MODERNIZATION OF Hydrological Services In Japan AND LESSONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Foundation of River & Basin Integrated Communications, Japan (FRICS) ABBREVIATIONS ADCP acoustic Doppler current profilers CCTV closed-circuit television DRM disaster risk management FRICS Foundation of River & Basin Integrated Communications, Japan GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery ICT Information and Communications Technology JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JMA Japan Meteorological Agency GISTDA Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism MP multi parameter NHK Japan Broadcasting Corporation SAR synthetic aperture radar UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Table of Contents 1. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. Overview of Hydrological Services in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1 Hydrological services and river management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.2 Flow of hydrological information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3. Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 3.1 Relationships between disaster management development and hydrometeorological service changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.2 Changes in water-related disaster management in Japan and required hydrological service modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.3 Lessons learned from other mega-disasters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.4 Tools used to solve problems and achieve goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.5 Evolution prompted by technology development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.6 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4. Organizations Related to Japan’s Hydrological Services and their Relationships . . . . . . .28 4.1 Changes in governmental and other organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.2 Role-sharing and cooperation between the government and citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.3 The involvement of the private sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4.4 Government’s relationship with mass media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4.5 Establishment of FRICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4.6 User groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 5. Application of Japan’s Knowledge, Experience, and Lessons to International Cooperation Projects Relating to Hydrological Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 5.1 Technical cooperation projects up to the present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 5.2 Lessons learned from past technical cooperation projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 5.3 Case study of disaster management in Thailand’s 2011 floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 5.4 Issues for sustainable use of past project achievements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 6. How to Apply Japan’s Lessons toward Hydrological Service Modernization in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 6.1 Use a holistic approach to disaster management to promote effective cooperation among disaster management facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 6.2 Both the future vision and the implementation plan should be realistic and keep in mind the existing capacity of hydrological services in the country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 6.3 Uncertainties in flood forecasting should be effectively communicated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 6.4 Development of hydrological services and systems should be driven by user needs.. . . . . . . . . 43 6.5 Hydrological services and river management should be institutionally integrated. . . . . . . . . . . . 43 6.6 Long-term support is needed to ensure the sustainable operation of modernized systems. . . . 44 ANNEX 1: ANSWER SHEETS TO QUESTIONNAIRE SEEKING FEEDBACK ON TECHNICAL COOPERATION PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 ANNEX 2: EXAMPLES OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Summary 1 2 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries 1. Summary Overview of hydrological services in Based on its long experience and River Law, Japan Japan employs a unique river management system, in River and basin management covers various factors, which river management authorities have centralized including disaster management, river water use, control over rivers in the country and provide and conservation of the river environment. Any hydrological services. of these factors involves a number of intricately intertwined stakeholders who may have different River management authorities (Ministry of Land, needs. For example, during a flood, populations Infrastructure and Transport, or MLIT, and prefectural located upstream versus downstream, or on the left governments) accurately monitor facilities for river versus the right bank, may have different priorities to management, develop observation networks to ensure safety; flood management must, therefore, precisely monitor water levels and rainfall in the take a balanced approach to safety that is based basin, and forecast water levels and discharge. River on integrated river basin management and takes all management authorities analyze a large amount relevant perspectives into account. Over time, efforts of data and forecast floods and inundation. The to manage water-related disasters in Japan have led collected hydrological data and forecast information to the concept of integrated river basin management are used by river management authorities themselves and to a mechanism allowing central management of and also delivered to municipalities, fire and police river basins by river management authorities. These authorities, and the Self-Defense Forces in an effort to approaches were institutionalized under the revised prevent disasters from occurring, assist residents in River Law of 1964. evacuating safely, and provide emergency response quickly. Integrated management of river basins requires collecting/analyzing real-time hydrological data for Japan’s hydrological service the whole river basin, as well as archiving/studying development process and related hydrological data for appropriate management. knowledge, experiences, and lessons Japan built its system of hydrological services (and learned developed needed technology) in order to meet In Japan, disaster risk management (DRM) is these requirements, as well as similar requirements modernizing as a result of various influences, for water use management and river environment including socioeconomic changes, large disasters, enhancement. These attempts to promote more technological breakthroughs, and other factors. advanced integrated management of river basins The modernization has been a movement towards have provided the foundation of social and economic integrated approaches to disaster prevention (as development in Japan today. Integrated management opposed to individual or areal approaches); towards of river basins is not only the core concept in Japan’s approaches that consider inundation (as opposed technical cooperation with developing countries, but to those that do not); and towards approaches that also part of a worldwide movement introduced in the account for floods exceeding designed floods (as Rhine, the Thames, and other areas where localized opposed to designed floods based on historical management was used in the past. ones). With its hydrological services integrated with Summary 3 river management, Japan has smoothly coped with Organizations related to Japan’s these changes. hydrological services and their relationships Japan has experienced other types of disasters A significant change in governmental systems in besides floods, and it has incorporated knowledge, Japan occurred in 2001, when the government experience, and lessons from each disaster to decided to restructure its agencies and ministries. improve its overall capacity to cope with disasters. The Construction Ministry and the Meteorological Some of these general countermeasures are also Agency became part of the MLIT. The Cabinet applicable to floods: (i) To avoid fatalities, analyze Office was created to handle important government how structures behave when they are hit by external matters, including DRM, and it began to develop forces far larger than those used in conventional disaster management policies and to coordinate structural design; (ii) to improve forecasting, carry related agencies and ministries. out simulations based on data assimilation; and (iii) classify events in terms of danger levels that To minimize disaster damage, three components correspond to the actions that recipients should take. must be in place and function efficiently: public assistance (governments provide assistance Technological progress has improved hydrological before a disaster and crisis management during a observation, partly in response to users’ needs for disaster), self-help (people protect themselves), and greater accuracy. Some technologies developed mutual support (people support one another at the in different areas have successfully been used community level). A good example of mutual support in hydrological observation; examples are radar in Japan is cooperative efforts by local residents to technology that allows observation of the condition fight floods. of raindrops over a widespread area, and information technology that has enabled in-depth analysis of In Japan, the mass media, such as TV stations, play voluminous data, more user-friendly interfaces, and an important role in communicating information to provision of information with handheld devices. the public during disasters. In an emergency, the administration and the mass media cooperate to The progress of disaster management in Japan was make sure that people receive necessary disaster- partly driven by the need to solve certain problems, related information. including (i) a decline in the capacity to cope during disasters, arising from excessive expectations The demand for hydrological information is for DRM structures; (ii) difficulty in deciding when comparably limited in normal times, and private to order evacuation and issue advisories; and (iii) corporations have avoided involvement in difficulty in taking responsibility for actions based hydrological services, because they are not profitable, on uncertain information. The modernization of even if they are necessary especially during flood hydrological services contributed to solving some of times. Thus when the Foundation of River & Basin these issues. Integrated Communications (FRICS) was established to provide such information, it was with funding from the government as well as organizations in the public and private sectors. At present, hydrological information is used for operating and managing structures such as dams and water gates, monitoring unusual events during floods, and forecasting inundation. This is widely shared by local governments, which make decisions on evacuation orders and advisories; organizations 4 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries that support disaster management efforts of local Implication of Japan’s experiences in governments; government headquarters for disaster modernizing hydrological services for control, which are activated in case of large-scale developing countries disasters; organizations that operate lifeline utilities (e.g., electric power, gas) and traffic infrastructure 1. Consider a holistic approach to disaster (e.g., expressway, railway); and mass media. management to promote interactive, effective cooperation among disaster management Application of Japan’s knowledge, facilities. experience, and lessons to international The modernization of hydrological services cooperation projects relating to should be carried out with clear purpose, and hydrological services with the understanding that it will enhance In Japan, the organization that manages rivers, disaster management by providing improved including construction works, provides hydrological hydrological information. services such as hydrological observation and flood forecasting. The institutional setup is similar in 2. Both the vision for the future and the specific neighboring countries such as the Republic of Korea implementation plan should be realistic and (where the relevant organization is the Ministry of should keep in mind the existing capacity of Construction) and the People’s Republic of China hydrological services in the country. (where the organization is the Ministry of Water Countries in which the economy is growing Resources). In many cases, if part of the budget rapidly may need different sets of hydrological for structural measures was instead earmarked for information at different stages of development, nonstructural measures, that would be enough to with the contents, accuracy, and quality of develop a flood forecasting system. In China and information improving over time. Institutional Korea, the flood forecasting systems were properly arrangements for hydrological services should recognized as DRM measures and the necessary be structured to capture and respond to such budget was provided to establish them. changing needs quickly and flexibly. On the other hand, in many developing countries, 3. Uncertainties in flood forecasting should be hydrological observations and analysis are carried effectively communicated. out by organizations that do not manage rivers. Forecasting of natural hazards involves In these cases, even if there is collaboration, the uncertainties. Since structural measures alone changing needs of management organizations that are not sufficient to deal with all disasters, actually use the observed data may not be flexibly nonstructural measures such as forecasts reflected in the observations. River management and other types of information are particularly in the Philippines was under the jurisdiction of the important for reducing damages as much as Ministry of Public Works and Highways, and the possible. flood forecasting project supported by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) was 4. Development of hydrological services and carried out by the Philippine Meteorological Agency systems should be driven by user needs. (PAGASA). This arrangement might be one of the Information delivered through hydrological reason that flood forecasting in the Philippines was services should be user-oriented and should not properly budgeted, and that the forecasting reflect the needs of different individuals and system was not well maintained in the past.. groups in acting and making decisions. Summary 5 5. Hydrological services and river management should be institutionally integrated. Hydrological services are inseparable from water management: they do not just deal with observed data of rainfall, river water levels, and river discharge, but change their contents according to different water management issues. Therefore, institutional arrangements should seek to ensure not only data connection, but also organic links between institutions; ideally hydrological services and water management should be integrated. 6. Long-term support is needed to ensure the sustainable operation of modernized systems. Information is helpful only when it is used, and only then are any problems with it noticed. Technical cooperation should be extended beyond the stage when new hydrological services are put in place to include the stage when information is successfully delivered. 