EDUCATION ATIO A EDUCATIO N P WORKING PAPER No. 14 | June 2025 Digital Skills Development: Competence Frameworks, Assessment Tools, and Pedagogical Approaches Diego F. Angel-Urdinola, Marjorie Chinen, and Gemma Rodon © 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Email: AskEd@worldbank.org Internet: www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Angel-Urdinola, Marjorie Chinen, and Gemma Rodon Abstract This study provides a comprehensive review of digital skills frameworks, competences, and assessment tools, emphasizing the critical role of digital proficiency in personal, professional, and educational success. It highlights the growing demand for these skills in today’s digital landscape. The paper presents a selection of digital skills competence frameworks designed for diverse users—citizens, students, educators, and professionals—and examines the key competences required to achieve digital proficiency. It compares the assessment tools used to measure digital skills, focusing on how they help identify gaps and inform the development of targeted training programs. The study also reviews approaches for fostering digital competencies, including curriculum design, practical application, and pedagogical strategies. By integrating insights from frameworks, competences, and assessment tools, the study enhances understanding of the digital skills landscape and offers practical recommendations for improving digital skills education. JEL Classification: I200, I210, I240, I250, I280, J240 Keywords: digital skills, digital skills definitions, digital skills competence frameworks, digital skills assessments, digital skills development, pedagogical approaches, digital skills training. ii Contents Acknowledgments vi Abbreviations vii Summary 1 Introduction 3 1 Concepts and Scope 5 1.1 Guidelines for Adopting a Definition of Digital Skills 8 2 Digital Skills Competence Frameworks 10 2.1 Citizens 12 2.2 Teachers 13 2.3 Students 14 2.4 Workers 15 3 Digital Skills Assessment Tools 17 3.1 Assessment Design 19 4 Instructional Strategies for Developing Digital Skills 24 4.1 Transversal Skills 25 4.2 Basic ICT Skills 27 4.3 Specialized ICT Skills 27 4.4 Implications for Educational Design 29 5 Conclusions 33 References 35 Annexes 41 Annexes Table A1. Catalog of “Digital Skills” Definitions from Specialized Agencies (and Authors) Working on Digital Skills Development 41 Table A2. Overview of Digital Skills Definitions by Specialized Organizations, Categorized by Competences and Objectives (cont.) 48 Table A3. Digital Skills Definitions Used in Previous World Bank Studies 50 Table A4. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Citizens or General Use 53 Table A5. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Teachers 55 Table A6. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Students 57 iii Table A7. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Workers 59 Table A8. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Citizens 61 Table A9. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Students 65 Table A10. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Teachers, Developed by Different Organizations 67 Table A11. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Teachers, developed for working papers or academic studies 68 Table A12. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Workers 73 Figure A1. Number of Digital Skills Competence Frameworks, by Approach Type 52 Figure A2. Share of Students’ Digital Skills Competence Frameworks incorporating Specific Digital Competences 60 Figure A3. Share of Workers’ Digital Skills Competence Frameworks incorporating Specific Digital Competences 60 Boxes Box 3.1. Competence Frameworks for Training in AI 16 Box 4.1. A World Bank Large-scale Assessment Tool Example 18 Box 4.2. Examples of Digital Skills Items by Type of Assessment 20 Box 5.1. Transversal Skills Development, Country Examples 26 Box 5.2. Generative Artificial Intelligence Impact on Digital Skills 31 Figures Figure 2.1. Main Terms Used to Refer to "Digital Skills" 5 Figure 2.2. Key Competences for "Digital Skills" Development 6 Figure 2.3. Purposes of Using Digital Skills 7 Figure 2.4. Competence Domains and Proficiency Levels 9 Figure 3.1. Number of Digital Skills Competence Frameworks, by Target Population 11 Figure 3.2. Share of Citizens’ Digital Skill Competence Frameworks Incorporating Specific Digital Competences 13 Figure 3.3. Share of Teachers’ Digital Skill Competence Frameworks Incorporating Specific Digital Competences 14 Figure 4.1. Catalog of Digital Skills Assessment Types, by Target Group 17 Figure 4.2. Number of Digital Skills Assessments, by Target Group and Assessment Type 19 Figure 5.1. Approach for Designing Digital Skills Training Programs 30 iv Tables Table 2.1. Digital Skills Competences and Objectives as Defined by Specialized Organizations 7 Table 4.1. Types of Digital Skills Assessment 22 Table 5.1. Approaches for Instructing Different Digital Competences 24 v Acknowledgments This World Bank Working Paper was prepared by Diego Angel-Urdinola, Marjorie Chinen, and Gemma Rodon. The team would like to express sincere appreciation to Alex Twinomugisha for his insightful comments and guidance throughout the development of this report. We are also thankful to the EdTech Team for their initial insights. This work was conducted with the financial support of the Mastercard Foundation, and it is part of a series of background papers being published under the Youth Skills and Resilient Hybrid System Global Public Goods and Capacity Building program. Kia Penso and Mabel Martínez copyedited the report. vi Abbreviations AI artificial intelligence DigComp European Union Digital Competence Framework for Citizens ICILS International Computer and Information Literacy Study ICT information and communications technology ITU International Telecommunication Union OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PISA Program for International Student Assessment vii Summary This paper provides a comprehensive review of digital skills competence frameworks, assessment tools, and pedagogical approaches essential for designing effective training programs to improve digital skills. As digital skills become increasingly important for economic participation and social inclusion, this paper studies the concept of digital skills by clarifying definitions, reviewing competence frameworks, analyzing assessment tools, and exploring instructional strategies. It highlights the persistent digital skills gap, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, and provides evidence- based insights to guide policymakers and education stakeholders in designing effective digital skills education and training strategies. In Section 2, the study clarifies digital skills terminology by distinguishing concepts such as digital competence, literacy, skills, and ICT literacy. It critically examines definitions from international organizations, identifies inconsistencies, and provides guidelines for adopting clear, actionable definitions. The paper also proposes a framework to distinguish between competence domains and proficiency levels to support coherent policymaking and program design. Section 3 reviews 68 digital skills competence frameworks. It categorizes them by geographic reach (global, regional, country, local), target populations (citizens, students, teachers, workers), and approaches (competence-based, objective-based). It analyzes the distinct digital competences emphasized for different groups and highlights the integration of emerging topics such as artificial intelligence skills within these frameworks. In Section 4, the paper evaluates 75 digital skills assessment tools. It discusses their purposes, design, and relative strengths and limitations. The analysis identifies a predominance of self-reported assessments over knowledge- and task-based methods. This reveals a clear need for more objective, task-based tools, particularly to accurately assess teachers’ digital skills. The section also differentiates between large-scale summative assessments and formative assessments. Section 5 explores pedagogical strategies for developing different types of digital skills and emphasizes the importance of integrating digital skills into curricula across disciplines. It distinguishes instructional approaches tailored to transversal skills (e.g., critical thinking, communication), basic ICT skills (e.g., digital literacy, content creation), and specialized ICT skills (e.g., programming, data analysis). Effective digital skills development requires a diversified and integrated pedagogy that embeds these competences throughout curricula using learner-centered methods, including project-based and inquiry- based learning. The section also addresses the implications of emerging technologies such as generative AI on digital skill requirements and training program design, underscoring the need for continuous curriculum and assessment adaptation to keep pace with technological advances. The paper concludes with practical recommendations for designing, implementing, and evaluating effective digital skills training programs. Key recommendations include: 1 • Defining clear and consistent digital skills concepts • Selecting appropriate competence frameworks aligned with target populations and national priorities • Utilizing reliable, mixed-method assessment tools for accurate diagnosis and evaluation • Employing pedagogical approaches tailored to specific skill types • Conducting impact evaluations to measure training effectiveness • Remaining responsive to evolving technologies and skills needs, such as those posed by generative AI Overall, this study serves as a detailed guide for policymakers, educators, practitioners, and designers of digital skills training programs who aim to close digital skills gaps and prepare individuals for effective participation in a rapidly digitalizing world. 2 1. Introduction The global shift toward technology-driven economies means that digital skills are integral for personal and professional success. The rapid advancement of technology and digitalization is transforming the global economy and reshaping the skills necessary for daily living, working, and learning (World Bank, 2021). Digital skills are critical for personal and professional development; they enable individuals to communicate, collaborate, learn, and work more efficiently (Chung and Yoo, 2021). Therefore, the ability to use digital technologies has become a fundamental requirement for citizenship, education, and employment. Citizens use digital skills to engage with government services online, access important information, and participate in public discussions and decision-making processes (Kivinen et al., 2022). As the job market increasingly relies on digital technology, having digital skills is essential for individuals to compete for employment and advance in their careers. Moreover, digital skills facilitate continuous learning and the ability to adapt to emerging technologies (such as artificial intelligence (AI)), and transversal skills which are also crucial in a rapidly changing world. Digital skills rank among the top workforce requirements, according to employers (World Economic Forum, 2023; OECD, 2022), and various studies drawing from employer interviews corroborate a notable surge in the demand for digital skills competences in developed and developing economies (IFC and LEK, 2019). Digital skills are equally relevant for workers in ICT and non-ICT economic sectors. In response to these needs, many governments have stepped up efforts to strengthen individuals' digital skills, with countries around the world setting goals and developing action plans to advance digital education and skills for their citizens (European Commission, 2018). More developed countries, notably members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), anchor their strategies on clear goals based on data resulting from such large-scale assessments of digital as the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS), the Standardized Assessment of Information Literacy Skills (SAILS), the Information Literacy Tests (ILT), and the OECD’s own Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competences (PIACC). However, programs and data to assess the digital skills of individuals in low- and middle-income countries remain scarce, and the available data often lack comparability, because different assessment tools emphasize distinct digital competences (Laanpere, 2018). Additionally, the data that do exist typically represent national averages, which may not accurately capture the unique needs of local systems and institutions operating in diverse conditions. Nevertheless, the evidence indicates that even in developed economies there is a substantial digital skills gap, with a considerable portion of the population lacking proficiency in digital skills. These challenges are compounded by the breadth and variety of digital skills, which encompass not just technical expertise, but also behaviors, work habits, critical understandings, and other key traits (UNESCO and Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, 2017). Furthermore, these skills can differ widely depending on who in the population needs them—that is, whether the person needs the 3 skill as a citizen, teacher, student, or worker— and on the level of specialization (Bashir and Miyamoto, 2020). Starting with the definitions of digital skills, this study offers an in-depth examination of key digital skills competences based on a comprehensive review of available digital skills competences frameworks and assessment tools. The study is particularly valuable for educators and training institutions, especially in low- and middle-income countries where data on digital skills are limited. It provides guidance for (i) selecting suitable frameworks that align with policy objectives and the needs of the population and that can trigger the development of “competence-based” curricula, (ii) identifying appropriate assessment tools to measure digital skills and evaluate how well interventions are closing skill gaps and (iii) using different available instructional approaches as appropriate to each type of digital skill. This paper is structured in six main sections. Section 2 offers a comprehensive overview of digital skills, including definitions, competences, and objectives. Section 3 provides a detailed overview of various frameworks for assessing digital competences of citizens, students, teachers, and workers. Section 4 categorizes digital assessment tools by scope (formative and summative assessments) and by design (self-reported, knowledge-based, and task-based) and discusses the pros and cons of design features. Section 5 explores various strategies for cultivating diverse digital skills and their implications for designing training programs. Finally, Section 6 concludes, with recommendations. 4 2. Concepts and Scope A crucial step in creating training programs that enhance digital skills is to identify the specific competences (the “what”) and objectives (the “why”) they are intended to address. These two aspects often determine which digital competences are included in the digital skills competence framework. From the analysis of the language used by major international agencies, four key terms emerged, describing distinct but related concepts: digital competence, digital literacy, digital skills, and information and communications technology (ICT) literacy (Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1. Main Terms Used to Refer to "Digital Skills" Source: Based on a review of 40 definitions from academic literature, reports and frameworks by international organizations, governments, specialized agencies, and experts in digital skills development. Note: The size of each competence in the word cloud reflects how often it appears within the evaluated definitions of digital skills. Regarding competences (the “what”), and based on these available definitions, digital skills development often focuses on cultivating transversal skills, including socioemotional competences, such as “values” and “attitudes” necessary to interact positively and constructively on digital platforms and media (see section 3 for detailed definitions). Equally important is the development of cognitive competences, such as the “use of digital tools” and “use of information” which are essential for operating and interacting successfully in the digital world (Figure 2.2). Understanding these distinct competence priorities is critical for designing training programs and choosing appropriate frameworks, whether training interventions prioritize cognitive or socioemotional competences. 5 Figure 2.2. Key Competences for "Digital Skills" Development Source: Based on a review of 40 definitions from academic literature, reports and frameworks by international organizations, governments, specialized agencies and experts in digital skills development. Note: The size of each competence in the word cloud reflects how often it appears within the evaluated definitions of digital skills. 