West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics CIRCULARITY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS © 2023 The World Bank Group West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics Development, Cameroon), Theophilus Arthur-Mensah was a collaborative effort of the World Bank under the West (Research and Policy Analyst, Association of Ghana Industries), 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Africa Coastal Areas Management Program (WACA). It was Agharese Onaghese (Executive Secretary, Food and Beverage Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org funded by the Nordic Development Fund (NDF), a joint Nordic- Recycling Alliance/Manufacturers Association of Nigeria), international finance institution that focuses on the nexus Eugenie Darge (Ivorian Association of Plastics Recycling), between climate change and development in lower income Prince Agbata (CEO, Coliba Recycling), Victor Schafer (Lead This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank Group, with external contributions. “The World countries and PROBLUE, an umbrella multi-donor Trust Fund Consultant, J Stanley Owusu/Komenda Polymer Recycling Plant Bank Group” refers to the legally separate organizations of the International Bank for Reconstruction administered by the World Bank that supports the sustainable Limited), Adewale Badmos (Business Development Executive, and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance and integrated development of marine and coastal resources AlonGreen Recycling Limited), Obi Charles Nnanna (CEO, Corporation (IFC), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). The World Bank Group in healthy oceans. Kaltani), Taiwo Adewole (Executive Director, RecyclePoints), does not guarantee the accuracy, reliability or completeness of the content included in this work, or the Olawale Adebiyi (CEO, Wecyclers), Tony Ribbink (Sustainable The report was prepared by a World Bank team composed of conclusions or judgments described herein, and accepts no responsibility or liability for any omissions or Seas Trust), Joanna Bingham (Founder, Footprints Africa), Dario Quaranta (Green Competitiveness Specialist), Tze Ni errors (including, without limitation, typographical errors and technical errors) in the content whatsoever, Melissa Murara (Consultant, Climate Change Initiatives, Yeoh (Environmental Specialist), Maria Daniela Cordova Pizarro or for reliance thereon. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map African Development Bank), Natalie Beinisch (Co-founder, (Circular Economy Specialist), and Kweku Attafuah-Wadee in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank Group concerning the legal status Circular Economy Innovation Partnership, CEIP), Michael Tuwor (Environmental Specialist), under the overall guidance of Maria of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The findings, interpretations, and (Managing Director, Jospong Group (Accra Composting and Sarraf (Practice Manager), Peter Kristensen (Lead Environmental conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations of the World Recycling Plant)), Ebenezer Appah-Sampong (Deputy Executive Specialist), and Sarah Jung (Environmental Specialist). Bank Group, their respective Boards of Executive Directors, and the governments they represent. The Director, Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana), Clem Ugorji contents of this work are intended for general informational purposes only and are not intended to constitute Detailed material flow analysis and data modeling was received (Former Vice President: Public Affairs, Communications and legal, securities, or investment advice, an opinion regarding the appropriateness of any investment, or a from Roland Geyer and Keene Morrow of the Bren School of Sustainability, West Africa Business Unit, Coca-Cola West solicitation of any type. Some of the organizations of the World Bank Group or their affiliates may have Environmental Science and Management at the University Africa Unit), Lesley Bloy (Science Communicator, Sustainable an investment in, provide other advice or services to, or otherwise have a financial interest in, certain of of California, Santa Barbara. Circularity sector analysis was Seas Trust), Alexandre Lemille (Co-Founder, African Circular the companies and parties named herein. Nothing herein shall constitute or be construed or considered performed by Robert Madeira, Carolina Pereira, and Prashant Economy Network), Abayomi Grant (Director of Waste, to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of any of the organizations of The World Singh from CW Group Advisory. Editing and proofreading Environmental Protection Agency, Liberia), Dekontee Oliver Bank Group, all of which are specifically reserved. was by Fayre Makeig and Jennifer Stastny; and design by Saytarkon (Environmentalist, National Public Health Institute The Ethical Agency. Stakeholder engagement conducted in of Liberia), Mbicine Sarr (Ministry of Urbanism, Senegal), French was supported by Korotoum Doumbia. E. Opeoluwa Oyeyemi (Founder, Freedom Recyclers), Mission Dimix, Dalia Regina Soares Gomes (World Bank), Contributors to the stakeholder engagement include Oliver Bastien Gabriel William Loloum (World Bank), Djedji Onamoun Boachie (Special Advisor to Minister, Ministry of Environment, (Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, Côte Rights and Permissions Science, Technology & Innovation, Ghana), Jacques Koffi d’Ivoire), Koutoua Thomas d’Aquin Gnamessou (Ministry of The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank Group encourages dissemination (Coordinator, National Waste Management Program, Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, Côte d’Ivoire), of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as Environment and Sustainable Development, Côte d’Ivoire), Toï David Dupré La Tour (Waste Management Consultant), and full attribution to this work is given and all further permissions that may be required for such use (as noted Pagnibam Meba (Juriste Environmentaliste / Chef de Division, Estelle Ndour (Ministry of Urban Planning, Housing and Public herein) are acquired. The World Bank Group does not warrant that the content contained in this work will Ministry of Environment, Togo), Hamadjoda (Assistant Director Hygiene, Senegal). not infringe on the rights of third parties, and accepts no responsibility or liability in this regard. All queries of Waste Management and Toxic and Dangerous Chemicals, on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Ministry of the Environment, Nature Protection, and Sustainable Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover photo: ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 2 ABOUT THIS REPORT KEY MESSAGES This regional gap analysis was carried out under the remit of the West Africa Coastal Areas Management Countries in the WACA region are highly There is minimal material substitution Program (WACA), which addresses coastal degradation—including from plastic pollution—in 17 West and dependent on imported virgin plastic resins using recovered plastics due to concerns Central coastal African countries and island states spanning from Mauritania to Gabon (referred to as WACA and plastic products. over security of supply and the quality of such region in this report). It includes insights from an analysis of the plastic landscape across the WACA region; an recycled products. investigation of the plastic market conditions in three sectors (plastic packaging, construction, and fisheries); and extensive stakeholder engagements with professionals from the plastic value chain in West Africa. In about half the countries in the WACA region, plastic enters primarily in indirect forms A circular economy model offers strong The study seeks to address key gaps in knowledge and data relating to the plastic pollution problem in the (embedded, wrapping). These amount to potential for reducing plastic waste. If countries region. It also aims to contribute to regional governments’ and institutions’ agendas on marine litter. 57 percent of the total import. By comparison, introduce a pragmatic circular economy scenario, direct forms (resin and production) represent it is estimated that 40 to 50 percent less plastic— This report is part of a series that includes: 43 percent of the total import. amounting to 2.5 to 4.6 million tons of plastic waste—will end up as waste in the environment by 2026. As the region’s largest economy and sole producer of virgin plastic resins, Nigeria is the largest plastic consumer, representing 45 Since virgin plastic products are cheaper than to 63 percent of total plastic consumption recycled plastics, transformative policy (5 million tons). It is followed by Côte d’Ivoire support may be required to increase the viability and Ghana. of a regional or local circular plastics economy. In 2021, three economic sectors in the WACA A lack of consumer sensitization on circular region (construction, plastic packaging, and approaches to plastic consumption still remains fisheries) represented 78 percent of total a major obstacle to plastic waste prevention in plastic consumption. the WACA region. Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa: The Economics of Plastic Use and Synthesis paper Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries By 2026, the three sectors’ business-as-usual Data quality for the plastics value chain in the plastic consumption is expected to reach 9.5 WACA region is considered average to poor. million tons, with plastic waste generation per As a result, the quantitative results should be year per person growing from 12.5 kilograms regarded as mostly directional—providing orders (kg) to 17.3 kg. of magnitude rather than robust estimates. Only about 10 percent of total plastic waste is recycled in the WACA region (0.5 million tons). The WACA region’s production of plastic goods is dominated by imported virgin plastic resin. Producer Responsibility Organisation WACA Plastic E-book to manage Polyethylene Terephtalate bottles in Senegal 3 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics CONTENTS Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... 2 5. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 37 Policy Framework for Circularity in the WACA Region ......................................................................... 38 Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... 9 Material Flow Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 39 Assessment of Three Key Sectors ....................................................................................................... 39 1. Introduction—Why Circularity Is Critical in West Africa .................................... 11 Stakeholder Engagement .................................................................................................................... 41 What Is the Circular Economy? ........................................................................................................... 12 What Economic, Environmental, and Social Opportunities Does Circularity Present for West Africa? ... 13 6. Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 42 Study Overview ................................................................................................................................... 13 Materials Flow Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 43 Assessment of Three Key Sectors ....................................................................................................... 43 2. The Plastics Landscape ........................................................................................................... 14 Stakeholder Engagement ..................................................................................................................... 48 Domestic Production of Plastic Resins in the WACA Region .............................................................. 15 Imports and Conversion of Plastic Resins in the WACA Region ......................................................... 15 Appendices ........................................................................................................................................... 49 Import of Plastic Parts and Products, and Plastics in Imported Final Goods ...................................... 15 Intraregional Plastic Waste and Scrap Trade ...................................................................................... 17 Appendix A. Methods for Material Flow Analysis ............................................................ 49 End-of-Life Management of Plastics and Plastic Waste Hotspots in the WACA Region ..................... 18 Appendix B. Methods for Plastic Waste Reduction through 3. Assessment of Plastics in Three Key Sectors: Construction, Circular Economy Models in the WACA Region Countries ........................................... 50 Fisheries, and Packaging ........................................................................................................ 21 Construction ......................................................................................................................................... 22 Appendix C. Country Briefs ......................................................................................................... 54 Fisheries .............................................................................................................................................. 25 Packaging ............................................................................................................................................ 28 Appendix D. List of Plastic Waste Generation Hotspots ................................... 95 4. Stakeholder Engagement ........................................................................................................ 31 Appendix E. WACA Plastic Landscape ................................................................................... 98 Commentary on Plastics Management Challenges.............................................................................. 32 › Production ......................................................................................................................................... 32 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 99 › Consumption ..................................................................................................................................... 33 › End of Use ........................................................................................................................................ 33 Commentary on Potential Solutions for Plastic Management ............................................................. 34 ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank LIST OF TABLES ABBREVIATIONS & DEFINITIONS ACEA ..................... African Circular Economy Alliance Table 1. Trade Value and Weight of Plastic waste and scrap Imports into the WACA Region ........................ 17 Table 2. Annual Plastic Waste Generation, 2018 ............................................................................................ 19 AfDB ...................... African Development Bank Table 3. CO2 Emissions Mitigation by Polymer (% range) ............................................................................... 24 BAU ........................ business as usual Table 4. CO2 Emissions Mitigation by Polymer (% range) ............................................................................... 27 Table 5. CO2 Emissions Mitigation by Polymer (% range) ............................................................................... 29 C&D ....................... construction and demolition Table 6. Breakdown of Interviewed Stakeholders ........................................................................................... 32 CE .......................... circular economy Table 7. Recommendations for Initiatives across Three Sectors in the WACA Region ................................... 44 CO2 ......................... carbon dioxide Table C.1 Plastics-related Legislation across the WACA Region ....................................................................... 54 Table D.1 List of Plastic Waste Generation Hotspots ....................................................................................... 96 EPR ........................ extended producer responsibility Table E.1 Net Resin Imports (kt), Plastic Resin Conversion (kt) and Net Finished Plastic Product GDP ........................ Gross Domestic Product Imports (kt) for WACA Region Countries, 2018 ................................................................................. 98 HDPE ..................... High-density Polyethylene LIST OF FIGURES kg ........................... kilogram Figure 1: Net Resin Imports (kt) into WACA Region Countries, 2018 ............................................................... 