6 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries 2. Overview of Hydrological Services in Japan 2.1 Hydrological services and river Based on its long experience and River Law, management Japan employs a unique and highly effective river River and basin management covers various factors, management system, in which river management including disaster management, river water use, and authorities have centralized control over rivers in the conservation of the river environment. Any of these country and provide hydrological services. factors involves a number of intricately intertwined stakeholders who may have different needs in a 2.2 Flow of hydrological information river basin. For example, during a flood, populations The flow of hydrological data collected in river basins located upstream versus downstream, or on the right and used in integrated water management and versus the left bank, may have different priorities for disaster management activities is shown in Figure 1 ensuring safety; flood management must therefore (see page 8). take a balanced approach to safety that is based on integrated river basin management and takes all River management authorities (MLIT, prefectural relevant perspectives into account. Over time, efforts governments) accurately monitor facilities for river to manage water-related disasters in Japan led to the management and develop observation networks concept of integrated river basin management and to precisely monitor water levels and rainfall in the to a mechanism allowing central management or basin. river basins by river management authorities. These approaches were institutionalized under the revised Observation stations have been set up by River Law of 1964. river management authorities and are in place throughout the country (Table 1, see page 9). Integrated management of river basins requires For river management authorities to properly collecting/analyzing real-time hydrological data for manage rivers, they need to monitor and forecast the whole river basin, as well as archiving/studying discharge accurately, and their observation stations hydrological data for appropriate management. are complemented by the Japan Meteorological Japan built its system of hydrological services (and Agency (JMA) observation network. Radar rainfall developed needed technology) in order to meet gauging systems, which contribute to more detailed these requirements, as well as similar requirements monitoring of conditions and forecasting of floods, for water use management and river environment are also being installed nationally. C-band radar now enhancement. These attempts to promote more covers the entire country, and MP(multi parameter) advanced integrated management of river basins X-band radar covers city areas. Composition of MP have provided the foundation of social and economic X-band and MP C-band radar, which will provide far development in Japan today. Integrated management more accurate observation, is now under way (Figure of river basins is not only the core concept in Japan’s 2, see page 9). technical cooperation with developing countries, but also part of a worldwide movement introduced in the Rhine, the Thames, and other areas where localized management was used in the past. Overview of Hydrological Services In Japan 7 Figure 1. Overview of Hydrometeorological Services in Japan River ManagmntAuthorities (MLIT, Pref.) JMA Hydro. Services Met. Services Agricultural Rainfall obs. InternaƟonal Dam/Weir Water Level/Discharge obs. Rainfall obs. Other Met. Obs. Data/InformaƟon exchange Hydropower Dam/Weir River Discharge InundaƟon In Analysis analysis analysis Numerical Weather PredicƟon Model etc. Water Supply Dam/Weir Flood Forecast Met. Forecast (Rainfall/Wind and others) Water Level-based Rainfall-based Rainfall Water Management Flood Forecast/ Flood Forecast/ Forecast/ Warning Warning Warning (Flood Ɵme) OperaƟon of dams/water gates and others, Pref. ,FDMA,etc Private Sector Flood FighƟng, Sandbagging, Flood FighƟng Warning and Others Emergency Drainage Pump (Non- Vehicles Governmental (Drought Ɵme) Services) Dam Discharge MunicipaliƟes OperaƟon of dams/water Warning M Mass Media gates and others, Disaster EvacuaƟon Drought CoordinaƟon, PrevenƟon Advisory/Order Emergency Water AcƟons Conveyance (Normal Ɵme: For Planning) River Improvement/Dam Flood FighƟng Corps (community Residents/Relevant OrganizaƟons ConstrucƟon and others, organizaƟon) Socio-economic Sectors(Companies etc.) Land use Guidance Note: In addition to channels shown here, almost all information is delivered through the website of each organization. Colors of arrows show data and analytical information (blue), order/request (brown) and forecast/warning (red). 8 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Table 1. The number of hydrological observation stations River Management JMA Highway Bureau Authorities C-band Radars 26 20 X-band MP Radars 39 Telemetric Rain 7,533 1,303 1,176 Water Level 6,935 Others 2,106 87 188 CCTV 9,514 12,123 Note: Data are as of March 31, 2015. Most data are updated every 5 (C-radar) or 10 (telemeter) minutes. Figure 2. Observation area of radar used by Water and Disaster Management Bureau ObservaƟon area of C-band radars (26units) ObservaƟon area of X-band MP radars (39units) River management authorities analyze a large case is applied to forecast the development of amount of data and forecast floods and inundation, the inundation. Such prior simulation is usually as described above. necessary, because calculation is not instantaneous. Real-time inundation simulation is possible, however, River management authorities conduct simulations in the case of the Tone and other large rivers for water-level forecasting using real-time data and floodwaters take days to expand over wide areas. a runoff analysis model whose main input is basin rainfall and upstream water levels. Their inundation To prevent or mitigate damage due to river floods and forecasting, on the other hand, simulates multiple other related events as they occur, river management flood cases by setting inundation risk points along authorities and flood-fighting organizations cooperate the target river at equally spaced intervals. When an closely with many other organizations, including inundation actually occurs, the closest simulated prefectural and other local governments, fire and Overview of Hydrological Services In Japan 9 police authorities, and the Self-Defense Forces. Their During an actual flood, river management authorities goals are to prevent disasters, assist residents in operate structures such as dams and water gates, evacuating safely, and provide emergency response deploy flood-fighting to prevent levee breakage, and quickly. Equally critical to reducing disaster damage drain inundation water using pump vehicles, even is the proper issuance of evacuation advisories and outside the river area. In times of drought, in addition orders by mayors of local governments. to operating dams/water gates, river management authorities deploy emergency water conveyance Forecasts of river water levels and discharges provide and coordinate among water users. When normal information directly related to those organizational conditions are in effect, authorities construct and efforts. The MLIT and prefectural governments, which maintain structures for river management, such as are acknowledged as river management authorities, levees and dams, and collaborate with municipalities collect and analyze data and information on river on land use guidance. hydrology, such as water levels and discharges, and on the condition of river structures. They forecast For all these aspects of water management river water levels and discharges for over 400 rivers conducted by river management authorities, that have been designated for flood forecasting by hydrological information (including river water means of a nationwide network built for accurate levels, discharge, basin rainfall, and forecasts) is observation of rainfall over each river basin. In indispensable. addition, they officially release such forecasts with JMA, coupling river flood forecasts with rainfall, The organizations that use hydrological information typhoons, and other meteorological data and to operate facilities and execute disaster response forecasts provided by the agency. River management not only cooperate with those that collect and analyze authorities issue flood warnings and dam discharge such data, but in some cases have also tailored the warnings. information to their own needs. These cases should be taken into consideration when planning the For more effective use of river flood forecasts during modernization of hydrological information services in flooding, authorities should already have analyzed developing countries. and planned evacuation and other relevant actions to be taken in the face of flooding, and should have informed residents of these actions through various means, such as hazard maps. For flood forecasts to be utilized in the evacuation of every resident, information must be received quickly. An information delivery service for smartphone users, including information on flood hazard maps, is scheduled to start in 2016 as an option for individuals. 10 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries 3. Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 3.1 Relationships between disaster by validating them with observed data. These efforts management development and continue today. hydrometeorological service changes Hydrometeorological services have been evolving 1961 in Japan as an integral part of DRM along In 1959, Isewan Typhoon hit Japan and left 5,098 with other measures. The following provides a people dead or missing—the largest number of historical overview of the progress of Japan’s casualties after the Meiji era (1868-1912). The hydrometeorological services. disaster led to the enactment in 1961 of the Disaster Countermeasure Basic Act, which systematically Before the 19th century addressed issues regarding DRM and development The main purpose of disaster management before of disaster management plans, designation the 19th century was to protect one’s own settlement. of disaster risk areas, issuance of evacuation The hydrometeorological information collected and advisories and orders, disaster response, and post- used was limited to water levels of nearby rivers and disaster restoration. It also defined the roles and weather forecasting based on traditional knowledge. authority of the national and local governments, public organizations designated by the Disaster Early 20th century Countermeasure Basic Act, general public, and Because of conflicts of interests between upper and outlined financial measures. This legislation lower reaches and between right and left banks, facilitated further and more systematic improvement river management authorities realized the need to of hydro-meteorological services. manage river basins using an integrated approach. Hydrological observation covering the entire river Late 20th century system, including the main stream and its tributaries, Dramatic progress in information and communication was begun in order to plan and implement river technology (ICT) made it possible to process a large improvements that would ensure balanced protection quantity of data at a higher speed, which in turn throughout the river basin. enabled more accurate analysis of current conditions and more accurate forecasting. In addition, the 1955 coverage of information networks expanded, allowing Flood forecasting began with the goal of avoiding many more users to gain access to information. or mitigating flood damage. In hydrological Observation technology also advanced significantly services, efforts were made to develop forecasting with the installation of radar rain gauges and the use technology, implement systems to collect data of satellite images and SAR (synthetic aperture radar) needed for forecasting, and improve data accuracy for observation. Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 11 21st century the Tokyo area. Chujo-tei, a type of levee built on the Traditionally, hydrological data collected by observing right bank of the Tone River, had long prevented the natural phenomena were analyzed and provided floodwaters that overflowed at the narrow section to residents and relevant offices to help them take from spreading over the downstream parts of the appropriate actions, such as evacuation, in the event river and inundating the upstream parts. After the of flooding. However, in the effort to use hydrological flood, the local prefectural assembly and residents data more effectively in DRM, authorities have were divided over the rehabilitation of the Chujo- started to divide hydrological and meteorological tei levee. Some local people even had a violent information into several levels and provide it at stages confrontation with the police, forcing their way into corresponding to actions that residents should take in the prefectural government office. To address this a given situation. conflict, the project for the Tone River was revised to widen the narrow section and build continuous levees Reviewing the historical development of hydrological that would allow floodwaters to flow down to the sea services in Japan should help developing counties safely. both to assess the status of their services as they modernize, and to discuss and plan practical goals Integrated river basin management aims to provide and strategies. each riparian community with the same level of protection against floods, and so must ensure that 3.2 Changes in water-related disaster floodwaters are safely discharged in a channel management in Japan and required walled by continuous levees. Meeting this objective hydrological service modernization requires that river improvement plans be designed In Japan, the modernization of DRM has consistently over the entire river system, including been influenced by various factors, including tributaries, and implemented as agreed on. In fact, socioeconomic changes, large disasters, the revised version of the River Law, enacted in 1964, technological breakthroughs, among others. proclaimed that integrated river basin management Historical changes in flood disasters, and the was the fundamental concept for high- and low-water modernization of hydrological services that took management of rivers in Japan. place in response to them, are discussed below and summarized in Figure 3. As demands for water resources increased, more dams were constructed in the upper reaches of rivers. 3.2.1 From individual/areal disaster prevention to In addition, as river improvements progressed and integrated disaster prevention flood safety increased, urbanization accelerated and In Japan, levee building to prevent flood disasters began to reach areas immediately along rivers, which started hundreds of years ago. Before the Edo era made the acquisition of land to control floodwaters (1603–1868), circle levees, which were usually very difficult. After the Second World War, plans were designed to protect only the builders’ own community, developed by river management authorities (the were very common. Over time, however, communities Ministry of Construction or prefectural governments) located upstream and downstream, or on the right to construct dams and retarding basins in the upper and left banks, began to have conflicts over safety reaches to store some of the floodwaters temporarily. issues. To solve such conflicts, flood management In response, the Specified Multipurpose Dam Act was policy was revised drastically to call for construction enacted in 1957. of continuous levees, not circle levees, on both sides of rivers to contain floodwaters within river courses To develop plans based on the concept of integrated and to discharge them to the sea as fast as possible. river basin management, it became necessary to collect hydrological data from the entire river basin. One example of such conflicts is the rehabilitation These plans were partly a response to rising demand work carried out after the 1910 flood that damaged for water resources, and included efforts to control 12 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Figure 3. Changes in water-related disaster management in Japan from the 18th century to present, and required hydrological service 䡚18C. 19C. 20C. 21C. A shift in level of decision-making and cooperation Hydrological data (1) From individual/areal disaster prevenƟon to the integrated disaster prevenƟon. used Individual prevenƟon Areal prevenƟon IntegraƟon of Water system Mound houses Circle levee ConƟnuous levee ElucidaƟng conflict (e.g.䠖Chujo bank) The new River Law (1964) River course widening Underground flow, Levee/revetment Dam and flow storage Difficulty of land acquisiƟon Local water level in Hydrological data of the Real-Ɵme hydrological informaƟon the past floods whole basin area Weather forecast Telemetry based on experience Radar rain gauge A shift in consideration of flood hazards (2) From disaster prevenƟon without consideraƟon of inundaƟon to with consideraƟon of inundaƟon Minimize damage even in case of the inundaƟon Facility development Super levee/Secondary levee/ Waterproofing Less recogniƟon to the flood Amendment of the Flood Control Act (2005) Hydrological informaƟon including inundated area Hydrological data on rivers InundaƟon area/ water depth Real-Ɵme hydrological informaƟon A shift in assessing risks (3) From disaster prevenƟon based on past events, through designed floods, to floods exceeding designed floods River works according to River works plan based Correspond to the disaster the past events on designed flood beyond the designed flood Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (1995) ProbabilisƟc/staƟsƟcal Probable maximum events Past observed data processing of observed data esƟmated from observed data Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 13 flooding and manage water resources in river basins. The primary reason to modernize hydrological Since 1938, national data on rainfall and discharge services in developing countries is to contribute to have been published annually to meet demands flood and water use management. Integrated river for hydrological data. Since controlling the quantity basin management is essential to addressing these of water is the most important factor in planning challenges, and modernization efforts should be and managing dam construction and operation, designed to realize this type of management. observation of discharge has drawn particular attention since then. Table 2. Changes in prevention approaches Age Approach Implementation Hydrological Information Used • Protection of houses against flood By family members Water level at local levees – Raising of the house site by Empirical forecast of the P embankment/stone masonry flood A – Provision of the private shelter for flood S and attic in an evacuation place T – Bamboo plantation around the house – Preparedness of a lifeboat in each house • Protection of villages against flood By the village – Construction of circle levee around the village Conflicts of interest between upstream and downstream/left bank and right bank Example: Reconstruction of the Chujo-tei levee broken by 1910 Tokyo flood • Flood prevention by continuous levees Central/local Recorded values of past (protection of a basin area) governments floods (water level, etc.) – Cope with an actual flood at an initial Regulated by the (old) stage River Law • Flood protection based on integrated river Central/local Hydrological data during basin management governments a certain period of past P – Targeting a planned flood, processed Regulated by the new time (analysis is required) statistically River Law R E Difficulty in site acquisition for setting a wide river course, which is especially necessary in downstream city areas S E • Flood control integrating the dams and Central/local Real-time data required N reservoirs in upstream basin area governments for dam operation – Example: The Revised River Specific multipurpose (Telemeter, radar) T Improvement Plan for the Tone River dam, regulated by the law System in 1949 14 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries 3.2.2 From disaster prevention without design scale may occur. It is impossible to contain consideration of inundation to disaster prevention floodwaters completely within the river course, and with consideration of inundation so both structural and nonstructural measures In Japan, people used to regard river floods as the should be in place to minimize damage when a norm and had local coping strategies in place to deal flood actually occurs. Where river embankments are with them. As time passed, continuous levees were constructed of soil, for example, a flood exceeding built to contain floodwaters within the river course the river’s capacity could cause a breach and lead and upstream dams and retarding basins were to catastrophic damage (see Figure 4), whereas constructed to control floodwaters. super-levees with a very wide crest would not breach even during flooding and hence would minimize Since building structures such as levees takes a long the damage. In addition, even under the same time, some areas may suffer serious damage before phenomenon of inundation, damage can be reduced completion of improvement projects, which are if appropriate evacuation is guided. Figure 5 (see developed based on occurrence probability. Moreover, page 16) illustrates the process of reducing damage even after such projects are completed, there is with nonstructural measures such as the provision always a possibility that a disaster exceeding the of information. Figure 4. Catastrophic damage resulting from a flood exceeding the capacity of a river e.g. 