1 Stakeholders’ objectives for digital skill development (the “why”) vary widely. For some, digital skills are fundamental to meaningful engagement between individuals and public and private institutions (Ferrari, 2012). For others, the focus is more specifically on the practical application of digital skills to unlock opportunities in digital employment and education (Law et al., 2018). The consensus derived from the available definitions indicates that stakeholders universally recognize the necessity of digital skills for social interactions, personal growth, and social inclusion. Furthermore, there is agreement among stakeholders that digital skills is instrumental to use ICT to access educational and employment opportunities, though this is considered a secondary objective (Figure 2.3). The definitions reviewed were drawn from leading frameworks and reports, including the European Union Digital Competence Framework for Citizens (DigComp), the World Bank, UNICEF, UNESCO, Lightcast, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and the Educational Testing Service (ETS). Some overlap exists in how these terms are used, though they are not always synonymous and often carry different meanings. This variation creates ambiguity: each organization may emphasize a distinct term with a unique focus, which complicates efforts to establish a unified understanding of digital skills and related competences. Table 2.1 provides an overview of selected definitions of digital skills (see also Table A1 and Table A2). Previous World Bank work often used the term “digital skills” to emphasize their significance in the digital economy and society. Table A3 presents various definitions of digital skills from previous World Bank studies and reports. 1 “Use of digital tools” mainly includes using ICT/technology applications/networks/computers/devices, physical operations, theoretical comprehension, use of hardware, or use of specific techniques. 6 Figure 2.3. Purposes of Using Digital Skills Source: Based on a review of 40 definitions from academic literature, reports, and frameworks by international organizations, governments, specialized agencies, and experts in digital skills development. Note: The size of each competence in the word cloud reflects how often it appears within the evaluated definitions of digital skills. Table 2.1. Digital Skills Competences and Objectives as Defined by Specialized Organizations Competences Objectives Term Source (What are digital skills?) (Why do we use digital skills?) Confident, critical, and Digital creative use of, and For learning, at work, and for DigComp 2.2. competence engagement with, digital participation in society. (2022) technologies. Ability to use digital technology, communication tools or To locate, evaluate, use and create UNESCO ICT networks. Ability to information, perform tasks Competence Digital literacy understand and use effectively in a digital Framework for information in multiple environment. Teachers (2018) formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers. Range of different abilities, many of which are not UNESCO and To full participation in society and, only ‘skills’ per se, but a Broadband Digital skills as such, need to be developed and combination of behaviors, Commission for and refined over time and according to expertise, know-how, work Sustainable competences the personal and professional habits, character traits, Development circumstances of individuals. dispositions and critical (2017) understandings. 7 Competences Objectives Term Source (What are digital skills?) (Why do we use digital skills?) Range of abilities to use To create and share digital digital devices, content, communicate and communication collaborate, and solve problems Digital skills UNESCO (2023) applications, and networks for effective and creative self- to access and manage fulfillment in life, learning, work, information. and social activities at large. To appropriately use digital technology and communication tools to access, manage, integrate, Interest, attitude, and and evaluate information, ICT literacy OECD (2022) ability of individuals. construct new knowledge, and communicate with others in order to participate effectively in society. Source: Based on a review of a catalog of 12 definitions from reports by selected international organizations and specialized agencies. Note: This table does not include World Bank studies. The definitions presented are exact quotations of the language used by these sources. 2.1 Guidelines for Adopting a Definition of Digital Skills An examination of definitions and sources from key international institutions reveals that there is no universally accepted definition for digital skills. These skills and their associated definitions extend beyond knowing how to complete technical tasks; they also include economic participation and personal development in the digital age. Digital skills span a range of competences that can be grouped into distinct domains or types, ranging from digital literacy to advanced digital skills. Digital literacy, a foundational domain, equips individuals to utilize digital technologies in daily life and work settings (e.g., using web browsers, managing files, practicing basic online safety), while advanced digital domains drive innovation and specialization (e.g., programming, data analysis). Hence, it is important to adopt a definition that clearly distinguishes between domains or types of digital skills and proficiency levels (the mastery of skills within each domain), as these are commonly confused in the literature. Individuals may possess varying proficiency levels in different types or domains of digital skills. Proficiency levels refer to the degree of competence individuals achieve within a specific skill type (e.g., using digital tools within a particular domain), ranging from foundational to intermediate, advanced, and highly specialized, as outlined in DigComp 2.2. (Figure 2.4). In contrast, types of digital skills refer to distinct categories, ranging from digital literacy to advanced digital skills, the category which generally refers to IT professional skills governed by their own specialized frameworks, such as the Skills Framework for the International Age (SFIA). For example, basic domains like digital literacy are sometimes mistakenly equated with beginner-level skills, ignoring that someone can achieve an 8 advanced level within this domain, such as mastering productivity tools or navigating complex digital systems. Similarly, within the advanced domain of programming, there may be advanced and beginner levels of proficiency. Figure 2.4. Competence Domains and Proficiency Levels Proficiency Levels Competence Domains Foundation Intermediate Advanced Highly Specialized 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Domains include various competencies that define the digital skills and knowledge required to perform tasks Proficiency levels entails the degree of mastery individuals have over the within that domain. These domains help competencies within each domain, ranging from basic awareness to individuals understand what digital skills advanced application. These levels guide individuals in understanding their are required for different roles, allowing current capabilities and identifying areas for further development. them to develop the specific abilities necessary for success in the digital world. Source: DigComp 2.2. Some digital skills competence frameworks treat universal competences as essential for navigating the digital realm, focus on the specialized skills that distinct groups, such as ICT professionals, students, and educators, need to leverage digital opportunities in education and employment. The next section discusses how varying objectives of digital skills development shape the competences outlined in different frameworks. 9 3. Digital Skills Competence Frameworks Digital skills competence frameworks are structured guidelines that define the competences individuals need to be successful and effective in the digital realm. By establishing clear expectations, they set consistent standards for the development and assessment of digital competences (van Deursen, Helsper, and Eynon, 2014; Atherton et al., 2022). These frameworks are shaped by expert decisions to identify essential skills. Educational institutions, employers, and governments can then design curricula and training programs and can evaluate and certify digital competences across their populations. Digital skills competence frameworks typically cover various domains and competences, including basic digital literacy, information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, problem solving, and technical skills. Robust frameworks categorize these domains and competences into different proficiency levels, outlining a progression from basic, guided tasks to highly specialized, autonomous tasks, reflecting increasing complexity and independence across different stages. This section presents a curated collection of 68 digital skills competence frameworks identified primarily through online research, focusing on information from internationally recognized global, regional, and national institutions. 2 Of the total, 44 are tailored to establish the digital competences essential for educators and students. Frameworks are classified according to their: • Reach: (i) global, (ii) regional, (iii) country, (iv) local (Figure 3.1). Global frameworks are intended to assess digital competences universally across countries, while regional frameworks address requirements specific to a geographical region or socioeconomic grouping. 3 Country-level frameworks focus on the digital competence needs of a single nation, 4 while local-level frameworks are designated for subnational areas, such as states or cities. 5 • Target population: (i) citizens, (ii) students, (iii) teachers, (iv) workers (Figure 3.1). 6 • Approach: (i) competence-based; (ii) objective-based (Figure A1). Competence-based frameworks delineate digital skills into discrete and measurable competences, focusing on the mastery and practical application of these skills. These frameworks are particularly advantageous for creating tools that assess an individual's competences effectively. Objective- 2 A snowball approach was used, with data collected up to January 2024. The search was conducted mainly in English and Spanish. 3 Examples of regional frameworks are (i) European Union (generic; citizens; teachers; workers); (ii) Latin America and the Caribbean (teachers, developed by UNESCO and the Inter-American Development Bank; and teachers. developed by a Brazilian agency). 4 Australia (generic; workers), Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Nigeria, Norway, Scotland, Singapore, Spain, South Africa, South Korea, United Kingdom (citizens; teachers), United States (students; students2; teachers; teachers2), Uruguay; Wales. 5 British Columbia, Catalonia, Maryland, Quebec, Seattle, South Carolina, Virginia. 6 Frameworks tailored for citizens are generic, focusing on enhancing digital competences across a spectrum of roles, including those of educators, students, and professionals. 10 based frameworks are centered around defining aspirational learning outcomes and knowledge, such as the ability to conduct online research effectively and mastery of content. Figure 3.1. Number of Digital Skills Competence Frameworks, by Target Population Source: Based on a review of 68 digital skills frameworks. Finally, we categorize the digital competences outlined in the available frameworks into three primary groups: • Specialized ICT Competences: These competences are tailored to specific roles. They include skills such as programming, computational thinking, 7 and data analysis, which are essential for solving complex problems and building innovative digital solutions. They also include expertise in AI, such as understanding how to interact with AI tools and using AI-driven platforms. • Transversal Competences: These are socioemotional or advanced cognitive skills that are versatile and applicable in both digital and non-digital contexts. Examples include problem solving, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration abilities that enable individuals to navigate various scenarios effectively. 7 Computational Thinking refers to cognitive processes rooted in computer science principles like abstraction and composition (Cadieux Boulden et al., 2018). Definitions vary, but generally, computational thinking involves framing and solving problems executable by an information-processing agent, whether human or computer. It equips problem solvers with new tools and strategies, such as algorithms and computing devices, to tackle complex challenges effectively (de Jong & Jeuring, 2020). 11 • Basic ICT Competences: This group encompasses the essential knowledge and conceptual understanding needed for digital engagement, such as cybersecurity and basic use of software (e.g., word processors, social media, and internet browsers). Frameworks designed for specific populations in mind cater to the needs and roles of those populations. Citizen- and student-focused frameworks emphasize transversal skills like communication and problem solving, along with basic ICT competences such as cybersecurity and digital content creation, fostering adaptability and responsible digital engagement. Teacher frameworks expand on this by incorporating competences tied to pedagogy, student assessment, and fostering digital citizenship, though they often assume a baseline of non-teaching digital skills, which may be lacking in low-income settings. Worker-focused frameworks, meanwhile, highlight digital competences, including AI and big data. The frameworks developed by the European Union, such as DigComp 2.2 and DigCompEdu, appear to be the most influential. 3.1 Citizens Digital skills competence frameworks are crucial for evaluating citizens’ ability to engage effectively in civic life. They measure essential skills for interacting with e-government services, participating in online discussions, and accessing critical information and services, which are fundamental to democratic participation and informed decision making. Furthermore, these frameworks highlight the need for proficiency in using online information to facilitate communication and social inclusion in digital communities. Additionally, citizens’ frameworks address individuals’ ability to navigate the digital landscape safely, emphasizing the importance of cybersecurity awareness and data privacy to safeguard personal information against online threats. Our review includes a total of 17 frameworks for assessing the digital competences of citizens. About half of all the citizen frameworks included in the catalog are global (8 in total), and a majority (13 in total) are competence based. For more details, see Table A4. As illustrated in Figure 3.2, most citizens’ frameworks include transversal competences such as communications, collaboration, and problem solving. Additionally, citizens’ frameworks incorporate basic ICT competences such as the use of digital technologies and software, ensuring proficiency in navigating and operating various platforms. To a lesser extent, citizens’ frameworks include specialized ICT competences such as data analysis, computational thinking, or industry-specific skills. 12 Figure 3.2. Share of Citizens’ Digital Skill Competence Frameworks Incorporating Specific Digital Competences Data analysis 65% Specialized ICT Programming & computational thinking 53% AI (e.g., big data, Generative AI) 18% Digital skills for a particular field or occupation 12% Communications 94% Transversal Collaboration 88% Problem solving & critical thinking 82% Safety and security 94% Use of digital technologies & software 94% Basic ICT Cyber-ethics 82% Digital content creation 82% Information use & management 82% Source: Based on a review of 17 digital skills frameworks for citizens. 3.2 Teachers Our review includes a total of 26 frameworks designed to assess the digital competences of teachers. With digital skills, teachers can incorporate multimedia and interactive resources into their lessons, making learning more engaging and effective for students (Hatos, Lacrimioara, and Clipa, 2022). Also, digital skills give teachers access to online educational materials, tools, and platforms they can use to supplement their teaching and enrich the learning experience, and they facilitate communication with students, parents, and colleagues through email, learning management systems, and social media (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2020). Digital skills competence frameworks for teachers include competences in pedagogy, student assessment, collaboration, professional learning, communications, digital content creation, and safety and security. Frameworks also delve into competences for developing students’ digital skills and digital citizenship. Teacher competence frameworks often emphasize skills unique to their classroom roles; a forthcoming companion paper by Chinen (2025) provides a more detailed analysis and deeper exploration of these specialized competences. About half of all teachers’ frameworks reviewed in this study are global or regional (15 in total), and most (14) are competence based (Figure 3.3) (see Table A5 for more details). 