15 km .......................... kilometer Figure 2: Plastic Resin Conversion (kt) in WACA Region Countries, 2018 ....................................................... 15 km2 ......................... square kilometer Figure 3: Net Finished Plastic Product Imports (kt) in WACA Region Countries, 2018 .................................... 16 Figure 4: Plastic entering use (imports and resin production) in WACA Region Countries, 2018 ..................... 16 kt ............................ kiloton Figure 4. Plastic Waste Generated (kt) in the WACA Region, by Country, 2018 .............................................. 18 LDPE ...................... Low-density Polyethylene Figure 5. Regional Plastic Waste Generation per Square Kilometer, 2018 ...................................................... 19 Figure 6. Distance of Plastic Waste Generation from the Coast, by Country, 2018 .......................................... 20 LEM ........................ linear economy model Figure 7. Plastic Waste Generation Hotspots, 2018 ......................................................................................... 20 MFA ........................ material flow analysis Figure 8. Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the Construction Sector to Plastic Waste mn .......................... million and Marine Litter, by Polymer and Product, 2021 ............................................................................. 22 Figure 9. Linear Economy Resources Loss Vs. Circular Economy Opportunities NGO ....................... Nongovernmental organization (million tons of plastic) in the Construction Sector, 2021–26 ............................................................. 23 PE .......................... Polyethylene Figure 10. Reduction of PE and PP Resource Loss to Drive CO2 Emissions in the PET ........................ Polyethylene terephthalate Construction Industry (million tons CO2 emissions) ........................................................................... 24 Figure 11. Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the Fisheries Sector to Plastic Waste PP .......................... Polypropylene and Marine Litter, 2021, by Polymer and Product ............................................................................. 25 PPP ........................ Public-private partnership Figure 12. Linear Economy Resources Loss Vs. Circular Economy Opportunities PS ........................... Polystyrene (million tons of plastic) in the Fisheries Sector, 2021–26 .................................................................. 26 Figure 13. CO2 Emissions Mitigation (million tons CO2 emissions) due to the Reduction PVC ........................ Polyvinyl chloride of PE and PVC .................................................................................................................................. 26 R&D ....................... Research and Development Figure 14. Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the Packaging Sector to Plastic Waste and Marine Litter, 2021, by Polymer and Product ............................................................................. 28 R1 ........................... refuse, rethink, and reduce initiatives Figure 15. Linear Economy Resource Loss Vs. Circular Economy Opportunities R2 ........................... reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, and (million tons of plastics) in the Packaging Sector, 2021–26 .............................................................. 29 repurpose initiatives Figure 16. Reduction of PE and PP Resource Loss to Drive CO2 Emissions in the R3 ........................... recycle and recover initiatives Packaging Industry (million tons CO2 emissions) .............................................................................. 29 Figure 17. Resource Loss (wasted plastic) in the Three Key Sectors of the WACA Region .............................. 39 rPET ....................... recovered polyethylene terephthalate Figure A.1 Process Flow Diagram of the WACA Plastic MFA ............................................................................. 49 SMEs ..................... small and medium enterprises Figure B.1 The 17 WACA Countries Clustered by Tier ....................................................................................... 50 UN .......................... United Nations Figure B.2 CE Opportunity Focused on Three Identified Industrial Sectors: Construction, Packaging, and Fisheries ............................................................................................ 51 WACA .................... West Africa Coastal Areas Management Program (www.wacaprogram.org) Figure B.3 CE Opportunity from LEM to a CEM Applying the 9 Rs Framework, 2021–26 ................................. 51 WACA Region ....... The 17 coastal and island states covered by the WACA program: Figure B.4 A Multistep Quantification to Size the Circular Economy Potential Opportunity (million tons) .............. 52 Benin, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Figure B.5 CO2 Emissions Mitigation Based on Resource Loss (LEM vs CE) .................................................... 53 The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo © Smart Edge 7 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Nonetheless, the professionals interviewed as part of the stakeholder engagement exercise described several interventions for promoting circularity within coastal West Africa’s plastics value chain, including: The circular economy has become a priority in recent decades New circular business models can motivate these three sectors as policy makers seek to facilitate a transition from linear to reuse and extend the life span of plastic materials. • Establishing policies that target circularity and plastic waste production systems to closed systems that reuse resources, prevention reduce energy consumption and avoid the exploitation of Recommendations for government include: • Fostering stronger collaboration between public, private, nonrenewable resources. • Banning sales of new plastic equipment and nets informal, and development stakeholders in the plastics This regional gap analysis reveals several important trends. Key • Ending single-use plastics for water, food containers, and industry among them is a rapid rate of increase. Plastic consumption in plastic pipes • Providing research and development resources for the WACA region was estimated at 7.9 million tons in 2021; at • Incentivizing the use of biodegradable fishing gear (by taxing innovations, alternative products and materials, and pilot current growth rates, this could increase to 12 million tons by new plastic gear and implementing tax rebates on purchasing projects 2026. secondhand equipment) • Increasing intraregional trade in recovered plastics. The WACA region relies heavily on imported plastic-related goods from sources outside the region, such as Asia. Nigeria • Strategically installing local recycling plants in urban centers was found to be both the largest producer of plastic products and • Banning single-use plastics in the restaurant and tourism the biggest importer of plastic parts and products, in addition to industries Call to action being the WACA region’s only producer of virgin plastic resin. Other notable major producers of plastics in the WACA region Recommendations for the private sector include: There is a strong need to establish new national policies geared include Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. towards a circular economy; plastic waste prevention and reuse, • Adopting new business models, such as a green construction and promotion of bio-based feedstock. Policy makers in the The plastic landscape investigation included a spatial analysis approach (including the use of metals, bamboo, and WACA region can stimulate acceptance of circular-economy- of plastic waste generation across the WACA region. This composites) related products by: revealed varying rates of national annual plastic generation. The spatial analysis work also led to the identification of 71 • Increasing use of bio-based plastics and investment in • Passing regional-level legislation that focuses on production technology (packaging) product import standards, specifying, for example, content plastic waste generation hotspots across the WACA region, with a concentration in Nigeria. • Employing new geo-tags technology on fishing nets to reduce percentages of recycled plastics within an imported plastic- fishing ghost gear and to renew the inventory of commercial based product The plastic market analysis revealed that the three industry sectors (construction, plastic packaging, and fisheries) shipping nets • Implementing taxes, and subsidies and rebates, in fiscal represented 78 percent of total plastic consumption in 2021. By • Extending the lifetime of plastic products, including through policy initiatives 2026, the three sectors’ business-as-usual plastic consumption reuse and producing materials with higher recycled content • Making available research and development (R&D) funds is expected to reach 9.5 million tons, with per capita plastic for project design innovations waste growing from 12.5 kilograms (kg) to 17.3 kg. • Implementing policies that encourage the use of mono-color PET bottles • Increasing intraregional trade in recovered plastics to The largest plastics consumer of the three sectors is plastic reduce the plastic waste burden on smaller economies in packaging, followed by construction. The plastic packaging • Developing biodegradable seaweed- or algae-based plastic for use in the fishing industry. the WACA region, taking advantage of the concentration of sector could focus on new, circular economy business models plastics conversion/recycling capacity in countries such as over the next five years. In this sector, plastic waste recovery The stakeholder engagement exercise highlighted similar trends Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Nigeria and avoidance/reuse/recycling of between 2.2 and 4 million across the plastic value chain within the West Africa region. tons of plastic in a “pragmatic”1 circular scenario would reduce Notably, plastic industry stakeholders identified that countries • Involving informal waste reclaimers, recognized as an CO2 emissions between 41 and 53 percent (3.6–6.7 million tons are struggling to secure funding for recycling infrastructure. The important part of developing solutions. CO2 emissions). main reason for this is the relatively low profitability linked to The WACA region should prioritize engagement by: In the construction industry, in a pragmatic circular scenario low levels of suitable recyclable plastic. While regions that lack solid waste management infrastructure tend to have a significant • Engaging development banks and bilateral donors to access plastic avoidance would reduce CO2 emissions between 0.1 informal workforce, informal collectors use rudimentary technical and financial support for the development of and 0.3 million tons, and plastic waste recovery would reduce collection methods, and the majority of plastic retrieved from circular economy solutions CO2 emissions between 0.1 and 0.2 million tons. waste is contaminated and not suitable for recycling. • Promoting closer collaboration between public, private, Finally, in the fisheries sector, plastic avoidance under Likewise, many West African countries have weak policy informal, and development stakeholders, thereby harnessing the pragmatic circular scenario would reduce CO2 emissions frameworks for promoting circularity in plastics management. the individual strengths of each in addressing challenges between 0.03 and 0.05 million tons, and plastic waste Consumer consciousness on circular approaches for managing in the region’s plastics sector. recovery would reduce CO2 emissions between 0.04 and 0.07 million tons. plastics was also identified as largely lacking across the region. Countries participating in the WACA Program should also maximize efforts to improve the completeness and accuracy of plastic-value-chain data. 1 A pragmatic circular economy scenario represents the resource loss output in 2026 following a practical and measured approach to circular economy. © Smart Edge 9 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 10 1. INTRODUCTION What is the Circular Economy? The circular economy has been present since civilization first began, but has Why Circularity is become a priority for policy makers only in the past couple of decades. How to best leverage its principles is still under debate. Some say there is a need to focus on the sustainability dimensions of impacts—whether environmental, economic, or Critical in West Africa social. Others emphasize the need for new business models to facilitate a transition from linear production systems to closed systems that reuse resources and reduce energy consumption. These differences aside, to embrace circular economy is to move away from linear and open models of production, consumption, and the final disposal of products toward more circular and sustainable models. Such models optimize the use and reuse of materials, thus avoiding the exploitation of nonrenewable resources. A globally accepted definition of circular economy is still elusive, pushing academic research to analyze a wide range of related concepts and methods. In order to have a reference framework, the World Bank team settled on a definition formulated by Kirchherr, Reike, and Hekkert (2017);2 Garcés-Ayerbe et al. (2019);3 and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation: “A circular economy describes an economic productive system that is based on business models which replace the ‘end-of-life’ concept with reducing, alternatively reusing, repairing, remanufacturing, recycling and recovering materials in production, distribution and consumption processes, to return into a technical or biological cycle.” The circular economy model operates at the micro (products, companies, consumers), meso (eco-industrial parks), and macro (city, region, nation, and beyond) levels, with the aim of economic sustainability. This implies creating economic prosperity through gross domestic product (GDP) growth, social progress (employment generation), and environmental innovation (renewable energy, urban mining).4 2 Julian Kirchherr, Denise Reike, and Marko Hekkert, “Conceptualizing the Circular Economy: An Analysis of 114 Definitions,” Resources, Conservation and Recycling 127 (December 2017): 221–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005. 3 Concepción Garcés-Ayerbe, Pilar Rivera-Torres, Inés Suárez-Perales, and Dante I. Leyva-de la Hiz, “Is It Possible to Change from a Linear to a Circular Economy? An Overview of Opportunities and Barriers for European Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Companies,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 5 (2019): 851, htpps://doi: 10.3390/ijerph16050851. 