to develop and enforce local rules, agreement and management plan, consis- regulations, and sanctions in conformity tent with traditional forest use rights and with customary laws to facilitate effective following principles of sustainable forest management of forests. management. 36 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew The Tourism Bill (2024) and policy were recently passed by bribes disrupting market accessibility. Despite signif- parliament and are awaiting being signed into law. The icant international investment during the 2005–11 bill provides the legal basis for developing tourism Comprehensive Peace Agreement period, the focus and establishing a directorate of tourism respon- was primarily on the government in Juba, neglecting sible for preparing and implementing a national state-level issues and land management. Very few tourism strategy. The directorate’s main powers and routine functions such as the monitoring of natural functions include formulating guidelines for tourism resources take place, except where supported by development, setting standards, issuing licenses, external projects. developing criteria for classifying tourism facilities, formulating national plans, conducting surveys, Although the MWCT employs a large staff, this remains a researching for tourism potential, conducting potential, rather than an effective, workforce. The MWCT feasibility studies for national tourism projects, has over 10,000 staff, mostly field-deployed, with less monitoring and evaluation, and formulating rules than 100 administrative staff. However, these are and guidelines for licensing and training plans. mostly ex-combatants who are poorly trained and There is also a provision to create a technical advi- vastly underresourced to fulfill their responsibilities. sory committee with members from the MWCT, the Field locations are often far from conservation areas; MoEF, the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries (MLF), and staff are typically left without transport, opera- the Ministry of Finance and Planning, etc. However, tional budget, or even a salary. Protected areas are the draft legislation lacks provisions for (1) coordi- chronically underfunded. The 2023/24 government nation with the Ministry of Investment Promotion, budget to conserve South Sudan’s protected areas (2) due diligence processes for registering tourism was less than $10 per km2, compared to $211 in Kenya. enterprises, and (3) promotion of community liveli- Although this figure is augmented by a number of hoods and benefits from tourism activities. international nongovernmental organization proj- ects, total support is still a fraction of the estimated amount needed for robust protected area manage- Lack of capacity at ment. government, private sector, The MLF’s Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture Devel- community, and individual opment manages fisheries sector development, but has levels few resources to support activities on the ground. Four- teen directorate staff were reallocated to other Even where policies exist, government institutions in South directorates, where they would work on behalf Sudan are critically weak, lacking the financial and opera- of fisheries and aquaculture. The MLF’s reformed tional resources necessary for effective management and structure resulted in the loss of direct control and transparent processes. Institutional capacity is insuffi- management by the Directorate of Fisheries and cient to address resource management challenges, Aquaculture Development of its reallocated staff, with a severe shortage of qualified staff, especially affecting the development and management at subnational levels. Issues like delayed salary of capture fisheries and aquaculture. Interdirec- payments lead to a lack of motivation and reten- torate collaboration and cooperation within MLF tion. Key agencies may be entirely missing at field is considered weak, compromising delivery. The levels, with some states lacking operational county weak fisheries enforcement capability may render land authorities (payam land councils). Operational the legal framework obsolete. South Sudan lacks a resources are minimal, often lacking basic office dedicated fisheries research institute and in-country essentials, contributing to poor data collection, funding for fisheries research, with limited training compromised governance decisions, and a heavy courses available. The changing business environ- reliance on external support. Additionally, low trans- ment, influenced by marketing and technological parency fosters corruption, with informal fees and dynamics, has rendered traditional apprenticeship 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 37 training among fishers less effective. An incuba- management, with collaborative plans often excluding tion center in Lakes State serves as an example of key stakeholders, particularly at the local commu- addressing gaps in extension services. More incuba- nity level. For example, in the fisheries value chain, tion centers are needed to train community-based despite the existence of traditional and recent trainers to compensate for the weak and costly institutional structures (e.g., head fishers, women’s extension service system. trading groups, fisher unions), there is a consider- able need to develop capacity for cooperation and Forestry staffing is inadequate for forest management linking value chain institutions. In the wildlife sector, and monitoring. Government forestry institutions at preserving large mammal populations, particularly the central, state, and local government levels have in migratory landscapes like the BBJL, demands outlined staffing structures for their roles, but not comprehensive management frameworks inclusive all positions are filled because of financial resource of diverse stakeholders. Trust between communities constraints. For example, Western Bahr el Ghazal and government authorities is often lacking, making and Western Equatoria State have a total of 8 and collaboration and the adoption of new practices 15 foresters, respectively, employed for the whole challenging. These barriers can be overcome, state.46 In addition, salary payments are frequently however. For instance, the Murle initially opposed delayed. The Department of Agroforestry and Forest African Park’s involvement in the BBJL, but trust Extension Services in the MoEF at the national level is was built through close engagement and raining responsible for community forestry; it has 30 staff at awareness of conservation objectives—leading to the national level and 15 at the state level. Staffing increased support from the tribe. at the ministerial level is also a challenge, with most Department of Forestry staff beyond retire- Community leaders and chiefs, traditional custodians of ment age. Support for mapping natural resources natural resources, are not technically or organizationally on community land is limited, and formal delinea- equipped to manage complex systems. Chiefs generally tion and gazettement of community forests is almost lack the necessary organizational and technical skills nonexistent. Key government institutions—in partic- for reducing conflicts, and institutions of chieftain- ular, the MoEF and decentralized units at the state ship are not uniform throughout the country as they level—could play critical roles in community forestry, vary by culture. Prolonged periods of conflict and but increased capacity and resources in these insti- violence have negatively affected chiefs’ mandates tutions are critical and require increased financial and authority, making them less effective in resolving support and political goodwill. The Kagelu Forestry local conflicts. Communities have limited awareness Training Center, which is the main training center for of the benefits of scientific sustainable management forestry offering certificate courses, was vandalized practices in fisheries, forestry, and wildlife or experi- in 2013 during the conflict and remains inoperable ence of effective external support, leading to limited despite revitalization attempts.47 The lack of training confidence and participation in natural resource facilities has led to a shortage of technical staff in management programs. the forest sector. There is a critical lack of private and individual capacity to Poor coordination between communities and government manage resources and identify and exploit related market institutions at all levels results in fragmented resource opportunities. Knowledge and skills shortages and inadequate training impede effective evaluation efforts. There is a general lack of expertise in natural 46  Consolidated information across all states is not avail- resource management concepts and systems able. beyond a small cadre of academics. For the fisheries Staff training and equipment were provided through 47  sector, there is a lack of technical skills to achieve an African Development Bank grant, Support to Good hygienic handling of fish or high-quality processing Governance and Capacity Building in Natural Resources and preservation of products. In forestry, knowledge Management, in 2016–18. 38 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew of NTFP harvesting, processing, and markets is l Lack of entrepreneurial skills and management exper- limited to traditional practices; and high-quality tise. Many potential private sector participants management of plantations is dependent on lack the entrepreneurial skills needed to estab- foreign managers. Education opportunities exist lish and run businesses in fisheries, forestry, and for all sectors, but attractive job opportunities and tourism. There is also a shortage of experienced ongoing professional development to stay current professionals to manage enterprises effectively. with global best practices are scant; technical/voca- For example, private tour operators lack essential tional training is lacking. The University of Juba has resources, training, and financing. several departments focused on producing gradu- l Limited marketing efforts and promotional/branding ates for natural resource, wildlife, and protected area challenges. Inadequate marketing and promo- management. Experience has shown that graduates tional efforts hinder attraction of international are often eager to learn, but need extensive addi- tourists and investors because of a lack of skills, tional training. resources, and expertise. The country’s image, marred by past conflicts, affects its attractiveness Beyond specific knowledge of natural resource as a tourist destination and investment oppor- industries, the still-emerging private sector faces tunity. African Parks has started promoting its severe capacity challenges in general: conservation efforts in Juba on billboards. l Poor enabling environment. The private sector needs Women in South Sudan’s natural resource sectors are encouragement and removal of operational and markedly underrepresented in decision-making roles at investment impediments. Government action is the state and community levels. There is a significant required to create conditions attractive to the gender gap in leadership, exemplified by the gender private sector, such as strengthening the legal disparity at both ministry and boma levels. Women’s framework, land reform, and addressing major access to essential assets such as land is constrained, cross-cutting issues. Monitoring and control of affecting their capacity to obtain loans—and often private sector activities is also necessary to curtail resulting in unfavorable credit terms due to unregu- excesses and dubious practices (RSS 2016b). lated credit facilities and a lack of business support. l Lack of access to finance. Unstable lending prac- Despite possessing specialized knowledge in biodi- tices and currency controls hamper even versity, sustainable management, and conservation high-demand industries from offering compet- (particularly of many NTFPs), women’s significant itive services. For example, actors in the fisheries contributions to natural resource value chains are value chain largely lack financial resources poorly recognized and supported by policy and to manufacture quality fish products. Across extension services. To overcome these challenges, all sectors, credit facilities are lacking (micro- it is vital to create supportive market spaces, offer financing schemes) for stakeholders, especially business and leadership training, encourage cooper- women. Funding for community forestry is partic- ative formation, and facilitate access to information, ularly lacking, with few institutions involved in empowering women to improve their economic forest management as humanitarian needs standing and decision-making authority. override environmental concerns. Daily finan- cial transactions are hindered by the absence of automated teller machines dispensing local Investment currency and the limited availability of those dealing in US dollars, which is a challenge for Investment needs in the renewable resource sectors are the tourism sector. Fish export is dominated by substantial and would entail a mix of state and private foreign traders, partly because of a lack of access funding. Government is directly responsible for to foreign exchange for South Sudanese busi- establishing core management systems for public nessmen. assets—including protected areas, forests, and 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 39 fish populations—and for facilitating community are substantial investment needs in value chain facili- involvement in management and private invest- ties, including functional landing sites, feeder roads, cold ment in developing supply chains and products in chain storage, and market structures. Approximately a risky and unstable business environment. South $40 million is estimated to provide core invest- Sudan’s current business environment is very weak. ments to upgrade infrastructure at key trade sites In 2019, the year for which the most recent ranking is and build management capacity, in order to facili- available, South Sudan placed 185th of 190 countries tate a wider range of private investment to improve and economies rated by the World Bank for ease of handling, processing, and marketing to retain more doing business.48 value in the sector. In addition, significant invest- ment is required in institutions to support training In the wildlife and tourism sector, substantial invest- and capacity development, as well as quality control ments from external donors are required for management and certification of fish products. facilities, infrastructure, staff training, and tourism infra- structure development. New parks generally require Forest sector investments would need to cover both building more capital expenditure in the early years to estab- the national institutional and regulatory framework, and lish systems and infrastructure. This is especially true institutional capacity. These would need to be followed for South Sudan, which has minimal existing invest- by investments in improving the management ment in protected area infrastructure; further, local of exiting forest resources—particularly in natural conditions (taxes, logistics, and insecurity) demand a forests—and reestablishing the productive capacity premium over typical protected area management of the plantation forests. For natural and community costs. The estimated cost for rehabilitation and forests, developing and implementing CFM systems effective management of South Sudan’s protected in priority areas, and building capacity and informa- areas depends in part on their size, as there are tion, would require around $13 million—facilitating significant economies of scale. Average annual 10 percent of community forest lands and national rehabilitation and management costs for various government reserves under sustainable CFM. The protected areas are as follows: government needs $17 million to establish and support plantations (10,000 ha of smallholder plan- l Nimule and Bangangai (< 1,000 km²): $807/km² tations and 15,000 ha of commercial plantations). l Lantoto and Imatong Forest Reserve (1,000– Domestic processing and value addition of the wood 2,000 km²): $2,969/km² produced by smallholder woodlots, plantations, and l Sudd and Badingilo National Park (2,000– natural forests by CFM groups would create more employ- 10,000 km²): $1,090/km² ment and economic benefits than exporting roundwood. l Southern and Boma National Parks (> 10,000 km²): This approach would, however, require notable $281/km. investments (largely from the private sector) and a supporting business environment. Sawmill invest- The total estimated requirements to manage South ment costs depend on the quality of production and Sudan’s protected area network comes to around available labor skill level. Teak and natural tropical $50 million per year; a comprehensive manage- hardwoods are valuable raw materials, so low-level ment program in the BBJL, based on a network of technology (i.e., mobile bush sawmills) should not conservancies, would add a similar amount. be used to ensure high-quality products. For every 25,000 m3 of roundwood, investment costs would be In the fisheries sector, in addition to participatory roughly as follows, depending on the level of tech- resource management and monitoring systems, there nology and product quality desired:49 48  Source: World Bank Group, Doing Business Archive: Ease Based on confidential reference cases in Uganda. Both 49  of Doing Business in South Sudan web page. options have estimated recovery of 35 percent. 