8 8 Many frameworks assume that teachers already have a solid set of non-teaching digital skills (such as those included in the citizens’ frameworks), which may not be the case, especially in low-income countries. Given the 13 Figure 3.3. Share of Teachers’ Digital Skill Competence Frameworks Incorporating Specific Digital Competences Pedagogy 65% Assessment 54% Specialized ICT Development of students' digital competence 31% Data analysis 12% Programming & computational thinking 8% Digital skills for a particular field or occupation 4% Collaboration 62% Professional Learning / Lifelong learning 58% Transversal Communications 54% Leadership 23% Problem solving & critical thinking 15% Digital content creation 42% Safety and security 42% Basic ICT Cyber-ethics 35% Use of digital technologies & software 31% Information use & management 23% Digital citizenship 23% Source: Based on a review of 26 digital skills frameworks for teachers. 3.3 Students Our review includes a total of 18 frameworks designed to assess students’ digital competences. With digital proficiency students can find, evaluate, and use information found online for their academic work, while communicating and collaborating in a digital environment. Digital tools can provide new ways for students to express themselves and innovate, whether through digital art, programming, or designing digital projects (UNESCO and Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, 2017). Many jobs require mastery of basic digital skills, and many industries are demanding intermediate and advanced digital skills such as AI, cybersecurity, and data analytics (Feijao et al., 2021). Moreover, digital skills are necessary for lifelong learning, because many educational resources and learning opportunities are now online (Salem, Alsyed, and Elshaer, 2022). prevalence of skills gaps among teachers in low-income countries, it may be more pragmatic to use citizen-focused frameworks as the basis for developing teacher training programs. 14 Most student-focused frameworks, like citizen frameworks, include competences related to information management, cyberethics, digital content creation, communications, problem solving, critical thinking, and data analysis (see Figure A2 and Table A6). 9 3.4 Workers Our review includes a total of seven digital skills competence frameworks designed to assess workers’ digital competences. A range of these has been developed globally to address the specific digital competences required across various sectors; they offer valuable guidance for skilling, reskilling, and upskilling the workforce. For foundational digital skills, the Basic Digital Competences Framework focuses on addressing gaps among unemployed individuals, combining a conceptual model with practical training to enhance employability. Similarly, the International Computer Driving License (ICDL) provides a structured certification program for basic to advanced digital competences, emphasizing practical skills that improve productivity and collaboration. The ICDL offers tailored certifications through three distinct pathways: Workforce, which focuses on essential digital skills for general workplace environments; Professional, which targets more advanced digital and technical competences needed for specialized roles; and Insights, designed to provide managers and nontechnical professionals with a deeper understanding of emerging digital trends and their business implications. For day-to-day workplace needs, the Digital Workplace Skills Framework highlights essential skills such as digital collaboration, data management, and cybersecurity, equipping workers with tools to increase productivity and adaptability. For more specialized skill sets, Australia’s Workforce Digital Skills Framework combines foundational digital literacy with advanced technological skills tailored to the needs of the Australian labor market. It emphasizes both the universal competences required for digital participation, such as using productivity tools and navigating online platforms, and the specialized skills needed in industries like healthcare, construction, and information technology. Moving to higher-level professional contexts, McKinsey’s Defining the Skills Citizens Will Need in the Future World of Work identifies emerging digital, cognitive, and interpersonal skills critical for workers to remain relevant in a rapidly evolving labor market. For ICT professionals, the Skills Framework for the Information Age (SFIA-8) offers a detailed guide for developing and managing ICT-related skills across roles and expertise levels. It provides a structured 9 Frameworks for students are developed by a variety of organizations, including international bodies (e.g., the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development), governments (e.g., Costa Rica, Korea), and academic institutions, such as the International Society for Technology in Education and International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS). Most of these frameworks (78 percent) adopt a competence-based approach (e.g., ICILS CIL framework) , while a smaller number (e.g., ISTE Standards for Students) follow an objective-based approach. These frameworks span various educational stages, from elementary school (e.g., Elementary School Digital Literacy Framework) to higher education (e.g., Information Literacy Competence Standards for Higher Education). Notably, the review also includes UNESCO's AI Competence Framework for Students. Table A6 provides with a curated collection of digital skills competence frameworks for students. 15 approach to identifying and categorizing competences in areas such as software development, cybersecurity, IT infrastructure, and digital transformation. Similarly, the e-Competence Framework developed by IT Professionalism Europe outlines 41 competences across domains such as planning, building, and managing IT systems, aligning with European standards of IT professionalism. These frameworks collectively provide a robust foundation for addressing digital skills across diverse audiences and proficiency levels. For more information see Table A7 and Figure A3. Also see Box 3.1 describing competences frameworks for training in AI. Box 3.1. Competence Frameworks for Training in AI With the recent rise in AI, new frameworks are emerging to incorporate the mastery of AI domains for different target populations. Our review identifies three AI frameworks, each targeting a distinct group (Table A4 to Table A6). The AI Literacy Framework for Learners and Educators (Digital Promise) is for citizens, the AI Competence Framework for Teachers (UNESCO) focuses on lifelong professional development for teachers, and the AI Competence Framework for Students (UNESCO) aims to equip students with the necessary skills, knowledge, and values to engage with AI effectively. All three frameworks share a common emphasis on the use of AI, rather than on its development. Their purpose is to help individuals understand and use AI tools in various contexts, whether in personal life, education, professional settings, and to develop knowledge and competences required in modern society (Moldoveanu et al., 2024). These frameworks make it a priority to ensure that individuals are equipped to interact with AI technologies responsibly, critically, and ethically. At the same time, some studies are exploring the integration of AI into existing digital skills frameworks, such as in DigComp 2.2. For instance, Vuorikari and Kluzer (2023) compile examples of knowledge, know-how, and attitudes related to generative AI tools. Source: Authors’ elaboration. 16 4. Digital Skills Assessment Tools Digital skills assessment tools are crucial for identifying individuals’ proficiency levels and training needs. Our catalog features a comprehensive suite of 75 digital assessment tools, primarily designed to measure competences as outlined in the digital skills competence frameworks discussed earlier. 10 However, our analysis finds that there is no one-to-one alignment between the target specified in the frameworks and those assessed in the tools. This discrepancy suggests potential gaps or misalignments in how digital skills are developed and measured across different educational contexts. Half of the tools in our catalog (35 out of 75) are intended for evaluating the digital skills of teachers, while the other half are for citizens and students. Five are specifically for workers, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. 11 The review shows that the European Union’s frameworks, DigComp and DigCompEdu, have been highly influential in shaping digital assessment tools. Of the assessments reviewed, 22 are uniquely based on DigComp for citizens, while 30 incorporate elements of either DigComp or DigCompEdu. 12 Figure 4.1. Catalog of Digital Skills Assessment Types, by Target Group Source: Based on a review of 75 digital skills assessments. 10 Training institutions, upon identifying their intended audience—citizens, students, educators, or workers—and establishing an appropriate framework of competences, should then proceed to assess the proficiency levels of individuals within the identified competences of interest. A first step is to define the set of competences one seeks to assess and develop. A second step involves the objective of measuring the audience’s command of these competences using reliable digital skills assessment tools. 11 Our catalog does not include assessments specifically focused on evaluating knowledge of AI. Though the tools that are identified assess various aspects of digital skills, none currently measure AI-related competences. 12 Examples of such assessments include the PIX and IKANOS tests, both based on DigComp 2.2. 17 Assessment tools can be broadly classified into two categories: formative and summative. Formative assessments aim to provide constructive feedback to learners and instructors, often through individual scores and detailed reports. In contrast, summative assessments are used for broader diagnostics to determine achievement levels within a group. These are typically sample-based, conducted on a large scale, and often used for international comparisons of performance across countries or regions. Summative results are generally presented in aggregate; detailed reports for individual institutions or students are rarely given. Of the 75 tools reviewed, 71 are formative, while only 4 are summative. The four summative assessments include the (ICILS), Adult Skills Assessment in Thailand (ASAT), Technology and Engineering Literacy Assessment (TEL), and the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment. Moreover, to date, the ICILS is the only international large-scale assessment that focuses solely on digital literacy and that offers measures to monitor changes in students’ digital literacy achievement over time. Other summative surveys, like PISA, include modules that assess digital skills. Box 4.1 highlights a successful World Bank large-scale assessment tool that demonstrates the effective application of a summative assessment, including the measurement of digital skills. Box 4.1. A World Bank Large-scale Assessment Tool Example The Adult Skills Assessment in Thailand (ASAT) Overview: first large-scale assessment of adult skills in Thailand (2022), designed to measure 15–64-year- olds’ levels of foundational skills, and to generate nationally and regionally representative measures. The objective was to provide policy makers and educators with the means to identify the scale of skills gaps and the subgroups among youth and adults who lack the necessary foundational skills to flourish in the labor market and in society (World Bank, 2024). Skills Assessed: foundational skills, encompassing literacy, digital, and socioemotional skills. Digital Skills comprised two domains: operating digital devices software (i.e., ability to use a mouse and keyboard to undertake basic operational tasks such as copying a text), and information and data literacy (i.e., ability to find and process information in a variety of contexts including work, health, and consumer finance). The team prepared original task-based items for assessment and designed an original proficiency scale (from Level 0 to Level 2) using Item Response Theory. Support and Funding: tool was developed by the World Bank and the Equitable Education Fund, with inputs from academic partner Thammasat University. Source: Adult Skills Assessment in Thailand. 18 4.1 Assessment Design Assessment tools can be categorized as self-reported, knowledge-based, or task-based (Figure 4.2). Self- reported assessment tools consist of questions that solicit individuals’ evaluations or self-reflections of their own skill levels. Typically structured with Likert-type scales, these self-reported instruments depend on participants to introspectively provide data without external corroboration. Though such assessments can be straightforward to create and yield prompt results, they rely on the respondents’ self-insights, which may lead to potential biases or distortions in the data collected. Moreover, several studies have identified disparities and weak associations between self-reported digital literacy and individuals’ actual abilities (Gabarda Méndez, Rodríguez Martín, and Moreno Rodríguez, 2017; Hassan, Mailok, and Johan, 2015; Nguyen and Habók, 2024; Öncül, 2021). Figure 4.2. Number of Digital Skills Assessments, by Target Group and Assessment Type Source: Authors’ elaboration based on a review of 75 digital skills assessments. Note: Knowledge-based assessments often include self-evaluation items, and this was reflected in our sample, where half (6 out of 12) incorporated such items. Forty percent of the assessment tools (30 out of 75) are based— at least—on the DigComp (citizens) or DigCompEdu frameworks. Knowledge-based assessments gauge factual or procedural understanding through various question formats, commonly multiple-choice. They typically prioritize factual knowledge (and memorization) over practical ability and application, which can be seen as a limitation. Finally, task-based assessment tools evaluate an individual’s skills, abilities, or knowledge by having them perform specific tasks or activities. These tools measure actual performance through, for example, practical exercises, simulations, hands-on projects, or problem-solving tests. The advantage of task- based assessments is that they provide objective data based on direct observation of performance, 19 offering tangible evidence of an individual’s skills proficiency. However, they can be more complex and costly to design, administer, and score than self-reported measures (See Table 4.1 and Box 4.2). It is advisable to employ a combination of task-based and self-reported assessment tools, an approach that allows for cross-verification of data and fosters a comprehensive understanding of students’ training requirements, self-perceptions, and areas where skills development is needed. Box 4.2. Examples of Digital Skills Items by Type of Assessment Subjective, self-evaluation a) I know how to copy and move files (e.g., documents, images, videos) between folders, devices or on the cloud: I don't know how to do it / I can do it with help / I can do it on my own / I can do it with confidence and, if needed, I can support/guide others. (Europass) b) I understand the many advantages and limitations of different storage options (Knowledge of the pros and cons of storing data in the cloud, on a hard drive or a portable device): To a very small degree / To a small degree / To a lesser extent / Partially / To some extent / To a large extent / To a very large extent. (The Digital Competence Wheel) Objective, knowledge-based a) What is two-factor authentication or two-step verification? a) It is an additional security layer to supplement the use of a password when the user is asked to enter their password for the second time. b) It is an additional security layer which supplements the use of a password, providing something which only the user possesses. (Europass) b) Which of these is a strong password? 5 options and select the correct answer. (Digital Citizenship Test) Objective, task-based a) Use the following simulation to execute the statement. Up to 4 failures are allowed during the execution of the exercise. Filter the search below to show only medium-sized images and tagged for reuse with modifications. b) You are logged in to your Google account. Create a document in the cloud that allows you to access it from different devices and locations. 20 Box 4.2 (continued) Sources: Digital Citizenship Test; The Digital Competence Wheel; Europass. Table A8 to Table A12 present a comprehensive inventory of available assessment tools, along with a description of their main design features. Our findings reveal that nearly 50 percent of the assessments identified across the four target populations relied on self-reporting or self-evaluation. Findings also reveal that most of the assessments tailored for teachers are self-reported, suggesting a potential need for more objective teacher evaluation methods. 