4 Urban mining comprises the activities or technologies designed for recovering resources from waste or products at the end of their lifetime. Utilizing these secondary raw materials promotes environmental savings, resource benefits, and economic benefits. Urban mining often focuses on the dominant urban waste streams such as electronic waste (e-waste), energy-efficient lighting, end-of-life vehicles, and construction and demolition waste. Both the formal and informal sectors play a role. Rachna Arora, Katharina Pateroka, Abhijit Banerjee, and Manjeet Singh Saluja, “Potential and Relevance of Urban Mining in the Context of Sustainable Cities,” IIMB Management Review 29, no. 3 (2017): 210–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iimb.2017.06.001; Lúcia Helena Xavier, Ellen Cristine Giese, Ana Cristina Ribeiro-Duthie, and Fernando Antonio Freitas Lins, “Sustainability and the Circular Economy: A Theoretical Approach Focused on E-Waste Urban Mining,” Resources Policy 74 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101467. © Smart Edge 11 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 12 The economic, environmental, and social opportunities of circularity for demand for domestically or regionally produced secondary products and materials. There are various policy instruments available to do this, including traditional and emerging extended 2. West Africa producer responsibility (EPR) measures. Circularity—that is, the reuse of products and recycling of The creation of new circular supply chains, or loops, should be The Plastics Landscape materials in the economy—is one of three key pollution implemented in a socially equitable and just way. Regions with prevention strategies, the other two being substitution and immature or incomplete solid waste management infrastructure dematerialization. Its environmental potential comes from the tend to have a significant informal workforce that has developed fact that collecting products, packaging waste, and reprocessing to fill the gaps, from informal waste collectors and sorters to waste into secondary products and materials typically have informal recycling industries and markets. A heavy-handed A material flow analysis (MFA) of the WACA region’s plastic value chain was conducted using lower environmental impact than making these products and approach could risk the creation of new formal circular supply data pertaining to plastic trade, domestic industrial production, and waste generation. Appendix A materials from virgin resources. chains and infrastructure at the expense of existing informal highlights the assumptions and processes applied in carrying out the MFA. Significantly, the material ones, thus reducing economic and employment benefits, and Using secondary alternatives instead of virgin products and flow analysis was fraught with data quality challenges. There were inconsistencies in trade statistics between increasing rather than reducing social inequities. Potential materials not only reduces environmental impact all along exporters and importers, as well as uncertainties over the data pertaining to solid waste generation and avenues to avoid these are either to formalize the informal the supply chain but also reduces end-of-life waste and the respective plastic content. It was necessary to perform a data reconciliation exercise to facilitate the execution workforce or to make sure that the new circular supply chains environmental pollution it generates. Reducing the amount of the MFA. With the exception of the intraregional scrap trade analysis—based on raw data from the UN complement, rather than substitute, the informal ones. of waste disposal through increased circularity is especially Comrade statistics for 2018—the qualitative analysis in this section of the report should be regarded as valuable in regions like West and Central Africa, where the solid While today’s interest in reuse and recycling initiatives should primarily directional, providing orders of magnitudes rather than robust estimates. waste infrastructure is still immature and incomplete, and solid be welcomed, one needs to avoid naïve enthusiasm regarding waste is thus at higher risk of ending up in marine and terrestrial their potential and feasibility. This is particularly true for plastic environments. waste, for which even highly developed economies such as Canada and the United States have achieved recycling rates of The overall impact reduction potential of reuse typically exceeds only about nine percent. Circular supply chains for plastic waste that of recycling, and both are preferable to disposal. For are operationally challenging, and the costs of the necessary example, reusing plastic containers has greater environmental operations and processes can quickly exceed the achievable benefits than recycling them. This, in turn, is preferable to landfill revenues. The true economic potential and viability of plastic disposal or incineration. However, the potential environmental reuse and recycling require detailed knowledge of local costs benefits of reuse and recycling are realized only if secondary and conditions, and are likely to vary across locations and types products and materials are used instead of new products and of plastic waste. materials, not in addition to them. If secondary resources do not reduce the use of primary resources, waste disposal is merely Study overview delayed rather than truly avoided. As part of the World Bank’s West Africa Coastal Areas While the economics of circularity is challenging for plastics, Management Program (WACA),5 and with a view to informing its economic potential is significant, in particular in low- and decision-making on marine plastics pollution in West and medium-income regions such as West and Central Africa. Central Africa, research was conducted into West Africa’s One reason for this is that the processes involved—such as regional response to marine plastics. The analysis covered collection, inspection, cleaning, and sorting—tend to be labor 17 coastal and island states: Benin, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, intensive. The availability and cost of labor are therefore major Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, determinants of the economic feasibility of plastic reuse and Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, São Tomé recycling. Another reason is that many technologies required and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. for plastic reuse and recycling are inexpensive and readily available. A third reason is the fact that few countries in the West This study seeks to address key gaps in knowledge and data and Central African regions have large virgin plastic production relating to the plastic pollution problem in the WACA countries. It and conversion industries, which means that they depend on also aims to contribute to regional governments’ and institutions’ imports and are thus not part of the value chain of virgin plastics. agendas on marine litter. Switching from imported virgin plastics to domestic secondary To achieve these overarching goals, a World Bank team: plastics creates the opportunity to build domestic value chains and increase domestic employment. • Conducted a stakeholder engagement exercise Since virgin plastic products are very low cost, robust policy • Performed an analysis of the plastic value chain support may be required to increase the viability of a domestic or regional circular plastics economy. Such policies should be • Assessed three priority industries: packaging, fisheries, and aimed, not only at bolstering a domestic or regional supply construction. of secondary products and materials, but also at increasing 5 The WACA program also includes countries considered to be Central African. © Smart Edge 13 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 14 Domestic production of plastic resins in In 2018, the total resin conversion rate in the WACA region three largest net importers of plastic parts (for example, pipes was 1,717 kt. Nigeria’s rate was the single largest, at 1,094 kt and floor coverings) and plastic products such as household the WACA region or 64 percent. Other countries with significant shares included articles and disposable utensils (Figure 3). The WACA region has a well-established upstream petroleum Ghana (262 kt) and Côte d’Ivoire (197 kt), according to the Figure 3. Net finished plastic product imports (kt) in WACA countries, 2018 sector, with most production centered offshore in the Gulf of United Nations’ Comtrade database (Figure 2). Net imports are Guinea. Nigeria is the largest producer in the region, producing calculated as imports minus exports. Conversion processes Nigeria 753 1,844 million barrels per day in 2019.6 Other notable oil (like molding and thermoforming) turn resins into plastic parts Côte d’Ivoire 129 producers include Ghana, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial and products. The sum of domestic production and net import of Cameroon 96 Guinea, and Gabon.7 Domestic production of virgin plastic resins resins should be equal to all resin conversion. This equation is Benin 49 in the WACA region is limited, however. According to data from a good measure of the consistency of the datasets used, which Senegal 42 turn out to be in agreement. Ghana 34 Wood Mackenzie,8 Nigeria is the only nation in the WACA region Sierra Leone 25 engaging in the production of virgin plastic resins, generating Figure 2. Plastic Resin Conversion (kt) in WACA Region Countries, 2018 Mauritania 21 486 kilotons (kt) in 2018. Nigeria 1094 Guinea 19 Ghana 262 Liberia 17 Côte d’Ivoire 197 Togo 14 Imports and conversion of plastic Togo 54 Gabon 13 resins in the WACA region Senegal 47 Cabo Verde Guinea-Bissau 7 7 Cameroon 34 Because domestic production is sparse, countries in the WACA Guinea 15 Equatorial Guinea 7 region are highly dependent on imported plastic resins, mainly Sierra Leone 6 The Gambia 5 polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride Liberia 5 São Tomé and Príncipe 1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 (PVC). Regional net resin imports in 2018 were 1,231 kt. Though Guinea-Bissau 2 Nigeria was the region’s only producer of virgin plastic resin, Benin 1 Note: Data included in appendix E — WACA Plastic Landscape The Gambia 0 it was also the largest net importer, accounting for 49 percent São Tomé and Príncipe 0 With regard to plastics in imported final goods, our analysis of the region’s total, or 608 kt (Figure 1). The other major Mauritania 0 highlights the following estimates. The WACA region accounted net importers—Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, and Senegal— Equatorial Guinea 0 for 3,793 kt of net imports of plastics embedded in imported goods accounted for 45 percent of the total. Gabon 0 in 2018. Of these imports, 78 percent of were accounted for by Cabo Verde 0 Nigeria (2,287 kt), Côte d’Ivoire (338 kt), and Ghana (333 kt). 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Figure 1. Net Resin Imports (kt) into WACA Region Countries, 2018 Note: Data included in appendix E — WACA Plastic Landscape All trade data was extracted from the United Nations’ Comtrade Nigeria 608 database. Plastic parts and products are assumed to be entirely Nigeria and Ghana were identified as the largest net made of plastic, while the reported masses of imported and Ghana 262 Côte d’Ivoire 197 importers of plastic waste and scrap in 2018, at 14 kt and exported final goods are multiplied by their estimated plastic Togo 54 6 kt, respectively.9 Mauritania, Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, and content. In summary, about 25 percent of the 6,767 kt of plastic Senegal 47 Senegal were identified as net exporters of plastic waste estimated to have entered use in the WACA region in 2018 was Cameroon 34 and scrap, ranging between 1 kt and 2 kt. Their export from domestic converters; 18 percent was imported plastic parts Guinea 15 markets were in Asia, Europe, and North America, with a and products; and 56 percent was contained in imported final Sierra Leone 6 small proportion of plastic waste and scrap exported to a few goods, either as parts or packaging. Liberia 5 West African countries (Burkina Faso, Togo, and Senegal).10 Guinea-Bissau 2 Figure 4. Plastic entering use (imports and resin production) in WACA countries, 2018 Benin 1 The Gambia 0 Import of plastic parts and products, Nigeria São Tomé and Príncipe Mauritania 0 0 and plastics in imported final goods Côte d’Ivoire Ghana Equatorial Guinea 0 Because the WACA region manufacturing sector is unable to Cameroon Gabon 0 meet demand, three-quarters of the plastic consumed within Senegal Cabo Verde 0 the region is imported, mostly from Asia. Benin 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Togo The analysis showed a total net import of 1,238 kt of plastic Guinea Note: Data included in appendix E — WACA Plastic Landscape parts and products into the WACA region in 2018 kt. Nigeria Sierra Leone (753 kt), Côte d’Ivoire (129 kt), and Cameroon (96 kt) were the Liberia Mauritania 6 US Energy Information Administration, “Total Petroleum and Other Liquids Production Annual,” 2021, Gabon https://www.eia.gov/international/data/world/petroleum-and-other-liquids/annual-petroleum-and-other-liquids-production. Resin Imports (kt) Gambia Resin Production (kt) 7 EIA, “Total Petroleum and Other Liquids Production Annual.” Guinea-Bissau Finished Plastic Product Imports (kt) 8 Resin production and conversion data obtained from Wood Mackenzie Chemicals. Equatorial Guinea Plastic in Finished Goods Imports (kt) 9 Both countries import most of their plastic waste and scrap from Asia. Nigeria’s top five sources were China, Saudi Arabia, the United States, the Republic of Korea, and Cabo Verde South Africa. Ghana’s top five sources were Saudi Arabia, the United States, Korea, Thailand, and Belgium. São Tomé and Príncipe 10 The complete list of export markets for plastic waste and scrap from the WACA region (2018) include: Australia, Belgium, Burkina Faso, Canada, China, France, Germany, 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 India, Japan, Senegal, Spain, Togo, and the United States. Note: Data included in appendix E — WACA Plastic Landscape 15 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics © Mel D. Cole for World Bank A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 16 Intraregional plastic waste and scrap trade End-of-Life management of plastics Figure 4. Plastic waste generated (kt) in the WACA region, by country, 2018 Raw data from the UN Comtrade statistics for 2018 shows that The 10 countries combined imported approximately 38,400 and plastic waste hotspots in the Nigeria 10 WACA countries reported receiving imports of plastic waste tons of plastic waste and scrap in 2018. Table 1 highlights the WACA region Côte d’Ivoire and scrap from across the globe, including West Africa. The trade values and associated weights of plastic waste and scrap Senegal A spatial analysis of plastic waste generation was performed to three largest importers were Nigeria, Ghana, and Senegal, imports from West Africa, the rest of Africa, Europe, Asia, North help identify its geographic distribution. Without high-granularity Ghana with significant proportions of their imports sourced from Asia, America, and Oceania into the WACA region, according to the data pertaining directly to waste generation, an estimate Cameroon Europe, and North America. West Africa is shown as a minor UN Comtrade database. was calculated for each square kilometer (km2) of a given source of plastic waste and scrap imports. Ghana happens to country. This was done by multiplying the population of that 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 be the region’s only major importer. area by the national municipal solid waste (MSW) generation per capita (What a Waste 2.0), and the proportion of plastic Togo Table 1. Trade value and weight of plastic waste and scrap imports into the WACA region present in the MSW of that country.11 While this method does Benin not capture plastic waste generated by industry, it does reveal the spatial distribution of plastic waste from commerce and Liberia West Africa Rest of Africa Europe Asia North America Oceania households. A statistical analysis of the resulting plastic waste Sierra Leone generation grid was conducted to identify hotspots—or areas Guinea Trade Weight Trade Weight Trade Weight Trade Weight Trade Weight Trade Weight that have significantly higher values than those surrounding Mauritania Value ($) (tons) Value ($) (tons) Value ($) (tons) Value ($) (tons) Value ($) (tons) Value ($) (tons) them—normalized to the national mean value. Addressing issues around the management of plastic waste requires an Gabon Benin 1,478 2.71 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a understanding of this spatial distribution and the factors that Guinea-Bissau Cabo Verde n/a n/a n/a n/a 1,745 0.63 247 0.13 656 0.51 n/a n/a cause locales of greater waste generation. This, in turn, helps Gambia, The to identify opportunities to redirect that waste into a circular Gambia, The 2,214 6.39 n/a n/a 3,847 11.83 119,929 69 90 1.96 n/a n/a Equatorial Guinea economy. Cabo Verde Ghana 112,204 3,398.55 n/a n/a 460,240 1,601.59 314,476 891.71 189,352 543.72 31,965 107.94 Across the WACA region, annual plastic waste generation São Tomé and Príncipe varies widely (Figure 4 and Table 2). An area of two square Mauritania 11,336 138.89 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a kilometers in the heart of Lagos, Nigeria, generates the most 0 50 100 Nigeria n/a n/a 83,061 106.99 128,548 81.55 14,821,190 17,050.73 995,239 1,072.37 n/a n/a plastic waste in the analysis area, at 3.4 kt annually. By contrast, Total mass of plastic waste (kt) the lowest-producing square kilometer in Nigeria produces just São Tomé n/a n/a n/a n/a 4,222 1.15 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a over half a kilogram (kg) of plastic waste per year, while the and Príncipe lowest-producing square kilometer in the region, located in the Senegal n/a n/a n/a n/a 1,704,119 2,142.04 28,357 34.91 n/a n/a n/a n/a desert northeast of Mauritania, produces less than three grams per year (Figure 5). Sierra Leone 467 0.29 38,212 37.23 513,740 328.44 781,296 470.72 9,452 20.94 889 0.65 Togo 7,221 55.74 n/a n/a 710,826 969.88 626,518 954.86 n/a n/a n/a n/a Based on the details in Table 1, Asia ($17 million), Europe ($4 This differential highlights the potential opportunities for greater million), and North America ($1 million) are the largest sources of sourcing of plastic waste and scrap from within the WACA region plastic waste and scrap imports for the reported ten countries in itself. Greater levels of investment in plastic waste recovery SEVENTEEN WACA COUNTRIES the WACA region in 2018. By contrast, only $134,920 of plastic infrastructure would facilitate these opportunities. COMBINED GENERATED AROUND waste and scrap was imported from West African sources. 