40 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew l Low/midrange professional sawmill: 6–7 units, be linked to a broader set of environmental changes. $1.1 million (each $140,000–$180,000), employing While these threats are undoubtedly lower in South about 90 people (full-time equivalent); each unit Sudan than in most countries, given low population could be located close to the raw material supply. densities and levels of economic activity, there are very little data and no routine monitoring to actually l Industrial sawmill: 1 unit, $1.4 million, employing assess them. The next chapter reviews future threats about 35 people (full-time equivalent); producing from the development of a number of key poten- higher-grade products, but requiring centralized tial growth sectors in South Sudan, and how future supply. trade-offs can potentially be managed. Poorly developed general infrastructure is a major Climate change is also an accelerating external threat hindrance to the development of all sectors, particularly to South Sudan’s renewable natural resources, with fisheries and wood processing, given the rapid spoilage increased annual flooding being the most obvious and in the absence of hygienic cold chains and the need for impactful manifestation. Unprecedented (in recent electricity to power sawmills, respectively. Transport times) flooding has boosted fish production, but costs and delays are a major barrier to export and more variable and unpredictable fish produc- accessing hinterland domestic markets for fish tion will be harder to manage efficiently and traders, exacerbated by informal taxation at road- sustainably in the longer run. Increasing water blocks. A lack of clean water is another cause of temperatures will certainly have some impacts on concern and quality loss. Additionally, effective wild- fisheries, but it is unclear whether this would have life monitoring nodes and a tourism industry cannot significant effects on overall productivity, or just in exist without functioning electricity and clean water. terms of the relative abundance of species already There is a need to diversify the country’s energy adapted to less-oxygenated waters. Flooding has mix to include solar, wind, and geothermal energy also destroyed vast areas of other wildlife habitats, (Mozersky and Kammen 2018). such as acacia savanna, and restricted the ability of wildlife to move within deeper wetlands. The physical External threats and economic displacement of around 600,000 people due to flooding has put additional pressure External threats to renewable natural resources (those that on natural resources, and could exacerbate natural come from outside the immediate sector) are likely to grow resource conflict. The influx of displaced popula- rapidly with economic development and diversification. tions into new areas can lead to overexploitation of At present, the main threat,—at least to wildlife and resources such as water, firewood, and grazing land; forestry resources—comes from poaching by external and disruption of normal agricultural activities may actors who have no stake in the sustainability of the lead to unsustainable pressure on natural resources. resource base. However, pressures from competing Drought risks remain significant and unpredictable land use, pollution, and increasing access and distur- in South Sudan alongside flooding. These may lead bance are growing and will continue to accelerate eventually to the dying of forests and spread of forest as South Sudan stabilizes and develops. Map 1.14 illus- fire,50 but also pose a direct threat to wildlife popu- trates the mosaic of growing threats to the BBJL, lations—especially migratory species, which depend which requires landscape-level management on predictable patterns of water availability, and will approaches, despite its vast and relatively pristine become increasingly vulnerable to heat stress if also natural habitats. Aquatic habitats and fisheries are particularly vulnerable to pollution, introduction of invasive species, and cumulative impacts to natural 50  Fire does not appear to be a significant cause of forest hydrological patterns. For example, water hyacinth is loss at present in South Sudan. Savanna forests are regu- larly burned by pastoralists, but are fire adapted. The spreading within South Sudan’s wetlands and may extent to which climate change may put denser forests at risk of fire damage is not well understood. 1:   I m p o r ta n ce a n d p o te n ti a l o f n a tu r a l   r e s o u r ce s   | 41 Map 1.14  Current threats to the BBJL Source: African Parks 2024. water stressed. Drought will put pressure on the live- dynamic landscapes including increased variability lihoods and protein sources (including fish) for local in water availability, as well as the spread of disease human populations, encouraging more exploitation and invasive species—all of which could shift human of wildlife. Tourism development will be more chal- activities. This reinforces the need to conserve and lenging in less-predictable wildlife landscapes. It is adaptively manage extensive blocks of natural also certain that climate change will lead to more habitat. 42 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew 2 Trade-offs and complementarities with other development sectors T his chapter examines likely spatial patterns of Map 2.1  Major natural assets in South Sudan: development in three major sectors that may forests, wetlands, protected areas, and the BBJL affect or compete with key renewable natural resource assets (map 2.1): land use (primarily driven by transport development and population growth), major water infrastructure, and extractive industries (i.e., oil and minerals). These sectors will be critical to the development and economic diversification of South Sudan. The imperative is therefore not to constrain them, but rather to avoid critical and unnecessary impacts, to reduce potential conflicts, and capture potential synergies between sectors. The chapter also suggests mitiga- tion measures to address potential trade-offs and Sources: Dinerstein et al. 2017; Protected Planet protected maximize overall development benefits through areas database, accessed March 2024; R. Samapriya, the mitigation hierarchy: avoiding, minimizing, T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, Community Dataset, accessed November 2024. mitigating, and compensating for impacts, in that order. it is likely that South Sudan’s land will become a target for agribusiness development. Patterns of A recent study on global natural resource use efficiency development and found that there is theoretical potential in significantly potential impacts increasing rural production in South Sudan’s land without significantly affecting ecosystem services (World Bank 2023). Models of current and potential land use patterns in South Sudan found that aggregate Land use financial returns from agriculture, livestock, and forestry could almost double without any reduction Most of South Sudan’s land area is (semi) natural habitat, in greenhouse gas sequestration—a good proxy for although subject to pastoralism. More than 75 percent biodiversity and ecosystem services more gener- of total land area is potentially suitable for agricul- ally—through more efficient patterns of land use. ture (USAID and MANAGE, n.d.), but only 5 percent This would primarily involve intensifying the use of is currently cultivated, the vast majority of which is existing cropland and replacing low-productivity rainfed. South Sudan is home to around 38 million pastoralism with more natural habitat (map 2.2). head of livestock (USAID 2016), but livestock produc- tion only reaches about 20 percent of its potential; For the present natural resources review, this earlier this low productivity is primarily due to the breeds modeling was extended to predict future patterns of of cattle and the extensive, low-input production land use if productive values were maximized subject to systems used (WFP 2011). Around 74 percent of South constraints on population (labor) and transport. Changes Sudanese households depend on subsistence agri- in future land use were predicted based on (1) a culture and pastoralism for their primary income, 50 percent increase in the rural labor force; and and expanding the productivity agriculture and live- (2) systemic improvements across the current road stock systems is therefore a major priority for poverty transport network, resulting in substantially reduced alleviation (RSS 2015). With improving security in transport cost (map 2.3). rural areas and greater linkage to regional markets, 44 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Map 2.2  Land use in South Sudan a. Modeled current land use b. Modeled land use for Pareto maximum productiona Source: Modeling data used by World Bank 2023a. a. Pareto maximum production refers to a land use pattern in which aggregate economic production is maximized for no net loss in ecosystem services (greenhouse gas sequestration). Map 2.3  Impact of road quality improvements in Results suggest significant expansions of agriculture and South Sudan on net travel time to markets forestry activity with increased population, and major threats to the integrity of the Boma-Badingilo-Jonglei landscape (BBJL) from expansion of activities along the Bor-Pibor and Kongor-Akobo corridors (table 2.1, map 2.4, map 2.5). Most of the likely expansion in agricultural activity and land habitat conversion would occur in those areas that already have relatively high popu- lation density and are therefore of lower value in terms of natural assets—although encroachment on both the northern and southern boundaries of the BBJL is a risk. Upgrading the road network does not have as much of an impact as population growth on overall expansion of land use. However, in the Road type Travel time reduction (%) higher-population scenario, the upgraded road Primary 30 network does allow for an expanded agricultural Secondary 40 footprint along key roads, particularly the transport Tertiary 45 corridors passing through the center of the BBJL (i.e., the Bor-Pibor and Kongor-Akobo roads). This would Track 25 pose a major threat to the integrity of the BBJL and Source: Original modeling for this report. its ability to support large-scale ungulate migrations. Road and agricultural development are often intertwined; both can have extensive direct and indirect impacts on natural ecosystems. Expansion of agricultural activ- ities has a direct and severe, but localized impact 2:   Tr a d e - o f fs a n d co m p l e m e n ta r i ti e s w i th o the r d e ve l o p m e n t s e cto rs   | 45 Table 2.1  Area for land use by category, as modeled under different national land use objectives, km2 Land use category Land use scenario Cropland Grazing Forestry Natural Modeled current land use 15,295 267,125 43,327 298,903 Pareto maximum production 24,001 145,702 83,918 371,029 Max production, population limited 9,666 261,869 99,458 253,657 Max production, 1.5x population 30,298 245,115 135,092 214,146 Max production, improved roads 10,055 260,712 96,478 257,406 Max production, 1.5x pop + improved roads 31,336 241,313 132,304 219,697 Source: Original modeling for this report. Map 2.4  Potential changes in land use for 50 percent increase in population and improved transport network a. Current population, current transport network b. Increased population, current transport network c. Current population, improved transport network d. Increased population, improved transport network Cropland Forestry Grazing Natural forest Natural nonforest Multiuse Other Source: Original modeling for this report. 46 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Map 2.5  Approximate locations of main areas at are not in place and high-value natural resources threat of agricultural expansion are present. Wildlife conservation experts have suggested that the completion of the Juba-Bor highway has resulted in the exclusion of wild ungu- lates from a 40 km-wide corridor to the east of the highway (and consequently from access to the Nile), due to their sensitivity to hunting. Large water infrastructure There is limited large-scale water infrastructure in South Sudan, but the country has significant hydropower and irrigation potential. It also has acute flood protec- Sources: Dinerstein et al. 2017; Protected Planet protected tion needs, which could potentially threaten the areas database, accessed March 2024; R. Samapriya, major wetlands, as well as the mainstream of the T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, Community Dataset, accessed November 2024. Nile at Nimule (map 2.6). Many water facilities were damaged or destroyed during the civil wars, and existing flood protection structures are poorly main- tained. There also is a lack of information on the on biodiversity and natural assets due to the direct location and technical details of existing structures. conversion of natural habitats into agricultural, or South Sudan’s hydrometric monitoring network is at least highly modified and simplified, ecosystems. extremely weak. The country lacks capabilities for Agriculture also can greatly increase rates of erosion surface water quality monitoring, sediment sampling, and thus degrade water quality, and introduce pollut- and groundwater quantity and quality measure- ants from agrochemicals—with significant impacts ment. The potential for solar-based irrigation is on aquatic ecosystems, including the spread of inva- estimated at up to 6–10 million ha for groundwater, sive species such as the water hyacinth. Extensive and 1–3 million ha for surface water (Borgomeo et forms of agriculture or pastoralism can have major impacts on the ecologies of large areas by changing grazing and fire regimes, including promoting (or even directly introducing) invasive species, intro- Map 2.6  Approximate locations of main areas at ducing diseases, and increasing human access and threat of large-scale water infrastructure activity—all of which can have major impacts on wildlife. As illustrated by the modeling here, develop- ment of rural roads and agriculture are often tightly intertwined. Road construction has direct impacts through habitat conversion in the immediate foot- print, and potential changes in surface water flow and therefore erosion and sedimentation. Within areas of mostly natural habitat, however, road construction typically has much wider impacts asso- ciated with increasing access for human activities (both agriculture and overexploitation of natural resources), as well the introduction of associated barriers to wildlife movement and fragmentation Sources: Dinerstein et al. 2017; Protected Planet protected areas database, accessed March 2024; R. Samapriya, of available habitat. These issues are far more acute T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, Community Dataset, accessed where robust natural resource management systems November 2024. 