21 Table 4.1. Types of Digital Skills Assessment Type of Measurement Advantages Disadvantages Assessment Characteristics Self- Self-diagnostic or auto- Convenient and Does not provide information reported evaluation – may include economical. about the actual competence, self-reported attitudes literacy, and effective and self-efficacy Useful to plan individual performance. Results tend to measures, reflects professional learning be positively but weakly individuals’ beliefs activities and learning correlated with individuals’ ICT regarding their ability to pathways and reflect on skillsa. execute a specific task or participants’ own domain. strengths and Some individuals tend to Subjective weaknesses. overestimate or underestimate In the absence of a their competence.b proper assessment of Additionally, when individuals ICT competences, self- are aware that their data will diagnostic constitutes be viewed by a third party, the primary source of they may exhibit “social information about desirability bias,” inflating students’ ICT skills. certain traits to appear more favorable, which can skew their self-assessment. Knowledge- Evaluates factual or Convenient and Emphasis on theoretical based procedural knowledge economical. knowledge over practical through questions, often application. Focus more on multiple-choice. factual or procedural understanding rather than evaluating practical application of digital skills in real-life situations. May not provide a Objective comprehensive evaluation of individuals’ digital skills and competences. Task-Based Individuals are required Provides information Require careful planning and to perform a variety of about the actual may result in administration tasks on a computer. competence of the expenses. These tasks may include individual. multiple-choice and short text response This data type is crucial questions, skills-based for understanding which tasks, and information intervention is effective: 22 Type of Measurement Advantages Disadvantages Assessment Characteristics literacy and To assess teaching, communication tasks, training, and curricula using a range of effectiveness, and to productivity software inform policy decisions. tools (such as text editors or presentation May be implemented applications) and web online or offlinec. Some content. online assessments are adaptived. Source: Authors’ elaboration. a. Studies have found discrepancies between the way prospective teachers perceive their digital competence and the actual abilities demonstrated in the results (Gabarda Méndez, Rodríguez Martín, and Moreno Rodríguez, 2017). Also, according to Fraillon et al (2014) students’ confidence in performing advanced ICT tasks is weakly associated with Computer and Information Literacy achievement scores as measured in the ICILS (OECD, 2023a). b. Studies have found discrepancies between the way prospective teachers perceive their digital competence and the actual abilities demonstrated in the results (Gabarda Méndez, Rodríguez Martín, and Moreno Rodríguez, 2017). Also, according to Fraillon et al (2014) students’ confidence in performing advanced ICT tasks is weakly associated with Computer and Information Literacy achievement scores as measured in the ICILS (OECD, 2023a). c. For instance, the ICILS uses a customized offline assessment platform, often delivered via USB drive. d. For example, the PIX online test incorporates an adaptive feature, where the level of difficulty of the questions is adjusted to the individual’s level after each answer. 23 5. Instructional Strategies for Developing Digital Skills The available literature highlights various crucial aspects in teaching and learning digital skills (Basilotta‑Gómez‑Pablos et al., 2022; Howard et al., 2021). The literature emphasizes the importance of integrating digital competence in the curriculum, and multiple studies have noted the poor integration of digital skill development with actual education programs (Gabarda Méndez et al., 2023; González- Salamanca, Agudelo, and Salinas, 2020). The literature also urges the necessity for students to have exposure, practice, and real opportunities for hands-on experimentation (Sánchez et al., 2022; Røkenes and Krumsvik, 2014). Instilling different digital skills requires different types of approaches (Table 5.1). Just like acquiring the mastery of other skills, learning different digital competences encompasses the identification of standards delineating the expected knowledge and proficiency levels for students upon completion of the course. Additionally, it entails establishing the scope and sequence of instruction, selecting suitable instructional materials, resources, and assessments to measure student mastery. For example, digital competences around cybersecurity and cyberethics require the design of tailor-made courses in the subject. Other sets of digital competences, notably those that are transversal, such as communications and problem solving, are better developed through pedagogy, 13 independently of the content of the course. For instance, incorporating student-active learning approaches through hands-on experiences and peer interactions can foster transversal competences such as collaboration and problem solving. The idea behind student-centered pedagogy is to actively engage students in the learning process (Røkenes and Krumsvik, 2014). Finally, more specialized digital competences require practice and exposure. For instance, teaching data visualization concepts often demands a more interactive and hands-on approach. In these cases, educators need to adopt teaching methods that encourage experimentation and learning by doing. Advanced digital skills, such as programming, necessitate a high level of proficiency that can only be attained through practice and hands-on experience. In such cases, students benefit from instructional design that includes practical exercises, project-based learning, and internships to master these skills. Table 5.1. Approaches for Instructing Different Digital Competences Instructional Approaches Integrate into Provide Exposure & Enhance Digital Competence Curriculum Practice Pedagogical Methods Transversal (i.e., communication, Cross-curricular Project-based learning, collaboration, problem Real-world situations approacha hands-on experiences solving, critical thinking) 13 Pedagogy refers to the use of teaching approaches and techniques to develop or reinforce skills. It includes not only technical instruction on how to use digital tools and platforms but also aims to build users’ autonomy and capacity to apply these tools effectively across different contexts and evolving technologies. 24 Instructional Approaches Safety and Knowledge security, Real-world situations Case-based instruction (academic content) cyber-ethics Use of digital technologies Basic and software, ICT digital Cross-curricular content Learning by doingb Hands-on experiences approach creation, information use and management Specialized ICT (i.e., data analysis, Training framework programing and Extensive self-tuition, Project-based, distinguishing computational thinking, practical experiencesc student-centered proficiency levels advanced digital skills (e.g., AI, Big Data) Source: Authors’ elaboration. a. A cross-curricular approach integrates digital skills across various knowledge disciplines (e.g., using digital learning platforms to download and upload content). b. For more information, see Reisoğlu and Çebi (2020). c. For more information, see UNESCO and Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development (2017). 5.1 Transversal Skills Transversal skills are essential for navigating the complexities of the 21st century. They diverge from traditional academic skills in that they are not primarily reliant on subject-specific expertise for their development. Despite their importance, these skills are frequently omitted from the curriculum, although it is possible (and necessary) to effectively integrate them directly or indirectly in the instructional design (Kivunja, 2014a). To ensure comprehensive development, transversal skills should be fully incorporated into the curriculum for both students and teachers in a cross-curricular approach (Akcil, Uzunboylu, and Kinik, 2021) across various knowledge disciplines. Instead of being taught in isolation, these skills should be seamlessly embedded into the core curriculum and into each subject, which requires adaptable educational structures. 14 Singapore’s curriculum innovations, such as the Integrated Programme, illustrate how flexibility can enhance the integration of transversal skills in a 14 Students who have effective communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, along with creativity and innovation skills within their field of expertise, typically find greater success not only at academic and professional environments but also in contributing positively to society (Wrahatnolo and Munoto, 2018). 25 comprehensive curriculum that fosters critical thinking (see Box 5.1 for more country examples). Research suggests that rigorous curriculum design is essential to realizing such outcomes (Tan et al., 2017). Transversal skills can also be developed through pedagogy, in any course (González-Salamanca, Agudelo, and Salinas, 2020). Approaches such as project-based learning, 15 hands-on experiences, and exposure to real-world challenges can empower students to cultivate tools that enrich their growth, adaptability, and work readiness (Martinez, 2022). With real-world situations and project-based learning, students can cultivate transversal competences through active engagement, which promotes self-regulation, communication, and reflection. These practical approaches facilitate the seamless transfer of knowledge and learning to dynamic environments, so that students can navigate and thrive in an ever-evolving world (González-Pérez and Ramírez-Montoya, 2022). Furthermore, Kivunja (2014b) argues that the adoption of “21st century skills” requires a “pedagogical paradigm shift,” away from the traditional approach of simply expecting students to memorize content and follow instructions toward teaching practices that nurture critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, teamwork, and leadership. Box 5.1. Transversal Skills Development, Country Examples Hong Kong: The “Learning to Learn Reform” (2001) sought to broaden students' learning experiences by making subjects more relevant, linking them to broader human and social issues, and emphasizing the learning process over memorization (OECD, 2014). Japan: The Zest for Life reform in school education prioritized experimentation, problem identification, and problem solving over memorization. Similarly, in the United States, the Common Core State Standards Initiative seeks to redefine educational standards to focus on rigorous content and applications of knowledge through higher-order skills, ensuring students are prepared for the demands of the 21st century (Saavedra and Opfer, 2012). Australia: The DeLorean Project, launched in 2016 by Australian colleges, exemplifies the use of pedagogical strategies to cultivate transversal skills. The program equips 10th graders with the essential capabilities for navigating 21st-century challenges. One day per week, students engage in the creation, design, and execution of real-world projects, with teachers acting as facilitators. Findings show that participation in the DeLorean Project significantly enhances students’ creative thinking and ethical behavior (Grainger et al., 2019). Sources: Grainger et al. (2019); OECD (2014): Saavedra and Opfer (2012). 15 In project-based learning, students acquire knowledge and skills by working on authentic and complex questions, problems, or challenges (Martinez, 2022, p. 3). 26 5.2 Basic ICT Skills Cyberethics and Cybersecurity. Scholars acknowledge the legal, moral, and social dilemmas stemming from ICT misuse, underscoring the importance of integrating ICT ethics courses into educational curricula (Marson, 2009; Beycioglu, 2009; Duquenoy, Martens, and Patrignani, 2010). Students must acquire knowledge about how to behave ethically when using digital resources, including understanding issues like plagiarism, copyright, and intellectual property. Moreover, they need to be aware of practices such as phishing and fraud, which exploit various technologies to deceive individuals and steal personal information. These issues are typically taught in a dedicated course (Kilis and Uzun, 2018). Furthermore, considering the diverse array of situations where ICT may present safety and cybersecurity risks, it is also important to engage students with real-world scenarios through case-based pedagogy 16 (Marson, 2009). These combinations of approaches support their understanding and ability to apply theoretical concepts to practical situations. Basic ICT Skills. Basic ICT skills enable individuals to navigate devices, connect to the internet, establish accounts and profiles, and access information and resources. However, unlike the curricula of traditional cognitive skills, such as algebra and geometry, the curricular content to develop these skills evolves faster as technology changes. Teaching basic ICT skills requires a combination of approaches, including cross-curricular integration of technology in education, as well as adapting educational curricula to teach the use of generic hardware and software (Gabarda Méndez et al., 2023). In higher education, there is increasing attention to designing ICT literacy courses for students and staff (Sánchez-Caballé, Gisbert-Cervera, and Esteve-Mon, 2020). Moreover, the development of basic ICT skills, such as digital content creation, often involves hands-on experiences and practical work. Teachers can promote these skills by encouraging students to create and share digital content, such as presentations, videos, and online portfolios (Sánchez et al., 2022), while also integrating technology into teaching and learning processes (Dias-Trindade and Ferreira, 2020). 5.3 Specialized ICT Skills Cultivating proficiency and expertise in specialized digital skills—such as data analysis, programming, computational thinking, AI, and Big Data—demands specialized training methods, because these abilities are rarely developed through mere exposure to technology (UNESCO and Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, 2017). One effective method for acquiring specialization is 16 Case based instruction is a commonly used method for teaching ICT ethics (Kilis & Uzun, 2018). It presents students with real or hypothetical scenarios related to ethical dilemmas in the digital realm. These cases typically involve situations where moral decisions need to be made regarding online behavior, privacy, security, intellectual property, or digital citizenship. Students then analyze, discuss, and debate the ethical implications of the scenario. This approach encourages critical thinking, moral reasoning, and the application of ethical principles to digital contexts. 27 through certification programs specifically designed to validate individuals’ expertise in certain areas. These certifications serve as valuable credentials for both employees and employer; they provide tangible evidence of competence, and they enhance employability and work readiness. Providers such as Microsoft and Win Learning offer verified digital credentials to learners who pass online assessments, while other providers offer specialized digital skills assessments to help recruiters identify candidates who have desired skills (e.g., Isograd Inc.). In tandem with digital skills credentials, specific competence frameworks are essential for effectively training individuals in specialized digital skills. Competence frameworks, often developed in in collaboration with employers, provide a foundation on which trainers and higher education institutions can tailor or synchronize their program content with the demands of industry and employers (Mason and Rich, 2019). For example, the study conducted by Ogegbo and Ramnarain (2022) underscores the value of competence frameworks to delineate concept, breadth, and components in academic courses on computational thinking. Frameworks for advanced digital competences can also help in tailoring the design of learning programs to organizational needs (Sabaitytė, Davidavicienė, and Karpoviciutė, 2020). Understanding learners’ proficiency levels is important for tailoring instruction in specialized digital skills. De Jong and Jeuring (2020) indicate that scaffolding techniques may not be successful if they are not adjusted to individual proficiency levels. Thus, aligning the teaching approach with the student’s proficiency level becomes pivotal, particularly in disciplines like computational thinking. Hands-on experiences are also instrumental for learning specialized ICT skills. 17 Integrated into classroom activities, they foster active engagement, allow students to test concepts firsthand, and bridge the gap between theory and practice, ultimately enhancing skill development in specialized digital domains (Handur et al., 2016). Clear and Damian (Beecham et al. 2017) argue that the most effective approach to mastery of Global Software Engineering is through practical application, and they advocate for students to engage in hands-on Global Software Engineering projects that present realistic challenges and stimulate critical thinking. They also encourage the use of open-source projects 18 in higher education, because these activities give students real-world experience or a facsimile of it. Finally, pedagogy can also support the development of specialized ICT skills. Ogegbo and Ramnarain (2022) review a set of pedagogical strategies that show promise when incorporating computational thinking in the classroom. Most of these strategies are student centered; they include modeling-based 17 In hands-on learning, students learn by actively engaging with materials, manipulating them to explore concepts and test hypotheses. This interactive learning process involves modifying, handling, and experimenting with various materials. It fosters the development of physical, perceptual, and psychomotor skills (Handur et al., 2016). 