䠍/䠍䠌䠌 years of Damage probability scale Catastrophic damage Exceeding flood countermeasures to prevent dike break in case of overflow 䠄Super levee/embankment, etc.䠅 Capacity Disaster of 䠭䠎 䠄Disaster of 䠭䠏䞉䞉䞉䠅 Flood scale of 䠭䠍 Countermeasures 䠄Countermeasures of 䠭 of 䠭䠎 䠏䞉䞉䞉䠅 Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 15 Figure 5. Process of reducing damage with nonstructural measures These measures are disaster prevention with consideration of inundation, in which hydrological information on areas outside the river, such as expected inundation area and depth, is observed, analyzed, and delivered. Figure 6. Forecast of inundation area and the inundation depth The Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism shall notify the relevant prefectural governors the situation of the rivers, concerning rivers within two or more prefectural areas, by indicating the water levels or flow volumes, or areas flooded by overflow and water depths therein after overflow of rivers, as well as to disseminate the above to the public, asking for cooperation of the media as necessary. （The Flood Control Act, Article 10 Paragraph 2） Forecast of inundation area of ARAKAWA river As explained, developing countries should design hydrological services to provide hydrological information on rivers and areas outside of rivers, including inundation areas. 16 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Table 3. Views on flood/inundation Age Views on Inundation Related Events Specific Measures ~19 C. Inundation happens Flood management per Indoor preparation of a house/village lifeboat 20 C. • Structural measures assuming no • Establishment of the • Conventional River inundation new River Law Development Basic – Flood should be controlled in a river Policy – Inundation to be flown outside the river (Determination of the is not assumed development level according to rivers.) • The flood cannot be contained completely • Progress of river management • The period of time without a large-scale disaster has continued • Large-scale water- related disaster occurred frequently P • Countermeasures to minimize damage • Revision of the Flood • Control of inundated R are necessary, even if the disaster occurs Protection Act (2005) water: E – Regulates – Maintenance of S announcement/ secondary levees, Evolution of Floodplain risk management dissemination about utilization of continuous E inundating area, water banks, etc. N depth, etc. • Arrangement of land T – Regulates use: dissemination of – Arrangement of land information on river use/building methods water levels for geographic areas – Requires distribution that will suffer serious of flood hazard maps damages • Reinforcement of the warning/evacuation system: – Maintenance of information collection/ transmission system, securing evacuation place/route, etc. – Evolution of hydrological information including inundation areas Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 17 3.2.3 From disaster prevention approaches based occurrence probability requires statistical analysis on past events, to approaches based on designed of hydrological data collected from the entire river floods, and finally, based on events exceeding basin, which in turn requires the accumulation of designed floods hydrological data for a long period of time. Because There have also been changes to the process used the basis for design external forces has shifted from to determine the design external force for planning past flood events to occurrence probability, archiving of flood control structures. Determining the scale hydrological data has further accelerated. of a design external force was done to protect communities from flooding equivalent to what they These days, large-scale disasters are occurring that had once experienced. In practice, levee heights were far exceed the scale calculated using past data. Thus, usually decided according to heights of past floods. in addition to planned countermeasures based on a certain occurrence probability, the maximum probable However, building levees that can withstand a flood scale is assumed, and countermeasures intended similar to historical floods may not be a solution, to avoid catastrophic damage in such a case are because levees may breach and serious damage deployed in parallel. may result once a flood exceeds the past scale. As illustrated in Figure 7, planning and building levees in In developing countries, where archived hydrological the traditional way may allow flood damage to recur, data are not sufficient, attempts should be made and the implementation of measures will tend to be to substantiate the hydrological data required reactive. for preparing accurate plans, and to identify the “maximum probable” disaster not based on past data. To avoid this problem, structural improvement plans should be developed based on a level of occurrence probability that will cope with floods larger than past events; and structures should be built and maintained according to such plans (Figure 8). Calculating a design external force based on a certain level of Figure 7. Tendency of implementation to be reactive Figure 8. Structural improvement plans developed based on occurrence probability e.g. １/１ years of probability scale Damage Dyke break Damage Catastrophic damage Catastrophic damage Repetition of Plan se ng in prospect of a future ood follow-up measures ・Catastrophic relation still remains ・Taking long time for preparation （Cost/ Land） Capacity Disaster of Ｑ２ （Disaster of Ｑ３・・・） Capacity Disaster of Ｑ２ Plan with Ｑp Flood scale Flood scale of Ｑ１ of Ｑ１ Countermeasures （Countermeasures of Ｑ３・・・） Countermeasures Countermeasures of Ｑ２ of Ｑ２ with Ｑp 18 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Table 4. Scale of disasters to be targeted Age Targeted Disasters Related Events Concrete/Practical Measures Structural measures correspond to past (actual) floods; recurrence was to be prevented. P BUT A Damages would reoccur when the flooding S went beyond the past records. T Damage beyond conventional scale would occur. Makeshift solution Formulate the scale of flood to be addressed: Establishment of the new Conventional River To be able to cope with the floods of a River Law Development Basic certain scale, if all of the rivers are controlled. Policy/Development Plan (Determination of the BUT development scale, Flood occurs when the facilities were half- according to the established. importance of rivers) Flood beyond the planned scale occurs. • Comprehensive flood control measures • Super-levee Damage would become bigger • Hazard map • Enhancement of evacuation information Countermeasures against the floods • Heavy rains without Hydrological analysis P exceeding the designed level would be past precedent occurred considering inundation R required. frequently. (expected inundation E • Huge earthquakes such areas, depths) S as the Great Hanshin Revised Flood Protection Earthquake, the Great Act (2015) E East Japan Earthquake, N etc., occurred. (Countermeasures T against supposed flood, inland waters, and high tide of the maximum scale [Nonstructural measures]) Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 19 3.3 Lessons learned from other simulations can contain significant errors. People mega-disasters know the existence of the errors, and are unwilling to Japan has experienced other types of disasters evacuate. The Great East Japan Earthquake initiated besides floods, and it has incorporated knowledge, a shift away from this conventional approach to experience, and lessons from each disaster to simulation. Currently, conducting simulations based improve its overall capacity to cope with disasters. on observed data after the seismic movement are This section outlines recent mega-disasters and assimilated for more accurate forecasting. Such their impacts on water-related disaster reduction simulations include those based on changes in strategies. tidal level of the near waters around Japan. The combination of multiple types of simulation is Great earthquakes expected to improve overall forecasting accuracy. Japan is prone to great earthquakes. Since the Meiji era alone, a dozen earthquakes have occurred in The same is the case in forecasting flood disasters. various parts of the country, claiming the lives of In addition to simulation based on rainfall forecasting, thousands of people: examples include Kanto (1923), which may contain a high level of uncertainty, Hanshin-Awaji (1995), and Great East Japan (2011). simulations using fact data such as observed rainfall and water levels in upper reaches—that is, Conventional structural design ensures structural data collected from phenomena very closely related safety and prevents serious damage even when to the occurrence of the flood—are now strongly the structure is hit by a certain level of anticipated encouraged. external force (“Level 1” force). However, in the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995, a large number Volcanic eruptions of structures collapsed in response to tremors Many active volcanoes exist in Japan and continue exceeding the scale of the anticipated external to cause damage. In 2014, Mt. Ontake in Nagano force. This event showed that to avoid fatalities, it Prefecture suddenly erupted, claiming the lives of is necessary to analyze the possible behavior of 58 hikers, the largest death toll in Japan since the structures when they are hit by a far larger external Second World War. force (i.e., “Level 2” force) than the force used for conventional structural designing (“Level 1”). In Japan, a volcano’s danger level is quantitatively presented, but the figure is not based on the scale This lesson has been applied to the field of flood and extent of volcanic impact. Instead, the five levels disaster management. A typical example is the of warning are based on how hikers and residents construction of “hard-to-collapse” levees, which are living nearby should act at each warning level. designed not to breach easily even during flooding. To further incorporate this concept into flood This approach to classification, in which danger levels management projects, it will be necessary to figure correspond to recommended actions, has also been out how to determine the scales of external forces applied to prevent damage by other types of disaster. larger than those of conventional design forces. In 2007, when the volcanic danger levels were set up, flood forecasting was also revised, and warning Great tsunamis levels were set up that more easily translated into Since the Meiji era, Japan has on three occasions specific actions. Sediment disaster management suffered catastrophic damage and extensive loss of also employs strategies from other areas of disaster life from great tsunamis. management, such as establishing sediment disaster risk and high-risk areas, informing residents of The conventional approach to great tsunamis was sediment disaster risk in each area, and regulating to issue forecasts and warnings based on tsunami construction and other relevant activities in risk areas. simulations using seismic movement. These 20 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries 3.4 Tools used to solve problems and Table 5 (see page 22) describes measures mobilized achieve goals for flood prevention in Japan, including laws, For proper management of flood events, an systems, institutional arrangements, technologies, integrated approach to disaster prevention and and budgets. mitigation is essential: structural and nonstructural measures must work in harmony. The basic Structures for preventing inundation include principles of disaster prevention/mitigation, improvement of river courses (embankment, applicable anywhere in the world and against any sort dredging, etc.), dams, reservoirs, floodways, erosion of disaster, are these: control facilities, and sewerage. These are developed based on laws such as the River Law, Specified 1. Keep settlements out of dangerous places, Multipurpose Dam Act, and Erosion Control Act. In so as to avoid damages even if phenomena order to achieve balanced facility development, with occur (e.g., land use control, earthquake-proof a view to integrated water resource management, building, private shelter for flood) the River Law stipulates that a basic policy and development plan be created for each river basin. 2. Defend assets with disaster prevention Rivers are classified based on their importance, and facilities, or adjust phenomena (e.g., dyke, the national government and local governments estuary water gate, dam) share the responsibility of development and management of rivers. To prevent a wide disparity 3. Escape from (or provide for rescue from) in the development levels of rivers, the national dangerous situations (e.g., evacuation, damage government takes responsibility for the development alleviation actions, rescue, early warning) and management of rivers’ most important sections. The national government subsidizes projects After the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, executed by local governments as well. there was an emphasis on integrating effective nonstructural measures with structural measures, Measures for averting/reducing damage in case of and on seeking how best to combine them (Figure 9). inundation include controlling the use of land at risk Figure 9. Ideal mix of structural measures and nonstructural measures • Keep settlements out of dangerous places so as to avoid damages even if phenomena occur Land use control Earthquake-proof building Private shelter for flood Supplement each other Evaluate as integrated risk /effect • Defend assets with disaster • Escape from prevention facilities dangerous situation • Adjust phenomena Evacuation Dyke Damage alleviation actions Estuary water gate Rescue Dam Early warning Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 21 Table 5. Different tools for flood damage reduction Development and Regulation, Instruction Evacuation, Assets Maintenance of (No damage in case of Protection Damage Facilities inundation) Alleviation Actions (Prevent inundation) (Dealing with disasters) • Improvement of river • Proper land use • Damage estimation courses (embankment, • Encouragement of • Establishment of dredging, etc.) flood-proof building warning evacuation • Development of dams, system reservoirs, floodways • Formulation/ • Erosion and Sediment dissemination of hazard Control facilities, etc. maps • Sewerage • Implementation of emergency response drill • Rescue/relief • Emergency measures Laws/Acts • Disaster • Disaster • Disaster Countermeasures Basic Countermeasures Basic Countermeasures Basic Act Act Act • River Law • Building Standard Act • The Flood Protection • Specified Multipurpose • City Planning Act Act (mandatory Dam Act • Flood Protection Act preparation/ delivery of • Water Resources • Sediment Disaster flood hazard maps) Development Prevention Act • Disaster Relief Act Organization Law • Erosion Control Act, etc. Systems • First-class/second-class • Development control • Regional Plan for rivers (integrated water • Comprehensive flood Disaster Prevention system) management measures • Designated section • Calamity danger district for ,minister’s • Sediment disaster administration (special) — prone areas • Basic policy, development plan Institutions • Ministry of Land, • Ministry of Land, • Ministry of Internal Infrastructure and Infrastructure and Affairs and Transport (Development Transport Communications Bureau/Office) • Local government • Ministry of Land, • Local government (public works, urban Infrastructure and (public works bureau) design, architecture) Transport • Japan Water Agency • City planning council • Local government • Councils on overall flood (disaster prevention management bureau)/ flood-fighting corps • FRICS Technology • Public works technology Budgets • Special Account • Special Account • Special Account Budgets for Flood Budgets for Flood Budgets for Flood Control (National) Control (National) Control (National) • Local government • Budgets for City • Local government budget Planning Projects budget • Local government budget 22 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries of inundation and encouraging flood-proof building. Figure 10 shows changes in the national flood control In Japan, the area of controlled development is budget, which includes hydrological services.1 This clearly identified under the City Planning Act, and system, in which hydrological service costs are disorderly development is controlled. In river basins included in the expense of flood control projects, with serious flood protection issues arising from is reasonably in line with the characteristics of rapid land development, a council consisting of river hydrological services and is a practical means to management authorities and local governments ensure necessary financial resources. is organized, under which comprehensive flood management measures targeting the whole basin 3.5 Evolution prompted by technology are taken. development Technological development in the observation of To minimize the damage in case of inundation, it is rainfall, river water levels, and flow velocity has necessary to develop facilities that swiftly and reliably progressed in response to users’ needs for better inform residents of disasters and evacuation plans, observation accuracy and more user-friendliness. and that prepare and deliver flood hazard maps and In recent years, more advanced devices using radio disaster prevention drills (based on prior estimation of waves or ultrasound to observe flow velocity have damages). There must also be emergency measures been developed, such as acoustic Doppler current in place to deal with the rescue/relief of affected profilers (ADCPs), which maximize the Doppler effect residents and support for evacuees. Mayors are of ultrasound. Other recent developments include responsible for securing the safety of residents, and technologies using closed-circuit television (CCTV) they work together with river management authorities images to observe river surface flow velocity or using to reduce damage, provide hydrological services, and satellite images for flood forecasting. support efforts to deal with disasters. Figure 10. Annual budget for flood risk reduction (or management) of Water and Disaster Management Bureau (billion yen) Billion yen 2,500 Flood Control Budget 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 1 It is difficult to precisely estimate the actual budget for hydrological services, as their associated costs are integrated in various budget lines. Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 23 Technologies developed in different areas have also habitable; thus large cities, including Tokyo, have been introduced to hydrological observation. One developed in the low-lying areas downstream of large example is radar technology, which was originally rivers, where inundation has occurred repeatedly. developed for military purposes to locate airplanes. At present, 51% of the population and 75% of the This technology has been found very useful for national assets are concentrated on floodplains, disaster management purposes because it is capable which account for merely 10% of the national land. of observing the condition of raindrops over a The population density of the floodplains in Japan is widespread area. The rapid progress of information 1,600 persons/km2, which is much higher than that technology has also contributed to disaster of other countries (Figure 11). management by allowing large volumes of data to be processed and transmitted at a faster rate. Advanced To protect people and assets from floods, the ICT technology has enabled in-depth analysis of traditional focus of river management authorities was voluminous data, production of more user-friendly structural measures, such as construction of levees interfaces, and provision of information with handheld and dams. Efforts to communicate flood risks to the devices. public were inadequate. This approach contributed to a decline in awareness of flood risks among the A typical case in which a specific need accelerated local residents because it gave them a false sense technological development is that of X-band MP of safety, which resulted in an increasing number of radar. In 2008, serious human damage resulted people living in areas subject to inundation. All these from the Toga River flood in Kobe City, which was trends understandably contributed to a decrease in caused by localized torrential rain. This incident the public’s overall coping capacity in case of a large evidenced the necessity of technology capable of disaster (Figures 12 and 13, see page 26). more detailed observation in a shorter period of time complementing conventional C-band radar While the area of residential land experiencing network, which is useful to monitor larger scale inundation has decreased through river management, precipitation events: i.e., X-band MP radar. Today, this the amount of damage to general assets has not, newly developed radar is in operation at 39 places because of the increase in vulnerable assets. nationwide. To address these situations, river management See Annex 2 for other examples of technological authorities have shifted flood management policies to development. provide residents with local risk information such as inundation risk areas and inundation depths. 3.6 Challenges Past flood management in Japan went through Confusion from disaster forecasting with numerous successful and unsuccessful experiences uncertainty while always striving for improvement. The When residents face an imminent disaster, it is the modernization of hydrological services contributed to municipal mayor’s responsibility to issue evacuation solving some problems. orders and advisories in order to encourage safe and rapid evacuation, as defined by the Disaster The following section presents past issues along with Countermeasures Basic Act. If an evacuation solutions. advisory and order are issued prior to flooding—that is, based on flood forecasting—this may substantially Declining coping capacity during disasters from reduce disaster damage. However, forecasting excessive expectations for disaster prevention always entails a certain level of uncertainty, and structures thus disasters may not occur as forecasted. To Japan mostly consists of steep mountainous areas, avoid evacuation advisories and orders ending in a with only a small percentage of the national land left false alarm, they were often not issued until after 24 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Figure 11. Population and assets concentrated in the inundation areas in Japan 䞉䞉䞉Areas lower than the water level during flood 䞉䞉䞉Other areas Asset rate About 䠓䠑䠂 Japan PopulaƟon rate About 䠑䠌䠂 Area rate About 䠍䠌䠂 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% PopulaƟon rate About 䠕% England+Wales Area rate About 䠍䠌% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% PopulaƟon rate USA About 䠍䠌䠂 Area rate About 䠔% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Figure 12. Inundation area and damage amount of general assets per inundation area 1 6.0 6,000 㻰㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㼐㻌㼍㼙㼛㼡㼚㼠㻌㼛㼒㻌㼠㼔㼑㻌㼓㼑㼚㼑㼞㼍㼘㻌㼍㼟㼟㼑㼠㼟㻌䠄㼁㼚㼕㼠㻦㻌㻝㻜㻜㻌㼎㼕㼘㼘㼕㼛㼚㻌㼥㼑㼚䠅 General asset flooded density Damaged amount of the general assets ( Cost as of Heisei 12) 䠄Damaged amount of general assets per inundaƟon area䠅 Flooded surface area 䠄Unit: 10,000 ha) 5.0 5,000 InundaƟon surface area of the residenƟal land 4.0 4,000 Per inundation area 1ha, Damaged amount of the general assets 3.0 3,000 2.0 2,000 1.0 1,000 0.0 0 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 Year Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 25 Figure 13. Number of disaster casualties in Japan Main disaster䠖Great East Japan earthquake(18,506) Number of dead and missing Main disaster䠖Mikawa earthquake(2,306), Makurazaki typhoon(3,756) Main disaster䠖Nankai earthquake (1,443) Main disaster䠖Kathleen typhoon (1,930) Main disaster䠖Fukui earthquake (3,769) Main disaster䠖Kobe earthquake(6,437) Main disaster䠖Nanki heavy rain (1,124) Main disaster䠖Toya Maru typhoon (1,761) Main disaster䠖Ise Bay typhoon (5,098) 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year Assessment Report on Disaster Risk ReducƟon,2014, The Cabinet Office a disaster had actually occurred. In fact, between Prefecture. The flood caused serious damage, 1961, when the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act inundating about 40 km2 of land, submerging many was enacted, and 2004, no evacuation advisories buildings, including the Joso City Office, and leaving and orders were issued before levees breached or two dead and many injured. However, it should be sediment disasters occurred. noted that during the disaster, an MLIT river office in charge of the management of the Kinu River, in However, for residents to understand flood risk coordination with JMA, provided Joso City with and take appropriate evacuation action, they need information on flood danger and with inundation risk to make the most use of information from flood area maps. This was part of the effort to share and forecasting. Acknowledging that forecasting use information with careful consideration of the always contains a certain level of uncertainty, river uncertainty it contains. As the information was not management authorities have sought to share utilized by the municipal government for reducing forecasting information with local municipalities at flood damages, MLIT initiated a basic policy to early stages and have encouraged municipalities rebuild a flood-disaster-conscious-society, in which to use the information for disaster management. administrators, the public and companies share the They are also working to improve how to present knowledge of and preparedness for flood risks. information containing uncertainty to residents so that it is not misunderstood. Difficulty in taking responsibility for actions based on information with uncertainty In September 2015, record-breaking heavy rainfall hit Since the construction of structures such as levees parts of the Kanto and Tohoku regions, particularly takes a long time, floods may occur during the over the upstream area of the Kinu River, which construction. Moreover, even after structures are breached a part of the levee in Joso City, Ibaraki completed as planned, there is still a possibility of 26 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries floods. Because of that, governments and citizens In 2004, when flood disasters occurred in many parts should understand that they need to prepare for of Japan, the Cabinet Office developed guidelines floods to minimize damage, and in the past, river for the preparation of a manual on making proper management authorities usually provided information decisions about issuing evacuation orders and related to flooding. advisories, with the goal of encouraging local mayors to issue them proactively. The guidelines did not As time went by, the primary focus was shifted to work as expected, however; mayors started issuing structural measures such as dams and levees to evacuation orders that may not have been necessary. prevent floods, and at the same time many lawsuits This occurred in 2008, when Okazaki City of Aichi were filed by disaster victims seeking compensation Prefecture issued an evacuation advisory to its for damage. As a result, river management authorities entire population in response to localized torrential started avoiding the provision of flood information, rain. It occurred again in 2011, when Nagoya City of which often seemed to create confusion about who the same prefecture issued an evacuation advisory should take responsibility for such information, to its population of more than one million people. and they focused their attention only on river Consequently, the public began to wonder if they management, where responsibilities were clearly really had to evacuate and to question the reliability of understood. the orders. Then, a further shift in flood management policy Because of these situations, efforts have been made moved away from disaster control, which means to develop easy-to-understand criteria for mayors preventing disasters from occurring completely, to to use in deciding when to issue evacuation orders disaster mitigation, which means reducing disaster and advisories. In addition, based on lessons learned damage as much as possible. After 2005, when from the 2015 Kanto-Tohoku heavy rainfall, in which the revision of the Flood Protection Act mandated hydrological information did not lead to successful the distribution of hazard maps, river management evacuation of local residents, more effective methods authorities resumed the active provision of flood for providing information are being sought. information. However, more efforts are still needed to help citizens translate flood information—such as inundation risk areas and inundation depths—to appropriate evacuation actions in case of flood. Linking flood information with disaster mitigation is also an important issue for developing countries. Difficulty in deciding the timing of evacuation orders and advisories Deciding when to issue an evacuation order has been a serious challenge for local governments. Not only must they confront the uncertainty often contained in forecasting information, but they are sometimes not very clear about what an evacuation order and advisory really mean. In other cases, they have little information about incoming hazards and the status of levees and other structures. Japan’s Hydrological Service Development Process and Related Knowledge, Experiences, and Lessons 27 4. Organizations Related to Japan’s Hydrological Services and their Relationships 4.1 Changes in governmental and other also kept close communication through personnel organizations exchange. The integration has made the cooperation even closer, and it has increased opportunities for Changes in governmental organizations (up to 2000) better aligning policy planning and implementation Japan saw the modernization of governmental as well as jointly responding to disasters under the systems after the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The coordination of the Disaster Prevention Center. Ministry of Home Affairs was assigned responsibility for river management and flood control, and started Although the River Bureau and JMA seem to be collecting and organizing hydrological data as part of conducting similar observations that could be viewed its role. as redundant in some cases, the content of their observations is in fact different. The observations of After World War II, the Home Ministry was abolished the former mainly focus on runoff into rivers, and the and its functions were distributed among four data collected by the latter are primarily related to ministries, including the Construction Ministry, weather forecasting. For example, the radars of the which took over the duties of river management. River Bureau emit radio waves from high altitudes DRM for farmland and port facilities was assigned with low angles for capturing rainfall conditions to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries near the ground; the radars of the JMA emit radio and to the Ministry of Transport, respectively. In waves from low altitudes with high angles. Because addition, the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of of the difference in data type, the integration of data Agriculture, JMA, the National Police Agency, the Fire collected by each organization is not always simple, Defense Agency, and the Defense Agency all had an but the two institutions complement each other and important part in emergency response. Since several work in close corporation. agencies and ministries were involved in DRM, the National Land Agency was given the responsibility for Establishment of the Cabinet Office coordinating the effort. After the major governmental restructuring in 2001, planning of important political issues in Japan— Incorporation of the Meteorological Agency and the such as economic policy and disaster management River Bureau (Establishment of MLIT) policy—was to be conducted under the Prime When the governmental agencies and ministries were Minister, and the Cabinet Office was established as restructured in 2001, the River Bureau and the JMA, the secretariat. With respect to disaster management which had been under separate ministries since the policies, the minister for disaster management Meiji era, were incorporated into MLIT. Long before was assigned to the Cabinet Office, which led this incorporation, however, those two agencies had disaster management policy planning, and the issued flood forecasts jointly, and had exchanged Central Disaster Prevention Council (chaired by the and shared real-time hydrological and meteorological Prime Minister) was to make decisions. While the information observed by each institution. They had Disaster Prevention Bureau of the National Land 28 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Agency had coordinated related ministries and The three components are also important for agencies previously, the disaster prevention section water-related disasters. Public assistance provides of the Cabinet Office, under the direction of the residents with hazard maps and hydrological Prime Minister, now was responsible not only for information during disasters to encourage them to coordinating related ministries and agencies, but also take appropriate evacuation actions. Residents are for planning the disaster management policies of expected to practice self-help and mutual support; the whole nation. These changes signaled dramatic residents and communities receive the information, progress in comprehensive disaster management assess their own and surrounding conditions policies based on strong coordination. Under this properly, and take necessary action to reduce framework, collaboration between the River Bureau damages. and JMA progressed, and various measures of disaster management, such as early warning Flood fighting in close cooperation with local information delivery on multi-hazard, advanced. communities A good example of mutual support in Japan can be Establishment of Water and Disaster Management found in cooperative efforts by local residents to fight Bureau floods. When a local river floods, people cooperate in In 2011, when MLIT was reorganized, the Water and piling up sand bags to prevent inundation, warning Disaster Management Bureau was established by neighbors about coming dangers, and encouraging merging the Water Resources Department of Land others to evacuate. and Water Resources Bureau, the Sewerage Works Department of City and Regional Development The context for this community-based flood Bureau and the River Bureau. This integration mitigation is the legal framework established in improved coordination of various measures related 1949. Municipal governments play a leading role to water, such as preparation of hazard maps dealing in assisting the public in this effort, while river comprehensively with both floodwater from rivers management authorities also support them by and inundation caused by lack of drainage capacity in providing hydrological information and materials and urban areas. equipment for flood fighting. 