6,9 MILLION TONS OF PLASTIC WASTE IN 2018. 11 Jenna R. Jambeck, Roland Geyer, Chris Wilcox, Theodore R. Siegler, Miriam Perryman, Anthony Andrady, Ramani Narayan, and Kara Lavender Law, “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean,” 2015, https://jambeck.engr.uga.edu/landplasticinput. © Smart Edge 17 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 18 Table 2. Annual plastic waste generation, 2018 12 Figure 6. Distance of plastic waste generation from the coast, by country, 2018 Country Annual Plastic Waste Generation (kt) Distance from coast Total Within 15 km of Coast Within 30 km of Coast 0 to 15km 15 to 30km More than 30km Benin 120.95 21.29 34.89 Cabo Verde 16.78 16.78 16.78 Cameroon 225.08 24.01 36.74 Côte d’Ivoire’ 699.90 128.36 169.03 Cabo Verde Benin Cameroon Côte d’Ivoire Equatorial Guinea Gabon Gambia, The Ghana Guinea Equatorial Guinea 17.03 6.78 8.72 Gabon 43.04 14.86 16.61 Gambia, The 26.93 20.11 21.52 Ghana 271.35 59.78 82.29 Guinea-Bissau Liberia Mauritania Nigeria São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Guinea 54.01 11.16 14.59 Guinea-Bissau 29.04 15.83 19.98 The most populous countries are not necessarily the greatest Figure 7. Plastic Waste Generation Hotspots, 2018 Liberia 106.07 44.03 52.44 producers of plastic waste. Nigeria has the largest population and the greatest annual generation of plastic waste at 4,719 kt Mauritania 53.36 18.01 18.29 per year. However, the next most populous country, Cameroon, Nigeria 4,719.86 430.41 640.71 has the fifth-highest mass of plastic waste produced in a year, São Tomé and Príncipe 3.42 3.42 3.42 at 225 kt. Côte d’Ivoire produces 699 kt of plastic waste per Senegal 341.67 120.64 161.78 year, earning second place in plastic waste production, but is the fourth-most-populous country in the region. Thus, regional Sierra Leone 67.85 19.08 23.36 plastic waste generation does not simply mirror population Togo 133.76 35.66 49.87 distribution. TOTAL 6,930.10 990.23 1,371.02 In addition to calculating plastic waste generation per square Percentage of WACA Total (%) 14.3 19.8 kilometer, the study identified areas with generation rates significantly higher than the national mean as plastic waste “hotspots.” Since plastic waste generation per square kilometer Figure 5. Regional plastic waste generation per square kilometer, 2018 The regional maximum and minimum are consistent with the was calculated using waste generation rates countrywide, and overall trend of plastic waste distribution. Higher generation occurs large variation in population size and density can mask insights in densely populated cities located on the coast, or along trade in less populous or densely populated areas when compared Note: Hotspots were calculated for each country individually, then merged routes associated with roads or rivers; lower generation occurs in across countries, each country was analyzed for hotspots for visualization. less populated areas in the Sahara, on preserved lands, or inland. separately. The combined national analyses are displayed in Of the 71 hotspots, 32 were in Nigeria, accounting for 45 percent Of the 6,930 kt of plastic waste generated across the analysis area Figure 7, while maps and tables of each nation’s hotspots can of total hotspots. However, these hotspots produce a total of just in a year, 14.3 percent is produced within 15 km of the coast and be found under Country Briefs (Appendix C).13 over 840 kt of plastic waste annually, which contributes 17.8 19.8 percent is produced within 30 km of the coast. The proportion The analysis revealed a total of 71 individual hotspots (listed in percent of the total national mass of plastic waste per year. Only of each country’s plastic waste generated closer or further from the Appendix D) with a Z-score greater than or equal to a threshold Côte d’Ivoire’s hotspots contribute less, with 16.1 percent of plastic coast varies widely. The geographical totality of the island nations of two standard deviations (Figure 7). Each hotspot was waste coming from the country’s single hotspot, Abidjan. Yet of Cabo Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe is within 15 km of the associated with the nearest named locale from the ESRI Africa Nigeria has the greatest total mass of plastic waste from hotspots, coast, and thus 100 percent of their waste is generated close to cities dataset and cross-referenced against OpenStreetMap to followed by Côte d’Ivoire. In The Gambia, 49.2 percent of plastic the ocean. By contrast, countries with larger inland populations increase accuracy in nine cases where multiple hotspots were waste comes from hotspots, followed by Mauritania (34.5 percent) connected to trade via rivers and roads, generate a majority of assigned to a single locale. and Cabo Verde (33.1 percent). The variation in the contribution waste more than 30 km from the coast. The proximity of plastic of hotspots to total national plastic waste can be linked to how the waste generation to the coast suggests a greater likelihood that Hotspots are largely determined based on the difference population of the country is distributed and the overall generation mismanaged plastic waste will enter the ocean. (Major waterways between the national mean plastic waste generated per square of plastic waste. Countries where hotspots play an outsized role also pose an opportunity for waste to be transferred to marine kilometer and the neighborhood mean. Some areas that may have high population density in cities and very low population environments but were not within the scope of this analysis.) be expected to be hotspots are not, since their neighborhood density in rural areas. This is combined with less plastic waste Note: Annual plastic waste was first calculated for each country. mean is not significantly different from the national mean, as generated overall each year. Countries whose hotspots contribute Both Cabo Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe produce the least in the case of St. Louis, Senegal. Likewise, where the national relatively less have comparably higher population density in rural plastic waste of the WACA countries (3.4 and 16.8 kt per year, mean is remarkably low, areas that may not be expected to be areas, resulting in greater plastic waste generation outside urban respectively), amounting to only 5 percent of Nigeria’s plastic hotspots are identified as significant, as in the case of small cities hotspot and overall national plastic generation, increasing the waste generation within 15 km of the coast—a total of 430.4 kt in southern Mauritania threshold for an area to be deemed a hotspot. per year (Figure 6). 12 The reported annual plastic waste generation values were based on estimates for 2018 arrived at through a data reconciliation exercise explained in Appendix A: Methods   13 For this analysis, very granular geospatial plastic waste generation data was smoothed by calculating the mean for a 10 x 10 km neighborhood surrounding each 1 km2 cell or Material Flow Analysis. These values should be considered as highlighting the differences in measures of magnitude for annual plastic waste generation between the for the entire country. The Z-score for each smoothed 1 km2 data point was then calculated with the equation: (neighborhood mean of the 1 km2 cell - national mean)/national WACA countries. standard deviation. 19 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 20 3. The in-depth analysis of circular economy opportunities in the WACA region focuses on construction, fisheries, and packaging. This is because of their relative importance to Construction Environmental and economic opportunities the economies of the WACA region and their identification for circularity in plastics by the African Development Bank (AfDB) as industries with significant opportunities for the incorporation of circular economy The key products analyzed in this investigation were: cables; Assessment of Plastics solutions.14 For the WACA region, 2021 plastic consumption in a linear ceiling panels; cladding and profiles (windows and doors); floor coverings; insulation; pipes; seals; and gaskets. Figure 8 presents the contribution in million tons (by polymer and product)18 of plastic in Three Key Sectors: economy model (LEM) is estimated at 7.9 million tons of waste and leakage into the marine environment. Construction plastic, growing to 12 million tons by 2026.15 This represents 78 and demolition (C&D) waste is not properly segregated. It is percent16 of the total across the three sectors under study. Of this often mixed with other solid waste and sent to landfills or illegally Construction, Fisheries, 78 percent, 4.7 million tons are “lost resources” (originating from dumped. Additionally, C&D waste can contain various kinds of unused products or waste), and 3.3 million tons of these “lost plastics—including acrylic, polycarbonate, polypropylene (PP), resources” enter the marine area. By 2026 the three sectors’ and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products, polymer-based paints, and plastic LEM consumption is expected to reach 9.5 million tons, and Packaging adhesives.19 These plastics can leak into the natural environment growing at a compound annual growth rate of 9 percent, with per or into water streams, eventually entering the ocean, or they can capita plastic waste growing from 12.5 kg to 17.3 kg (7 percent be deposited directly into the ocean during floods. growth). Figure 8. Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the construction sector to Plastic in the region comes from a variety of sources: plastic waste and marine litter, 2021, by polymer and product • Only Nigeria has domestic plastic resin production, estimated at 541 kt in 2021. By polymer 2021 (mn tons) PVC PS PE PP Others • Ninety-three percent of plastics is imported into the WACA region. Of this: Resource loss TOTAL: 0.47 Marine leakage › Most plastics are imported as multimaterial goods (46 to 50 TOTAL: 0.28 percent of total plastic use in the region in 2021). 0.08 0.005 › Imported resin (which is then converted domestically) and 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.003 plastic products represented 16 percent of total plastic 0.04 0.05 use in 2021. 0.26 0.15 › Plastics used as packaging and wrapping of other imported goods (such as protective covers on electronics; plastic bags for chemical products, for example, big bags; plastic By product 2021 (mn tons) wrap around pallets; and so on) represented 0.8 million Cables Pipes Window/door profiles Others tons of imported plastics (10 percent of the 2021 total). Resource loss TOTAL: 0.47 • Plastic is imported as resin and converted domestically, Marine leakage or imported as plastic products. Both made up around TOTAL: 0.28 16 percent of total plastic use in the region in 2021. 0.07 0.09 • Plastic also enters the region as part of imported multimaterial 0.12 0.07 0.06 goods. In 2021, plastics embedded in these goods was 0.07 0.11 around 46 to 50 percent17 of total plastics used in the region. 0.19 14 Dalberg, African Circular Economy Alliance, African Development Bank, and World Economic Forum, Five Big Bets for the Circular Economy in Africa (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2021), https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/five-big-bets-circular-economy-africa. 15 The selection of the three key industries—packaging, fisheries, and construction—was based on their relative dominance across the WACA region. 16 According to Geyer, Jambeck, and Law (2017), the estimated waste contribution of the three sectors to total waste is around 60 percent (Roland Geyer, Jenna R. Jambeck, and Kara Lavender Law, “Production, Use, and Fate of All Plastics Ever Made,” Science Advances 3, no. 7 [2017]: e1700782). Plastic Europe (2018) estimates that in Europe more than 60 percent of plastic waste can be attributed to plastic packaging alone. The present analysis uses the latter data point as a benchmark for WACA, resulting in a higher-end range of 78 percent. 17 The 50 percent estimate is from the plastic landscape analysis of the previous section. The slightly lower estimate of 46 percent is from Martin Heller, Michael Mazor, and Gregory Keoleian, “Plastics in the US: Toward a Material Flow Characterization of Production, Markets and End of Life,” Environmental Research Letters 15, no. 9 (2020): 094034. 18 CO2e/CO2 emissions sourced from Daniel Posen, Paulina Jaramillo, Amy E. Landis, and W. Michael Griffin, “Greenhouse Gas Mitigation for U.S. Plastics Production: Energy First, Feedstocks Later,” Environmental Research Letters 12, no. 3 (2017): 034024. Polymer-based coefficients—kgCO2 emission per kg of plastic: PE (lower end: 1.1/higher end: 2.1/average: 1.6); PP (1.1/2.0/1.6); PS (2.8/3.5/3.2); PVC (1.9/2.5/2.2); others (1.7/2.4/2.0). © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 19 Based on data from http://www.circulareconomy.earth. 21 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 22 Figure 10. CO₂ Reduction of PE and PP Resource Loss to Drive CO₂ Public-private partnerships (PPPs) The regulatory and institutional framework includes solid waste initiatives concerning plastics. With “refuse, rethink, and reduce” Emissions in the Construction Industry (million tons CO₂ emissions) management legislation in the WACA countries, but does not initiatives (R1)21, circular economy opportunities in plastics in • Introduce a “materials passport”22 that stores information on uniformly address C&D waste. While some countries have the construction sector will be between 26 and 34 percent (0.2 building materials, ranging from bricks to fixtures. This could introduced legislation that specifically targets waste in the C&D to 0.5 million tons) by 2026. Some of these circular strategies CO₂ emissions mitigation be useful during the renovation or demolition phases. CO₂ EMISSIONS sector—including Nigeria, which introduced such legislation in could be: use of metal buckets as an alternative to plastic (mn tons CO2 emissions) 2011—the WACA region in general shows a paucity of legislation buckets; use of bamboo/wood for construction proposes; and MITIGATION: 20%–40% • Encourage PPPs that are: TOTAL: focused on the growing volume of C&D waste and plastic use. tax reductions on biodegradable materials. Preventing resource 1.9 › Involved in build-operate-transfer contracts; waste WACA countries urgently need to formulate legislation that loss after plastic avoidance in construction by 2026 includes incineration; waste treatment; recycling; and energy-from- addresses use of plastic alternatives in the construction sector. circular economy opportunities such as: the use of plastic waste TOTAL: waste projects.23 1.2–1.6 to make construction bricks or for backfilling (R2); investment Currently, there are no specific circular economy initiatives in construction waste recycling facilities; or the establishment › Focused on strengthening basic recycling infrastructure, within the WACA region’s construction sector. Some circular including recycling infrastructure designed specifically for of waste deposits and transportation systems (R3) (Figure 9). initiatives in the industry (including the reuse of formwork and plastics. scaffolding)20 have been adopted without a regulatory mandate. Nigeria is a case in point. However, there have been no such › Mandating the use of recycled materials (including plastics) in low-income housing and general building norms. Figure 9. Linear economy resources loss vs. circular economy opportunities (million tons of plastic) in the construction sector, 2021–26 LINEAR ECONOMY CIRCULAR ECONOMY › Providing finance to companies and individuals who agree MODEL MODEL to a minimum percentage use of recycled materials in public 2026 2026 Plastic demand by construction sector (2021 and 2026) housing projects. TOTAL: 2.0 Table 3: CO₂ Emissions Mitigation by Polymer (% range) Research and development (R&D) opportunities TOTAL: 1.8 TOTAL: 1.2 2.0 Sector R1 Polyethylene 8%–52% • Try out new products, such as “Agrocrete”.24 This is made 1.6 growth 0.2 Polypropylene LEM 2026 10%–50% CE 2026 from agricultural residue and has strength equivalent to • CIRCULAR 1.2 Resin production 9.5% Use of metal buckets as an ECONOMY Polystyrene 22%–38% a conventional red brick from a kiln. It is a low-carbon alternative Resin • Use of bamboo/wood with Circular OPPORTUNITY: replacement for Portland cement (made from industrial 0.8 economy Polyvinyl chloride 22%–38% imports various purpose 0.2–0.5mn tons by-products of steel, paper, and power industries). • Tax reduction on demand 26–34% Others 17%–43% 0.4 Embedded biodegradable materials potential • Conduct further research on “eco-bricks,”25 which consist of 80 0.0 Packaging Environmental and economic action items percent plastic waste from melting and extruding low-density 2021 2026 linear 2026 circular polyethylene (LDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) economy model economy to promote circularity in plastics plastics, and 20 percent sand. Based on the findings of this report, the following action items are Resource loss (wasted plastic) by construction sector (2026) • Investigate the possibility of using shredded plastic waste recommended across all WACA countries. in concrete, so reducing the percentage of sand without TOTAL: 0.8 TOTAL: 0.8 compromising strength.26 0.9 Policy and regulation TOTAL: 0.6 • Implement specific regulations that address C&D waste— • Partner with leading global universities to research utilizing R2 R3 plastic waste—including nonrecyclable plastics—to make roads. 