18 Open-source projects are collaborative software initiatives open to all for viewing, modifying, and distributing. They use specific tools and processes, and they encourage students to collaborate globally with experienced teams, gaining insights into Global Software Engineering practices and new developer integration. Open-source projects are inherently motivating, offering real-world situations with broad applicability. These projects include development tools (e.g., Git, Internet Relay Chat, Wikis, and blogs) and programming languages (e.g., Python, Java, and C++) (Hjelsvold & Mishra, 2019; Beecham et al. 2017). 28 learning, 19 design-based learning, 20 game-based learning, 21 inquiry-based learning, 22 and project-based learning. Cadieux Boulden et al. (2018) demonstrate that incorporating game-based learning is effective for imparting computational thinking concepts and skills. Furthermore, Beecham et al. (2017) suggest that the use of online simulations, games, and inquiry-based learning in educational environments offers students practical, experiential learning opportunities that support the “learning by doing” approach. 5.4 Implications for Educational Design The design of training programs must reflect the breadth and complexity of digital competences. It should clearly define the target participants and the specific skills to be developed, which requires a thorough evaluation of their proficiency levels before training. Comprehensive post-training assessment techniques should then be used to measure both the proficiency levels attained and the overall effectiveness of the training. This section provides a concise overview of the crucial stages for adequate training design (Figure 5.1). 1. Select a digital skills competence framework. Once the target audience—students, teachers, workers, or citizens—is identified, select a digital skills framework (see Annexes) that best fits their specific needs and characteristics. This framework will direct the inclusion of core competences in the training program. 2. Choose an assessment tool. Select an assessment that is appropriate to measure the identified competences in the skills framework. Conduct a careful evaluation of the different types of assessments, considering their intended purposes and weighing their respective strengths and weaknesses. For example, if the aim is to gain insight into trainee’s competences or to assess the effectiveness of a training program, task-based assessments (when available) are more suitable. 23 3. Conduct a pretest assessment and a pilot. This assessment identifies the students’ existing skill deficiencies, using available assessment tools. Prior to widespread deployment of a training program, it is advisable to conduct a pilot test with a select sample to ensure the reliability and 19 Modelling-based learning helps learners build mental pictures of real-world phenomena. Students typically engage in activities such as creating diagrams, simulations, or mathematical representations to simulate or describe real-world situations, allowing individuals to make connections between theoretical concepts and real-world applications (Ogegbo & Ramnarain, 2022, p. 16). 20 Design-based learning is “a form of inquiry/project learning which involves the integration of design thinking/activities, process, and projects/games into the classroom to foster students’ creativity, problem-solving skills, and engagement in real-world, cross- curricular tasks” (Ogegbo & Ramnarain, 2022, p. 16). 21 Game-based learning is “the implementation of game elements such as core mechanics, challenges, and goals into real-life settings to enhance learning” (Ogegbo & Ramnarain, 2022, p. 16). 22 Inquiry-based learning is “a form of active learning that involves a process of investigation, problem formulation and solving, as well as the construction of knowledge for better understanding” (Ogegbo & Ramnarain, 2022, p. 16). 23 Conversely, if the goal is for teachers to self-diagnose their skills to plan their individual professional pathways, then a self-reported assessment may be more appropriate. 29 relevance of the gathered data. Implementing a pilot provides a contained setting in which to assess the efficacy of the evaluation tools and their application methods for these users and their circumstances, allowing for necessary refinements before a large-scale rollout. 4. Design and deliver training curriculum. The training curriculum needs to be carefully designed to incorporate the competences outlined in the competence frameworks, while also effectively addressing the primary skill gaps identified through the pretest assessment. Moreover, training institutions need to identify the appropriate instructional approaches; for instance, trainers in transversal skills should emphasize hands-on experiences and experimentation. Conversely, for training programs in basic and generic ICT, such as safety and cyberethics, trainers should develop dedicated content and offer learners practical, real-world examples (Steps 4 and 5 in Figure 5.1). 5. Conduct a post-test assessment and incorporate lessons learned. Following the training, competence acquisition should be evaluated using the same assessment tool (a task-based assessment will provide more accurate information). The difference between the test scores before the training and the scores after the training, for knowledge-based and task-based assessment, is a proxy for student learning. Trainers can also collect qualitative data (through surveys or class observation) to monitor training implementation and extract lessons learned and good practices (Steps 6 and 7 in Figure 5.1). Figure 5.1. Approach for Designing Digital Skills Training Programs 1- Select a digital skills 2- Choose an assessment 3- Administer pretest framework and identify appropriate to the assessment to identify key competences for identified competences. training needs. development. 4- Develop a training 5- Select suitable teaching 6- Administer post- curriculum that is aligned methods to develop such training assessment to with chosen competences competences and deliver measure skills and addresses skill gaps. the training. improvement. 9- Update training 8- Scale up the training 7- Adjust and improve content to align with course or intervention, assessment and training emerging trends and and conduct an impact course. evolving technological evalution. skills. Source: Authors’ elaboration. 30 6. If possible, evaluate using rigorous impact evaluation design. A recurring trend in technology deployments is the scarcity of rigorous impact evaluations assessing the effectiveness of EdTech programs or of initiatives for enhancing digital skills. This issue is closely tied to the limited use of objective task-based assessments, which are necessary for measuring impacts, making comparisons across different groups, or tracking improvements over time. Self-evaluations lack the reliability needed to ascertain the efficacy of training programs, because participants’ perceptions may be influenced by the intervention itself. The design and implementation of an impact evaluation entails developing a theory of change that depicts the program or training activities, the outputs, and expected intermediate outcomes, or the mechanisms of change, alongside final outcomes. Moreover, it involves having reliable survey or data collection instruments validated in different countries to ensure consistency and validity across diverse contexts (Step 8 in Figure 5.1). 7. Stay updated on emerging trends and the skills required to integrate new technological developments. The rise of generative AI (GenAI) and its rapid evolution are reshaping the scope and depth of digital skills—transversal, basic, and specialized. As a result, digital skills training programs must adapt, not only to teach foundational tech concepts but also to address how GenAI is automating tasks and affecting the skills landscape. By raising awareness of AI’s evolving role, training programs can better equip students with the knowledge and adaptability needed to navigate a dynamic technological environment (see Step 9 in Figure 5.1 and Box 5.2). Understanding both the capabilities and limitations of AI will be essential for students to thrive in an increasingly automated world (Moldoveanu et al., 2024). Box 5.2. Generative Artificial Intelligence Impact on Digital Skills GenAI refers to artificial intelligence (AI) technologies capable of performing a range of tasks traditionally carried out by humans, such as writing text, creating content (images, videos, presentations, reports), composing music, classifying data, and designing digital art. Examples of GenAI tools include ChatGPT, GitHub Copilot, and Stable Diffusion, among others. GenAI is impacting tasks and roles, from basic competences to transversal and specialized skills. Transversal Competences • Communication and collaboration: GenAI can facilitate customer interactions and client engagement by providing instant and efficient customer support, handling inquiries and solving problems. It can also enhance teamwork, accelerating productivity. • Education and tutoring: AI-powered platforms offer personalized educational experiences, adapting to individual learning styles and needs, potentially reducing the need for human tutors. Basic/Generic ICT Competences • Content creation: GenAI tools like OpenAI's GPT models can generate articles, creative content for marketing and sales, and digital art more efficiently, saving time and effort. 31 Box 5.2 (continued) • Information use and management: GenAI can enhance research by improving market reporting, ideation, and product or solution drafting. Specialized ICT Competences • Data analysis: GenAI can interpret abstract data such as text and images from various sources. • Coding: AI tools like GitHub Copilot assist in writing and debugging code, streamlining software development processes, and changing the nature of programming roles. • Software engineering: GenAI can analyze, clean, and label large volumes of data. Education programs worldwide face the dual challenge of equipping students with essential GenAI skills for future employment while also updating traditional digital skill sets. This dynamic is what Goldin and Katz (2007) describe as a “race between technology and education.” In this evolving landscape, ICT training programs must go beyond proficiency in GenAI, focusing on broader competences crucial for career success. These include emotional intelligence, creativity, problem solving, adaptability, critical thinking, and human decision making in AI use (OECD, 2023b; PwC, 2022). It is essential for young professionals to develop both transversal skills (e.g., analytical thinking, communication, and negotiation) and socioemotional skills (e.g., interpersonal abilities, attitudes, and behaviors), alongside high-end technical competences (e.g., AI, automation, cloud technology, Internet of Things) (ILO, 2020). Source: Authors’ elaboration. 32 6. Conclusions Digital skills are critical for personal and professional development; they enable people to communicate, collaborate, learn, and work more efficiently. Using digital technologies has become a fundamental requirement for citizenship, education, and employment. Yet the evidence indicates that there is a substantial digital skills gap across economies, even in developed economies. A considerable portion of the population appears to lack proficiency in digital skills. According to available data, less than 40 percent of youth in high- and upper-middle-income countries have minimum digital literacy proficiency. Data are unavailable for most low- and middle-income countries, where digital skills gaps are likely the largest. These gaps occur because digital skills encompass a broad array of abilities, including behaviors, expertise, character traits, and specialized knowledge. Moreover, developing digital competences often relies on strong foundational skills (such as numeracy, literacy, and socioemotional skills), which are frequently lacking among youth and adults who have not had access to quality education. Addressing these gaps may require remedial support before individuals can effectively acquire digital skills for educational or employment purposes. To develop the workforce’s digital skills, it is then crucial to delineate distinct competences relevant to different target groups. Digital skills competence frameworks provide a comprehensive overview of the digital competences that citizens, students, teachers, and workers must acquire to succeed in a more digitalized world. The study reviews more than 68 such frameworks, most being competence-based and having a global or regional scope. The competences outlined in most frameworks are categorized into three main sets: basic/generic ICT competences, transversal competences, and specialized ICT competences. Upon identifying the intended audience—citizens, students, educators, or workers—and the competences to develop, it is essential to evaluate their proficiency levels, using reliable digital skills assessment tools, to identify the specific training needs. The study reviews a total of 75 digital assessment tools, most of which are intended to provide constructive feedback to learners and instructors. The review found that summative large-scale assessments, used for international comparisons of performance across countries or regions, are lacking in low- and middle-income countries. For these countries it is a challenge to identify existing skills gaps, monitor progress, and effectively tailor interventions or allocate resources to address disparities. Assessment instruments can be classified into three types: self-reported, knowledge-based, and task- based. Self-reported tools involve queries that prompt individuals to reflect on and rate their own abilities. Knowledge-based assessments test comprehension of facts and processes, whereas task-based tools measure a person’s competence or knowledge through the performance of specific tasks. Training providers are encouraged to use a blend of task-based and self-reported tools to identify trainees’ skill deficits. This mixed-method approach enables the corroboration of findings and provides a holistic view of learners’ needs, self-assessments, and areas requiring skill enhancement. Our research indicates that although most assessments for students, citizens, and workers are task-oriented, a notable number of teacher assessments rely on self-reporting. The lack of task-based assessment tools for teachers raises 33 concerns regarding the dependability and accuracy of such data, and it points to gaps in objective evaluation methods for teachers’ digital skills. The study discusses the importance of integrating digital skills in curricular design and pedagogy. Instructional approaches vary depending on the digital competence students need to develop. Effective development of Basic ICT skills generally entails a mix of cross-curricular integration (i.e., Incorporating technology into various subjects across the curriculum) and hands-on experience, such as encouraging students to create and share digital content, including presentations, videos, and online portfolios. The effective development of transversal skills generally entails providing students with real-world challenges through student-centered pedagogy, such as project-based learning, game-based learning, or inquiry-based learning. These pedagogical strategies allow students to build mental pictures, engage in real-world tasks, solve problems, and construct knowledge. The effective development of specialized ICT skills generally entails the development of competence frameworks/standards in coordination with industry and employers and providing certification programs designed to validate and signal the student’s expertise in certain areas. These certifications serve as valuable credentials and provide tangible evidence of competence, enhancing employability and work readiness. Providing teachers with comprehensive training in pedagogical strategies that effectively integrate technology into teaching and learning processes is crucial. This training should include theoretical concepts as well as practical applications. Finally, the study offers a thorough guide on how to design and implement a successful digital skills training program. The first step in training design is to align the curriculum and pedagogy with the desired digital skills competences. Prior to implementing the training, it is crucial to assess skill gaps using a variety of competence assessment tools. Additionally, it is important to reassess the same competences after the completion of the program. This approach enables continuous evaluation of students’ proficiency levels and ensures the verification and optimization of skill acquisition and retention. 34 References Akcil, U., H. Uzunboylu, abd E. Kinik. 2021. “Integration of Technology to Learning-Teaching Processes and Google Workspace Tools: A Literature Review.” Sustainability, 13(9), 5018. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095018. Atherton, G., G. Crosling, A. L. S. Hoong, and S. Elson-Rogers. 