4.2 Role-sharing and cooperation Hydrological observation by local residents between the government and citizens In the 1940s, when telemeter systems were still rare, MLIT (the Construction Ministry at that time) Self-help, mutual support, and public assistance delegated hydrological observation to local residents To minimize disaster damage, three components living near an observation station. These cooperative are equally important and need to function observers helped to create a substantial archive of effectively: public assistance (in which governments hydrological data by observing river water levels, as provide assistance before a disaster and for crisis well as rainfall and groundwater, at the same time management), self-help (in which people protect and locations every day. themselves), and mutual support (in which people support one another at the community level). In The widespread use of telemeter systems gradually rescue operations, for instance, public assistance decreased the importance of cooperative observers may be necessary if heavy machinery is needed, in hydrological observation. While the system of but in other cases self-help and mutual support cooperative observers is no longer in effect, the work more effectively. During the Great Hanshin- system was helpful in enhancing the involvement of Awaji Earthquake, for example, 85% of people local residents in river management. were evacuated by practicing self-help and mutual support, which is much more than were rescued in governmental efforts. Organizations Related to Japan’s Hydrological Services and Their Relationships 29 4.3 The involvement of the private public relations vehicles, and the Internet. The sector public sector and the mass media need to closely The private sector has contributed a great deal to cooperate in providing necessary information in order the development of observation instruments and to encourage the public to take proper action for analytical technology used in relation to hydrological avoiding and reducing disaster damage. data. In normal times, the mass media should be a reporting In Japan, imported tide gauges were used to observe entity that is independent from the administration, river water levels. After the collapse of Japanese and it usually has an objective attitude towards currency that followed the Second World War, the governments. In an emergency, however, those two development of domestic automatic water-level sectors have cooperated to make sure that people gauges started. In 1962, under a collaboration of the receive necessary disaster-related information. public and private sector, the first domestic automatic water-level gauge (Suiken Type No.62) was finally Cooperation agreement between the mass media developed and replaced the costly imported gauges. and the public sector This was a milestone for the widespread use of The following agreements have been made to secure water-level gauges that followed. the cooperative relationship between the mass media and the public sector. The public-private partnerships also played a large part in the dramatic progress in ICT as well as the • Agreement on broadcasting and reporting enhancement of information systems and the between prefectural governments and the development of rainfall radar (see sections 3–5). mass media This agreement is based on the Disaster Moreover, the public sector, research institutes, and Prevention Basic Act. Prefectural governors and private consulting firms have been cooperating in the broadcasting stations and news agencies have development of analysis technology for hydrological agreed that the governors may ask for important data. information (such as warnings and evacuation orders and advisories) to be broadcast and 4.4 Government’s relationship with reported during disasters. mass media • Agreement on the provision of data and footage Role of the mass media during large disasters between MLIT, etc. and the mass media In Japan, the mass media (such as TV stations) plays For the purpose of flood damage prevention an important role in communicating information to and support for safe evacuation, MLIT and the public during disasters; because they are easily other relevant agencies have agreed to provide accessible, they offer residents a useful way to get data on ground rainfall, data on water levels, an overall picture of the situation. In particular, the radar rainfall data, and footage of rivers for Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK) is the legally broadcasting stations to use at their disposal. designated public agency for DRM and is expected to provide information in case of a disaster. 4.5 Establishment of FRICS Information provision organized by the public sector Background of the establishment of FRICS is also important and is a more appropriate way In the early 1980s, when public awareness of flood to provide area-specific information; the public damage started rising and river use became frequent sector disseminates information through disaster and diversified, the need for hydrological information management radio communications (outdoor grew, not only during floods and disasters but also in publicity loudspeakers installed in neighborhoods), normal periods. In 1982, the Nagasaki flood disaster 30 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries occurred (figure 14), and it was found that the However, it is still true that the demand for damage could have been greatly reduced if residents hydrological information is far less in normal had been provided with hydrological information. periods than during disasters. Power generation This incident further accelerated the demand for and agricultural facilities take, store, and use a hydrological information from municipalities, the large volume of river water, and these sectors mass media and the general public during floods. have individual networks with river management authorities to obtain necessary information. At that time, the national government also provided Moreover, the river regime usually has little effect hydrological information to some local governments on river water intake in the case of small-scale separately. However, to avoid confusion, there was an irrigation, where the need for information on day-to- urgent need for a system that allowed information to day hydrological conditions is not necessarily large. be standardized and provided to many users. Thus few sectors have been willing to pay the cost of receiving information. In turn, private corporations Reluctance of the private sector to be involved in have avoided involvement in hydrological services. hydrological services Meteorological information is necessary not only At present, the Foundation of River & Basin Integrated during disasters but also in everyday life, and it is Communication (FRICS) runs a business to deliver in particularly high demand by the mass media for numerical data on hydrological conditions. Although their daily broadcasting. In addition, people involved there are some cases in which weather information in agriculture or in organizing events also need companies receive and process data from FRICS and meteorological information. The demand for this deliver secondary data to users, the need for daily information is huge, constant, and from a wide variety hydrological services at present is not large. of perspectives. Figure 14. Nagasaki disaster in 1982 Organizations Related to Japan’s Hydrological Services and Their Relationships 31 Establishment of FRICS from both the public and private sectors: contributors On the other hand, to meet the demand for accurate include prefectures and ordinance-designated and timely information during disasters, a system cities, the mass media such as NHK, manufacturers needs to be designed that continues operations, of devices and sensors, banks, the Japan Dam including monitoring data, on a 24/7 basis. To Foundation, and the Japan Civil Engineering provide information that helps to avoid and reduce Association. disaster damage, it is important not only to provide information in a simple format but also to indicate The role of FRICS is to provide information what kind of actions are necessary given the status standardized for the convenience of users, to of a disaster. To secure human resources is another transmit a large volume of information to numerous important priority; experts with practical knowledge users (by means of its large hardware), and to and skill in river management and DRM are needed monitor information 24/7, all year round. In addition, to handle information properly. Although national it is equipped with experts who can respond to users’ government officials recognized the significance needs, handle troubles appropriately, and constantly of such institutional arrangements, creating a new improve the system in response to various needs. agency for this role was extremely difficult, as the government of the time was working to downsize With the establishment of FRICS, the institutional itself. arrangements were in place to facilitate delivery of quality hydrological information, mainly observed by Despite these difficulties, FRICS was established, the national government (Figures 15, 16, and 17). October 1, 1985, as a collaborative effort. In addition to the subsidy from the government, funding comes Flow Figure 15.Ministry (River river of Road information of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Bureau, Bureau, Meteorological Agency) 㻲㻾㻵㻯㻿 Data collection node Raderof Ministry Rain gauges 䚷 Infrastructure and Transport Land, (River Bureau, Road Bureau, Meteorological Agency) FRICS 㻲㻾㻵㻯㻿 Governmental ministries andMunicipalities agencies etc. Data collection node Telemeter General public Rader Rain䚷 stations river administrators Municipalities gauges 䠣 Prefectural government 㻵㼚㼠㼑㼞㼚㼑㼠 Telemeter General public stations river administrators Telemeter stations river administrators Media Prefectural government 㻵㼚㼠㼑㼞㼚㼑㼠 Telemeter stations river administrators Media 32 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Figure 16. Provision of river information Rainfall/Water Level/Flow Rate Indicates relation between water level of the river etc. or standard Radar rainfall water level, and level of residential area Item Planned Maximum water Rainfall Sustainable water level of ood Flood warning Evacuation water Flood hazard water Planned high water volume distribution, Standard ghting corps water level level level level rainfall Level Current value intensity distribution Cumulative rainfall Rainfall Rainfall can be viewed in time series Flow Rate Flow volume Water level Flood warning Warning information Water Level Flood advisory Indicates flood forecast and flood Stand-by water level for Flood warning water Planned high water Evacuation water level Flood hazard water level Ashikaga Watarase River ood ghting corps level level prevention warning, etc. List of water level above thresholds Lists water level observation stations that indicate a level above the thresholds, such as flood hazard level, etc. Water Standard water level (m) Observation station Water level Time of Ora-cho Tatebayashi name system River name observation Stand-by for Flood Location Management ood ghting Evacuation Flood hazard warning corps Ashinoko Lake Kanto, others Ashinoko lake Municipality Chiyoda-cho Yodo River Uji River Le bank Meiwa-cho Mt. Makio National river Figure 17. Monthly accesses of river information 2002 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 180,000,000 䕔Xband 䕔River Office 䕔Municipality Page View/Month 䕔Public 䠬䠟 䕔Public Mobile Organizations Related to Japan’s Hydrological Services and Their Relationships 33 Role of FRICS 4.6 User groups In addition to providing hydrological information, Presently, many types of hydrological information FRICS conducts various projects and research and related to DRM are widely available for the general works to promote technological development using public. However, organizations especially involved in hydrological information. Specifically, it engages in DRM are given identification and provided with more the following: detailed information. • Collection, processing, analysis, and provision The following section describes the organizations of river and basin information, as well as that utilize hydrological information and their research and development to improve those purposes. activities Organizations that manage rivers and structures • Development and management of databases such as dams and water gates on hydrology and water quality Information is used for operating and managing structures such as dams and water gates, monitoring • Technological development of radar rain unusual events during floods, and forecasting gauges inundation. • Development of flood forecasting systems Organizations in this category are: using hydrological data • MLIT (Water and Disaster Management Bureau) • Development of crisis management technology • Prefectural government (Construction using hydrological data Department) • Japan Water Agency • Development of hazard mapping technology Local governments • Distribution of numerical information Local governments are responsible for securing the safety of residents: when a disaster is imminent or • Development of hydrological information actually occurs, they are required to issue evacuation systems for developing countries information (including evacuation orders and advisories), set up and manage shelters, and direct • Training of interns from developing countries efforts to fight floods. Hydrological information is on hydrological information essential for local governments to make decisions on these actions. FRICS constantly improves systems that provide hydrological information for the sake of users. In Organizations in this category are particular, the new information provision system • Cities currently under development will be capable of • Towns providing information on ground rainfall, water • Villages levels, radar rainfall, and inundation risk, as well as hazard maps and CCTV images of rivers, in a way that allows users to easily understand contents and structures. It will also realize more user-friendly operation and require no manuals. Finally, it will enable users to view all kinds of information using a smartphone. This revolutionary system has been available since April 2016. 