2:   Tr a d e - o f fs a n d co m p l e m e n ta r i ti e s w i th o the r d e ve l o p m e n t s e cto rs   | 47 al. 2023). Polders have been constructed to protect could indeed assist in regulating the annual flood several large settlements from flooding in South pulse, completion of the Jonglei Canal could also Sudan—most famously, the Bor dikes—but there are potentially do huge harm to the Sudd. The loss of no large dams as yet in the country. The roughly wetlands and functional floodplains would not only two-thirds of the 360 km Jonglei Canal that were affect local fisheries and biodiversity, but would also completed before the excavating machinery was disrupt regional climate and groundwater recharge destroyed in 1983 represents by far the largest water systems. Conversely, forests and vegetation play a infrastructure development in South Sudan; it was critical role in maintaining watershed functions, never finished. Completion of the project would supporting hydropower and flood risk management. have major hydrological impacts on the Sudd, which Hence, synergies are possible between protection of would need to be carefully assessed and weighed natural habitats and well-managed water infra- against potential benefits. South Sudan has consid- structure development. erable potential for hydropower, and a number of potential dam projects have been identified, mostly in the more hilly borderlands where the Nile and Extractive industries other rivers enter the country. There are two poten- South Sudan’s economy is heavily reliant on its oil industry, tial designs for a hydropower project at the Fula but the sector faces significant challenges, including Rapids where the Nile enters South Sudan close political instability, environmental risks, and declining to Nimule. The much larger of the two would have productivity. The oil industry in South Sudan has been major impacts on the river as well as the surrounding the foundation of its economy, contributing billions habitats in Nimule National Park. Smaller-scale of dollars annually in export sales. The industry dam developments on the border with Ethiopia accounted for 90 percent of the government’s reve- could also have an impact on the hydrology of the nues until the conflict in Sudan brought oil export to Machar marshes. With flooding a critical problem, a virtual standstill in early 2024, as damage to pipe- large-scale engineering solutions for flood control lines can no longer be fixed. The primary oil reserves will remain of interest, although options are limited. are concentrated in the Mughlad Basin (Unity State) Large water infrastructure projects can have a much and the Melut Basin (Upper Nile State), as shown in larger footprint than their physical works, significantly map 2.7. Since the discovery of oil in South Sudan in affecting hydrology and water resources critical for fish- the 1970s, these basins have been central to explo- eries and wildlife. Impoundment by dams and river ration and development, with significant activities channel modifications disrupts natural water in the 1990s and early 2000s. Currently, there are cycles, affecting fish habitats, breeding, foraging 64 operational oil fields1 with a total of 1,352 wells. patterns, and seasonal migration. Even small-scale Crude oil from these fields was transported via pipe- water infrastructure and extraction, such as from lines to Port Sudan, the sole export point.2 farmer-led irrigation, can have significant cumu- Even before the recent halt in exports, the oil sector faced lative impacts on hydrology and water quality if multiple challenges. Shortly after independence, the they become widespread. The Jonglei Canal was government halted production for political reasons. originally identified as a means of significantly Then, just as production was ramping up again, the increasing water availability for irrigated agri- culture in Sudan and the Arab Republic of Egypt by diverting flow around the Sudd and therefore This number is stated in a stock market update by 1  reducing evaporative losses. Since work was halted Savannah Energy (Parker 2024). during the war, the canal has remained deeply 2  Oil wells are sunk to optimize the extraction of oil from controversial, but is now being promoted by inter- an underground reservoir. South Sudan’s large number ested parties as a flood control investment for South of wells is typical of oil fields exploiting petroleum basins Sudan. While a carefully managed diversion scheme consisting of multiple discrete reservoirs. Some wells are in operation; others temporarily idle; and many aban- doned, in which case they would be plugged and sealed if regulations are followed. 48 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Map 2.7  South Sudan’s key oil infrastructure Source: Nduru 2019. civil war broke out, causing major disruption. Since additional concession areas. The current political the peace agreement in 2018, a variety of climate, climate mitigates against such investments; conse- local conflict, and economic shocks—particularly quently, the future of the oil industry in South Sudan flooding and COVID—have continued to hamper remains shrouded in uncertainty—even if the current production, and there has been a steady decline in export routes to Port Sudan can be reestablished. output (figure 2.1). For example, in Unity State, flooding in 2022 rendered 533 wells inoperable, although The minerals sector, although currently informal and under- some may have already been out of operation as a developed, holds significant potential for growth (map 2.8). result of other issues. In addition to these intermittent Gold is the only mineral currently mined and disturbances, the downward trend in output may be extraction is purely artisanal, although the cumu- related to the natural decline in oil field productivity, lative scale of artisanal mining activities is thought as exploited fields in the Mughlad Basin mature and to be substantial. South Sudan may potentially have reservoir pressures fall. Enhanced oil recovery tech- significant deposits of other metals and rare earth niques could potentially improve recovery rates, elements. Formalizing operations and enhancing but substantial investment would be needed. Simi- regulatory frameworks are essential to unlock this larly, a large investment would be needed to confirm potential. Balancing resource extraction with envi- commercial reserves and open new wellheads in ronmental conservation is critical for sustainable 2:   Tr a d e - o f fs a n d co m p l e m e n ta r i ti e s w i th o the r d e ve l o p m e n t s e cto rs   | 49 Figure 2.1  Average daily output of crude oil (barrels per day) Barrels per day (thousands) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 2011a 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023c Independence (Jul.); Output resumed Peace accord Civil war New Peace Accord Mass flooding; Mass flooding conflict with Sudan (Apr.); fighting erupts signed resumes (Jul.) signed (Sep.); SPOC brings new over disputed areas in Juba (Dec.) GPOC & SPOC field onstreamb restart operations All oilfields shut down Civil war prevents Mass flooding by govt (Feb.) GPOC & SPOC operations Sources: Ministry of Petroleum (2011–18); Statistical Review of World Energy, BP and Energy Institute (2019–22); Ministry of Finance (2023). Note: GPOC = Greater Pioneer Operating Company; SPOC = Sudd Petroleum Operating Co. a. This number (325,233 barrels per day) is thought to include output north and south of the new border. b. SPOC announced that output would reach over 10,000 barrels per day in 2022 at the new field. Map 2.8  Greenfield opportunities for mineral exploration Source: Ministry of Mining website, accessed March 2024. Note: Additional industrial mineral occurrences include brick clay, road construction gravel, sand, kaolin, and talc. Other minerals include rare earth minerals, tin and tungsten, nickel, niobium, uranium, and iron ore. 50 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew development. Strengthening governance, imple- impacts in many parts of the country, including the menting sustainable practices, and investing in rest of the Sudd and most of the BBJL. Artisanal gold infrastructure are necessary steps to mitigate production already affects protected areas in the conflicts and ensure the long-term prosperity of south. If the extensive exploration licenses lead to South Sudan’s economy and natural resources. For a large expansion of artisanal or the establishment instance, a single mine producing 10 tonnes of gold of large-scale mining, then there is a potential for annually, and two others producing 5 tonnes each, major impacts on land and rivers in the northwest could generate an export value of approximately and south, including the southern part of the BBJL. $1.3 billion per year.3 By 2050, further extraction of minerals like copper and nickel could be oper- Extractive industries in South Sudan present several envi- ational, adding significant value to the economy. ronmental risks. Oil extraction activities often lead to significant habitat destruction, affecting forests, Gold is the largest non-oil export in South Sudan, according wetlands, and aquatic ecosystems. The extraction to mirror trade statistics; but much of the production is process can contaminate surface and ground- probably smuggled out of the country without any formal water with harmful chemicals, adversely affecting records or state revenue collection. Gold is primarily fisheries, aquatic life, and terrestrial wildlife. Land mined in Equatoria and adjacent areas, and esti- use conflicts arise as areas designated for natural mates suggest around 60,000 miners work in resource sectors are repurposed for oil extraction, Kapoeta alone, at 80 different locations such as affecting local communities and ecosystems. Arti- Nanaknak, Lauro, and Napotpot (de Zeeuw 2016). sanal mining activities in Equatoria and adjacent Despite these challenges, the government has shown areas risk encroaching on important wildlife habi- interest in formalizing the sector. The Mining Act of tats. Artisanal and commercial mining can lead 2012 and associated regulations provide a frame- to deforestation, habitat destruction, and water work for operations, although enforcement remains pollution, affecting both biodiversity and local weak. In 2015, the government began issuing new communities reliant on these natural resources. The exploration licenses, aiming to attract investment use of hazardous chemicals in unregulated opera- and diversify the sector beyond gold to include tions contaminates water sources, affecting fisheries minerals like copper and nickel. The Ministry of and local communities. For example, the Akobo Mines’s cadastral map shows numerous explora- (Pibor) River, which is the biggest river on the east tion licenses in force, indicating a potential for future is heavily affected by the massive illegal exploita- growth (map 2.9). tion of gold from Ethiopia on the river and other smaller projects further to the west, with high levels of Current oil and gold mining activities pose local risks to mercury recently having been detected.4 Moreover, wetlands and the southern part of the BBJL; an expansion Russian prospectors are currently looking for gold in of extractive industries in South Sudan could increase the area. Formalizing the sector and implementing these impacts massively (map 2.10). Oil infrastruc- sustainable practices are crucial to mitigate these ture is currently located in limited areas, but these impacts and ensure the long-term viability of both are close to major wetlands, have been associated the mining and fisheries sectors. But large-scale with several instances of local pollution, and have mining also often leads to deforestation, habitat also been affected by extensive flooding in recent fragmentation, and loss; this has substantial impacts years. If oil production were to be significantly on biodiversity, including wildlife and fisheries. expanded in the future, expansion of existing fields Land subsidence from mining creates depressions would bring them closer to the core areas of the that alter habitats and disrupt surface water flow, Sudd and Machar wetlands. Development, or even affecting aquatic ecosystems and fisheries. Mining significant exploration activities, could have major 3  Assuming a gold price of $2,000/troy ounce. 4  Source: African Parks, 2024. 