2022. How Do Digital Competence Frameworks Address the Digital Divide? UNESCO-UNEVOC. Retrieved from https://unevoc.unesco.org/up/How_do_digital_competence_frameworks_address_the_digital_ divide.pdf. 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Catalog of “Digital Skills” Definitions from Specialized Agencies (and Authors) Working on Digital Skills Development Definition Source Computer and Information Literacy is an individual's ability to use computers to investigate, create, and communicate in order to participate effectively at ICILS (2018) home, at school, in the workplace, and in society. Digital competence can be broadly defined as the confident, critical, and creative use of ICT to achieve goals related to work, employability, learning, leisure, inclusion and/or participation in society. Digital competence is a Kelentrić, Helland, and transversal key competence which enables the acquisition of other key Arstorp (2017) competencies. It is related to many of the so-called ‘21st Century skills’, which should be acquired by all citizens, to ensure their active participation in society and the economy. Digital competence encompasses the knowledge and skills required for an individual to be able to use ICT to accomplish goals in his or her personal or professional life. Digital competencies should be perceived as not only concerned with technical skills, but more focused on cognitive and social and Commission on emotional aspects of working and living in a digital environment. The notion is Science and a complex one, and beyond digital literacy, implies the ability to understand Technology for media, to search for information and be critical about what is retrieved, and Development (2018) to be able to communicate with others using a variety of digital tools and applications. Digital competence is a multifaceted moving target, which is constantly evolving as new technologies appear. Digital competence involves the confident, critical and responsible use of, and engagement with, digital technologies for learning, at work, and for participation in society. It includes information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, media literacy, digital content creation DigComp 2.2. (2022) (including programming), safety (including digital well-being and competences related to cybersecurity), intellectual property related questions, problem solving and critical thinking. Digital competence is a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes with regards to the use of technology to perform tasks, solve problems, communicate, manage information, collaborate, as well as to create and Skov (2016) share content effectively, appropriately, securely, critically, creatively, independently and ethically. Digital competence is both a requirement and a right of citizens, if they are to be functional in today's society. However, it has been shown that citizens are not necessarily keeping up with the evolving needs derived from rapid Ferrari (2012) technological change and uptake. Digital competence is as a set of knowledge, skills, attitudes, strategies, values and awareness that are required for using ICT and digital media. 41 Definition Source Digital competence is often understood in simplistic terms, for instance, the ability to use a mobile phone for simple transactions or access and surf the internet; or, at the other end, to undertake coding and software programming. The concept of digital literacy is deeper and broader, encompassing several competences to access, use, manage and create digital information and digital tools. Individuals may differ in their level of proficiency in these different competences. At the higher end of the digital World Bank (2021) skills continuum, individuals will have the ability to deploy digital technologies, to develop new applications and come up with solutions to new problems. [...] Broadly speaking, the digital skills for citizens and the general workforce and digital skills for the ICT professions involve different domains and competences and require different frameworks which specify the relevant competences and proficiency levels. Digital competence is the combination of knowledge, skills and learning in Generalitat de the field of information and communication technologies (ICT) that people Catalunya (2009) deploy in real situations to attain specific objectives efficiently and effectively. Digital competence is the set of skills, knowledge and attitudes that enable the confident, creative and critical use of technologies and systems. It is the Welsh Government skill set that enables a person to be a confident digital citizen, to interact and (2018) collaborate digitally, to produce work digitally, and to be confident in handling data and computational thinking (problem solving). Digital competency is a set of skills necessary to the confident, critical and Government of creative use of digital technologies to achieve objectives with regard to Quebec (2019) learning, work, leisure, and inclusion or participation in society. Digital information literacy is the ability to access, manage, understand, integrate, communicate, evaluate, create, and disseminate information safely and appropriately through digital technologies. It includes competences that are variously referred to as information literacy Kivinen et al. (2022) and media literacy, computer, and ICT literacy but also an ability to understand the functioning of the digital information landscape at large. Digital Information Literacy involves a dimension of active and civic engagement with the digital world and promotes active citizenship. Digital intelligence (DQ) is a comprehensive set of technical, cognitive, meta- cognitive, and socio-emotional competencies that are grounded in universal DQ Institute (2020) moral values and that enable individuals to face the challenges and harness the opportunities of digital life. Digital literacy is a basic skill necessary to live an independent life as a KERIS (2021). member of a digital society and that includes practical abilities to solve Retrieved from Chung everyday problems by searching, managing, and creating information with & Yoo (2021) the understanding and utilization of digital technology and ethical attitudes. Digital literacy is a set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that empower Feerrar et al. (2020) learners to engage with their digital lives. Digital literacy is the ability to access, manage, understand, integrate, UNESCO DLGF (2018) communicate, evaluate and create information safely and appropriately 42 Definition Source through digital technologies for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship. It includes competences that are variously referred to as computer literacy, ICT literacy, information literacy and media literacy. Digital literacy involves the confident and critical use of a full range of digital technologies for information, communication and basic problem-solving in all aspects of life. It is underpinned by basic skills in ICT: the use of computers to UNESCO-UIS (2021) retrieve, assess, store, produce, present and exchange information, and to communicate and participate in collaborative networks via the Internet. Digital literacy is the ability to navigate our digital world using reading, writing, technical skills, and critical thinking. It’s using technology—like a smartphone, PC, e-reader, and more—to find, evaluate, and communicate Microsoft (2024) information. With Microsoft Digital Literacy classes, you can gin skills needed to effectively explore the Internet. Gilster (1997). Digital literacy is the ability to understand and use information in multiple Retrieved from formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via a computer. Carretero (2021) Digital literacy is the ability to use digital technology, communication tools or UNESCO ICT networks to locate, evaluate, use and create information. It also refers to the Competency ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide Framework for range of sources when it is presented via computers, or to a person’s ability Teachers (2018) to perform tasks effectively in a digital environment. Digital literacy is the awareness, attitude and ability of individuals to appropriately use digital tools and facilities to identify, access, manage, Stergioulas (2006). integrate, evaluate, analyze and synthesize digital resources, construct new Retrieved from knowledge, create media expressions, and communicate with others, in the Nascimbeni & Vosloo context of specific life situations, in order to enable constructive social action, (2019) and to reflect upon this process. Digital literacy is the awareness, attitude, and ability of individuals to appropriately use digital tools and facilities to identify, access, manage, integrate, evaluate, analyze and synthesize digital resources, construct new Martin & Grudziecki knowledge, create media expressions, and communicate with others, in the (2006) context of specific life situations, in order to enable constructive social action; and to reflect upon this process. Digital Literacy is the interest, attitude, and ability of individuals to use digital technology and communication tools appropriately to access, manage, Government of British integrate, analyze and evaluate information, construct new knowledge, and Columbia (2013) create and communicate with others. Digital Literacy refers to the knowledge, skills and attitudes that allow children to be both safe and empowered in an increasingly digital world. This encompasses their play, participation, socializing, searching and learning UNICEF (2019) through digital technologies. What constitutes digital literacy will vary according to children’s age, local culture and context. 43 Definition Source U.S. Government Digital literacy skills are the skills associated with using technology to enable Publishing Office users to find, evaluate, organize, create, and communicate information. (2011) Digital skills are defined as a range of abilities to use digital devices, communication applications, and networks to access and manage information. They enable people to create and share digital content, communicate and collaborate, and solve problems for effective and creative self-fulfillment in life, learning, work, and social activities at large. Entry-level digital skills, meaning basic functional skills required to make basic use of digital devices and online applications, are widely considered a critical component of a new set of literacy skills in the digital era, with traditional reading, writing, and numeracy skills. UNESCO (2023) At the advanced spectrum of digital skills are the higher-level abilities that allow users to make use of digital technologies in empowering and transformative ways such as professions in ICT. Major digital transformations such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), machine learning, big data analytics, change skills requirements and, in turn, impact capacity building and skills development for the 21st century digital economy. To thrive in the connected economy and society, digital skills must also function together with other abilities such as strong literacy and numeracy skills, critical and innovative thinking, complex problem solving, an ability to collaborate, and socio-emotional skills. Although definitions vary, digital skills and competencies are best understood as existing on a graduated continuum from basic functional skills to higher level, specialist skills. The term ‘digital skills’ refers to a range of different UNESCO and abilities, many of which are not only ‘skills’ per se, but a combination of Broadband behaviors, expertise, know-how, work habits, character traits, dispositions Commission Working and critical understandings. These skills and competencies are interconnected Group on Education and broadly complementary. They are also, in today’s technology-saturated (2017) communities, foundational to full participation in society and, as such, need to be developed and refined over time and according to the personal and professional circumstances of individuals. Digital skills are a wide range of skills and other features related to behavior, expertise, know-how and life skills that enable individuals to process and UNESCO (2018). evaluate information critically, allowing them to use information fully when Retrieved from solving complex problems and use precise techniques to produce or access UNESCO (2020) internet content. Digital skills are also referred to as digital literacy; the ability to use digital technology, digital resources, data, content, and media. At a basic proficiency EdTech team (2023) level, teachers can use digital devices and related resources to access content and to communicate with peers, students, and others. Digital skills support 44 Definition Source administrative tasks, class preparation, reporting, monitoring, and other non- classroom activities. Ministry of Communications and Digital skills are related to the individual’s ability to identify, understand, and Informatics of the use digital hardware, software, and operating systems in their everyday life. Republic of Indonesia (2020) Essential Digital Skills Digital skills are the skills needed to safely benefit from, participate in and Framework, UK contribute to the digital world of today and the future. Government (2018) The term “digital skills” has wide variability across two dimensions: the level of the skill (ranging from introductory/basic to highly specialized or sophisticated), and the type of skills (e.g., the difference between the skills required to interact with technology, and the skills required to develop or maintain a particular tool). The range of definitions and uses for “digital skills” vary across both of these dimensions. For example, a home care company may define their need for Lightcast (2021) “digital skills” as the ability for their frontline home care workers to effectively manage care profiles online or upload health information (a relatively basic technology skill, and one that focuses on using technology, not creating it). On the other hand, a financial services company might consider “digital skills” the skills to use massive data sets and complex algorithms to create a new digital tool for identifying fraud at scale (requiring a higher level of technology skill and developing an entirely new technology). We define three main skills categories, each with three subsets of skills. The main categories are digital, cognitive, and socioemotional. Skills that do not fit these categories are defined as other technical and language skills. Digital skills are the skills that are needed to work with information and communications technology (ICT) software and devices. Digital skills allow Cunningham et al. people to access and use digital technologies. Digital skills are often mistaken (2022) for a narrow set of specialized skills used by ICT workers, such as programming or data science. However, digital skills encompass a wide range of complexity and are increasingly used across many kinds of tasks in a wide range of occupations (UNESCO 2017, IFC 2019, ITU 2020, DE4A 2021). Digital skills can be defined as the ability to use ICTs in ways that help individuals to achieve beneficial, high-quality outcomes in everyday life for themselves and others, now and in an increasingly digital future. In other ITU (2018) words, they comprise the extent to which one is able to increase the benefits of ICT use and reduce potential harm associated with more negative aspects of digital engagement. Before considering how to evaluate digital skills, it is first necessary to understand what digital skills are and how they are categorized. Digital skills, ITU (2020) sometimes also called digital competences or competencies, encompass the 45 Definition Source “knowledge and skills required for an individual to be able to use ICTs to accomplish goals in his or her personal and professional life” (Commission on Science and Technology for Development, 2018, p. 4). Given the pace of change in technology and digital work opportunities, digital skills denote a broadening spectrum of skills, which changes over time. Digital skills include a “combination of behaviors, expertise, know-how, work habits, character traits, dispositions and critical understandings” (UNESCO and Broadband Commission Working Group on Education, 2017, p. 4). They thus include not only technical skills but also cognitive skills as well as non-cognitive soft skills such as interpersonal skills and communication skills. Digital skills involve being able to use digital tools, media and resources efficiently and responsibly, to solve practical tasks, find and process Kelentrić, Helland, and information, design digital products and communicate content. Digital skills Arstorp (2017) also include developing digital judgement by acquiring knowledge and good strategies for the use of the Internet. Digital skills is the combination of digital knowledge (theoretical comprehension and understanding); cognitive knowhow (involving the use of logical, intuitive, innovative and creative thinking in the digital space); practical knowhow (including the use of digital tools such as hardware, software, information and security systems); competence (ability to learn, adapt and apply digital knowledge in a new setting); ‘digital’ attitude (value and beliefs), which workers need to master and demonstrate in the digital Gekara et al. (2019) age. This definition encompasses the hard-technical skills needed to operate digital devices, software and systems; the cognitive skills required to work in an increasingly data- and information-intensive environment that encompasses a wide variety of information and data sources and types; ethical skills pertaining to security; and the strategic skills to troubleshoot and resolve work-related problems in the digital environment. The Feasibility Study for the PISA ICT Literacy Assessment defines ICT literacy as “the interest, attitude, and ability of individuals to appropriately use digital technology and communication tools to access, manage, integrate, and evaluate information, construct new knowledge, and communicate with others in order to participate effectively in society” (Lennon et al., 2003). This definition shares many similarities with the approach developed in other ICT literacy assessment framework such as ICILS and Australian Curriculum, OECD (2022) Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) ICT Literacy among others (Fraillon et al., 2015; 2013). In particular, these definitions draw extensively upon information literacy, they assume that individuals possess the technical skills required to effectively use digital technologies, they identify similar sets of processes and they recognize ICT literacy as a requirement for individuals to fully participate in 21st-century society. 