34 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Organizations that support disaster management Organizations that operate lifeline utilities and efforts of local governments traffic infrastructure In case of a disaster, prefectural governments, in Lifeline utilities (e.g., electric power, gas) and cooperation with local governments, have to engage traffic infrastructure (e.g., expressway, railway) are in response efforts. When a large-scale disaster indispensable for people’s everyday lives. Although occurs, the Self-Defense Force will be mobilized at the first priority is ensuring safety, they also should the request of a prefecture or local government. The be maintained as carefully as possible to avoid Fire Defense Agency of the Ministry of Internal Affairs interruption, and should be restored as soon as and Communications (which holds jurisdiction over possible even when interrupted. Organizations the firefighting efforts by prefectural and municipal that operate these businesses utilize hydrological governments), the National Police Agency (which information to manage facilities appropriately when a oversees prefectural police), and the Self-Defense disaster is imminent or actually occurs, and to restore Force of the Ministry of Defense are also involved in them when they are damaged. disaster response actions; they work in cooperation with each other, using hydrological information to Organizations in this category are capture the status of a flood disaster quickly and • Communications companies accurately. • Electric power companies • Gas companies Organizations in this category are • Japan Post • Prefectural governments • Japan Railways • Ministry of Internal Affairs and • Airport companies Communications (Fire Defense Agency) • Expressway companies • National Police Agency • Ministry of Defense (Self-Defense Force) Mass Media To encourage residents to take appropriate actions Government headquarters for disaster control when a disaster is imminent or actually occurs, In Japan, the government headquarters for disaster information should be delivered to as many people as control, headed by the Prime Minister or the minister possible. Currently in Japan, the mass media, such responsible for disaster control, will be activated as TV, are dominant in information delivery. NHK and in case of a large-scale disaster. The members other broadcasting and news-reporting companies are required to share hydrological information, should make efforts to obtain hydrological understand the disaster situations accurately, and information from authorities and provide it for the conduct risk management, rescue, relief, restoration, general public. and rehabilitation immediately. Organizations in this category are Organizations in this category are • NHK • Central government ministries and agencies • Private broadcasting stations • Japanese Red Cross Society • Bank of Japan • NHK • Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation Organizations Related to Japan’s Hydrological Services and Their Relationships 35 5. Application of Japan’s Knowledge, Experience, and Lessons to International Cooperation Projects Relating to Hydrological Services 5.1 Technical cooperation projects up improvement, as well as the low-water-flow control to the present2 policy for the Hangang River (taking the completion of the Chungju Dam into consideration). The Republic of Korea In the Republic of Korea, the flood forecasting/ Since 1981, the Construction Department of the warning system in the Hangang River, with a basin Republic of Korea and the Ministry of Construction area of 26,200 km2, was practically completed in of Japan have exchanged information on river 1974 with JICA’s grant aid. The system received technology as part of the Japan-Korea Technical several adjustments in the operational stage Cooperation Meeting on River and Water Resource thereafter. But in the system’s actual operation, the Development. This project helped to improve consistency between the calculated estimation Korean technology relating to flood forecasting/ value and the actual measurement value was warning. Through capacity building and training of not satisfactory, and an overall and fundamental technical operators/engineers and relevant facility reexamination of the system and model became development, the country reached a level at which it necessary. Responding to a request for technical can itself develop systems of flood forecasting. cooperation from the government of the Republic of Korea in 1980, the Japanese government dispatched The Philippines a flood forecasting expert in February 1981and a The Pampanga River, one of the most important hydrological expert in November 1981. The technical rivers in the Philippines, is located near the capital cooperation project was carried out through actual city of Manila and contains a large grain belt in the flood forecasting/warning operations and involved (i) downstream area along a well-developed floodplain. an overall examination on the issues and measures to In September 1973, with grant aid from the Japanese improve the flood forecasting system/model for the government, the first flood forecasting system in the Hangang River; (ii) an examination of specific items Philippines was established in the Pampanga River in the forecasting calculation model improvement; (iii) basin. Notably, the system played a crucial role at the an examination of the draft comprehensive plan for time of the catastrophic flood in May 1976, saving the Hangang River flood forecasting/warning system, many people’s lives and property from the disaster. with the goal of expanding the system in the future; In 1981, a general rehabilitation of the system was and (iv) deliberation about dam operation procedures carried out with grant aid. and the flood forecasting calculation model 2 Technical cooperation is an all-embracing general term used to describe JICA’s practical assistance to developing countries. Depending on the specific projects, technical assistance can include the dispatch of JICA experts, the training of local officials for “capacity development,” or the supply of equipment or financial assistance. Technical cooperation is one of JICA’s three major areas of development assistance, the others being provision of grant aid and low-cost yen loans. 36 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries Based on the success of this flood forecasting a serious influence on the national economy. This system, the government of the Philippines asked is because China’s population, cultivated land, and the Japanese government for a plan to expand the main roads are concentrated in downstream basin system into the Agno in middle Luzon, the Bicol in areas of large rivers. However, the command and south Luzon, and the Cagayan in north Luzon. This control system operated by the general headquarters expansion was completed in May 1982. of China’s national institution for water disaster prevention was growing old by the 1980s, making The government of the Philippines, aiming at zero prompt and effective response to floods difficult. In disaster damage, set out to reinforce disaster 1990, the Chinese government asked Japan, which mitigation organizations and to enhance the flood had advanced technologies and expertise in flood forecasting/warning system in the mid-term national forecasting, to establish an effective automatic development plan for the period 2004–2010. system for water disaster prevention, and to carry out a technical cooperation project aimed at training In the flood forecasting/warning systems of the flood forecasters. Pampanga River and the Agno River, major rivers in Luzon, the observation function was ineffective Through this cooperation, the following outcomes because the observation/monitoring apparatus had were obtained: deteriorated, and because communication between the observation stations and the central monitoring • The “central water disaster prevention center was not well-functioning. This problem was information system” constructed by this considered the cause of increasing damages. project was utilized for flood status monitoring; at a time of significant nationwide floods, The Philippine government requested grant aid for including the Chang Jiang River flood (March– prompt and appropriate improvement of the system’s September 1998), it carried out automated observation/information transmission functions collection, transmission, processing, and under the Project for Improvement Plan of Flood display of river information. It contributed to Forecasting and Warning System in the Pampanga adequate water disaster prevention through and Agno River Basins. Responding to the request, a high-quality information system for the in 2007–2008 the Japanese government provided general headquarters of the National Command funds for improving the flood forecasting and warning Institution for Water Disaster Prevention.3 system, communication networks, and observation stations in the Pampanga and Agno River basins, as • The “river information transmission system in well as for maintaining the monitoring apparatus/ the Zhangweinan Canal basin area” equipment in the central monitoring center and in the constructed by this project4 allowed reliable related institutions for disaster management. transmission of river information such as rainfall, river discharge, water level, etc., even in Thus 30 years after its development began, the flood bad weather, to the Zhangweinan Canal control forecasting/warning system of the Philippines is still bureau, and facilitated communication among not independent. respective institutions/organizations—and this—including at the time of historic flooding in The People’s Republic of China August 1996. It thus contributed to adequate In China, flood prevention and damage reduction are water disaster response by the Zhangweinan considered important issues, as flood damages have Canal control bureau. 3 According to the estimation by the Chinese, in 1998 the project’s flood information and forecasting system were part of flood prevention/ countermeasures that reduced China’s costs by 80 billion yuan. 4 Under this project, manually operated data transmission using a wired communication line was transformed to an automated telemeter system using radio transmission. Application of Japan’s Knowledge, Experience, and Lessons to International Cooperation Projects Relating to Hydrological Services 37 • The “forecast result selection system,” which forecasting and warning systems and hazard was the first practical application of this kind mapping, ICHARM led the development of a system in China, used multiple models to solve difficult called Indus-IFAS for a wide area extending from the issues entailed in flood forecasting in the semi- upper to lower reaches of the Indus River. The system arid region of northern China. Technologies to couples two key technologies developed by ICHARM: address similar issues in other basin areas were the Integrated Flood Analysis System (IFAS) and the also transferred. Rainfall-Runoff-Inundation (RRI) model. Based on the experience of this project, China is Capacity development training was provided developing its flood forecasting/warning system through the master’s program that ICHARM offers nationally. in collaboration with the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS) of Japan. Six engineers Pakistan in their 20s to late 30s were sent by the Pakistani The Indus River basin of Pakistan suffers from government to study in this program, and they have flooding almost annually during the monsoon since been in charge of the operation of Indus-IFAS. season (from mid-June through late September). In addition, a total of 11 governmental officers The large-scale flood in 2010 affected about 20 participated in a 10-day training workshop in 2012 million people and claimed the lives of about 2,000. and 2013. Flood forecasting and warning systems, though installed in the basins of some tributaries of the The quality of this project has been assured. An external Indus River, were not in place over its upper reaches evaluation committee consisting of experienced or in the Kabul River basin, where much of the experts from home and abroad was set up and damage occurred during the 2010 flood. The lack of carried out academic and technological evaluation awareness about floods and crisis management was of the project. A press center was also established also seen as an issue for improvement. to provide the public with forecasting outputs and accurate hydrometeorological information. The press In response, a project led by UNESCO and funded center remains in operation today. by the Japan International Cooperation Agency, entitled “Strategic Strengthening of Flood Warning Following the successful implementation of this and Management Capacity of Pakistan,” was project, Phase 2 has been initiated. This phase implemented from 2011 to 2014. It was executed includes installation of Indus-IFAS for Indus’ as a comprehensive flood management project: it tributaries, as well as technical instruction for the introduced flood forecasting and warning systems Pakistani government on proper procedures for and hazard mapping, developed an information- collecting local data. sharing platform, and provided capacity development training, all as part of a collective effort involving 5.2 Lessons learned from past technical Pakistan’s national ministries and agencies, the cooperation projects Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and The Korean economy and Chinese economy have the International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk rapidly expanded in the past few decades, and it has Management (ICHARM). Pakistani involvement came been possible to secure the budget for developing from organizations in diverse areas ranging from and maintaining flood forecasting systems as nationwide disaster prevention to hydrometeorology, measures for damage reduction. On the other hand, such as the Pakistan Meteorological Department the Philippines is prone to various kinds of natural (PMD) and the Water and Power Development hazards, and the scale of disaster damages is large Authority (WAPDA). relative to its national economic power. Disasters are hindrances to economic development: economic As a contribution to the introduction of flood growth in the Philippines has not been rapid. This 38 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries may have been the reason that sufficient budget to provide the public with forecasting outputs and was not prepared for maintaining flood forecasting information is utilized by them. systems. How the flood forecasting system is used is of In Japan, the organization that manages rivers, importance. Unless its social significance, such as its including construction works, provides hydrologic role in reducing damage, is clearly identified, it will be services including hydrological observation and flood difficult to persuade the country’s finance authority to forecasting, and this arrangement also exists in the secure the necessary budget. Republic of Korea (Ministry of Construction) and the People’s Republic of China (Ministry of Water 5.3 Case study of disaster management Resources). The flood forecasting projects described in Thailand’s 2011 floods above were received by the Ministry of Construction in Korea and the Ministry of Water Resources in At the request of the Thai government (May 2012), China. Generally speaking, nonstructural measures JICA contracted with FRICS to develop a flood such as flood forecasting are relatively less costly forecasting system, which emerged as a major than structural measures. In many cases, even a need after the 2011 flood in the Chao Phraya River. part of the budget necessary for the latter would be A prototype was developed in September 2012. sufficient for developing a flood forecasting system. From the early stage of prototype design through its Thus flood forecasting systems were properly application, Thai government officials were involved recognized in these countries as disaster prevention in the project through workshops and technical measures, and the necessary budget was secured. group meetings. Officials of different government organizations, interested companies, and academics On the other hand, in many developing countries, were invited to register as monitors who were allowed hydrological observations and analysis are carried to access the information through the Internet. out by organizations that do not manage rivers. In such cases, even if related organizations This hydrological service system was developed from collaborate, the changing needs of management users’ perspective. Prior to designing the system, organizations that actually use the observed data multiple questionnaire surveys were conducted for may not be flexibly reflected in the observations. a variety of respondents, including affected people, River management in the Philippines was under NGOs, mass media, academia, and government the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Works and organizations. The system was developed to Highways, and the aforementioned flood forecasting prioritize end-users’ needs over the indiscriminate project was received by the Philippine Meteorological use of available data. Discussions were then held Agency. This might be one of the reasons that flood to determine what systems were necessary to fulfill forecasting in the Philippines was not properly these needs, followed by selection of data to feed into budgeted, and why the system was insufficiently the system. maintained in the past. If flood forecasting had been considered an indispensable tool of DRM by the The developed system was equipped with the responsible authority, it is more likely to have been Runoff-Rainfall-Inundation model to forecast water sustainable in terms of budget and human resources. levels, flow rates, and inundation areas using observed data (rainfall, water levels, discharges) and While the example of Pakistan is rather recent, meteorological forecasting data from Thailand’s and cannot be considered in the same bracket Royal Irrigation Department (RID) and the Thai as the three other countries indicated above, the Meteorological Department. It was also designed to sustainability of the Pakistan project is expected, forecast highly accurate inundation areas by using given that Pakistan’s different national ministries LiDAR data and detailed geographic data obtained and agencies are involved, and that a press center after calibrating GISTDA (Geo-Informatics and Space Application of Japan’s Knowledge, Experience, and Lessons to International Cooperation Projects Relating to Hydrological Services 39 Technology Development Agency) satellite images of provide information effectively to the receivers the inundation. Meteorological, satellite, and river such as residents and government organizations. management agencies collaborated closely in this effort. • Understand the needs and situation of Thailand accurately, and develop practical In addition, the overall vision of Thailand’s plans in consideration of the differences hydrological services and the role of the project in knowledge, experience, and technology therein were defined clearly. The Basic Plan of Flood between Thailand and Japan, both of which Management Information System of Thailand was suffer from