0.6 including recycled concrete, recycled aggregates, and plastics. LEM Resource 0.1 original 0.03 loss after resource plastic • Use of plastic waste to make construction bricks • Investment in construction CE • Introduce legislation requiring a minimum percentage offset Industry actions 0.3 loss waste recycling facilities remaining avoidance • of plastics for other materials (including aluminum, steel, and Use of plastic as an alternative to asphalt in • Investment in facilities resource loss • Promote reuse of plastic products—including doors, window segregating MSW for timber) during the building design phase. 0.0 road construction alternative fuels frames, and electrical fittings removed during renovation or • Use of construction • 2026 linear 2026 circular waste for backfilling Establish waste deposits/ transportation system 2026 circular • Create an incentive structure (punitive or financial) that demolition. economy model economy (R1) economy encourages implementation through a combination of tax • Develop a building sector roadmap that promotes nascent Source: CW Advisory increases for the use of unrecyclable/unrecycled plastics and Note: R1 Group includes Refuse, Rethink and Reduce initiatives technologies to reduce plastics in public housing projects. tax rebates for circular initiatives in construction. R2 Group includes Re-use, Repair, Refurbish, Remanufacture and Repurpose initiatives • Use cement kilns to recover energy by burning plastic waste, R3 Group includes Recycle and Recover initiatives • Develop a building material roadmap for ongoing and future including nonrecyclable PVC. construction activities. In construction, polyethylene (PE) is used primarily in roofing; CO2 emissions can be reduced between 20 and 40 percent vapor retarders; window films; and flooring and countertop (0.2 to 0.5 million tons), by applying the circular economy protection. Polypropylene (PP) is used in insulation for building alternatives previously explained (Figure 10). In the case of 22 A materials passport is an electronic document that enables the shift to a circular building sector. It describes defined characteristics of materials in products that give them value for recovery and reuse. The passport aims to: (i) increase the value or keep the value of materials, products, and components over time; (ii) create incentives for wraps and in carpets. Analysis of the CO2 emissions mitigation other polymers, Table 3 shows the percentage range of the CO2 suppliers to produce healthy, sustainable, and circular materials/building products; (iii) support material choices in reversible building design projects; (iv) make it easier for (million tons CO2) for a linear/business-as-usual model emissions mitigation. developers, managers, and renovators to choose healthy, sustainable, and circular building materials; and (v) facilitate reversed logistics and take-back of products, materials, and components. Based on data from BAMB (Building as Material Banks), “Enabling Circular Building Industry,” https://www.bamb2020.eu/. and a circular economy model by the year 2026 shows that 23 Based on data from the PPP Knowledge Lab: https://pppknowledgelab.org/countries; https://pppknowledgelab.org/countries/ghana. 24 Based on data from GreenJams, “Carbon Negative Building Materials,” https://www.greenjams.org/. 20 Olabode Emmanuel Ogunmakinde 2019, “Developing a Circular-Economy-Based Construction Waste Minimization Framework for Nigeria,” doctoral thesis, Bond University, https://research.bond.edu.au/en/publications/developing-a-circular-economy-based-construction-waste-minimisati. 25 Based on “Circular Economy in Africa” from the Let’s Do It Foundation, https://letsdoitfoundation.org/2021/01/28/circular-economy-in-africa/. 21 The R1 Group includes refuse, rethink, and reduce initiatives; the R2 Group includes reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, and repurpose initiatives; and the R3 Group 26 Based on a study by Vikas Khandelwal, “Replacement of Sand with Shredded Plastic in Cement Concrete,” International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology includes recycle and recover initiatives. (IJERT) 8, no. 6 (June 2019), https://www.ijert.org/replacement-of-sand-with-shredded-plastic-in-cement-concrete#:~:text=CONCLUSIONS%3A,28%20days%20of%20 proper%20curing. 23 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 24 Potential tangible opportunities Fisheries The WACA countries lack specific regulations for the fisheries But existing circular economy initiatives regarding the reduction sector, aside from general mandates regarding the Blue Economy of plastics in the region are not directly associated with fisheries. and stakeholders Environmental and economic sectors.31 For example, there are no regulatory measures for Circular economy opportunities could reduce plastics resource The opportunities found in the various WACA countries were reducing plastic content in fishing gear and using alternative loss from the sector by between 32 and 39 percent by 2026. opportunities for circularity in plastics divided by clusters, or tiers. The clustering was driven by packaging materials. Similarly, there is inadequate enforcement Some of these initiatives are shown in Figure 12: a tax increase two primary metrics—plastic waste generation and a set of The critical products in this sector are fishing nets; crates; plastic of the few existing laws and regulations regarding this sector. on plastic fishing ropes; a tax on the disposal of fishing materials; development indices27 —and set as follows: lines; ropes; feed bags; plastic embedded in fishing boats; buoys; barter programs for plastic fishing gear and those made of natural Some of the WACA countries have circular economy initiatives and fish boxes. Figure 11 presents the sector’s contribution—in fibers; storage deposits for used materials; a tax reduction on • Tier 1: Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Benin, Guinea-Bissau, million tons of plastics (by polymer and product)29—to plastic that apply to fisheries management. Certain of the countries, for fishing soldering equipment; and recycling facilities for plastic Mauritania, and Togo example, address the protection and restoration of coral reefs.32 waste and leakage into the marine environment. secondhand gear, among others. • Tier 2: Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Figure 11. Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the fisheries sector to and Ghana plastic waste and marine litter, 2021, by polymer and product Figure 12. Linear economy resources loss vs. circular economy opportunities (million tons of plastic) in the fisheries sector, 2021–2026 • Tier 3: The Gambia, Senegal, São Tomé and Príncipe, By polymer 2021 (mn tons) Gabon, and Cabo Verde Plastic demand by fisheries sector (2021 and 2026) PVC PS PE PP Others Tangible opportunities were focused on the reduction of plastic Resource loss TOTAL: 0.40 TOTAL: 0.36 components used in the construction sector during the design TOTAL: 0.14 0.4 TOTAL: 0.26 phase through use of biodegradable materials, including Marine leakage Sector R1 TOTAL: 0.11 0.3 growth 0.04 bamboo; metals (steel and aluminum); and bio-based paints. 0.07 9.2% • Tax increase on plastic CIRCULAR Resin production The R’s28 percentage reduction for Tier 2 countries is estimated fishing ropes Circular ECONOMY 0.2 Resin • Tax on waste disposal for economy OPPORTUNITY: at 3–6 percent, while it is 1–3 percent for Tier 1 and 2–4 0.003 0.04 imports fishing materials demand 0.01 • potential 0.07–0.12mn tons percent for Tier 3 countries. To maximize these opportunities, 0.1 Barter program on plastic 32–39% 0.03 0.01 Embedded fishing gear to natural it will be necessary to engage the following stakeholders: 0.01 fibers gear 0.02 0.003 0.0 Packaging government departments (environmental, industry, and trade); nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); industry associations; 2021 2026 linear 2026 circular building material producers; the metal industry; and developers By product 2021 (mn tons) economy model economy (architects and engineers). Fishing fleets Hard plastics/sheets/films Others Resource loss (wasted plastic) by fisheries sector (2026) Resource loss Refurbishment using materials such as steel and timber, TOTAL: 0.14 0.3 can be an important tool for reducing utilization of plastics Marine leakage TOTAL: 0.23 TOTAL: 0.21 in construction. The R percentage reduction is estimated TOTAL: 0.11 0.01 0.2 TOTAL: 0.15 between 4 and 5 percent for Tier 3 countries and 2 and 4 R2 0.03 percent for Tier 1 and 2 countries. Key stakeholders include: 0.01 LEM Resource 0.05 R3 government departments (environment and industry); industry 0.03 0.1 original loss after • Establish used material 0.01 resource plastic storage deposits • Investment in plastic CE associations; developers (architects and engineers); building 0.09 loss avoidance • Tax reduction on fishing remaining second-hand-gear 0.07 soldering equipment resource material providers, municipal solid waste (MSW) departments; 0.0 • Investment in plastic recycling facilities loss • Establish marine waste and metal recyclers. 2026 linear 2026 circular refurbishment facilities collection program for economy model economy (R1) vouchers (food, goods, 2026 circular Utilization of C&D waste—including bricks and shredded Plastic fishing nets (“ghost gear”)30 and nets dumped into the etc.) economy • Investment in bio-gas plastic—for backfilling at new construction sites, is expected ocean (broken or lost during storms) are associated with key Source: CW Advisory plants to have an impact of 3–5 percent for Tier 2 and Tier 3 countries, Note: R1 Group includes Refuse, Rethink and Reduce initiatives environmental risks and impacts. Most obviously, they lead to R2 Group includes Re-use, Repair, Refurbish, Remanufacture and Repurpose initiatives and 1–3 percent in Tier 1 countries. Relevant stakeholders loss of marine life due to entanglement; but they also add to the R3 Group includes Recycle and Recover initiatives include government departments (environment and growing marine plastic waste from the fishing industry, in the form industry); industry associations; MSW departments; plastic of polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and microplastics. CO₂ EMISSIONS waste segregators and processor; concrete producers; and Fishing-line manufacturers have been using PE increasingly in Figure 13. CO2 emissions mitigation (million tons CO2 MITIGATION: “Ghost gear” disintegrates into microplastics, which are difficult their products. In addition, nets and floats are normally made emissions) due to the reduction of polyethylene and 24%–47% developers (architects and engineers). to catch and recycle due to their minuscule size, leading to their polyvinyl chloride from PE and PVC, while PVC pipes and containers are used for TOTAL: consumption by marine life—and eventually humans. the flotation of cage structures. An analysis of CO2 emissions CO₂ emissions mitigation 0.5 mitigation (million tons CO2) by reducing PE and PVC in the (mn tons CO2 emissions) TOTAL: 0.3–0.4 fisheries sector—moving from a business-as-usual or linear PE and PVC polymers model to a circular economy model by the year 2026—shows that CO2 emissions will be reduced by between 24 percent and 47 27 Plastic waste generation was calculated based on World Bank data until 2018, using GDP growth rates forecasted by the International Monetary Fund for 2021–26, whereas percent (Figure 13). In the case of other polymers, Table 4 shows the set of development indices comprised of the Africa Infrastructure Development Index 2020 and the Environmental Performance Index 2020. See Appendix B. the percentage range of CO2 emissions mitigation. LINEAR CIRCULAR 28 R frameworks have been used in academia and by practitioners for decades, who view the various R frameworks as the “how-to” of CE and thus a core principle of it. The 3R ECONOMY ECONOMY framework, the most prominent R framework, is “reduce, reuse, and recycle.” However, the European Union (EU) Waste Framework Directive introduced “recover” as MODEL MODEL the fourth R. Scholars have proposed R frameworks beyond the 4R framework, such as the 6Rs or even 9Rs: R0: refuse; R1: rethink; R2: reduce; R3: reuse; R4: repair; R5: 2026 2026 refurbish; R6: remanufacture; R7: repurpose; R8: recycle; R9: recover (Kirchherr, Reike, and Hekkert, “Conceptualizing the Circular Economy”). 29 CO2e/CO2 emissions sourced from Posen et al., “Greenhouse Gas Mitigation for U.S. Plastics Production.” Polymer-based coefficients—kgCO2 emission per kg of plastic: 31 The Blue Economy centers on the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs, while preserving the health of the ocean PE (lower end: 1.1/higher end: 2.1/average: 1.6); PP (1.1/2.0/1.6); PS (2.8/3.5/3.2); PVC (1.9/2.5/2.2); others (1.7/2.4/2.0). ecosystem, (https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/problue). 30 World Wildlife Fund, “Stopping Ghost Gear,” https://www.worldwildlife.org/projects/stopping-ghost-gear. 32 Mialy Andriamahefazafy and Pierre Failler 2021, “Towards a Circular Economy for African Islands: An Analysis of Existing Baselines and Strategies,” Circular Economy and Sustainability, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s43615-021-00059-4. 25 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 26 Table 4. CO2 emissions mitigation by polymer (percentage range) • Develop existing research on the use of packaging made from Key stakeholders include government departments (environment, Some of these goods presented key risks and impacts. Because algae as a replacement for plastic packaging. marine); fishing industry associations; the textile industry; fishing of photodegradation and other weathering processes, plastic Polyethylene 15%–56% equipment manufacturers; and fishermen associations. packaging leaked into the marine environment in the form of Polypropylene 17%–54% • Partner with leading global universities to develop alternative microplastics and nanoplastics.37 These harmful products are Polystyrene 28%–42% biopolymers for packaging. Packaging often ingested by marine life, potentially leading to deaths and an associated decrease in fish stocks. Additionally, harmful Polyvinyl chloride 26%–44% Industry actions Environmental and economic opportunity Others 23%–47% endocrine-disrupting chemicals are found in plastic marine Industry could constructively consider the following activities: for circularity in plastics litter which, when ingested by humans, can cause various diseases and cancers, necessitating medical care. This places Environmental and economic action items • Form a circular economy forum with government agencies, The key products analyzed in this sector were bubble wrap; an economic burden on healthcare systems.Eleven of seventeen leading industry associations, NGOs, and major corporate disposable plates and cups; food containers and jars; medicine, for circularity in plastics players to establish policies that have requisite buy-in from shampoo, detergent and drink bottles; flexible packaging; WACA countries have existing circular economy initiatives. Seven of these countries have put in place extended producer Policy and regulation all stakeholders. stretch/cling film for food and packaging; and water sachets. responsibility (EPR) legislation and instituted bans on single-use The packaging sector contributes the most to plastic waste and Governments in the WACA region should consider the following: • Encourage all major sector companies to participate in marine litter (2.9 million tons of plastic) in comparison with the plastic bags, with various levels of enforcement and success. For corporate social responsibility activities, including provision of example, Nigeria—the region’s sole producer of plastics and its construction (0.28 million tons) and fisheries (0.11 million tons) • Replace policies that allow purchase of new fishing nets subsidized fishing gear (natural fiber nets) to