2:   Tr a d e - o f fs a n d co m p l e m e n ta r i ti e s w i th o the r d e ve l o p m e n t s e cto rs   | 51 Map 2.9  Mineral exploration licenses Source: South Sudan Mining Cadastre Portal, accessed January 2024. Map 2.10  Approximate locations of main areas at operations require substantial water use, leading to threat of expansion of oil production and mineral water contamination with pollutants such as acid exploration mine drainage and heavy metals. The influx of labor for mining operations exacerbates land acquisition and deforestation, affecting local communities and biodiversity hotspots. Managing trade-offs and mitigating impacts Environmental risk management is critical to maximizing Sources: Dinerstein et al. 2017; Protected Planet protected aggregate development potential across sectors. South areas database, accessed March 2024; R. Samapriya, Sudan has a critical need to sustainably diver- T. Swetnam, and A. Saah, Community Dataset, accessed sify its economy. The objective therefore is not to November 2024. Note: Exploration blocks for potential further oil production cover most of the Nile floodplain hinder sectors that could potentially affect renew- down to the southern boundary of the BBJL. able natural resources, but to develop them in a way that avoids unnecessarily reducing the benefits 52 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew and potential from renewable natural resources; maintaining natural wildlife movement patterns and to carefully weigh, reduce, and mitigate those (including through management of associated trade-offs that remain. Given the vast land resources human activities), minimizing vegetation removal, available in South Sudan, avoiding and minimizing and managing invasive species. Implementing impacts will be readily achievable in many cases, but biodiversity management plans and protecting it does require a robust knowledge of the presence, wetlands by maintaining water flow, reducing vulnerabilities, and values of natural assets. pollution, and preserving vegetation are crucial for sustainable land and water management. In the The ability to manage trade-offs rationally and effec- agricultural sector, projects with significant water tively will depend on the development and practice of consumption must adopt strategies to reduce or South Sudan’s environmental and social risk management mitigate water use to prevent negative impacts on systems. The foremost tools involved are environ- local communities and the environment. By inte- mental impact assessment (EIA) of individual grating these practices, land use and agriculture investments, and strategic environmental assess- investments can achieve a balance that protects ment of sector policies and plans. For landscapes of natural resources and supports sustainable devel- outstanding importance, such as the BBJL and the opment. Biodiversity or environmental offsets Sudd, upstream spatial planning will also be crit- can compensate for significant residual impacts ical. As mentioned in chapter 1 in the Governance on biodiversity. These offsets involve conserva- frameworks section (page 33), there are signifi- tion outcomes like protecting or allocating land or cant legislative, institutional, and technical capacity aquatic zones for conservation, improving habitat gaps in environmental risk management. The coun- management, and other specific actions. Offsets try’s 2013 Environmental Protection Management can establish or buffer existing reserves, rehabilitate Bill—which introduces the requirement for an EIA— habitats, and conserve species of concern (box 2.1). has not been ratified. Further, it does not specify Additional advice and established best practices for the detailed requirements for an EIA, including the handling environmental, health, and safety hazards technical scope of assessments, standards for risk in road and agriculture industries can be found in mitigation, or the types of projects for which assess- the World Bank’s Environmental, Health, and Safety ment is required. The Ministry of Environment and Guidelines for Agribusiness and Food Production5 Forestry is the institution tasked with environmental and Water and Sanitation (IFC 2007b). risk management, but there is no dedicated EIA oversight agency—and, without detailed EIA regu- To ensure sustainable large water infrastructure, it is lations, its mandate remains imprecise. Although crucial to integrate conservation practices that minimize some ministries have established structures and environmental trade-offs. Infrastructure should be protocols for managing specific risks, there is a strategically located to avoid areas of biodiversity scarcity of qualified and experienced environ- significance and critical wildlife habitats. Protecting ment risk management specialists; and capacity fishery habitats and preserving floodplains and for risk assessment, management, and monitoring native vegetation are essential measures. Planting is typically weak or nonexistent. Environmental and indigenous trees and providing wildlife access can social risks in development projects are not being prevent habitat fragmentation. For aquatic habi- addressed systematically, but rely on differing stan- tats, it is important to minimize modifications in dards of donors. key fish breeding sites and restore habitats around flood structures. Controlled flooding can rejuve- Location is key to the impact of land-related investments, nate wetlands and aquatic habitats, while proper including in agriculture and roads; upstream strategic and spatial risk assessment is thus critical, as well as analysis of alternatives for individual investments. Risk manage- 5  These guidelines are available from the International Finance Corporation’s EHS Guidelines: Agribusiness and Food ment strategies include avoiding sensitive habitats, Production web page. 2:   Tr a d e - o f fs a n d co m p l e m e n ta r i ti e s w i th o the r d e ve l o p m e n t s e cto rs   | 53 Box 2.1  Good practice example: Box 2.2  Good practice example: Biodiversity offset in South Africa’s road Biodiversity offset in Sierra Leone sector hydroelectric dam The Shaw’s Pass road-widening project The Bumbuna Hydroelectric Power Station undertaken by the Western Cape Depart- is designed to supply Sierra Leone with ment of Transport and Public Works involved affordable and clean energy. Situated on the expansion of a dangerous section of road the Seli River within the Tonkolili District, the between Hermanus and Caledon in South project has undergone extensive environ- Africa. The regional roads department was mental impact assessments and additional obligated to offset for the environmental studies on biodiversity. These studies have impact on a 1 ha area of critical habitat, raised concerns about the potential loss of which housed significant endemic plant critical species near the dam. In response, species. The 30 ha offsite conservation efforts were made in the early 2000s to area has been established and safeguarded, find an appropriate location to offset the effectively preserving a section of habitat ecological impact. The Loma Mountains identical to that affected. The land remains Forest Reserve was selected for its similar in the possession of the original owner, who ecosystems and even greater species has legally agreed to manage it as a nature diversity. Consequently, the Loma Moun- reserve within a stewardship program. tains Non-hunting Forest Reserve, a crucial Shaw’s Pass has been acclaimed as a component of the national protected areas success by conservationists. The achieve- network, was designated as a national ment is largely credited to the collaborative park in 2012 to offset the environmental efforts of all stakeholders involved, such as impact of the Bumbuna Dam. This World CapeNature, the landowner, and various Bank–supported initiative not only facil- government departments, who reached a itated the construction of the dam but consensus on the details of the offset imple- also played a pivotal role in establishing mentation and its financing. Additional the Loma Mountains National Park as the factors contributing to the project’s success project’s environmental offset. The project include the limited number of participants, allocated funds for the initial establish- the straightforward nature of the offset ment of the national park, which included requirements, the relatively small size of the the development of transportation infra- offset area, the establishment of clear and structure, provision of essential equipment, enforceable conditions in the environmental and enhancement of facilities at the park’s authorization, and the presence of a coop- headquarters and outposts, as well as the erative landowner with suitable habitat on demarcation of park boundaries and the his property. improvement of access routes. Source: Jenner and Balmforth 2015. Source: Mathur 2019. assessment and disposal of dredging waste prevents Maintaining environmental flows in wetlands and harm to ecosystems. Biodiversity offsets may be floodplains, regular monitoring, and consideration of designed and implemented to compensate for downstream user needs are critical. Water efficiency residual loss of biodiversity at the project develop- should be prioritized, with efforts made to reduce ment site (box 2.2). losses and maintain infrastructure. Structures facilitating aquatic organism movement, like fish ladders, and minimizing land clearing in sensitive 54 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew areas support ecological balance. Proper irrigation provided in box 2.3 and box 2.4, aim to achieve a methods maximize water use efficiency and prevent net positive outcome by compensating for signif- waterlogging and salinization; monitoring drainage icant residual impacts, following the principle of quality helps manage contaminants. Buffer zones between irrigation areas and sensitive habitats contain contaminant spread, and minimal use of Box 2.3  Good practice example: Oil agrochemicals reduces ecological impact. By imple- project in Chad-Cameroon menting these practices, a balanced approach The Chad-Cameroon petroleum devel- can be achieved, preserving natural resources and opment and pipeline project established supporting sustainable development. Further guid- approximately 690,000 ha of new ance and good industry practices for managing protected areas, vastly exceeding the environmental, health, and safety risks in the water 10,000 ha affected by the project. This sector are available in the World Bank’s Environ- measure ensured long-term conserva- mental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Water and tion and protection of biodiversity in the Sanitation (IFC 2007b). The Hydropower Sustain- region. Biodiversity offsets were designed ability Standard provides global guidelines for to compensate for the project’s ecolog- hydropower and large dam investments (Hydro- ical footprint by enhancing conservation power Sustainability Secretariat 2021). efforts in other areas, creating a net posi- tive impact on biodiversity. Comprehensive Terrestrial habitat loss from mining activities can be mini- environmental management plans were mized by strategically locating mining facilities away developed and implemented, focusing from sensitive areas, establishing buffer zones, reducing on minimizing deforestation, protecting water resources, and reducing habitat disturbances and deforestation, avoiding barriers to wild- fragmentation during the construction life movement, and implementing appropriate mitigation and operation phases. The project also measures. Effective water management practices engaged local communities in the plan- are crucial to minimize the impact on natural ning and implementation of conservation drainage systems and water users in mining areas. efforts, ensuring that the measures were To ensure sustainable development, conservation of culturally appropriate and supported by natural resources must be integrated into mining those directly affected. Benefits to local activities. Prospecting and exploration should communities included improved livelihoods consider the presence of protected areas, critical through sustainable resource management habitats, endangered species, and key biodiver- and conservation-related employment sity areas. The ecosystem services derived from opportunities. Ongoing monitoring of envi- mining areas—including fisheries, forestry, and wild- ronmental impacts and the effectiveness life tourism—should be considered. The impact on of mitigation measures was established. aquatic habitats and fisheries can be mitigated Adaptive management strategies allowed for adjustments to be made in response by minimizing or avoiding the clearing of riparian to new information or changing condi- vegetation, preserving surface water flow patterns, tions, ensuring continuous improvement and preventing the discharge of untreated mining in environmental performance. Finally, the tailwater into natural watercourses. Discharges into project invested in building the capacity surface waters should not increase contaminant of local institutions and stakeholders to concentrations beyond ambient water quality levels. manage and protect the newly established protected areas, ensuring sustainability Biodiversity or environmental offsets may be employed to beyond the project’s life span. mitigate any significant residual impacts, compensating for biodiversity or habitat losses due to mining activities. Source: BBOP 2009. Biodiversity offsets, such as those in the examples 2:   Tr a d e - o f fs a n d co m p l e m e n ta r i ti e s w i th o the r d e ve l o p m e n t s e cto rs   | 55 Box 2.4  Good practice examples: Natural gas and minerals in Norway-Germany and Ghana Statoil’s 1994 Europipe natural gas pipeline project biodiversity. This newly created area—which originates from the North Sea near Norway and has since been granted official protection—now reaches the mainland within the confines of serves as a sanctuary for various endangered Germany’s Lower Saxony Waddensea National and uncommon species. Park. Identifying a suitable point of entry for the Ghana’s Newmont Akyem gold mine project imple- pipeline within the park posed a significant mented robust environmental mitigation challenge. Following an extensive planning measures by creating a comprehensive recla- phase and the evaluation of 10 potential entry mation plan, including reforestation and points, a decision was made to adopt a route habitat restoration efforts to offset mining that incorporated a tunnel beneath the tidal impacts. Established community development flats to traverse the park. This route was antic- programs provided compensation and alter- ipated to cause temporary, but still significant, native livelihoods for displaced residents, and environmental disturbances. To offset these set up continuous environmental monitoring effects, Statoil established a 17 ha biotope to ensure compliance with ecological stan- featuring ponds and sand dunes adjacent to the pipeline’s metering station, on what was once dards and mitigate long-term environmental damage. a heavily utilized agricultural field with limited Sources: EBI 2003; Newmont Golden Ridge Limited 2009. “like-for-like or better.” In cases where impacts on Bank’s Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines unique and irreplaceable biodiversity cannot be for Mining (IFC 2007a). mitigated, it may be necessary to redesign or relo- cate mining operations to prevent the need for General measures to reduce and mitigate losses to offsetting measures in critical habitats. Additional ecosystems and renewable natural resources appli- guidance and international best practices for cable to a range of large-scale investments are management of environmental, health, and safety summarized in table 2.2. risks in the mining sector can be found in the World 56 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Table 2.2  Potential environmental trade-offs in the productive sectors and indicative mitigation measures Potential environmental impact Key mitigation measure l Identify strategic facility locations l Restore affected habitats l Establish buffer zones l Undertake proportional actions to preserve wildlife corridors Terrestrial habitat, alteration l Establish biodiversity offsets to achieve net positive outcomes degradation, and fragmenta- tion l Provide alternative passages for wildlife l Minimize vegetation removal l Manage invasive species l Preserve natural water flow in wetlands l Avoid sensitive habitats (not disrupting natural wildlife patterns) l Follow effective water management practices l Prevent discharge of untreated water into natural watercourses l Minimize clearing of riparian vegetation l Preserve surface water flow patterns l Prevent contamination and mitigate pollution of aquatic ecosystems l Restore and protect aquatic habitats l Monitor and manage phytoplankton and aquatic plant health l Monitor irrigation drainage quality Aquatic ecosystem impact l Avoid overextraction of irrigation water (mainly from investments in