46 Definition Source ICT literacy is using digital technology, communications tools, and/or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information in ETS (2002) order to function in a knowledge society. Technology and engineering literacy is the capacity to use, understand, and U.S. Department of evaluate technology as well as to understand technological principles and Education (2018) strategies needed to develop solutions and achieve goals. Web literacy refers to the skills and competencies required to read, write and participate effectively on the web. Other candidate terms such as ‘digital Mozilla Foundation literacy’ and ‘information literacy’ seem too wide-ranging and ambiguous to Whitepaper (2012) adequately cover the web. Possible alternatives such as ‘media literacy’ and ‘computational thinking’ overlap with web literacy. Source: Based on a review of 40 definitions from academic literature, reports, and frameworks by international organizations, governments, specialized agencies, and experts in digital skills development. Note: The definitions used for the main analysis are in mint green. 47 Table A2. Overview of Digital Skills Definitions by Specialized Organizations, Categorized by Competences and Objectives (cont.) Competences Objectives Term Source (What are digital skills?) (Why do we use digital skills?) Commission on Knowledge and skills To accomplish goals in his or Digital Science and required for an individual her personal and professional Competence Technology for to use ICT. life. Development (2018) Ability to access, manage, understand, integrate, communicate, evaluate UNESCO Digital For employment, decent jobs Digital Literacy and create information Literacy Global and entrepreneurship. safely and appropriately Framework (2018) through digital technologies. For information, communication and basic problem-solving in all aspects Confident and critical use of life. To retrieve, assess, Digital Literacy of a full range of digital store, produce, present and UNESCO-UIS (2021) technologies. exchange information, and to communicate and participate in collaborative networks via the Internet. To be both safe and empowered in an increasingly Digital Knowledge, skills and digital world. To UNICEF (2019) Literacy 24 attitudes. play, participate, socialize, search and learn through digital technologies. Skills that vary by level (from basic to advanced) To interact with technology and type (e.g., interacting Digital Skills and for creating or maintaining Lightcast (2021) with technology vs. digital tools and systems. developing or maintaining tools). Broadening spectrum of Digital Skills or skills, which changes over Digital time. They include not only - ITU (2020) Competencesa technical skills but also cognitive skills as well as 24 According to UNICEF (2019), what constitutes digital literacy will vary according to children’s age, local culture and context. 48 Competences Objectives Term Source (What are digital skills?) (Why do we use digital skills?) non-cognitive soft skills such as interpersonal skills and communication skills. To access, manage, integrate, Use of digital technology, evaluate, and create ICT Literacy communications tools, ETS (2002) information in order to and/or networks. function in a knowledge society Source: Authors’ elaboration based on a review of a catalog of 12 definitions from reports by selected international organizations, and specialized agencies. This table does not include World Bank studies. Note: The definitions presented are exact quotations from the sources. a. They refer to definitions from Commission on Science and Technology for Development (2018) and UNESCO and Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development (2017). 49 Table A3. Digital Skills Definitions Used in Previous World Bank Studies Definition Source Term used: Digital Skills World Development Subset of technical skills Report (2018) A combination of behaviors, expertise, know-how, work habits, character traits, Solutions for dispositions and critical understandings that enable youth to actively participate in and Youth contribute to the digital economy. Based on the work of UNESCO and Broadband Employment Commission for Sustainable Development (2017). (S4YE) (2018) An evolving set of twenty-first century skills that are core to notions of future-ready education. While this study specifically defines digital skills as those related to the use of technology, it also reference definitions from reports such as the WDR (2018), IFC (2019) UNESCO and Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development (2017), and S4YE (2018). The ability to access, manage, understand, integrate, communicate, evaluate and Bashir & create information safely and appropriately. Adapted from UNESCO Digital Literacy Miyamoto Global Framework (2018). (2020)a Skills needed to work with ICT software and devices. They allow people to access and use digital technologies and are often mistaken for a narrow set of specialized skills used by ICT workers, such as programming or data science. However, digital skills Cunningham encompass a wide range of complexity and are increasingly used across many kinds of et al. (2022) tasks in a wide range of occupations. Definitions from the UNESCO and Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development (2017), IFC (2019), ITU (2020), DE4A (2021).b Term used: Digital Competence / Digital Literacy / Digital Skills • Digital competence is often viewed simply as the ability to use a mobile phone for simple transactions or access and surf the internet; or, at the other end, to undertake coding and software programming. • Digital literacy is deeper and broader, encompassing several competences to access, use, manage and create digital information and digital tools. Individuals may differ in their level of proficiency in these different competences. At the World Bank higher end of the digital skills continuum, individuals will have the ability to deploy (2021) digital technologies, to develop new applications and come up with solutions to new problems. • Digital skills are categorized broadly as those needed by citizens and the general workforce and those required by ICT professionals. These involve distinct domains, competences and proficiency levels, often outlined in dedicated frameworks. Term used: Digital Skills or Digital Literacy The ability to use digital technology, digital resources, data, content, and media. At a EdTech team basic proficiency level, teachers can use digital devices and related resources to access (2023) content and to communicate with peers, students, and others. Digital skills support 50 Definition Source administrative tasks, class preparation, reporting, monitoring, and other non- classroom activities. Source: Based on a review of a catalog of six World Bank Group studies. Note: The definitions presented are exact quotations from the sources. a. The paper reveals that one of the most comprehensive frameworks of digital skills for citizens is the European Union (EU)’s DigComp 2.1 Digital Skills Competence Framework and/or its adaptation by UNESCO UIS in the Digital Literacy Global Framework (DLGF) (“The framework is especially useful for defining basic and intermediate skills that need to be broadly acquired by the youth population.”) b. See Figure 1 of Cunningham et al. (2022). 51 Figure A1. Number of Digital Skills Competence Frameworks, by Approach Type Source: Based on a review of 68 digital skills frameworks. 52 Table A4. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Citizens or General Use Framework Organization Target Scope Country Approach Accreditation of Competence in Information and Competence- Generalitat de Catalunya Citizens Local Catalonia Communication Technologies based (ACTIC) AI Literacy Framework for Objective- Digital Promise Citizens Global Global Learners and Educators based Common Framework of Different partners – European Competence- Reference for Intercultural Citizens Regional Erasmus+ project Union based Digital Literacies (CFRIDiL) Competence- Digital Competence Framework Welsh Government Citizens Country Wales based Competence- Digital Competency Framework Government of Quebec Citizens Local Quebec based Digital Literacy Global Competence- Framework for Indicator 4.4.2 UNESCO Citizens Global Global based (DLGF) Digital Literacy Skills Framework Competence- Australian Government Citizens Country Australia (DLSF) based DQ Framework (Digital DQ Institute (endorsed by Intelligence). Global Standard the OECD, IEEE Standards Competence- Citizens Global Global on Digital Literacy, Digital Skills Association, World based and Digital Readiness Economic Forum) Essential Digital Skills United Competence- UK Government Citizens Country Framework Kingdom based The International Society Objective- ISTE Standards for Coaches for Technology in Citizens Global Global based Education The International Society ISTE Standards for Education Objective- for Technology in Citizens Global Global Leaders based Education Microsoft Digital Literacy Competence- Microsoft Citizens Global Global Curriculum based Competence- Mozilla Web Literacy Skills Mozilla Foundation Citizens Global Global based National Information Technology Development National Digital Literacy Competence- Agency, Federal Ministry Citizens Country Nigeria Framework (NDLF) based of Communications and Digital Economy, Nigeria PIAAC Problem Solving in Objective- OECD Citizens Global Global Technology-Rich Environments: based 53 Framework Organization Target Scope Country Approach A Conceptual Framework (PS- TRE) Wedlake, S. et al. (Seattle Competence- Seattle Skills Framework Citizens Local Seattle Digital Equity Initiative) based The Digital Competence European Competence- Framework for Citizens European Commission Citizens Regional Union based (DigComp 2.2) Source: Authors’ elaboration. 54 Table A5. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Teachers Framework Organization Target Scope Country Approach AI Competence Competence- UNESCO Teachers Global Global Framework for Teachers based Powell, A. et al. Blended Learning Teacher International United Objective- Teachers Country Competency Framework Association for K-12 States based Online Learning Common Digital Competence- Competence Framework Spanish Government Teachers Country Spain based for Teachers (CDCFT) European Objective- DigiLit Leicester Hall et al. Teachers Regional Union based Digital Competencies for Competence- Teaching in Science Becker et al. Teachers Global Global based Education (DiKoLAN) Digital Teaching Education & Training Objective- Professional Framework Teachers Country England Foundation based (DTPF) Conectividad Educativa de Estandares CEIBAL Para Competence- Informática Básica Teachers Country Uruguay Docentes based para el Aprendizaje en Línea eTQF - Teacher ICT EU Lifelong Learning European Competence- Teachers Global Competency Framework project Union based European Framework for European Competence- the Digital Competence of European Commission Teachers Regional Union based Educators (DigCompEdu) Global Framework for Educational Competence Objective- Profuturo Teachers Global Global in the Digital Age based (GFECDA) ICT Competency Competence- Framework for Teachers UNESCO Teachers Global Global based (ICT CFT) ICT-enhanced Teacher Competence- Standards for Africa UNESCO Teachers Regional Africa based (ICTeTSA) The International ISTE Standards for Objective- Society for Technology Teachers Global Global Educators based in Education Marco Conceptual Escuela Centre for Innovation Competence- Teachers Regional Brazil Conectada in Brazilian Education based 55 Framework Organization Target Scope Country Approach National Standards for National Standards for United Objective- Teachers Country Quality Online Teaching Quality) States based The International Competence- NETS-T-Standards Society for Technology Teachers Global Global based in Education Observatory - Teacher Lazaro and Gisbert - Objective- Teachers Local Catalonia Digital Competence COMDID based Preparing teachers to Latin UNESCO and Inter- teach effectively in face- America Competence- American Teachers Regional to-face, hybrid, and and based Development Bank remote environments Caribbean Professional Development Department of Basic Competence- Framework for Digital Education, South Teachers Country South Africa based Learning Africa Professional Digital Norwegian Centre for Competence- Competence Framework Teachers Country Norway ICT in Education based for Teachers European & Training Objective- READY Model Teachers Global Global Foundation based Teacher Digital Skills Objective- Scottish Government Teachers Country Scotland Framework based Teachers’ digital Objective- competence model, Krumsvik (2012) Teachers Country Norway based Krumsvik Teachers’ ICT Ministry of Education, Competence- Teachers Country Chile competencies Chile; Enlances based Technological Pedagogical Mishra and Koehler Objective- Content Knowledge (Michigan State Teachers Global Global based (TPACK) Framework University) Triple E Framework Kold (University of Objective- Teachers Global Global (Extend, Enhance, Engage) Michigan) based Source: Authors’ elaboration. 56 Table A6. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Students Framework Organization Target Scope Country Approach AI Competency Framework for Competence- UNESCO Students Global Global Students based British Columbia’s Digital Government of British British Competence- Students Local Literacy Framework Columbia Columbia based International Computer Computational Thinking Competence- and Information Literacy Students Global Global Framework (CT) based Study International Computer Computer and Information Competence- and Information Literacy Students Global Global Literacy Framework (CIL) based Study Costa Rica Student Performance Costa Competence- Standards in Digital Technology- Fundación Omar Dengo Students Country Rica based enhanced Learning Feerrar et al. (2020) Competence- Digital Literacy Framework Students Local Virginia (Virginia Tech) based Digital Literacy Framework - Competence- Teaching Tolerance Students Global Global Teaching Tolerance based Digital Literacy Framework for Maryland Department of Competence- Students Local Maryland Adult Learners Labor based Korea Education and Elementary school digital South Competence- Research Information Students Country literacy Framework Korea based Service) Council of European European Computer Driving Competence- Professional Informatics Students Global Global Licence (ECDL) based Scientists) Information Literacy Association of College United Competence- Competency Standards for Students Country and Research Libraries States based Higher Education The International Society ISTE Computational Thinking Objective- for Technology in Students Global Global Competencies based Education The International Society Objective- ISTE Standards for Students for Technology in Students Global Global based Education Competence- PISA 2022 ICT Framework OECD Students Global Global based Competence- SIMCE TIC Framework Gobierno de Chile Students Country Chile based South Carolina Adult Education South Objective- State of South Carolina Students Local Digital Literacy Standards Carolina based 57 Framework Organization Target Scope Country Approach National Assessment of Technology and Engineering United Objective- Educational Progress,US Students Country Literacy Framework (TEL) States based Department of Education USE, UNDERSTAND & ENGAGE: A Digital Media Literacy Canada’s Centre for Competence- Students Country Canada Framework for Canadian Digital Media Literacy based Schools Source: Authors’ elaboration. 