local communities. sectors, which present under 0.3 million tons of plastics. Figure largest consumer—instituted a ban on plastic bags in 2014, and in and ropes made with plastic, with policies that mandate the 2019 strengthened the legislation by instituting a N500,000 fine or purchase of nets and ropes made of natural fibers (including • Promote the avoidance of single-use plastic packaging across 14 presents the contribution of the packaging sector to plastic a three-year jail sentence.38 (Ten countries in the WACA region are the value chain in the fishing industry, through the endorsement waste and leakage into the marine environment, in million tons cotton, jute, or coconut fiber). yet to establish EPR legislation with regard to plastics.39) Despite of recognized alternatives. of plastic (by polymer and by product).36 plastic bans, enforcement remains a point of concern. This is • Introduce policies that: Figure 14: Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the packaging sector to because there is inadequate municipal infrastructure to address Potential tangible opportunities plastic waste and marine litter, 2021, by polymer and product › Ensure installation of RFID33 tags on the fishing nets of waste management requirements and drinking water challenges, large commercial fishing vessels, to more effectively and stakeholders so driving ongoing dependence on SUP water sachets. There is By polymer 2021 (mn tons) monitor existing inventory and losses. Reuse of old fishing gear can significantly reduce the amount a need for clear regulations regarding plastic packaging content PVC PS PE PP Others of new plastic entering the marine ecosystem. Reuse can be in products and possible plastic replacements, especially for › Incentivize fishermen/vessels to bring back any marine Resource loss products produced within the region. plastic litter they find, in exchange for tax credits. promoted through tax reductions on secondhand fishing gear TOTAL: 4.1 Marine leakage as well as through investment in old gear. This R impact can TOTAL: 2.9 By improving circular economy initiatives like “refuse, rethink, and › Offer tax subsidies on the purchase of second-hand range from an estimated 8 to 10 percent in Tier 2 countries to 0.1 reduce,” circular economy opportunities in the packaging sector fishing gear. 0.2 2 to 6 percent in Tier 1 and Tier 3 countries. It will be necessary 0.2 0.1 for the year 2026 will be between 41 and 53 percent (2.2–4 million to engage the following stakeholders: government departments 0.3 0.1 0.1 tons of plastic). Examples include tax reductions on imported Public-private partnerships (environment, fisheries); fishing industry associations; fishing 0.2 bio-based plastic; trading programs to exchange used plastic 3.3 Governments in the WACA region should partner with private equipment manufacturers; and fishermen associations. 2.4 bottles for durable alternatives; and the banning of plastic straws sector providers to: Repair of plastic crates (used in the transport of a catch (Figure 15). • Establish cold chains near main fishing wharfs and jetties, between the various stages of the value chain) is another thereby reducing the need for plastic containers when important means of reducing the quantity of new plastic By product 2021 (mn tons) transporting fish over long distances. entering the ocean. This would also help curb a tendency Plastic bottles Plastic sachets Plastic bags Others to dump broken crates into the ocean. The regular repair of Resource loss • Support production of local fishing equipment—using crates can be encouraged via a combination of tax reduction TOTAL: 4.1 biodegradable materials—via a joint venture approach. measures for fishing soldering equipment and an investment Marine leakage in fishing-gear soldering facilities, among other measures. TOTAL: 2.9 • Conduct compliance, surveillance, and regulations 0.5 This R impact is estimated at 5 to 7 percent across all tiers. 1.0 enforcement, on a service contract PPP model. 0.3 Relevant stakeholders include: government departments 0.7 1.2 R&D opportunities (environment, industry); industry associations; plastic producers/ 0.7 convertors; main plastic packaging users; MSW departments; 1.4 Opportunities exist to expand the knowledge base in the 1.0 plastic waste segregators; and resin producers. following ways: Remanufacturing of old fishing gear (especially plastic fishing nets) • Conduct research on ways to replace plastic produce bags— to produce new ones would help to limit the entry of new plastic including bait bags—with starch-based biodegradable bags.34 into the fishing industry. This can be encouraged by a combination of deposits for damaged gear and increased taxation on illegal • Investigate the potential for using fish-oil-based plastics35 to waste disposal of old gear. This R impact is estimated at 3 to 4 create cling wrap for food, rather than using plastic packaging percent for Tier 3 and 2 to 3 percent for Tier 1 and Tier 2 countries. made from PVC film. 36 CO2e/CO2 emissions sourced from Posen et al., “Greenhouse Gas Mitigation for U.S. Plastics Production.” Polymer-based coefficients—kgCO2 emission per kg of plastic: 33 Michal Grabia, Tomasz Markowski, and Piotr Gruszka, Report: Development of a Fishing Gear Marking System Based on Passive RFID Technology (Sweden: MARELITT PE (lower end: 1.1/higher end: 2.1/average: 1.6); PP (1.1/2.0/1.6); PS (2.8/3.5/3.2); PVC (1.9/2.5/2.2); others (1.7/2.4/2.0). Baltic, 2019), https://www.academia.edu/41700173/Development_of_a_fishing_gear_marking_system_based_on_passive_RFID_technology. 37 Frederic Gallo, Cristina Fossi, Roland Weber, David Santillo, Joao Sousa, Imogen Ingram, Angel Nadal, and Dolores Romano. 2018. “Marine Litter Plastics and Microplastics 34 The goal of preventing plastic from entering the marine food chain and maiming ocean wildlife is driving efforts to reduce, reuse, and recycle. and Their Toxic Chemicals Components: The Need for Urgent Preventive Measures,” Environmental Science Europe 30, no. 1 (2018): 1–14. 35 Shaena Montanari 2021, “Old Fish Bones Could Make the Eco-Friendly Plastic We Have Been Waiting For,” Popular Science, April 8, 38 Greenpeace Africa. 2020. “34 Plastic Bans in Africa: A Reality Check,” May 19, 2020, https://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/blogs/11156/34-plastic-bans-in-africa/. https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/old-fish-bones-could-make-the-eco-friendly-plastic-weve-been-waiting-for/ar-BB1freA3. 39 Chatham House: http://www.circulareconomy.earth. 27 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 28 Figure 15. Linear economy resource loss vs. circular economy opportunities (million tons of plastic) in the packaging sector, 2021–26 Public-private partnerships Potential tangible opportunities and Plastic demand by packaging sector (2021 and 2026) stakeholders • Support PPPs for PET bottle recycling programs with users (major soft drink/water bottlers) in each country. 8.0 To achieve a reduction in use of plastic packaging, WACA TOTAL: 4.6 TOTAL: 6.0 Sector • Support production of local PET recycling plants in major countries need to focus on bio-based (including starch) 6.0 R1 materials as an alternative. Advances can be promoted via a growth cities, through a PPP / joint venture approach. 1.1 Resin production 8.9% • Tax reduction on import CIRCULAR combination of tax reductions on both the import and production 4.0 Resin bio-based plastic Circular ECONOMY OPPORTUNITY: • Establish PPPs at a local level that promote the use of of such materials. The R impact percentage ranges from an • Trading program to economy imports demand alternative materials to plastic packaging (including paper estimated 7–10 percent in Tier 2 countries to 5–7 percent for 2.0 exchange used plastic 2.2–4.0mn tons Embedded bottles for durable potential 41–53% and cardboard, bioplastics, and glass). alternatives Tier 1 and Tier 3 countries. It will be necessary to engage the 0.0 Packaging • Ban on plastic straws • Ensure that PPPs focus on financing projects that agree following stakeholders: government departments (environment, 2021 2026 linear 2026 circular industry); industry associations; plastic producers/convertors; economy model economy to utilize a majority percentage of recycled plastic to make plastic packaging. the major plastic packaging users (PET bottle and high-density Resource loss (wasted plastic) by packaging sector (2026) polyethylene [HDPE] water sachet manufacturers); MSW • Implement PPPs that incentivize establishment of recycling departments; plastic waste segregators; and resin producers. TOTAL: 6.3 centers for the segregation of plastic wastes by type. Recycled PET bottle flakes may be used as a raw material to TOTAL: 5.3 6.0 R&D opportunities produce high-quality PET recycled pellets to make new products. This can be promoted through a combination of waste deposit 4.0 R2 TOTAL: 3.3 • Partner with leading global universities in research on new initiatives and tax rebates for plastic recyclers. The R impact LEM 1.1 R3 original Resource • Tax on water bottles and innovative packaging materials made from sustainable percentage is an estimated 5–7 percent for Tier 3 countries loss after 0.9 resource at supermarket sources. loss plastic • Chemical plastic CE and 5–6 percent for Tier 1 and Tier 2 countries. Relevant 2.0 • Investment in plastic recycling avoidance • welding facilities Investment in plastic • Investment in waste remaining resource • Promote research in the field of polymers, including precision stakeholders include: government departments (environment, conversion facilities collection transportation loss packaging resin; this will help reduce overall plastic use and industry); industry associations; plastic producers/convertors; 0.0 • Investment in energy using recycled PET resin conversion technology perhaps encourage scientific development of new resins, main plastic packaging users; MSW departments; plastic waste 2026 linear 2026 circular 2026 circular economy model economy (R1) economy including bio-polyethylene for packaging.41 segregators; and resin producers. Source: CW Advisory Note: R1 Group includes Refuse, Rethink and Reduce initiatives • Research opportunities in flexible packaging based on starch Recycling of plastic packaging continues to promise the biggest R2 Group includes Re-use, Repair, Refurbish, Remanufacture and Repurpose initiatives and bio-based materials. circular economy impact. The R impact percentage ranges from R3 Group includes Recycle and Recover initiatives an estimated 9–12 percent for Tier 2 countries to 3–7 percent • Research the redesign of existing packaging containers to for Tier 1 and Tier 3 countries. Key stakeholders include: reduce resin use. government departments (environment, industry); industry In the packaging sector, PE can be used in a variety of Table 5. CO2 emissions mitigation by polymer (percentage range) associations; MSW departments; plastic waste segregators and applications— including crates, trays, bottles for milk and fruit Industry actions Polyethylene 31%–64% processors; and resin producers. juices, and caps for food packaging. In addition, polypropylene (chemical resistance) can be used in containers for yogurt, Polypropylene 32%–63% • Ensure that WACA countries support and collaborate with Education campaigns, initiated through closer collaboration margarine, and medicine bottles. An analysis of CO2 emissions Polystyrene 42%–53% the newly formed Global Alliance for Circular Economy and between public, private, and civil society groups, can be a useful mitigation (million tons CO2) if a business-as-usual or linear Polyvinyl chloride 40%–55% Resource Efficiency to enact circular economy initiatives at tool for inculcating proper methods of disposing packaging model progresses to a circular economy model by the year 2026, Others 38%–57% the national and regional level.42 waste. A joint effort at sensitization will facilitate the provision shows that CO2 emissions will be reduced between 33 percent • Join the “African Plastics Recycling Alliance,” initiated by a of consistent messaging, allow for more efficient resource and 62 percent (Figure 16). In the case of other polymers, Table Environmental and economic action items group of international consumer goods companies, to focus allocation, and enable careful selection of target communities 5 shows the percentage range of CO2 emissions mitigation. for circularity in plastics on creating small-scale recycling projects. for sensitization campaigns. Figure 16. Reduction of PE and PP resource loss Policy and regulation • Ensure that industry associations work with governments and to drive CO2 emissions in the packaging industry international stakeholders to mandate a fixed percentage of (million tons CO2 emissions) CO₂ EMISSIONS MITIGATION: • Introduce additional regulations, beyond banning single-use recycled plastic in all new products. CO₂ emissions mitigation 33%–62% plastics and instituting EPR requirements (existing in only 7 of (mn tons CO2 emissions) TOTAL: 17 countries40). • Promote mandatory corporate social responsibility policies to 10.8 establish waste collection/segregation and small-scale plastic • As existing legislation does not sufficiently address various resin recycling plants. TOTAL: types of plastics (including PS and PVC) that are difficult to 4.1–7.2 recycle and have harmful effects on humans, there is a need • Lobby for effective EPR legislation, as this will help protect for important policies that: the industry. › mandate a defined percentage of recycled plastic in all PET bottles. LINEAR ECONOMY CIRCULAR ECONOMY › offer fiscal incentives for the production of bioplastics. MODEL MODEL 2026 2026 › set import standards for plastic packaging content (to be 41 Maughon, B, and Jones, M. 2019. “R&D Efforts to Make Plastic More Sustainable.” R&D World, January 29, 2019, formulated on a regional basis to carry weight with importers). https://www.rdworldonline.com/rd-efforts-to-make-plastic-more-sustainable/. 42 Afrik21. 2021. “Africa: The New GACERE Alliance for the Adoption of the Circular Economy,” February 24, 2021, https://www.afrik21.africa/en/africa-the-new-gacere-alliance-for-the-adoption-of-the-circular-economy/. 40 Data from http://www.circulareconomy.earth. A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 30 4. A stakeholder engagement exercise was conducted as part of efforts to address key gaps in knowledge about the plastic value chain in the WACA region. The exercise aimed to highlight obtained by informal operators from nonsegregated sources such as landfills, are polluted and therefore not suitable for recycling. Since recovered plastics fail to meet cleanliness and insights pertaining to: quality threshold requirements, their use in the manufacture Stakeholder Engagement of new plastic products (especially for food and beverage • Plastic production—to understand the dynamics behind packaging) is limited. primary plastic production by industrial manufacturers and the current and/or potential role of circular economy principles In addition, the plastic recyclers interviewed noted inconsistency in their operations. in the supply of recovered plastics (from both formal and informal waste collection operators) as a factor responsible for low • Plastic consumption—to understand the dynamics demand. They also expressed their concerns regarding local behind the plastic product consumption of businesses and plastic manufacturers with lower quality thresholds. Hence, consumers. even though there are regional manufacturers—including • Plastic end of life—to understand plastic waste management manufacturers of fast-moving consumer goods—who would dynamics. like to use recycled plastics in the production of packaging, they have legitimate concerns about predictability of supply and • Enabling conditions—to shed light on the policy, finance, contamination of raw products. These challenges eventually and technology changes required to facilitate a transition to stifle attempts by manufacturers to pursue plastic-packaging- a circular future for plastics. related recycling and sustainability targets. A total of 29 organizations and industry experts, representing 9 of the 17 WACA countries,43 were interviewed by a team of State of industrialization in the WACA consultants. To ensure diversity in opinions, the team engaged region with government ministries and agencies; private businesses; There is a direct relationship between plastic manufacturing industry associations; and civil society organizations. infrastructure and plastics circularity in the WACA region. Amid Table 6 highlights the diverse backgrounds of the stakeholders the region’s low level of plastic manufacturing infrastructure, interviewed. there are limited opportunities for the incorporation of upstream Table 6: Breakdown of interviewed stakeholders circular