the water sector) l Create buffer zones between irrigation and sensitive habitats l Use minimal agrochemicals l Develop and sustain comprehensive water balance l Develop water balance for catchment area l Monitor and adjust water withdrawal rates l Ensure downstream water user needs are considered l Avoid modifications in key fish-breeding sites l Assess dredging waste before removal l Dispose of waste in nonharmful locations l Engage in community planning to identify natural resource values and manage access Other biodiversity and natural l Avoid areas of high biodiversity value (i.e., sensitive areas) resource loss l Prepare and implement biodiversity management plans l Rehabilitate degraded habitats l Employ biodiversity offsets following “like-for-like or better” principle 2:   Tr a d e - o f fs a n d co m p l e m e n ta r i ti e s w i th o the r d e ve l o p m e n t s e cto rs   | 57 3 Pro-job and peace-building interventions S outh Sudan remains blessed with a wealth community-level institutions, and (4) enhancing of renewable natural resources and has employment opportunities for young men. the opportunity to follow a development l Integrated and balanced. Development of natural path that avoids mistakes made elsewhere, resources cannot come at the expense of vital and makes full use of the productive potential of its growth sectors including transport, energy, and ecosystems in a sustainable way. It is, however, crit- agriculture. Trade-offs must be managed to maxi- ical to invest in renewable natural resource sectors mize sustainable benefits across sectors. South in a way that is not only sensitive to the security Sudan is in desperate need of basic infrastruc- context, but actively supports and enhances efforts to ture, and infrastructure development can either promote stability and peace. This includes building support or harm the renewable natural resource representative local institutions and trust between sectors depending on how it is implemented. Coor- communities and with government, and enhancing dination across sectors is a key element of this (1) productive employment in rural areas, including at the national level through the reestablishment for young men. All natural resource management of interministerial coordination structures, and the interventions should thus adhere to a set of common development of investment-based and strategic cross-cutting principles: environmental impact and risk management systems; (2) at the regional/landscape/watershed l Ground up. Natural resource management must level through the use of integrated land use and be based around the active participation of development planning instruments; and (3) at communities in planning and implementation, the community level through the establishment and ultimately focused on delivering benefits and capacitation of integrated resource user/ to them—particularly in the form of expanded, management groups that can support manage- improved, and reliable livelihoods. ment across different local resources. l Inclusive. Management systems must be inclu- l Resilient. Resource planning and management sive of all ethnic groups with customary rights to systems should be climate-informed and respon- resources, and promote the inclusion and benefit sive, and robust to a range of external natural, of marginalized groups including women and social, and market shocks. Diversifying resource youth. Natural resource value chains should be management and livelihood systems will be managed to enhance inclusive jobs, enterprise important in this regard. development, and value generation within South Sudan. Applying a gender lens to interventions enables data collection and interventions that are more inclusive and effective at improving decision-making, reducing gender-based Fisheries violence, and boosting equitable benefits and Priority actions in the fisheries sector fall under access to resources. Strengthening women’s land the following categories: strengthening resource rights will be key to ensuring women are enabled management, value retention and addition, access to own and inherit land. to export markets, and enhancing inclusion. These l Pro-peace. Management systems should actively actions are detailed below and summarized in table 3.1. contribute to peace and stabilization in rural areas through (1) establishing the credibility of government as a service provider, (2) formal- Strengthening resource izing tenure rights through consultative systems management that support conflict resolution, (3) supporting the development of effective and responsive Although South Sudan’s fish stocks are considered to be healthy and probably underexploited, the knowledge 60 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew base from which this assessment is derived remains thin. effectiveness of capacity building for government Any efforts to enhance fisheries production—either staff is likely to be limited without sufficient staff directly or indirectly (i.e., improving sector perfor- retention and motivation. Thus, core civil service mance or conditions in a manner that would management challenges need to be addressed, encourage additional private investment)—must including ensuring timely payment of adequate be predicated on core monitoring and manage- salaries and providing necessary operational ment systems for fisheries resources and the aquatic resources—although this is beyond the scope of ecosystems on which they depend. the fisheries sector alone. l Data collection and monitoring. Develop a simple l Policy framework. Update and implement the 2015 and affordable community-based fisheries and Fisheries Bill, along with guidance on a new sector aquatic environmental data collection system strategic action plan. The bill and plan should which would include basic indicators of fishing formalize local resource tenure and dispute reso- effort, catch (including major species and size lution systems, and reinforce them through local distribution), and ecosystem health. This should government recognition and support. The decen- be combined with modest national-level value tralized management framework would need chain and wetland health monitoring systems to to be sufficiently flexible to accommodate the detect environmental and market-driven chal- diverse local arrangements that currently exist, lenges to the sustainability of fisheries. involving traditional chiefs and/or elected chief fishers, while encouraging inclusive governance strategies that involve existing and potential Value retention and addition stakeholders. l Collaborative management models. Develop a A set of coordinated interventions are necessary number of Boma fisheries management models— to reduce postharvest loss and capture additional including enacting simple area-specific bylaws value in the fisheries sector. on the use of fisheries and wetland habitats—that l Key value chain infrastructure. Upgrade landing are in harmony with the regulatory framework, sites and trading structures at key nodes (e.g., and developed in collaboration with and the Bor, Malakal, and Munga ports) to include broad consent of local users. This effort should potable water and proper storage facilities. Invest include strengthening organizational capacity in and support cold chain systems, including of existing local governance structures, and solar-powered chest freezers and small ice mapping and agreement on Boma manage- plants, to link fishing grounds with main landing ment boundaries. Robust co-management sites and export markets. Because the private of small-scale fisheries can bring significant sector should invest in value chain and business impacts to fishing communities over time periods development, the role of public investment ulti- of only a few years (box 3.1). mately is to provide a minimal base of critical l Training and capacity building. Train local leaders (including in dispute resolution), government, academic, nongovernmental organization formulation and enforcement of fishery regulations by (NGO), and value chain actors in the ecosystem which the fisheries management authority controls the approach to fisheries to ensure continuity present and future behaviours of the interested parties in the fishery, in order to ensure the continued productivity of healthy aquatic ecosystem services.1 The of the living resources” (FAO 1995). It was developed to implement the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the The ecosystem approach to fisheries is defined as “the 1  United Nations’ Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, integrated process of information gathering, analysis, and sustainable development as set out by the Brundt- planning, decision-making, allocation of resources and land Commission. 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 61 Box 3.1  Successful co-management of the Mexican Pacific lobster fishery Along the Pacific coast of Baja California, handles marketing responsibilities and has also community fishing cooperatives are granted invested in staff biologists that collect and 20-year exclusive and renewable concessions analyze data, conduct stock assessments, and to harvest the California lobster Panulirus inter- liaise with fisheries science agencies. As a result, ruptus within clearly defined territories. This is these lobster fishers are among the most finan- an artisanal fisheries using 5–7 m-long fiber- cially successful small-scale fishers in Mexico. glass boats and traps. Cooperative members In 2004, the Baja California red rock lobster work with government to jointly establish regu- fishery became the first small-scale developing lations; they are also empowered to carry out world fishery to achieve Marine Stewardship surveillance, and detain illegal fishers and Council certification, which it holds to this day. turn them over to authorities. Cooperatives Several factors contribute to the success of this provide other benefits and services including fishery: jobs; financing for fishing equipment; and local investments in education, roads, and electricity. l A strong and effective organizational struc- ture focused on the long-term economic Over time, effective co-management has interest of cooperative members generated a shift from a short-term production mindset to a long-term value mindset among l Strong and exclusive tenure rights fishers. Despite large-scale climate fluctua- l Strong coordination and communication tions caused by El Niño, the lobster catch has with regulatory agencies that facilitates remained within recommended catch limits adaptive co-management over the past few decades. Several of the coop- l Strongly enforced community-driven fishing eratives have joined the Regional Federation of rules. Cooperative Societies of Baja California, which Sources: Coastal Resources Center 2014; McCay et al. 2014. infrastructure to catalyze business engagement establish organizations, like the Post-Harvest Fish and investment. Technology Platform model in West Africa, to collectively deal with challenges and to develop l Favorable business environment. A favorable busi- basic business skills. Provide vocational training ness environment will crowd in private sector to actors in the value chain to minimize posthar- investment in value chains, including cold chain vest losses and maximize value addition. infrastructure. This includes general policy frame- works to support business, as well as assessment l Credit and insurance services. Offer credit, micro- of the sector-specific regulatory framework— credit, and insurance services tailored to the including high tax rates such as the 18 percent needs of women, youth, and others with limited tax fish exports, and exposure to uncertain and access to collateral. Create village savings and informal tax regimes. For a sector dependent on loan associations to support entry into business rapid and reliable transportation of a perish- ventures. Regulate credit facility schemes and able product, delays and unpredictable charges empower women through business coaching. at road blocks can be a serious constraint. l Incubation centers. Establish local business and l Institutional and vocational training for collectives and technical skills training centers to support small enterprises. Help fishers, particularly women, commercialization of small-scale fisheries 62 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew through providing training for community-based and arranging provision for sealed container trainers as well as a networking hub. transshipment of fish through Uganda to the Democratic Republic of Congo. l Promoting fish to address food security. Explore the potential to expand domestic demand for fish, and fisheries’ contribution to meeting national Enhancing inclusion food security needs, through promoting increased use of locally sourced fish in humanitarian food Ensuring women are included in decision-making assistance—particularly supplying displacement and leadership roles within the fisheries value chain camps. is essential to realizing the sector’s full economic and social potential, and should be mainstreamed across all activities. Access to export markets l Gender-transformative approaches. Gender-trans- Fish exports are limited, vulnerable to the enforce- formative approaches are needed to challenge ment of existing regulations in East African harmful gender norms, roles, and relations— Community countries; commerce is mostly captured including awareness about human rights and by foreign traders. Key measures to enhance exports gender-based violence, deliberate engagement include the following: of women for meaningful participation in fish- eries groups and enterprises, and setting quotas l Quality assurance and export regulation. Establish for women in group leadership positions (for deci- a competent authority to promote and regu- sion-making). late fishery product quality, safety, and trade, including setting up accredited laboratories. l Tailored trainings and formal education. Provide women with tailored trainings and education to l Critical transport infrastructure. Improving river and enhance their skills and enable their access to all-weather road transport infrastructure in key finance, thus ensuring the sustainability and prof- locations would facilitate timely and dependable itability of their businesses. transport of perishable fish. l Sector gender strategy. Assist the Department of l Border markets. Assess the feasibility of establishing Fisheries in developing an integrated, budgeted secondary fish markets in strategic border towns, fisheries sector gender strategy, bringing women such as Nimule. These could encourage easier and men into a position where they participate as access and competitiveness within the export equals in fisheries management and marketing. trade through increased number of customers Helping policy makers better understand the from and opportunities to sell more products constraints that females (and youths) face is a crit- under free-on-board conditions (transferring ical first step in the development of an enabling risks to traders from importing countries).2 policy environment that ensures equal access for l Bilateral and regional trade agreements. Address women and youth to land (especially as collat- trade barriers through bilateral and regional eral), finance, and inputs. The strategy should be trade agreements, including securing access designed to strengthen governance that ensures to existing trade arrangements, notably the women and men benefit equally from any fishery African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA); project and any financial and technical support. 