frequent natural disasters. formulated with the following aims: • Introduce effective new technologies by • Collect and sort views and ideas on building on existing observation and other information systems to be constructed and facilities in Thailand, as well as information operated for residents and the government, collection/transfer centers, analysis systems and designed to take effective action of various organizations, and forecasting/ immediately before and during disasters and in warning systems. the restoration stage. • Present proposals that are not abstract but • Stress the importance of understanding specific and ready for the Thai government to disaster-related information even in normal put into practice. times, which will eventually lead to proper actions in case of disaster. • Formulate plans that the Thai government can use in planning various future projects. • Focus not on the convenience of information senders but the perceptions of information System operation, information utilization, and other receivers, and on how to ensure that the senders related activities were strategically conducted to Figure 18. Thai official happy with the updated flood management system 40 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries publicize the system in cooperation with the mass Good practices: media. In some of the workshops that were held, Thai government officials, not project consultants, • G1: The type of observation device is one of explained the system. the issues we need to address. Devices that are locally available and easy to maintain The responsibilities for the system and its operation worked well when used in observation for were handed over to RID in September 2013. After the forecasting and warning for evacuation. system’s operation and performance were evaluated, a follow-up project was planned to achieve the • G2: International experts were invited to join following goals: the project team to watch the project for the technical level and overall progress. • Improve and update models, based on forecasting performance evaluations. • G3: Long-term training for capacity development was also provided with the • Ensure effective and stable operation of the technical assistance. updated system. Lessons learned: • Improve the water management simulator and increase the understanding of operation • L1: Projects should be designed not as a one- techniques and functions. time deal but as something that will lead us to have different perspectives and plan future During the follow-up workshop, system operators projects. were given on-the-job training to learn how to operate the updated system effectively and stably. • L2: Some projects use knowledge and skill The system stopped in mid-December 2014 due that are too advanced for aid recipients to to a hardware breakdown. It took eight months to understand. In such cases, it would be more find out the cause of the trouble and replace the effective if they were implemented with malfunctioning parts, and another month to feed technical training for the recipients. accurate observation data and restart the system. With the advice of the follow-up team, which was • L3: The type of observation device is one of remotely monitoring the system, Thai operators were the issues we need to address. Devices that able to reboot the system successfully. are locally available and easy to maintain may be good enough for forecasting and warning 5.4 Issues for sustainable use of past for evacuation, but may not be so effective project achievements when it comes to collecting long-term data Information was gathered on good practices and because they are not designed to collect lessons learned from past technical assistance quality-assured data. projects for developing countries. A questionnaire was developed that asked for information about aid • L4: Projects sometimes do not work as planned providers, the titles and contents of projects, projects’ because of lack of preparation on the side of aid advantages and disadvantages (along with the providers or because they introduce technology reasons for each), and additional comments if any. The that has not been well-established yet. survey included projects implemented in Bangladesh, El Salvador, Guatemala, Kenya, Laos, Pakistan, and • L5: Projects should be implemented in a way Central and South America. The following comments that keeps a good balance between numerical on good practices and lessons learned are taken from simulation and actual observation that uses it. the questionnaire. See Annex 1 for details. Application of Japan’s Knowledge, Experience, and Lessons to International Cooperation Projects Relating to Hydrological Services 41 6. How to Apply Japan’s Lessons toward Hydrological Service Modernization in Developing Countries To apply lessons learned in Japan (described retarding basins assumes flood damage to the area in sections 2, 3, and 4) to the modernization of that is supposed to be compensated for afterwards. hydrological services in developing countries, the Facilities and structures should be operated with following recommendations should be considered: great care and coupled with adequate information management for effective performance during 6.1 Use a holistic approach to disasters. As structural measures increase safety disaster management to promote against floods, they also require more information to effective cooperation among disaster holistically understand the conditions in rivers and management facilities. other areas, the status of facility operations, and flood The basic principles of DRM and mitigation are these: forecasting. This is true for two reasons: (i) during a (i) avoid establishing settlements in high-risk places, flood, flow-controlling facilities demand more precise, so that no damage will result even if a hazardous careful operation; and (ii) if floodwaters exceed the event occurs; (ii) control hazards with DRM facilities capacity of facilities or levees break, the inundation and structures; and (iii) escape (or provide rescue) area may rapidly expand. from hazards or high-risk situations. These three are complementary to each other. Components of the To achieve the third principle, organizations first principle include land use control and waterproof concerned are expected to issue evacuation orders houses; the second includes dykes, water gates, and and conduct relief activities, and people are expected dams; and the third includes evacuation, damage to make decisions about evacuation on their mitigation actions, and rescue. Arranging the best mix own. Such actions should be based on hydrologic of structural and nonstructural measures is the key information such as the rainfall situation, river water consideration for their integration. levels, and inundation areas and depths. To achieve the first principle, it is necessary to control The modernization of hydrological services the use of land where flood risk is high by providing should be carried out with clear purpose, and with information such as inundation risk areas and depths. the understanding that it will enhance disaster management by providing improved hydrological To achieve the second principle, it is necessary to information. operate structures such as dams and to carry out emergency measures such as sandbagging on dykes; 6.2 Both the future vision and the both activities are based on hydrological information. implementation plan should be realistic For water-related DRM facilities and structures, and keep in mind the existing capacity proper operation and management in emergency is a of hydrological services in the country. prerequisite. Improper operation of dams, weirs, and Where disasters are an impediment to the economic water gates may result in their poor performance or development of a country, such as in East and can even increase damage. In particular, the use of Southeast Asia, a decrease in disaster risk and 42 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries improved flood safety are likely to promote economic advisories. In addition, based on lessons learned development. Some developing countries experience from the 2015 Kanto-Tohoku heavy rainfall, in which rapid economic growth in a short period of time. For hydrological information did not lead to successful such countries to ensure sustainable development, evacuation of local residents, more effective methods they may need different sets of hydrological for providing information have been reviewed. information at different development stages, with contents, accuracy, and quality improving over time. Despite a recognition in Japan that more accurate The institutional arrangement of hydrological services information is always desirable, few recommend should be structured to capture and respond to such withholding or not using disaster information in cases changing needs quickly and flexibly. where forecasting data do not completely coincide with observed data. Most people agree to use such 6.3 Uncertainties in flood forecasting information; they accept the present level of accuracy should be effectively communicated. in forecasting and understand that forecasting Forecast information regarding natural disasters always contains some level of uncertainty. Structural involves uncertainties: some may originate in measures alone cannot deal with all disasters, so to uncertainties of the natural phenomena, and others reduce damages as much as possible, nonstructural may be from the simulation technology. While measures using forecasts and other types of simulation uncertainties may decrease as technology information are particularly important. develops, those from natural phenomena are unlikely to decrease even with advanced technology. 6.4 Development of hydrological services and systems should be driven Uncertainties involved in simulation outputs based by user needs. on model calculation are a serious issue in prediction, Information delivered through hydrological services forecasting, and warning of phenomena around the should not be prepared from providers’ perspective, world. For this reason, Japan struggled with many in which information is reviewed and provided problems through trial and error, including the “boy for the convenience of administrators. It should who cried wolf” issue, before implementing systems be user-oriented, reflecting the needs of different for flood forecasting and warning, debris flow disaster individuals and groups for actions and decisions. warning information, earthquake early warning, and The preparation of user-oriented information can be volcanic eruption alert information. In fact, before divided into four stages: (i) discussion of how people 2004, no evacuation advisory or orders were issued should act to mitigate damage; (ii) determination before levees breached or sediment disasters of what information they need to act properly; (iii) occurred. discussion of how to obtain such information (e.g., what simulation is needed) and how it should be In 2004, the Cabinet Office developed guidelines processed, with the discussion focused on helping for the preparation of a manual on making proper people understand the information and on developing decisions about issuing evacuation orders and an analysis system; and (iv) selection of input and advisories, with the goal of encouraging local mayors output data after considering what data are needed to issue them proactively. Following the guidelines, for such simulation and processing. mayors started issuing evacuation orders that may not have been necessary. Consequently, the public 6.5 Hydrological services and river began to wonder if they really had to evacuate and to management should be institutionally question the reliability of the orders. integrated. River and basin management covers various factors, Because of these situations, efforts have been including disaster management, river water use, made to develop easy-to-understand criteria to help and conservation of the river environment. Any mayors decide when to issue evacuation orders and of these factors involves a number of intricately How to Apply Japan’s Lessons Toward Hydrological Service Modernization In Developing Countries 43 intertwined stakeholders who may have different and police authorities, and the Self-Defense Forces in needs. For example, during a flood, populations an effort to prevent disasters from occurring, assist located upstream versus downstream, or on the left residents in evacuating safely, and provide emergency versus the right bank, may have different priorities response quickly. to ensure safety; flood management must therefore take a balanced approach to safety that is based Generally speaking, nonstructural measures such on integrated river basin management and takes all as flood forecasting are less costly than structural relevant perspectives into account. Over time, efforts measures. In many cases, if part of the budget for to manage water-related disasters in Japan have led structural measures was instead earmarked for to the concept of integrated river basin management nonstructural measures, that would be enough to and to a mechanism allowing central management develop a flood forecasting system. In Japan, the of river basins by authorities. These approaches hydrologic services are appropriately considered were institutionalized under the revised River Law of as DRM measures, and the budget is secured. 1964. Integrated management of river basins requires In addition, since hydrological information is collecting/analyzing real-time hydrological data of indispensable in allowing the government to conduct the whole river basin, as well as archiving/studying its own business, the services have been securely hydrological data for appropriate management. maintained. For these reasons, it is advisable that Japan built its system of hydrological services (and organizations responsible for river management also developed needed technology) in order to meet perform related observation. these requirements, as well as similar requirements for water use management and river environment Hydrological services are inseparable from water enhancement. These attempts to promote more management: They do not deal just with observed advanced integrated management of river basins data of rainfall, river water levels, or river discharge, have provided the foundation of social and economic but change their contents according to different development in Japan today. Integrated management water management issues. Therefore, institutional of river basins is not only the core concept of Japan’s arrangements should seek to ensure not only technical cooperation with developing countries, data connection, but also organic links between but also part of a worldwide movement—introduced institutions; ideally hydrological services and water in the Rhine, the Thames, and other areas where management should be integrated, as has been localized management was mainly used in the past. realized in Japan. Based on its long experience and River Law, Japan 6.6 Long-term support is needed to employs a unique river management system, in ensure the sustainable operation of which river management authorities have centralized modernized systems. control over rivers in the country and provide There have been many cases of technical cooperation hydrological services. on hydrological services in which facilities and structures are not sufficiently maintained, and River management authorities (MLIT, prefectural expected outcomes are short-lived. Information is governments) accurately monitor facilities for river helpful only when it is used, and only then are any management, develop observation networks to problems with it noticed. Technical cooperation precisely monitor river water levels and rainfall in the should be extended beyond the stage when newly basin, and use a large volume of observed data to introduced hydrological services are put in place to accurately forecast water levels and discharge. They include the stage when information is successfully analyze these data to forecast floods and inundation. delivered. The collected hydrological data and forecast information are used by river management authorities themselves and also delivered to municipalities, fire 44 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries ANNEXES Annexes 45 46 Annex 1: Feedback on Technical Cooperation Projects Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #11 a JICA 1 unknown Implementation of Weather 1. This radar system helped 1. It cannot be operated over Regarding G2, Radar System in the City of to understand the area of rain course of 24 hours because it was better Vientiane system. Especially it is helpful of shortage of electricity. if the radar for airport operation. 2. It cannot obtain system and precipitation value, since rain gauge were Radar coefficient cannot be implemented determined. at the same time. If it is so, precipitation value can be obtained #11 b NASA, 7 (susceptibility unknown Satellite derived national map The map provides qualitative 1. The map is developed with There is no NOAA, maps for updated several times per information on areas with a qualitative scale which is personnel that USGS debris flow and day that shows soil moisture higher soil moisture. not correlated to quantitative can transform landslides) content and identifies areas values. the product Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries as high or low possibility of 2. The map only shows areas from satellite landslide/debris flow with high relative humidity information but it is not based on other into useful data to indicate probability quantitative of landslides (e.g. flat areas information. are often indicated as high possibility of landslide because of high saturation, although the topography makes it impossible). Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #11 c JICA and 7. Tsunami atlas unknown Tsunami atlas The atlas contains several Methodology is not clear It is uncertain others maps indicating the possible about the calculations of if the atlas areas affected by tsunamis of maximum wave height and is reliable different return periods. velocity and therefore there since the might be large uncertainties methodology in run-up and inundated area to derive them calculations. Additionally, [tsunamis] it is uncertain on which cannot be topography and bathymetry verified, and maps were used. it is not well The map should be described. available to the public as a downloadable version but it cannot be found on any of the Central American agencies for disaster management. The scale of the maps and resolution is not known at the moment since it cannot be digitally confirmed. Annexes 47 48 Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #11 d JICA Project for Establishment of early 1. Installed automatic rain Detailed hazard and risk The project strengthening warning system for Lai gauges provide basic and mapping of Lai Nullah continues to be Flood Risk Nullah based on installed effective early warning for Lai catchment was not within sustained after Management in rain gauges and discharge Nullah catchment scope of the project, resulting completion, Lai Nullah Basin gauges. 2. Collaboration with local in continuous encroachments could be authorities and community and development in replicated on assures effective alerts and hazardous areas other flashy evacuation / torrential catchments of the country to meet similar objectives #12 e UNDP - 2, 3, and 4 Projet SAP-Bénin To strengthen climate a. inter-agencies and inter- a. Less motivation of national GEF (CIRDA Regional information and early projects synergy upon project staffs in charge of data Program) warning system for resilient launching collection, forecasting and development in Africa. We b. study missions to learn warning due to less support aim to deploy 80 automatic from EWS existing in others form government telemetric stations for rain, countries b. Less management river water level and marine capacity demonstrated by conditions measurements, c. national (governmental) leadership development in governmental staff in charge and also strengthen national of project management! institutions capacities to use early way Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries the data and information for planning and implementation of quick reaction (disaster cases: flooding, drought, severe wind, coastal erosion and sea level rising) and long- term development strategy. Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #12 f World 7 WKCDD/FMP Flood mitigation program 1. Introduction of soil 1. Poor quality of some Lack of proper Bank that involved several conservation structures works due to lack of planning when activities aimed at preserving reduced wash load proper supervision during deciding the catchment areas and concentrations in the river. construction. projects to be reducing wash load in the 2. Community participation 2. Poor accounting skills of implemented. river. in the projects encouraged community organizations ownership. meant a lot of funds were 3. Protection of springs to misused. help conserve river sources. 4. Income-generating activities assisted the communities. #12 f 3 Unknown Rehabilitation of RGS stations Most of the stations are now Manual system and data is operational. not collected regularly. Real-time data cannot be collected. #12 f JICA 7 Unknown Construction of evacuation 1. Provided safe area for 1. Proper coordination Existence of centers evacuating the community channel not discussed. several flood 2. Sanitary facilities provided Meaning maintenance of the coordination were good. facility during non-flooding committees season is poorly done. makes it 2. Flood hazard maps and difficult to evacuation maps require manage the updating. centers. Annexes 49 50 Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #13 g JICA 2 Unknown Development and 1.Can be purchased 1. The first one can be very Is very #21 implementation of rain gauge from some international expensive. important to for monitoring and alert about distributors 2. The second one is not so implement some thresholds previously or accurate this project specified nowadays; we 2. Can be manufactured with only have 40% parts which you can obtain at of river with the local shop. rain gauge. And also can be used for radar validation. #13 b JICA and 4 Unknown Implementation of measuring 1. After its installation in 1. Values are not accurate Regarding #21 devices for water level early 2010 there has been no enough to keep a monitoring points in G, the and rain with very simple life lost in areas where this system. system still materials (plastic bottles, PVC system exists. 2. It is empirical and although needs to be pipes, simple radio networks 2. Cheap materials make it it has reduced loss of life improved to and cell phones). The easy to replace in case of during extreme events, it does have a formal instruments are calibrated to damage from floods. not fulfill all the objectives observation the community’s perception of an early warning system system that of floods. The instruments are 3. Works with a car battery which allows enough charge according to the definition of keeps history connected to a volunteer’s UNISDR records. house where a light meter to survive electricity outages during storms 3. Does not keep a history of Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries indicates situations. records. #14 h JICA, 8 Improvement of Help to monitor and forecast Fragmented approach; How to WB, Meteorological Radar System, flood, rainfall, cyclone; blending of different integrate the DANIDA Water level observation, development of national technologies that are difficult data from Hydrological gauging water resources database to integrate in a model, different equipment, Water-gauging post-project operation sources to equipment, rainfall gauging and maintenance. Regular improve stations updating of the system the model performance. Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #14 b JICA, 7. Infrastructure Unknown Puente de la Amistad Reconstruction of damaged 1. The project changed The biggest KOIKA, (Friendship Bridge) bridge in the main access to funding agencies several issue with this Taiwan Panajachel community times before settling with project was the Korean International the lack of Cooperation Agency (KOIKA). coordination 2. After its inauguration, between during the first storm of supporting the 2010 season the bridge agencies. collapsed once again. 3. The bridge is evidently poorly designed, as it is much narrower than the bankfull width. #14 c Inter- 6 Unknown The Central American The software is supposed to 1. The software has only been To date several American Probabilistic Risk Assessment be freely available online, and used with outdated proxies projects have Develop- (CAPRA) is software based be user friendly. 2. The software is neither been done ment on GIS to calculate risk for By introducing data about available nor user friendly. using this tool Bank different hazards. population, socioeconomic Commonly it is very difficult although the information and hazard it to understand. results can only calculates risk. be considered 3. When the technology has as preliminary been transferred, via CDs the since it has software is not possible to been done install. with outdated 4. Workshops to teach about proxies the software have usually and hazard failed since most of the time information is occupied for unsuccessful only as installations exercises. Annexes 51 52 Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #15 i JICA 4&6 Strategic Development of flood warning 1. Introduction of new flood 1. Not enough detailed Data availability #22 Strengthening framework, hazard mapping, modeling tools in Pakistan hydrological data sets were limitations need of flood warning model calibrations for Indus. in collaboration with help of available for ideal calibration to be identified #23 and management Capacity building for flood international experts of models in developing capacity of management stakeholders in 2. Capacity-building 2. Direct involvement of countries. Pakistan Pakistan. exercises at working group, provincial and district level Leapfrogging mid-tier flood management stakeholders could not be technologies stakeholders ensured may be used to overcome 3. Hazard mapping of Indus 3. Sustainability of project lack of river using 1D/2D modeling objectives could not be infrastructure tools ensured and resources. Sustainability of project objectives needs to be ensured. #16 g JICA 4 Unknown Implementation of early Can be manufactured using The most vulnerable warning system surface parts which you can obtain at communities are also the elevation the local shop, and is useful most dangerous because of for low-income communities. criminality, which can stop a project like this. Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries #16 g JICA 7 Unknown Obtaining satellite images Very useful information for Could be even for measures of changes in understanding behavior and more useful morphology after a disaster changes in terrain. if the images by flood or debris flow can be updated after a disaster event happens. Answer sheets to questionnaire seeking feedback on technical cooperation projects A B C D E F G H Category Country Donor Type of project #1 Project name/ Project description Positive feedback Negative feedback Any additional ID# of report/ and reason(s) and reason(s) comments reference number #16 j World 1, 2, 4, 6 PPCR/BRCH Weather radar/Flood Project is currently in Project helps Bank forecasting/Automatic progress. Project aims to to upgrade the weather station/Capacity decrease the loss of life and capacity of building property due to flood through Department of ‘end to end early warning Hydrology and system’ and enhance the Meteorology capacity of flood and weather forecasting. #16 b JICA 6 Unknown Implementation of an 1. Contains simplified After implementation it is Regarding informative museum about information about the uncertain about the follow-up point G it is debris flow in a commonly processes that produce a from local authorities since important that affected area. The museum debris flow they changed some time after all stakeholders is based on the Kobe 2. Includes sections for its opening. follow up on Earthquake Memorial children, with games, small projects. Museum for disaster drills and informative quizzes about debris flow A: name of country G: Negative feedback B: name of donor Please write your comments in terms of negative aspects of this project and the reasons C: type of project *negative aspects could include insufficient outcomes 1. Implementation of weather radar H: Any additional comments 2. Implementation of rain gauge This includes comments such as “if the project/component/implementation had been designed as 3. Implementation of gauge for measuring water surface elevation follows, it would have improved xxx or it would have been better for the following purpose.” 4. Implementation of early warning system for flood 5. Implementation of early warning system for debris flow 6. Capacity building 7. Other D: Project name/Description/ID or reference Please specify the name of project as well as ID # for future reference. If you don’t know how to reference the project but you know the story, please write as unknown E: Project Description Please explain in as much detail as possible F: Positive feedback Annexes Please write your comments in terms of positive aspects of this project and explain the reasons 53 Annex 2: Technological Development Examples Examples of hydrological services related technological development: • Radio wave current meter • Image processing type flowmetry • Provision of river information by cellular phone • X-band multi-parameter rain radar for torrential rain Radio wave current meter Using noncontact type radio wave current meter, flow measurement can be conducted safely and continuously even at the time of a large-scale flood with the help of recent development of technology. 54 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries R adio wave current meter Ø Using noncontact type radio wave current meter, flow measurement can be conducted safely and continuously even at the time of a large-scale flood with a help of recent development of technology. Ø In the Public Works Research Institute/ ICHARM, a study on advancement of the flow rate observation using this technique is proceeding now. By emitting radio wave toward the water surface from the sensor installed on the structures such as bridges, It can measure the surface flow rate applying Doppler shift at the time of sending/ receiving of the wave. Portable-type radio wave current meter Fixed-type radio wave current meter (Set plural in the transverse direction) 4.5 120.5 Surface 表 面 flow 流 速rate （電 波 流 速 計 ） (Radio wave current meter) Observation example of the radio current meter Water 水 位level 119.5 面 ）流 速 （ ・It is measurable continuously for a long time. m/s by 3.5 118.5 ・The left figure is an example of measuring the (m) surface flow rate continuously by the radio wave （） に よる表 m 117.5 level 計 measured current meter. (Average 10minutes) 水 位 速 rate Water flow 2.5 116.5 Reference： 波 流 流 量 観 測 の 高 度 化 マ ニ ュ ア ル （高 水 流 量 観 測 編 ） S 電 urface 115.5 the radio wave current meter (m/ s) 土 木 研 究 ICHARM 所 編 1.5 114.5 http:/ / www.icharm.pwri.go.jp/ ryukan/ 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 1st day 2nd day 3rd day 4th day 2 time, hour Annexes 55 56 Image processing type flowmetry Ø A technique to measure surface flow rate of the river, by using video images photographed with the fixed camera, has been developed. Ø The night observation with the far-infrared camera and the continuous observation by using CCTV camera for river management are also carried out. The flow rate measuring methods by using video images photographed with the fixed camera are as follows: l Determining the light and shade patterns in a certain range drifting the water surface of the screen as particles, it is to analyze the movement amount and to compute the flow rate (LS PIV method). l Establishing the inspection lines so as to be along the mainstream direction, calculate the average flow rate from the inclination of the stripe pattern which appears on the time-space image when the brightness values on the inspection lines are put thereon in the temporal axes direction. (S TIV method) 検 査 ラインの 設 定 LSPIV image STIV image ADCP ADCP（移(Movement 均 ） 動 平 average) ADCP ADCP（移 動 平± average (Movement 均 標 準± 偏Standard 差 ） deviation) SSTIV TIV LS LS PIV PIV 河Riverbed 床 高height References： M. Muste, I. Fujita and A. Hauet, Large-scale particle image velocimetry for measurements in riverine environments, WATER RES OURCES RES EARCH, VOL. 44, W00D19, Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries doi:10.1029/ 2008WR006950, 2008 Ichiro Fujita, Masaki Kitada et al：Spatial measurements of snow melt flood by image analysis with multiple-angle images and radio-controlled ADCP， The Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, S er. B1（ hydraulic Engineering）Vol.70, No.4, pp.613-618, 2014. Ichiro Fujita, Hiroki Hara and Atsuhiro Yorozuya, EVALUATION OF IMAGING TECHNIQUE ACCURACY FOR DIS CHARGE MEAS UREMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF REAL TIME S YSTEM FOR S URFACE FLOW MEAS UREMENT, Journal of Hydroscience and Hydraulic Eng. No.30-1, pp.15-28. 2012 3 Measurement example in Maebashi (Tone River) Provision of river information by cellular phone Via the internet via the cellular phone Contents: • Rainfall • Radar rainfall • Water level, etc. Annexes 4 57 58 X-band multi-parameter rain radar for torrential rain Existing radar (C-band radar) X-band MP radar - Min. observation area: 1 km mesh - Min observation area: 250 m mesh - Observation interval: 5 minutes - Observation interval: 1 minute - Time to end user: 5 to 10 minutes - Time to end user: 1 to 2 minutes - Obs. Radius: 120 km - Obs. Radius: 60 km 雑 司 ヶ谷 High frequency (5-fold) 大 手 町 High resolution (16-fold) 世 田 谷 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries * In contrast to C-band radar (observation radius of 120 km), which is suited for broad-area precipitation observations, with X-band radar (observation radius of 60 km), detailed and real-time observation of local heavy rain is possible though the observable area is small. １ ・ ・ ・ ・ （ ２） Annexes 59 ・ （ ） ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ （ ） 60 Modernization of Hydrological Services in Japan and Lessons for Developing Countries （ ） ・ ・ ・ ・ （ ） Annexes 61 Contact: World Bank Disaster Risk Management Hub, Tokyo Phone: +81-3-3597-1320 Email: drmhubtokyo@worldbank.org Website: http://www.worldbank.org/drmhubtokyo The World Bank Disaster Risk Management Hub, Tokyo supports developing countries to mainstream DRM in national development planning and investment programs. As part of the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery and in coordination with the World Bank Tokyo Office, the DRM Hub provides technical assistance grants and connects Japanese and global DRM expertise and solutions with World Bank teams and government officials. Over 37 countries have benefited from the Hub’s technical assistance, knowledge, and capacity building activities. The DRM Hub was established in 2014 through the Japan-World Bank Program for Mainstreaming DRM in Developing Countries – a partnership between Japan’s Ministry of Finance and the World Bank.