economy initiatives for plastics—such as designing reusable and easily recyclable products. For example, interviews Stakeholder Classification No. of Stakeholders Engaged with public sector stakeholders in Liberia revealed that, like (contacted and interviewed) many economies in the WACA region, Liberia has a minuscule Government 9 plastics manufacturing sector and subsequently relies heavily Private sector – industry 4 on imports of manufactured plastic products. association Private sector – recyclers 7 Policy landscape for plastics production Nongovernmental/civil society 4 organizations Another important hindrance highlighted by private sector Private sector – plastic-related 2 interviewees in Nigeria and Ghana is the prevailing weakness businesses of the policy landscape regarding promotion of circularity in International organization 1 plastics production. Absence of recycled content standards World Bank Group 1 and of clear legal frameworks mandating or encouraging the incorporation of recovered plastics in the production of plastic Academia 1 products, disincentivizes the plastics manufacturing sector in the WACA countries. Many countries in the WACA region (with the exception of Nigeria, which as of 2016 introduced food- Commentary on Plastics Management grade standards for recovered plastics) currently lack clear Challenges policy frameworks to incentivize or mandate the incorporation of circularity in plastics production. This has deterred investors and Sourcing recovered plastics for plastic private enterprises from venturing into more circular approaches production to plastic product manufacturing. Hence, many manufacturers continue to rely on virgin plastic resin and produce single-use Plastic manufacturing in the WACA region is still overwhelmingly plastic products. Similarly, few policies or certification programs dominated by the use of virgin plastic resin. In expert interviews, are designed specifically to incentivize local manufacturers in the private stakeholders in Ghana and Nigeria highlighted that this production of reusable or recyclable plastic products. dominance is partly driven by concerns that recovered plastics 43 Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, and Togo. © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 31 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 32 Consumption mortality (42 percent and 20 percent) and incidence of diarrhea Private recyclers in Ghana indicated that PET plastic recovery Instituting circular packaging standards (21 percent and 10 percent) for all children (0 to five years in the WACA region was not as profitable as other plastic waste Industry associations, particularly those connected to Consumer awareness and consumption of age). recovery streams, because of the lack of infrastructure for manufacturers and importers of fast-moving consumer goods, PET plastic waste pelletization. Recycling businesses cannot patterns A representative of the National Public Health Institute of must actively promote the introduction of packaging standards afford the prohibitive cost of this infrastructure without financing Liberia indicated that an increasing number of companies were that promote circularity—particularly through reuse and Many consumers in the WACA region lack critical awareness of support. Also, because informal operators are compensated on actively involved in the production of high-density polyethylene recycling. Working in collaboration with state agencies and local the importance of circular approaches to plastic consumption, the basis of the weight of recovered plastics, and PET-based (HDPE) plastic-film water sachets in Liberia. Exacerbated by the and regional recycling stakeholders, manufacturing associations thereby exacerbating the region’s plastic management products are lighter than HDPE (that is, nonfilm) and PP plastic prevailing low levels of plastic waste segregation and recovery, in major WACA economies, such as the Association of Ghana challenge. As indicated by public and private sector interviewees products, informal operators find PET plastics such as water and as well as an increasing population in the WACA region, this Industries, can explore the introduction of voluntary mandates from Ghana and Liberia (and alluded to by similar stakeholders beverage bottles unattractive. Because PET plastics have this trend contributes significantly to the proportion of used plastics on circular packaging and alternatives to plastic packaging. in Nigeria) many consumers, especially in urban areas, tend low value, they constitute a considerable proportion of the plastic ending up in the environment. to prefer single-use plastic products such as plastic film, waste found on land and in marine environments. carrier bags, and PET bottles. For example, according to Consumption Effectiveness of consumption-related According to public and private stakeholders, owing to logistical a prominent private sector recycler in Ghana, Ghanaians Strategies for promoting sustainable consumption have a high preference for single-use plastics, largely due to policies challenges many formal waste collection operators are unable to engage in segregated plastic waste collection. This further A blanket switch from single-use plastics to alternatives is likely their convenience and relative affordability, with limited or no Government efforts to improve plastics management through contributes to the disposal of plastic waste at landfills. These to be impractical in the WACA region. This is because of cost consideration given to sustainable consumption. influencing plastic consumption trends, have to date had little waste collection firms are unable to afford dedicated recyclable barriers and health and safety concerns—especially relating Consumers across the region are unaware of the importance impact in WACA countries. As highlighted by several private waste collection vehicles, as well as the associated waste to packaging for food and beverages—and the absence of of properly managing plastic and plastic waste. Similarly, sector stakeholders, attempts to ban the use of plastic products, transfer stations required to accommodate multiple waste packaging quality standards. Hence, it is encouraging that commercial and industrial establishments are not sensitized notably in Nigeria and Ghana, have proven futile. In many WACA streams. Limited space for collaboration with informal operators, several important stakeholders, most notably AfDB, are providing to circular economy business models and practices. According countries (such as Côte d’Ivoire, Cameroon, and Mauritania), and slow government efforts to formalize informal operations, much-needed funding for regional R&D into viable alternatives to private sector stakeholders interviewed in Ghana, major several iterations of plastic ban policies have not produced the have contributed to the common mixing of waste collection from to single-use plastics. Also, at the national level, research obstacles to the promotion of plastic waste prevention and at- expected outcomes. This can be attributed to the absence of residential and commercial sources. institutes (such as Ghana’s Council for Scientific and Industrial source segregation by households and businesses are i) limited strong enforcement mechanisms and easily accessible and Research) as well as technology and innovation centers, could affordable alternatives. Weak enforcement has also had direct Private sector stakeholders in Ghana and Nigeria highlighted sensitization efforts by public stakeholders and ii) a scarcity be supported with grants or tax breaks to incentivize research implications for the implementation of extended producer the general absence of high-quality data on plastic products of incentives to access and improve waste collection services into alternatives to plastic packaging, especially using waste/ responsibility (EPR) schemes—most notably in Nigeria, the and waste flows in the WACA region, particularly regarding the and infrastructure. Similarly, private industries do not prioritize materials from the agricultural sector. Additionally, governments sole WACA country with a national EPR system. Other WACA activities of informal operators. This hampers efforts to promote consumer education on plastic products and packaging, for should be leading efforts to promote market-based solutions to countries have limited ability to introduce viable EPR schemes, effective national strategies for plastic waste recovery. example through waste prevention campaigns or adequate plastics management. labeling information on appropriate final disposal and recycling. owing to the absence of effective monitoring systems to track formal and informal plastic product flows. This was highlighted Commentary on Potential Solutions for The WACA region would likewise benefit from stronger This contributes to the elevated levels of contamination of potentially recoverable plastics. This challenge is further as a major challenge by public sector stakeholders in Liberia Plastic Management collaboration between NGO stakeholders and public, private, heightened by the ease with which citizens can engage in and Ghana. and civil society, with regard to plastic management sensitization. improper waste disposal, as indicated by public and private Production Educational programs, particularly those that emphasize the sector interviewees in Liberia and Nigeria, respectively. Many End of Use negative environmental implications of improper plastic waste Introduction of policy incentives for virgin plastic Nigerian citizens have grown accustomed to illicit waste disposal disposal and highlight practical approaches to behavioral Weak market dynamics for recovered substitutes activities, such as burning and burying plastic waste, in a climate change and sustainable consumption, are vital to strengthen of weak enforcement. plastics Governments in the WACA countries must work toward the foundation for circularity in WACA countries. introducing policies that incentivize reusable product production According to private sector recyclers in Ghana and Nigeria, the Though every WACA country has unique market features, the Regarding informal uses of plastic packaging, WACA country as well as use of recovered plastics as a substitute for virgin adoption of water sachets is a notable consumption trend in plastics waste streams in many WACA countries lack reliable governments and private stakeholders should reassess the use plastics in the production of plastic products. Standards for the the WACA region over the last three decades. The challenges indigenous market demand—a major disincentive to efficient of biodegradable food packaging. For example, with appropriate use of recovered plastics can attract more investment into the faced in the provision of potable water, even in urban areas collection of plastic waste. For example, Liberia’s low plastic planning, Katemfe leaves (Thaumatococcus daniellii) and market. For example, the recent introduction of standards for with piped networks, have contributed to the proliferation of recovery performance is driven significantly by a lack of Cassava-based packaging (Manihot esculenta) could be an food-grade applications of recovered polyethylene terephthalate single-use, plastic film drinking-water-sachets across the WACA investment in related infrastructure. Because of its prevalence affordable alternative to plastic packaging such as low-density (rPET) in Nigeria has contributed to both increased interest from countries, especially among low-income households. Another as a form of food packaging (particularly by street-food vendors) polyethylene (LDPE) plastic bags and expanded polystyrene private investors and the expansion of potential off-takers of reason for increased consumption of plastic film single-use water used plastic film is susceptible to organic contamination. foam packs, especially in low-income and rural communities. recyclable plastic materials. Also, to address the supply risks sachets is their potential to provide a hygienic source of water.44 Furthermore, many WACA countries do not generate enough However, efforts to promote biodegradable alternatives must of manufacturers, governments must consider appropriate A 2021 econometric analysis based on demographic and Health recovered plastics to feed large-scale recycling facilities. also assess the associated risks pertaining to interference with incentive schemes for greater collaboration between formal Survey data for Ghana and Nigeria45 showed a correlation The challenge pertaining to economies of scale has limited food supply. and informal waste operators. This will increase the volume between single use plastics container use across and within the prospects of capital-intensive investments in large-scale and quality of recovered plastics, thereby increasing domestic years, and notable declines in the median predicted rate of child material recovery and recycling facilities. and regional demand. 44 Stoler, J. 2017. “From curiosity to commodity: a review of the evolution of sachet drinking water in West Africa: Sachet drinking water in West Africa”, WIREs WATER, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1206, 45 Dasgupta S., Roy S., Sarraf M., and Wheeler D. 2022 (under review). The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries. Washington D.C. : The World Bank. 33 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 34 End of life traceability and duty-of-care systems for tracking the flow of Given the critical importance of financial incentives for informal for promoting circular economy in the management of plastics, products across the plastic value chain. operators, and since many informal operators lack access to especially when it comes to the harmonization of regulations Exploration of intraregional trade of recovered bank accounts, mobile money technology offers a means of and standards for plastics recycling. To realize this agreement’s plastics Promotion of circular innovations and associated facilitating access to financial services. Commercialization of potential to increase intra-African trade, it is important to develop research and development circular economy business models within a smaller production standards that regulate the reuse, recycling, and disposal of Increased intraregional collaboration on plastic waste According to private recyclers and civil society stakeholders in environment is a challenge faced by stakeholders in the largest plastics. Hence, AfDB collaborates with the World Economic management among the WACA countries, and intraregional Nigeria, entrepreneurs pursuing circular economy initiatives economies of the WACA countries. However, this hurdle can Forum and African Standardization Organization to provide trade in recovered plastics, could help achieve economies of would benefit from the harmonization of standards for recovered be minimized by using well-established tools—such as mobile technical assistance for the development of harmonized, scale in smaller markets such as those of Liberia, Sierra Leone, plastics. Similarly, they would benefit from governmental technology—to significantly improve the efficiency of value continental standards for PET plastics and to enable greater and The Gambia. It is essential to assess and develop political adoption of green procurement initiatives to stimulate demand. chain transactions. levels of trade in plastic polymers. solutions to the implications of such trade in relation to the Basel Convention. Intraregional collaboration could also benefit these State agencies responsible for public works and other critical Working in collaboration with the private sector and academic Engagement with informal stakeholders to achieve smaller economies in the areas of knowledge and technology infrastructural investments can consider introducing mandates institutions, governments across the WACA region must circularity transfer, and awareness-creation on circular economy for contractors to incorporate construction inputs that are entirely introduce opportunities for circular-economy-based skills transfer and plastics. or partially made from recovered plastics. Road construction for stakeholders across the plastic value chain. The expert Governments in the WACA region must facilitate the incorporation works are a particularly advantageous context for application interviews conducted for this study highlighted the importance of informal operators into the resource management regime. Introduction of EPR schemes and favorable of such initiatives. Backed by the relevant policy framework, The experts interviewed for this study highlighted the need for of providing accessible and affordable sensitization and skills fiscal policies such green procurement policies can facilitate the creation of a programs for small- and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) and