2  “Free-on-board” (FoB) is a term used to indicate when the ownership of goods transfers from buyer to seller and who is liable for goods damaged or destroyed during ship- ping. “FoB origin” means the buyer assumes all risk once the seller ships the product. 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 63 Table 3.1  Summary action plan for fisheries sector Theme Action Indicative public cost Short-medium term (1–5 years) Strengthen local resource management and monitoring $10–$20 million l Update Fisheries Bill and develop sector action plan l Capacity-building and long-term focused on small-scale fisheries management operational costs for co-management Resource l Enact legal framework for collaborative manage- would be main expenses governance ment l Technical assistance from partners l Establish participatory resource and ecosystem with international expertise in monitoring system small-scale fisheries co-management l Build community and government capacity would be critical Reduce postharvest loss l Detailed value chain and market surveys $20–$30 million l Key value chain infrastructure investments Core infrastructure and capacity l Policy reforms to improve business environment and building to facilitate further private access to credit sector investment would be main l Institutional capacity and vocational training for expenses cooperatives and micro, small, and medium-size Value enterprises addition Secure and expand export valuea l Establish competent authority and laboratories to regulate sanitary and quality standards $5 million l Assess feasibility of new/improved border export markets Institutional establishment and capacity building would be main expenses l Bilateral and regional trade agreements to support reduced inspection times, closed container trans- shipments, etc. Longer term (5–20 years) Capacity to ramp up production in high-flood yearsa l Multiuse cold storage and logistics capacity invest- l Substantial, but most costs would be ments borne by the private sector and infra- l Improvements to key transport links, including structure sectors Value border crossings l Direct costs to fisheries management addition authorities to identify and lobby for Access high-value export marketsa priority investments and promote l Transport, energy, and trade infrastructure private sector investment could be l Policy and institutional reforms to remove trade modest barriers and promote access (e.g., trade fairs) a. Predicated on strengthened resource management and monitoring to facilitate and permit sustainable catch increase. 64 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Forests l Strengthening capacity for Forest Policy implementa- tion. Establish and operationalize capacity for improved implementation capacity and coor- Priority actions in the forestry sector fall under the dination between key institutions at the national, following categories: building forest governance state, and local levels to strengthen government systems and government capacity, restoring and capacity for forest management and improve protecting natural forests through community security in insecure national forest reserves. forestry, restoring forest plantations and building a Building capacity at all levels is needed. Carrying basis for sustainable value addition. These actions out capacity needs assessments at selected sites are detailed below and summarized in table 3.2. could help in developing a capacity-building plan. Investments in capacity building are Building forest governance needed on all fronts, including human resources systems and government and skills, facilities, information technology, and mobility. capacity l Improving availability of forest information. Improve Strengthening legislation, governance framework and data and knowledge on forests and their use by institutions is a crucial element in the development of establishing a forest information management both plantation sector and community forest management system, demarcate and map national forest (CFM) of natural forests. Updated national policies, reserves, carry out forest management planning, comprehensive forest law, and clear institutional and map and assess woodlots and plantations mandates will allow technical work in various forest under farm forestry. These efforts should include subsectors to proceed by creating regulatory clarity. establishing national standards and guidelines There is also a need to ensure that agencies and for data collection to ensure consistency of all institutions responsible for the forest sector have data collected from field operations. A national adequate resources—human, material, information/ forest inventory would provide the baseline data data, etc.—to operate effectively. Capacities need needed in sector planning. to be available at both the national and subna- tional levels. The key elements in building forest sector regulatory certainty and capacity include Restoring and protecting the following: natural forests through community forestry l Clarifying and updating policy and legal framework and issuing subsidiary legislation. The draft Forest Introducing systematic, participatory, and science-based Bill (2023) needs a technical update to include management of South Sudan’s natural forests is a precondi- some missing elements (climate change and tion to the protection and sustainable use of forests for local forest carbon, clearer definition of key concepts, socioeconomic benefits. The natural forests are almost etc.); it also needs to be enacted by the legislature. all situated on community land; consequently, CFM The Forest Policy of 2015 could also be revised would provide a number of benefits. People living to ensure alignment. Once enacted, the Forest in and around forests would be in charge of their Bill needs to be complemented with subsidiary management and would benefit from them. The regulations and technical guidelines for forest national government and local administrations management of both plantations and natural would be largely indirectly involved and would only forests. This includes preparing implementing need to invest in support and extension services and regulations with clear definitions, rules, and oper- higher-level monitoring, but not in field implemen- ating practices. tation. While there is no current national guidance on how CFM could be organized in the country, two 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 65 types of arrangements could be used, based on selected, and how sustainable management and experience from other African countries: good governance are to be ensured. The general guidelines would be national, but should be local- l On community land, institutional arrangements ized as needed to account for differences in forest would involve forest management by community structures and community dynamics and traditions groups and decentralized government entities by state. While the majority of natural forests are with land management regulation oversight on community land, there would also need to be a responsibilities (specifically the payam land separate system for forest reserves where commu- council and county land authorities) nities could co-manage the reserves with local or l On government forest reserves, community forestry national government. would be implemented through co-management The guidelines and standard operating proce- agreements between the government and dures would need to be codified at a sufficiently community forestry associations (CFAs). high level (e.g., legislation or government degree) The 2015 Forest Policy and the latest Forest Bill to ensure that they are not changed too often allow for CFM, but they do not define the systems in or interpreted differently by different authori- detail. CFM establishment processes and division ties. There should also be alignment with relevant of rights, responsibilities, and benefits thus remain regulations on community-based wildlife manage- undefined. Introducing community forestry in South ment and conservancies; see further discussion Sudan would require interventions through three under Strengthening governance frameworks and phases: (1) defining the CFM approach and systems, capacity (page 73). (2) building governance and key institutions, and (3) practical implementation in high-priority areas. Building governance and key institutions Defining the CFM approach and systems This phase will develop the institutional capacity While existing policy documents introduce various of public institutions and local communities to CFM-related concepts and terms, these are not implement CFM. Implementation of community defined. Therefore, there is an explicit need to forestry will require the creation of new institu- design and define a South Sudanese CFM model. tional arrangements and incentives; and capacity This would include agreeing on a process as to how building at the ministry, state, and county govern- to identify legitimate stakeholders and communi- ment levels. The expected outcome of this phase ties entitled to a given forest area; decision-making is increased capacity (institutional, human, and processes (including participatory processes within capital resources) to manage, supervise, and communities and the role of traditional leaders); monitor community forestry. This will be achieved and processes to delineate forests and agree on through three distinct steps. management plans. The role and responsibilities l Develop capacity-building plan. A human, capital, of forest authorities need to be clear and dispute and institutional reforms capacity needs assess- resolution processes agreed upon. While all coun- ment at the national, state, and county levels tries are different, and the systems need to be based should be undertaken to inform this plan. This in South Sudanese realities, models and lessons from needs assessment—focusing on key institutions other countries in Africa should be studied to obtain with a mandate for community forestry at the guidance (box 3.2). national, state, and county levels—will result in This phase would result in clearly defined, consulted, more effective capacity building in the long and officially endorsed guidelines for CFM, term. It should be followed up with prioritization explaining how areas and communities are to be of needs and matching of needs with requisite 66 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Box 3.2  Good practice example: Seven phases of CFM in Zambia Zambia follows a seven-step approach to while—balancing responsibilities with attrac- CFM (figure B3.2.1), defined and delineated in tive legal rights to end uncontrolled forest loss national guidelines issued by the Ministry of and incentivize community-driven sustainable Lands and Natural Resources. The guidelines, forest management. Total costs of imple- which also include checklists and supportive menting the seven steps (excluding centralized materials, are aimed at strengthening stew- training, provision of equipment, and imple- ardship of forests on customary land through mentation of the plans) are under $10,000. communal control, use, and management Figure B3.2.1  Overview of Zambia’s seven-phase CFM process Source: Zambia Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Community Forestry website. This approach has led to a notable increase in protected areas. The CFM approach was estab- improved and participatory forest manage- lished in the Forest Law of 2015; its long-term ment in Zambia. It has been estimated that impact on actual forest condition and local a total area of 3 million ha in over 300 CFM socioeconomic development is still being areas, accounting for 7 percent of all forests analyzed. in Zambia, or 10 percent of all forests outside Sources: Zambia Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Community Forestry website, and Zambian practi- tioner interviews. capacity. The assessment will indicate human involved in community forestry at the national, and capacity resource, institutional reform, state, and county levels. The plan should be devel- training, and accountability needs. It will also oped and costed. identify coordination and governance needs, l Strengthen capacity of public institutions. A lack of skills development capacities, and gender main- data and information on community land makes streaming issues. The assessment will lead to a demarcation and management of community capacity-building plan targeting institutions forests challenging. Therefore, there is a need 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 67 to increase public institutions’ capacity to map the tool development discussed above to ensure that and assess resources within community forests lessons learned from practical implementation are and government forest reserves. The increased taken into account. The key steps in implementa- capacity would enable the Ministry of Envi- tion follow. ronment and Forestry (MoEF) to understand the resources available in community forests l Build local-level support for CFM institutions. Currently, and government forest reserves that could be there are no institutions that can be used to roll harnessed to support community forestry. out community forestry at the grassroots level. Implementation of community forestry will Given South Sudan’s vast areas of community thus require creating awareness of community forests and woodlands, prioritization of iden- forestry among local communities to establish tified potential areas should be carried out to CFAs in selected areas to represent the interests of determine the most-critical community forests.3 people living around forests. Building these asso- Boundaries could be defined by already existing ciations would entail the following: land use. This could then be followed up with initial assessments through meetings, participatory rural — Raising awareness on community forestry appraisal, field reconnaissance, and surveys; land with all key decision-makers at state, county, use and forest mapping; boundary delineation; payam, and boma levels, including traditional and natural resource/forest inventories. authorities — Identifying and working with practitioners l Strengthen capacity of CFM practitioners and facilitators. (e.g., community forestry facilitator teams) Implementation of the CFM framework will require who should fully understand community awareness creation and development of institu- forestry processes and approaches tional capacity. Community forestry manuals, guidance, and protocols will be fundamental in — Publicizing and creating awareness through the development of institutional capacities at the various platforms at the community level to local level. These tools should be used by facilitators, elicit interest coordinators, and participants in the community — Identifying incentives and tangible benefits forestry process as well as serve as reference mate- that would encourage communities to engage rial for government agencies, NGOs, and other in community forestry. institutions that play a supporting role or have an interest in community forestry. The tools should The 2023 Forest Bill recognizes a forest commu- capture the rationale and principles of CFM and nity as one living in or around a forest and with a an overview of its steps and requirements. traditional association to the forest for purposes of livelihood, culture, or religion. The bill acknowl- edges a CFA as a community entity with which Practical implementation in high- relevant national government/MoEF bodies may priority areas enter into an agreement for management of any This phase would start actual implementation of natural forests and woodlands and the establish- CFM in high-priority areas. Its startup should overlap ment of CFM committees.4 3  Prioritization criteria need to be developed through 4  The draft Forest Bill also proposes the establishment of a consultative process, but could include areas with the South Sudan Forest Authority. This authority is not high-value forests (in terms of both biodiversity and yet operational, but could play a role in the establish- commercial species); increased pressure from infrastruc- ment of CFAs. The contracting party could also be the ture, extractive industries, and agricultural development; local authority, depending on the relevant legislation and and protected area buffer zones, largely in the green belt whether CFM is conducted on traditional land or gazetted in the western parts of the country. reserves. 