58 Table A7. Curated Digital Skills Competence Frameworks for Workers Framework Organization Target Scope Country Approach Basic digital competences for unemployed citizens: Guitert et al. (2020). Competence- Workers Global Global conceptual framework and Cogent Education based training model Defining the skills citizens Competence- will need in the future world McKinsey & Company Workers Global Global based of work Digital Workplace Skills Competence- Digital Work Research Workers Global Global Framework based European e-Competence IT Professionalism European Competence- Workers Regional Framework (e-CF) Europe Union based Skills Framework for Competence- SFIA Foundation Workers Global Global International Age (SFIA - 8) based SkillsFuture. Skills Government of Competence- Framework for Infocomm Workers Country Singapore Singapore based Technology National Centre for Vocational Education The Australian Workforce Competence- Research, on behalf of Workers Country Australia Digital Skills Framework based the Australian Government Source: Authors’ elaboration. 59 Figure A2. Share of Students’ Digital Skills Competence Frameworks incorporating Specific Digital Competences Data analysis 61% Specialized ICT Programming & computational thinking 28% AI (e.g., big data, Generative AI) 17% Digital skills for a particular field or occupation 6% Communications 83% Transversal Problem solving & critical thinking 83% Collaboration 61% Information use & management 94% Cyber-ethics 83% Basic ICT Digital content creation 78% Safety and security 72% Use of digital technologies & software 50% Source: Based on a review of 18 digital skills frameworks for students. Figure A3. Share of Workers’ Digital Skills Competence Frameworks incorporating Specific Digital Competences Data analysis 86% Specialized ICT AI (e.g., big data, Generative AI) 57% Programming & computational thinking 43% Digital skills for a particular field or occupation 29% Collaboration 86% Transversal Problem solving & critical thinking 86% Communications 71% Information use & management 100% Digital content creation 86% Basic ICT Safety and security 86% Cyber-ethics 71% Use of digital technologies & software 57% Source: Based on a review of 7 digital skills frameworks for workers. 60 Table A8. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Citizens Paper- Target Summative Assessment Organization Framework Type based or information or formative online Accreditation of Competence in Task-based Information Generalitat de Citizens over / and ACTIC Formative Online Catalunya 16 years old Knowledge Communication -based Technologies (ACTIC) World Bank, Equitable Adult Skills Education 15–64-year- Assessment in Original scale Summative Task-based Online Fund, old’ citizens Thailand (ASAT) Thammasat University Assessment tool of the Common Different Framework of partners – Students / Paper- Reference for CFRIDiL Formative Task-based Erasmus+ Teachers based Intercultural project Digital Literacies (CFRIDiL) Cesis Digital Self- Skills Cesis Digital reported / Citizens DigComp 2.2. Formative Online Assessment Centre Knowledge (CDS) -based DigComp Task-based Complete Citizens of all (citizens) / Digital Skills Tecnalia Formative Online ages Knowledge Test -based 16-65 year olds. European citizens for European Self- DigCompSAT their DigComp 2.1 Formative Online Commission reported employment and career development. Digital Citizens / Self- Citizenship Test DQ Institute primary DQ Framework Formative Online reported / (DCT) schools / 61 Paper- Target Summative Assessment Organization Framework Type based or information or formative online secondary Knowledge schools / -based companies / countries Teachers - Teachers (HE): (higher DigCompEdu European education) / Digital and OpenEdu Commission. educators (all Self- Competence - Educators: Formative Online Project Dr. levels) / reported Tests DigCompEdu Cabral students - Students (HE): (higher DigComp 2.1 education) Education & Skills Online OECD and Youth and Assessment European adults of all PS-TRE Formative Task-based Online (online version Commission ages of PIAAC) Anyone interested in learning or Self- working in European reported / Europass Europe (e.g., DigComp 2.0 Formative Online Commission Knowledge job applicants, -based pupils, students, workers, etc.) Citizens / Non- governmental North American organizations / ISTE Standards; Training DigComp providers / IC3 Digital (citizens); DLGF Knowledge Certiport Curriculum Formative Online Literacy (see all -based Developers / endorsements Labor market and alignments partners here) (employers and unions) Task-based Citizens / ICDL ICDL DigComp / students / Formative Online Certification Foundation (citizens) Knowledge workers -based 62 Paper- Target Summative Assessment Organization Framework Type based or information or formative online Citizens / Basque Teachers / DigComp 2.2.; IKANOS Formative Task-based Online Government Students / DigCompEdu Workers Task-based Información y Citizens of all DigComp / Alfabetización Tecnalia Formative Online ages (citizens) Knowledge Informacional -based All Digital from DigCompSAT Any citizen, project including Self- MyDigiSkills DigComp 2.1 Formative Online (includes students and reported various workers partners) DigComp Task-based Citizens of all (citizens) / Netiqueta Tecnalia Formative Online ages Knowledge -based Secondary education and Company with higher various education partners, students / Pix including vocational DigComp 2.2. Formative Task-based Online French training ministries, and students / UNESCO Teachers and workers in general Plataforma Andalucia DigComp Knowledge Citizens Formative Online Diagnostico Vuela (citizens) -based Self- Digital Skills Self- Assessment Citizens DigComp 2.2. Formative Online Accelerator reported Tool Self- DigiCo (Digital DigComp reported / Skillify Collective), Citizens Formative Online (citizens) Knowledge Belgium -based Universitat Test de Oberta de DigComp Knowledge competències Citizens Formative Online Catalunya (citizens), ACTIC -based digitals (UOC) 63 Paper- Target Summative Assessment Organization Framework Type based or information or formative online Center for The Digital Digital DigComp Self- Competence Citizens Formative Online Dannelse, (citizens) reported Wheel Denmark Source: Authors’ elaboration. 64 Table A9. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Students Paper- Summative Target based Assessment Organization Framework or Type information or formative online Secondary Clic KERIS Unclear Formative Task-based Online Education ICT Literacy Educational 15+ Own Formative Task-based Online Assessment Testing Services Information Information Literacy Madison Knowledge- Literacy Test 15+ Competency Formative Online Assessment based (ILT) Standards for Higher Education International International Computer and Association for Task-based / Secondary Information the Evaluation of CIL Summative Knowledge- Online Education Literacy Study Educational based (ICILS) Achievement Northstar Online Northstar Learning, Digital Literacy 15+ Own Formative Task-based Online Minnesota Assessment Literacy Council AlphaPlus and Postsecondary the College Task-based / Digital Skills Sector 15+ Own Formative Knowledge- Online Readiness Committee for based Assessment Adult Upgrading Programme for International Self- Student OECD Students Own. PISA Summative Online reported Assessment (PISA) Ministerio de Educación, Secondary SIMCE TIC SIMCE TIC Formative Task-based Online Gobierno de Education Chile SIMnet McGraw Hill 15+ Own Formative Task-based Online Information Standardized Literacy Assessment of Project SAILS 15+ Competency Formative Task-based Online Information Standards for Literacy Skills Higher Education 65 Paper- Summative Target based Assessment Organization Framework or Type information or formative online National Assessment of Educational Progress, Technology & National Center Engineering for Education Secondary Literacy TEL Summative Task-based Online Statistics, Education Assessment Institute of (TEL) Education Sciences, US Department of Education The Learning The Learning Portal's Digital Portal project, Knowledge- 15+ Unclear Formative Online Skills Self- College Libraries based Assessment Ontario TASK Project, Secondary DigComp The TASK Tool Formative Task-based Online Erasmus + Education (citizens) Source: Authors’ elaboration. 66 Table A10. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Teachers, Developed by Different Organizations Paper- Target Summative Assessment Organization Framework Type based or information or formative online Own. But they consulted Teachers and DigComp, Self- Guia Edutec CIEB educational UNESCO. Matrix Formative Online reported community includes 12 competences and 3 areas. Primary and SELFIE for European secondary Self- DigCompEdu Formative Online Teachers Commission school reported teachers Triple E Kolb (School Evaluation of Education, Triple E Self- Rubric for University of K-12 educators Formative Online Framework reported Lesson Michigan) Design Source: Authors’ elaboration. 67 Table A11. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Teachers, developed for working papers or academic studies Target Paper-based Assessment Reference Framework Type information or online Assessment for Pre-service future early Casillas early childhood Own. Teachers’ digital Self- childhood Martín et al. Online* education competence model reported education (2020) teachers teachers Assessment of Digital Jorge- Competencies Pre-service Self- Vázquez et UNESCO ICT-CFT Unclear*** of University teachers reported al. (2021) Faculty in Ecuador Rodríguez et Pre-service Observatory - Teacher Self- COMDID-A Both al. (2021) teachers Digital Competence reported Task-based Cantabrana Pre-service Observatory - Teacher / COMIDID-C Both et al. (2019) teachers Digital Competence Knowledge- based Declared and Self- Real Level of European Computer Skills evaluation Tomczyk Pre-service Digital Skills of Certificate (ECDL) / Online*** (2021) teachers Future Teaching standard Knowledge- Staff based University professors or lecturers who worked or had DIGIGLO Alarcón et al. Self- worked as DigCompEdu (extended) Online questionnaire (2020) reported educators of future primary or secondary teachers Digital University Competence of teachers from University Bandrés et Self- the area of Own Online*** Teachers of al. (2021) reported Social and Social and Legal Legal Sciences Sciences Digital Çebi and Pre-service Self- competence Reisoglu DigComp (citizens) Online** teachers reported questionnaire (2020) 68 Target Paper-based Assessment Reference Framework Type information or online for pre-service teachers Digital Pre-service Competence teachers Survey: (undergraduate Subjective Self- students Self- Assessment enrolled at the evaluation Instrument Maderick et College of Own / Online (SSAI), the al. (2016) Education at a Knowledge- Objective large based Assessment Southwestern Instrument public (OAI), and university) Demographics Own. Digital native Digital Native Teo et al. Pre-service assessment scale (Teo, Self- Assessment Unclear* (2016) teachers 2013) (also available in reported Scale (DNAS) Teo, 2016) Pre-service Educational Wong and teachers Technology Self- Moorhouse (primary and DigCompEdu Unclear* Competency reported (2021) secondary assessment school levels) In-Service In-service Teachers' Self- Ramírez- Primary, High Self- Perceptions of Montoya et school, Own Online*** reported Digital al. (2017) Tertiary, and Competence other teachers DigComp teachers’ basic Instrument to ICT competences (Tourón assess teachers' Rubach and Primary and et al., 2018) Self- basic ICT Lazarides secondary Basic ICT digital Online* reported competence (2021) school teachers competence beliefs (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2016) Knowledge and Task-based competence test Potyrała and Lower / and diagnostic Tomczyk secondary Unclear Unclear* Knowledge- survey for Polish (2021) school teachers based teachers Measuring Karunaweera English Self- Digital and Wah language DigCompEdu Online*** reported Competence of (2021) teachers from 69 Target Paper-based Assessment Reference Framework Type information or online Sri Lankan primary and English secondary Language school Teachers Multidisciplinary Pre-service digital Roll and vocational Own. Combination of competencies of Self- Ifenthaler education and several frameworks (e.g., Online*** pre-service reported (2021) training TPACK) vocational schoolteachers teachers Questionnaire about digital University competence of Montoro et teachers from Self- Own Online teacher of al. (2016) Spanish higher reported Spanish higher education education Questionnaire to measure in- In-service service English Al Khateeb English Self- DigComp (citizens) Online language (2017) language reported teachers' digital teachers competence Secondary School Teachers Prieto- Common Digital Self-Perception Secondary Self- Ballester et Competence Framework Online** of Digital school teachers reported al. (2021) for Teachers (CDCFT) Teaching Competence Self-Assessment Primary and Lucas et al. Self- for Portuguese secondary DigCompEdu Unclear* (2021) reported teachers school teachers Self-Assessment Instrument for Educators’ Çebi and Self- Digital Reisoğlu Teachers Unclear Unclear* reported Competence (2022) into Turkish Culture Self-assessment Vocational to measure VET Cattaneo et education and Self- teachers' digital DigCompEdu Online** al. (2022) training school reported competence teachers (TDC) 70 Target Paper-based Assessment Reference Framework Type information or online Self-Assessment Kotzebue et Pre-service Self- Tool DiKoLAN- DiKoLAN Paper-based al. (2021) teachers reported Grid Self-perceived level of Digital Teaching Nebot et al. University Self- Competence DigCompEdu Online (2021) teachers reported (DTC) of the university teaching staff In-service Self-Reflection Záhorec et primary and Self- of Digital Own Unclear*** al. (2021) secondary reported Literacy school teachers Survey of ICT Competencies among Students Danner and Pre-service Self- Own Paper-based** in Teacher Pessu (2013) teachers reported Preparation Programmes Survey-based Primary and The ICT-enhanced study to explore Quaicoe and Self- junior high Teacher Standards for Unclear* the Digital Pata (2020) reported school teachers Africa (ICTeTSA) Divide Teachers self- Own. The seven domains Pre-service Self- perception of Peled (2021) of digital literacy Kurtz Online teachers reported digital literacy and Peled (2016) Upper Secondary Upper Teachers’ digital Krumsvik et Self- School Teachers’ secondary competence model, Online** al. (2016) reported Digital school teachers Krumsvik Competence Validated Final-year pre- instrument to Tondeur et Self- service ENW AUGent, 2013 Online** measure ICT al. (2017) reported teachers competencies Validating items of different modalities to Wang and Lu Pre-service Chinese educational Knowledge- assess the Unclear* (2021) teachers technology standard based educational technology competency of 71 Target Paper-based Assessment Reference Framework Type information or online pre-service teachers Validation of a questionnaire to Tourón et al Own. Adaptation of Self- measure Teachers Online*** (2018) CDCFT reported teachers’ digital competence Source: Authors’ elaboration. Notes: ‘*’ or unclear means the paper is not publicly available. ‘**’ Questionnaire items are available in the analysis or results section. ‘***’ Questionnaire items are not present in the corresponding paper. Empty or ‘X’ means unknown. Assumption: all of these assessment tools formative. 72 Table A12. Curated Digital Skills Assessments for Workers Summative Paper- Target Assessment Organization Framework or Type based or information formative online Any occupation requiring sufficient Dig-Comp Task-based / knowledge to Assessment Idograd Inc DigComp 2.2. Formative Knowledge- Online perform daily Tests based digital tasks in the professional environment Digital Skills US Department Win Learning Workers Formative Task-based Online Assessment of Labor’s O*NET For use by the Digital Skills Health wider National Self- Assessment Education Health Service Unclear Formative Online reported Tool (DSAT) England and social care workforce Microsoft Digital Microsoft Literacy Microsoft Workers Formative Task-based Online Credentials Curriculum - Microsoft Employees and Solve McKinsey & potential Own Formative Task-based Online Assessment Company employees Source: Authors’ elaboration. 73 ABSTRACT This study provides a comprehensive review of digital skills frameworks, competences, and assessment tools, emphasizing the critical role of digital proficiency in personal, professional, and educational success. It highlights the growing demand for these skills in today’s digital landscape. The paper presents a selection of digital skills competence frameworks designed for diverse users—citizens, students, educators, and professionals—and examines the key competences required to achieve digital proficiency. It compares the assessment tools used to measure digital skills, focusing on how they help identify gaps and inform the development of targeted training programs. The study also reviews approaches for fostering digital competencies, including curriculum design, practical application, and pedagogical strategies. By integrating insights from frameworks, competences, and assessment tools, the study enhances understanding of the digital skills landscape and offers practical recommendations for improving digital skills education.. The team acknowledges the financial support received from the Mastercard Foundation. In partnership with