68 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew The process of establishing CFAs should be rolled CFA and initially the MoEF have co-management out in priority CFM areas. This process could be responsibilities. facilitated by NGOs or other institutions that play l Support livelihood and economic opportunities in CFM a supporting role or have an interest in commu- communities. It is essential that targeted commu- nity forestry. The CFA formation process will nities be allowed to benefit from their forests and require the establishment of bylaws or consti- improve their livelihoods. Structures and systems tutions and governance structures based on that improve the well-being of communities in templates established in the CFM guidelines. CFA the forest sector are likely to enhance commu- obligations should be clearly defined. These could nity participation in forest management in South be to (1) protect, conserve, and manage the forest Sudan. Emphasis should be placed on innovative or part of the forest following an approved forest and impactful actions that will transform the lives management agreement entered into with the of the local community residents and enhance MoEF; (2) formulate and implement sustainable forest management. forest programs consistent with traditional forest user rights of the community; and (3) assist the MoEF in enforcing relevant legislation, including Restoring forest plantations with regard to illegal harvesting of forest prod- ucts and encroachment. and building a basis for sustainable value addition l Develop CFM forest management plans. The Forest Plantation development and revitalization of Bill requires that all forests be managed through sustainable production forestry in South Sudan management plans; therefore, also community will require interventions in both types of produc- forestry should be directed by forest manage- tion plantations: smallholder plantations/woodlots ment plans as well. The MoEF, NGOs, or other and commercial plantations. While investing in entities facilitating the process should initiate commercial plantations ultimately is a private the development of forest management plans sector task and responsibility, certain government in selected sites with the CFM area. A clear actions (including investment subsidies) are needed procedure for bringing in all interested parties to create a conducive operating environment for should be adopted, and this could provide good private operators. lessons during the development of the commu- nity forestry manuals and guidelines. Forest plantation sector revitalization through facil- l Implement CFM forest management plans. Once the itating community/smallholder commercial tree forest management plans have been developed growers would include a stepwise process approach, and approved, their implementation needs to preferably in areas with an existing smallholder begin. Co-management agreements should plantation subsector like the Western Equatoria be formulated and implemented in the forest State. This revitalization would involve the following: reserves. For community forestry on community land, CFAs and local authorities could establish l Strengthening service delivery to farm forestry and co-management agreements defining respective commercial tree growers, including by building rights and responsibilities. One of the functions systems for service delivery to tree growers of the payam land councils is to assist traditional through project-type interventions and engaging authorities and leaders in the management of formal private sector operators in service delivery community lands. They also have a mandate to to tree growers. ensure the protection of communal grazing land, l Building capacity of commercial smallholder tree forests, wetlands, and water resources under the growers for plantation management on community and Land Act of 2009. For CFMs in forest reserves, the government land, which would call for organizing 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 69 interested tree growers and strengthening their more tailored to individual investors’ needs. Key steps understanding of contractual obligations and would include the following: knowledge and skills in tree growing and plan- tation management. Local-level (county, boma, l Increasing awareness through preparing and payam) authorities would also need sensitiza- disseminating information linking investors to tion on the opportunities of production forestry opportunities. This would also require preparing in building local economic resilience. national government standard operating prac- tices for soliciting proposals and answering to l Rehabilitating government forest plantations in target unsolicited proposals. counties by preparing contracts between govern- ment and commercial tree growers, allocating l De-risking investments through implementing management rights to entrepreneurial small- interventions to reduce physical and economic holders and businesses. risks associated with forest plantation invest- ments. This would require both improving physical l Increasing areas of on-farm forestry and improving safety and improving the business climate. For their management by promoting the establish- the latter, collaboration with international finan- ment of on-farm plantations and woodlots and cial institutions and development partners would promoting agroforestry practices. be needed. l Engaging tree growers in plantation revitalization l Promoting partnerships with private investors by and incentivizing private smallholder forestry engaging both domestic and foreign investors on tree growers’ own land. This may also include at different stages of the plantation wood value outgrower schemes with commercial plantation chains. operators. For all commercial production forestry activities, an Promoting plantation development through private enabling investment and operating environment is crucial. sector investment in industrial forestry takes more While some challenges can be addressed through time and involves much larger individual transac- forest sector–specific interventions, improvements tions than for smallholder plantations (box 3.3). It is to the general business climate are crucial. likely that public enabling actions would need to be 70 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Box 3.3  Financing needed to establish sustainable forest management systems in South Sudan South Sudan has over 200,000 km2 of natural plantations ($10.2 million). This forest sector forests, and current institutional capacity for its reform program would put roughly 20,000 km2 management is vastly insufficient. Building forest (10 percent of the forest area) under improved management systems in the country will require and systematic forest management and a stepwise approach focusing first on (1) building empower and support the livelihoods of some a key institutional framework, (2) protecting the 350,000 people in rural South Sudan.1 Once existing resource base, and (3) building commu- initial investments in CFM architecture have nity engagement in priority areas. been made, the area covered can be expanded if and when the government and development Table B3.3.1 presents three options in the order partners allocate additional resources to the of urgency: (1) national capacity development, sector. Building sustainable forest manage- building CFM infrastructure, and its implemen- ment and improving forest governance would tation in high-priority areas ($16.5 million); also have climate benefits; if CFM introduc- (2) launching plantation revitalization and tion prevents tree cover loss from increasing smallholder plantations ($6.6 million) and (3) to 2.4 percent over the next 20 years, it would enhanced support to CFM, smallholder plan- prevent some 40 MtCO2 emissions.2 tation and launching support to industrial Table B3.3.1  Projected budget for priority and enhanced development options (million $) Activity Theme Short term High option Total Priority development options 1. National capacity (TA and investments) Governance 5.0 0.0 5.0 2. CFM establishment Governance/ TA 3.5 1.5 5.0 restoration CFA establishment Governance 4.0 0.0 4.0 Restoration/ Forest management & livelihood activities 4.0 0.0 4.0 value addition Subtotal 16.5 1.5 18.0 Enhanced development options 3. Plantation sector developmenta TA Restoration/ 2.5 0.0 2.5 Smallholder plantations value addition 4.1 4.1 8.2 Industrial plantations 0.0 6.1 6.1 Subtotal 6.6 10.2 16.8 Total 23.1 11.7 34.8 Note: TA = technical assistance. a. 50% (smallholder) or 25% (industrial) subsidy to plantation establishment. Private investments in planta- tions or downstream processing not included. The target levels are based on reference data from other countries and need to be validated in more detailed 1  planning. Assuming that a lack of systematic forest management would double the past tree cover loss in the next 20 2  years. 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 71 Table 3.2  Summary action plan for forestry sector Theme Action Indicative public cost Short-medium term (1–5 years) National capacity building l Institutional and legal development (Forest Bill and policy) l Investments in ministry and local $5 million government technical capacity Capacity-building, technical assistance, and opera- l Development of forest data collec- tional costs would be main expenses tion (e.g., mapping) and monitoring system (technical assistance and Resource investments) governance CFM establishment l Technical assistance for CFM planning $10 milliona and system development l Technical assistance, operational costs, and l Developing guidelines community incentives would be main expenses l CFA establishment and management l Community members would allocate time and planning in-kind community resources l Forest management operations $2 million CFM activities l Operational costs and community incentives Value l Forest management operations would be main expenses addition l Livelihood activities l Communities would provide labor and, depending on livelihood activities selected, other inputs Longer term (5–20 years)b Plantation development $1.25 million l Institutional and legal development l Designing support systems Capacity-building and technical assistance would Resource be main expenses l Developing guidelines governance $1.5 million CFM activities l Ongoing support and monitoring Operational costs, technical assistance, and commu- nity incentives would be main expenses $8.4 million Plantation development l Operational costs, technical assistance, and l Plantation establishment producer incentives would be main expenses to Restoration facilitate private investments l Incentives to smallholders l Private beneficiaries would allocate both in-kind l Incentives to commercial plantations and financial contributions based on agreed cost-sharing formulas $7.15 million Plantation development l Producer incentives would be main expenses facili- Value tating private investments l Incentives to smallholders addition l Incentives to commercial plantations l Private beneficiaries would allocate both in-kind and financial contributions based on agreed cost-sharing formulas a. CFM activities are scalable, and additional resources would allow faster expansion of the CFM model to larger areas. b. Plantation technical assistance could start earlier if there is certainty of implementation finance. 72 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Wildlife and tourism areas and wildlife landscapes. These actions are detailed below and summarized in table 3.3. Given the abundance of habitats in good condition, many of South Sudan’s protected areas can be brought to a high Strengthening governance level of management if proper systems and investments are put in place. In certain cases, such as Southern frameworks and capacity National Park, the severe depletion of wildlife will mean that recovery will take several decades (Blower Strengthening and implementing the 1977). An initial step in supporting any rehabilitation policy framework strategy for protected areas and wildlife will be to Enactment, clarification, and subsequent implementing undertake a comprehensive survey of the national regulations on the specific institutional roles, responsibil- protected areas system. There are eight protected ities, and measures of pivotal bills are needed. These bills areas—Boma and Badingilo National Parks (which include the Wildlife Conservation and Protected are part of the BBJL), the Sudd, Nimule National Park, Area Bill (2023), the Tourism Bill (2023), and the Southern National Park, Imatong Forest Reserve, Environment Bill (currently in draft) is needed. For Lantoto National Park, Kidepo Game Reserve, and wildlife conservation and protected areas, it will Shambe National Park—and their surrounding lands be important that this legislation provides clarity which can be classified as priority candidates in a between policy/regulation roles and implementa- process toward well-managed protected areas tion functions and on financing arrangements. As that contribute to sustainable development and one specific example, experience in Africa has shown the national economy. that protected area agencies that can focus on implementation perform better than those in coun- Restoration for the Sudd would be particularly tries where the ministry itself holds responsibility for complex, given high population density, high levels implementation. Institutional measures that allow of depletion of wildlife resources, and large-scale protected area authorities to retain and then rein- and poorly understood processes of change. One vest revenues from protected area management such change is the clogging of water flows that has also tend to perform better; Uganda and South contributed to seasonal and permanent flooding, Africa provide good examples in this regard. Under perhaps exacerbated by an accumulation of inva- these systems, revenues generated from tourism sive waterweeds (especially water hyacinth washed entry and stay fees, concession revenues, licenses downstream from the Lake Victoria Basin) and the and permits—together with external financing—can extirpation of large herbivore populations (espe- help create budget certainty, increase incentives for cially hippopotamus and elephant) that would developing revenue generation measures, and ulti- have helped open up vegetation when populations mately help place protected area financing on a of these species were healthy. Restoration efforts more sustainable footing. would need to be undertaken in coordination with efforts to introduce and expand community fisheries Finalization and enactment of the Environment Bill development. More research on whether existing will also introduce appropriate environmental and environmental changes are affecting hydrological social impact assessment into the development flows in the Sudd is needed. planning process. This will provide a measure of safe- guards that could encourage more wildlife-friendly Priority actions in the wildlife and tourism sector planning and development approaches. Further, fall under the general categories of strengthening the bill will introduce a more comprehensive legal overall governance systems and capacity, and framework for broader environmental protection. investing in the rehabilitation of specific protected 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 73 To ensure effective land use management and standards of social risk management with respect conservation, consultative processes will be needed to communities within and around protected areas. with local communities and land authorities to The Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism respect customary rights in land ownership and could also learn from neighboring Uganda—where to come to an agreement on how to officially the Uganda Wildlife Authority has adopted stan- designate (gazette) protected areas—including dard operating procedures that cover all aspects of potentially developing some kind of formal status ranger service delivery, including compliance with for the Boma-Badingilo-Jonglei landscape (BBJL). international standards for social risk management. Building collaborative partnerships Developing wildlife-based tourism As government resources are likely to remain constrained The current peace and security environment in in the near term (at least until significant tourism revenues South Sudan—combined with a lack of suitable facil- begin to flow), government could build on the successful ities and infrastructure—places a major constraint partnership that has been established with African Parks on the development of wildlife-based tourism, and to assist in conservation management and wildlife-based hence the ability to capitalize on the enormous tourism development of the BBJL. Strengthening economic potential that could otherwise be derived partnerships and collaborative efforts with devel- from South Sudan’s extraordinary wildlife resources. opment partners as well as specialized NGOs will help garner support for natural resource manage- Currently, wildlife-based tourism is extremely limited ment, providing indigenous land rights are in volume and largely “niche-focused”—affordable respected. NGOs and perhaps private sector part- only to small numbers of extremely wealthy tour- ners could help strengthen the wildlife service to ists who travel in helicopters and stay in tented manage protected areas and wildlife more effec- camps in the BBJL. The economic contribution tively and to develop wildlife-based tourism that of wildlife-based tourism is therefore minimal at could contribute to economic development as present. Looking ahead, and assuming progress is well as financial sustainability of protected areas. made in reducing conflicts, there is considerable A short-term measure could be to reconvene the potential for tourism development in general, and Natural Resources Management Group to enable wildlife-based tourism in particular. interministerial consultation on development Preparation of a tourism master plan could help projects and discuss potential environmental impli- develop different tourism segments in a phased cations of sector development projects. manner that could help avoid cultural and environ- mental impacts, bring economic benefits to local Training the wildlife service communities, and generate funds that could be rein- vested in conservation management. Such a plan There is a pressing need to improve capacity for law could also help identify tourism assets and prod- enforcement through training. Given the high depen- ucts and related markets, and put in place a rational dence of local communities—many of which strategy for developing this sector with the support comprise indigenous groups—on natural resources of the private sector. For wildlife-based tourism, the and long-established traditional land resource use plan would need to cover the following: claims, it will be extremely important for training goes beyond traditional enforcement. It should also l Basic infrastructure and management invest- cover measures to address social risks, human rights, ments, including developing access roads and gender-based violence, and grievance redress. grading of tracks and trails in protected areas; The objective, in addition to building capacity and consideration of the strategic positioning for day-to-day ranger work, should be to ensure and cost implications of airstrips in selected areas the wildlife service adheres to and upholds high 74 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew l Consideration of how best to improve water and CFM model that enhances community organization, electricity availability and accessibility through capacity, and tenure to effectively map and manage boreholes and solar installations, wildlife and forest resources while developing related livelihood opportunities. l Consideration of how to improve the number and quality of tourist and administrative facilities An ongoing initiative proposed by African Parks l Sustainability considerations that ensure aims to establish up to 21 community conservancies that investments do not undermine sustain- with business and livelihood planning and start-up able natural resource management efforts—for support; as well as up to 19 conservation service example, careful consideration of the implica- nodes equipped with offices, basic equipment, tions of increasing access and thereby exposing airstrips, communications, and trained commu- local communities and wildlife populations to nity conservancy liaison staff (map 3.1). Additionally, human exploitation. there would be institutional capacity support for the wildlife service to fulfill core community support functions. There would also be a focus on strength- Promoting tourism ening community resource tenure, promoting The Tourism Bill needs to clearly define the roles and wildlife-based tourism, and the development of responsibilities of (1) tourism policy and regulatory sustainable finance strategies—perhaps including development—typically functions retained by the efforts to secure financing from the voluntary carbon relevant ministry—in this case, the Ministry of Wildlife markets and from debt-for-nature swaps. Conservation and Tourism; and (2) tourism promo- tion and tourism training development—which The primary objective will be to ensure the continued is usually better done by an entity that can work functionality and productivity of the migration closely with private sector entities. In some cases, in harmony with local cultural norms and prac- tourism promotion entities are funded by subscrip- tices and managing wildlife resources for both tion contributions from the private sector. consumptive and nonconsumptive purposes to contribute long-term and sustainable benefits for local communities. For this to work in the context Interventions on the ground of the migratory patterns of the wildlife popula- tions will require the protection and maintenance Given the value of current wildlife resources and their of breeding, grazing, and movement spaces and vulnerability to future development, top priority should be the introduction of regulated sustainable offtake given to identifying the substantial financing and invest- agreements at the conservancy level. Reintro- ments that will be needed to secure the BBJL and associated duction of key species—in particular of sedentary antelope migrations. A starting point could be devel- species that have largely been extirpated from opment of a landscape plan that can provide a the landscape, such as buffalo and elephant—and multistakeholder framework for future investments habitat restoration will also be key for enhancing and activities. Early development of this plan is wildlife populations and thereby increasing sustain- under way and would involve the development of a able offtake opportunities. This approach broadly network of community conservancies anchored by follows tried-and-tested approaches developed by well-managed protected areas (including Ez Zeraf the Northern Rangeland Trust for conservancies in Game Reserve in the Sudd). The initial step would Kenya and Namibia (box 3.4). involve establishing a community conservancy and 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 75 Map 3.1  Planning for community conservancies to link formal protected areas in the BBJL (proposed stage of development by 2028) Source: African Parks 2024. 76 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew Box 3.4  Experience with community conservancies: resilient communities and ecosystems The Northern Rangelands Trust (NRT) supports impact. The MMWCA currently supports 24 45 community conservancies covering an area conservancies with over 16,500 landowners with of 15 million ha in northern Kenya and Uganda. a vision to create a “vibrant and unified Mara The community conservancy approach ecosystem where the community and wildlife has attracted substantial private sector coexist sustainably for the prosperity of all.”2 As ecotourism investments that directly benefit in the BBJL, most wildlife at any one time in the these communities. Revenues generated by Maasai Mara tend to be found outside national the conservancies come from wildlife tourism, parks and game reserves (over 83 percent of livestock investments, and women-owned craft wildlife in the Maasai Mara are typically found enterprises. Revenues and investment are used in community conservancies) (MMWCA 2023). to support livelihood programs and to expand Namibia also has an impressive and infrastructure development within conservan- well-established network of community cies such as airstrips, roads, schools, hospitals, conservation areas empowering rural people, and water points. The NRT also supports the improving livelihoods, and conserving wildlife Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project and the environment. Initiated in the 1990s, which generates sustainable income for NRT community conservation areas now cover over conservancies.1 20 percent of Namibia’s land. As of 2022, there Elsewhere in Kenya, the Maasai Mara Wildlife were 86 registered communal conservancies in Conservancies Association (MMWCA) creates a total, including 46 registered community forests platform for pastoral communities and tourism and 20 community fisheries reserves in 7 of the partners to strengthen conservancy manage- conservancies (MEFT and NACSO 2023). ment, raise issues, and create large-scale 1  Source: NRT website, Who We Are; accessed September 2024. 2  Source: MMWCA website, Who We Are; accessed September 2024. 3:   P r o - j o b a n d p e a ce - b u i l d i n g i n te r ve n ti o n s   | 77 Table 3.3  Summary action plan for wildlife and tourism sector Theme Action Indicative public cost Short-medium term (1–5 years) Strengthen framework for protected area management l Enact Wildlife Conservation and Protected Area Bill (2023), Tourism Bill (2023), and Environment Bill, and prepare instruments (regula- tions and guidelines) to guide implementation $5–$10 million l Undertake a comprehensive survey of protected areas, including biodiversity survey, socioeconomic and threat assessment Field surveys, consultations, and l Formalize the legal status of major protected areas, starting with boundary demarcation to formalize priority areas for wildlife conservation and management (specifi- protected areas would be main cally Boma and Badangilo National Parks) expenses l Reconvene the Natural Resources Management Group to enable Resource governance interministerial consultation on development projects and to discuss potential environmental implications of sector development projects Strengthen wildlife management capacity $10–$20 million l Rationalize the wildlife service and increase budget to establish a functional corps of staff Not including regular budget l Develop standard operating procedures and training curricula, and allocations for staff salaries and deliver in-service training, including in working with communities operating costs, consistent delivery and on social risk management of capacity building to the wildlife l Renovate, equip, and provide operational costs for the wildlife service would be main additional expenses of the wildlife service service training center at Nimule National Park $40 million BBJL landscape planning and management l Livelihoods and capacity support, l Participatory strategic land use management plan for the BBJL and infrastructure and equip- Restoration covering anchor protected areas and conservancies ment would be main expenses l Establishment of a first batch (nominally, 10) of community conser- l Community members would allo- vancies cate time and in-kind community resources Wildlife tourism establishment Value Modest public cost, but around l Preliminary assessment of tourism potential (products and markets) addition $5 million from private operators l Pilot high-end tented camps and initial marketing activities Longer term (5–20 years) Consolidate and expand protected area management capacity l Expand partnership arrangements with conservation international NGOs to support management of major protected areas Resource l Consider establishment of a protected area management agency Few million dollars to establish new governance with an independent governance structure and authority to retain agency and reinvest revenues and raise external financing l Establish a national conservation endowment trust fund to support reliable funding for major protected areas $100–$200 million CFM activities l Estimate largely depends on scale Resource l Bring remaining major protected areas under active manage- of infrastructure development and restoration/ ment, in partnership with international NGOs where appropriate, number of protected areas brought management including community engagement, patrolling and improving infra- under active management structure and communications l Community members would allo- cate time and in-kind community resources Wildlife tourism development l Prepare a tourism master plan with a strong focus on environmental and cultural sustainability l Consider establishing a tourism promotion agency Substantial investment costs Value for tourism development, but l Expand and improve tourism infrastructure in and around major addition should mainly be borne by private protected areas as security conditions allow, including in support of operators transboundary tourism offerings with Uganda l Develop programs for carbon financing to support conservation and habitat management 78 |   So uth Sudan: N at ur al Res our c es Rev i ew References African Development Bank Group. 2023. “South Sudan Food EEAS (European External Action Service). 2022. “South Sudan and Agriculture Delivery Compact.” African Development Environmental Profile Report.” Brussels, European Union. 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