ensuring informal sector participation in the decision-making stable demand market. start-ups in the region. For example, local entrepreneurs could process for circular-economy-related policies. Also, greater The introduction of mandatory EPR schemes is also pivotal to benefit from sensitization and skills programs for SMEs and collaboration between formal and informal waste operators can entrenching circular economy solutions in the WACA region. The Governments can also stimulate market acceptance of start-ups, on an array of circular-economy-related topics. These aid in expanding the introduction of segregated plastic collection, expert interviews conducted for this study revealed that these circular-economy-related products. In terms of product could include the development and commercialization of non- especially for households that cannot benefit from door-to-door schemes must include all businesses involved in the introduction design, further R&D is needed to balance health and safety plastic packaging alternatives, as well as the design of reusable collection. Hence, it is important for formal waste operators, with of plastic and plastic-based products into consumer markets. considerations with the need to reduce waste. For example, and recyclable plastic packaging. Technical training on the support from government, to invest in training opportunities for This will require an effective system of identifying and tracking bottles for malt drinks are usually dark in color to prevent reusability and recyclability of plastic packaging and alternatives informal operators to enhance the efficiency of their operations the activities of the relevant stakeholders, particularly water- fermentation; however, dark plastics have low value and should prioritize provision of insights pertaining to important and the supply of recovered plastics. sachet producers and importers of finished plastic products. are not recyclable. Thus, it is vital to harness the capacity of Also, the funds raised through the scheme should be ring- local research institutions to support the growth potential of considerations such as hygiene, cost, and convenience. As the South Africa-based Sustainable Seas Trust pointed fenced and managed transparently to engender continued entrepreneurial circular economy business models. Additionally, training should facilitate the use of mobile payment out during the stakeholder engagement, though the financing participation from all stakeholders. Additionally, mandatory EPR platforms, particularly by informal operators. of plastics recovery should be primarily driven by market schemes should be linked to effective systems for plastic waste A major challenge of the circular economy approach is that, dynamics—aided by governments creating a conducive in many instances (especially with regard to recovered LDPE Collaboration with development partners recovery—including deposit-return schemes and a network of business environment—governments can also encourage buyback centers. Though the EPR policies would be beneficial plastics) many of the new products generated are single-use Engagements with a representative of the African Development plastic collection by allocating small amounts of capital to in facilitating effective collection of plastic waste, governments items. In Ghana, for example, recovered plastic sachets (made Bank also highlighted the important contributory role development informal waste operators. However, to maximize the benefits in the WACA region must be cautious of replicating the EPR from LDPE) tend to be used for producing single-use black partners can play in supporting the growth of circular economy accrued, it is important to ensure that such investments are systems that have been developed in advanced economies. plastic bags with low reuse and recycling value. Hence, it is solutions for plastics management. As an example, the AfDB allocated to the appropriate recipients. Hence, government These are unlikely to be appropriate for the African context, important for governments in the WACA region to consider addresses the challenge SMEs face in securing private sector decision-makers need to have the capacity to identify the most particularly due to the predominance of informal waste collectors promoting a hierarchy of uses for recovered plastics based on financing, by providing de-risking financial instruments for small, effective informal operations requiring financial support. and low-income consumption of plastics. their inherent circularity. This can be achieved through enacting private entities like start-ups and SMEs. These include grants standards and offering technical guidance on approved uses of   and credit guarantees given directly to credit unions and regional Likewise, governments in the WACA region can explore the recovered plastics that lead to the production of reusable and commercial banks, such as Ecobank. Additionally, the AfDB introduction of fiscal policies and price-based systems (such recyclable end products. aims to operationalize a financing vehicle—the African Circular as tax breaks, levies, and deposit-refund schemes) as tools for Another innovation highlighted by private recyclers in Ghana Economy Facility—to facilitate the disbursement of funds for promoting plastic alternatives and circular economy approaches is the introduction of plastic credit systems. As plastic waste investment in circular-economy-based solutions. to plastics recovery. Examples of fiscal policy initiatives that could be explored are the removal of import tariffs for plastic recovery in the WACA region is driven by the informal sector, the As a member of the Technical Committee of the African recycling equipment, and the introduction of tax breaks for local introduction of credible plastic credit schemes has the potential Circular Economy Alliance (ACEA), the AfDB cooperates manufacturers of alternatives to single-use plastic packaging. To to contribute toward safeguarding the livelihood of—often poorly with international partners (such as the World Economic determine the most appropriate approach to take, governments paid—informal waste operators. The plastic credit system aims Forum, Global Environment Facility, African Circular Economy would do well to prioritize consultation with manufacturers and to enable companies with plastic footprints to pay for plastic Network, Government of Finland, the Finnish Innovation Fund other relevant stakeholders on the design of fiscal policies. The waste recovery equivalent in volume to their plastic production.46 – SITRA), to support governments in developing conducive establishment of such fiscal initiatives can lay the foundation According to a waste management company with operations in policy environments for the growth of circular-economy-based for the development of a viable EPR scheme. Furthermore, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire (Coliba) the incorporation of plastic initiatives. This includes identifying policy gaps and offering networks of satellite plastic buy-back centers would directly credits in its operations helped subsidize waste purchases from support on ways to improve enforcement. ACEA aims to incentivize plastics consumers and waste collectors to increase the informal waste sector. In addition, plastic credits provided empower African governments to incorporate circular economy the capture of recovered plastics, and support a cleaner and an earnings buffer for informal operators during episodes of oil approaches into overarching efforts to facilitate economic more reliable supply of recovered plastics. Governments in the price falls, and the associated decline in the demand for growth and strengthen climate and disaster risk resilience. The WACA region must also facilitate the development of effective recovered plastics. ACEA considers the African Free Trade Agreement as a tool © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 46 World Wildlife Fund, “WWF Position: Plastic Crediting and Plastic Neutrality,” 2021, https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/wwf-position-plastic-crediting-and-plastic-neutrality. 35 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 36 5. Plastic enters the region in direct (resin and production) and indirect (embedded, wrapping) forms, which compose 43 percent and 57 percent of the total, respectively. The CO2. Depending on different price scenarios and their underlying drivers, if the WACA region moves towards a circular economy pragmatic model, it will potentially generate carbon credits47 economics of circularity are challenging under current valued between $30 and $57.75 million by 2026.48 Savings in Conclusions circumstances. Switching from imported, virgin plastics to a business-as-usual model are estimated at 13.2 million tons domestic, secondary plastics creates the opportunity to build CO2 compared to 5.5 to 9.2 million tons CO2 in a pragmatic domestic value chains and increase employment. circular scenario. The WACA countries have a well-established upstream Policy Framework for Circularity in the This report described both the current status of plastics management in the WACA countries, and petroleum sector, with most production centered offshore in the the potential for key industrial sectors in the region to leverage circularity in the plastic value chain. Gulf of Guinea. Since local output is limited, the countries are WACA Region By facilitating collaboration geographically—across sectors, subsectors, and value chains—the WACA highly dependent on imported plastic resins. In 2018, net resin To effectively incorporate circularity across the plastics value program and its network of regional partners can play a critical role: sharing lessons learned and identifying imports for the WACA region amounted to 1,231 kt. Nigeria is chain in the WACA region, critical policy framework changes are actions needed in order to move forward. The network of organizations associated with WACA include the the only nation producing virgin plastic resins, generating 486 required at both the national and regional level. Targeted plastic regional economic commissions (WAEMU, ECOWAS, CEEAC), the Abidjan Convention Secretariat (ABC), kt in 2018. Nigeria and Ghana were identified as the largest net product bans can be explored for scenarios where affordable, the Center for Ecological Monitoring (CSE), and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). importers of plastic waste and scrap in 2018, at 14 kt and 6 kt, regionally sourced alternatives are available. The quest for respectively. However, Mauritania, Côte d’Ivoire, and Senegal viable alternatives in the WACA region must be contingent on were identified as net exporters of plastic waste and scrap, support for R&D partnerships with research institutions testing ranging between 1 kt and 2 kt. potential plastic substitutes. Nonetheless, in the short- to medium-term, it is very likely that the WACA region will still be a Since virgin plastic products are still often cheaper than largely import-based market for plastic products and other goods recycled plastic products, transformative policy support may with embedded plastic. Hence, governments in the WACA region be required to increase the viability of a local or regional circular will need to introduce circular-economy-based specifications plastics economy. Such policies should bolster the domestic or for plastic-related imports, such as setting a minimum recycled regional supply of secondary products and materials, as well plastic content percentage in any imported plastic-based as the growing demand for domestically or regionally produced product. Additionally, EPR policies can be introduced to address secondary products and materials. To this end, a variety of policy funding gaps in the recovery of plastic waste. instruments are available, including traditional and emerging extended producer responsibility targets (EPR measures). Governments (working in close partnership with local manufacturing stakeholders) would benefit industrial sectors There are numerous ways to improve the downstream of the across the WACA region by developing clearly defined and plastic value chain and mitigate environmental risks, while enforced industry product content standards relating to plastic increasing competitiveness of local industries producing green products. Furthermore, well-thought-out systems of taxes, or alternative plastic products. For example, a green product rebates, and other fiscal policy measures can be used to shape taxonomy (green certification/standardization) and newly manufacturing sector market trends, such as increasing the designed incentives (such as tax credits/exemptions) could competitiveness of plastic-packaging alternatives. These support the creation of domestic markets for more sustainable measures can also influence consumer behavior in relation to products. Circular economy opportunities provide potential consumption and plastic waste disposal. solutions by extending the life of plastic products and fostering cross-sectoral use. However, consumer-driven solutions Likewise, across the WACA region, governments must require capacity-building and knowledge-sharing activities by develop targeted waste management policies geared toward governments to generate virtuous circular loops and reduce maximizing plastic waste prevention, plastic product reuse, direct and indirect environmental costs (among others, the and plastic recyclate extraction. Both government and private impacts of plastic waste on the tourism industry). sector stakeholders will need to facilitate the development of data collection systems that track the flow of plastics across It is estimated that in 2021 plastic consumption generated the value chain. These efforts should ideally be complemented environmental impacts between 7.9 and 11.1 million tons CO2, by investments in awareness and sensitization programs growing between 12 to 16.9 million tons by 2026 if the linear on plastics management, led by government, and private or business model does not progress to a circular economy model. NGO stakeholders. Based on a linear economy model, the three economic sectors covered in this study (construction, fisheries, and packaging4) represent a resource loss scenario of 13.2 million tons CO2 by 2026. However, in a pragmatic circular economy model, resource loss by 2026 will be between 5.5 and 9.2 million tons 47 Carbon credits (often referred to as “offsets”) have an important dual role to play in the battle against climate change. They enable companies to support decarbonization beyond their own carbon footprint, thus accelerating the broader transition to a lower-carbon future. They also help finance projects for removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere— delivering negative emissions, which will be needed to neutralize residual emissions that will persist even under the most optimistic scenarios for decarbonization (McKinsey Sustainability, 2020). 48 According to Oil Price Information Service (OPIS), the average price of voluntary carbon credits—frequently sold, premier forestry offsets—is about USD7.50 per ton CO2 over © Smart Edge the last 12 months in 2022 (IHS Markit Energy Expert, 2022) 37 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 38 Material Flow Analysis • Across the WACA region, there is a rising awareness of the Figure 17: Resource loss (wasted plastic) in the three key sectors of the WACA countries (2021) magnitude of the problems caused by marine plastics. While plastic value chain data is available for the WACA region, Fisheries Packaging Construction overall data quality is considered to be average to poor. As a • The largest plastics consumer of the three sectors result, the quantitative results from the material flow analysis investigated is the plastic-packaging sector, followed by the construction sector. Tier 1 should be regarded as mostly directional, providing orders of magnitude rather than robust estimates. For example, UN • Most recycling (87 percent of all plastic) in the WACA region 3.1% Comtrade data on trade usually disagrees significantly with the 8.7% today takes place in the plastic- packaging sector. Mauritania data provided by exporters and importers. Likewise, estimates Cape Verde RESOURCE LOSS for both solid waste generation and plastic content of solid waste • Nigeria (the region’s largest economy) represents 45 to 63 are highly uncertain. Plastic-waste-generation estimates (that percent of total plastic consumption (5 million tons), followed Senegal 0.5 – 0.6 mn is, the amount of plastic exiting use) also typically differ from by Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. The Gambia tons 88.2 estimates for the total amount of plastic entering use, again Guinea highlighting pervasive data quality issues. Assessment of Three Key Sectors Guinea-Bissau Nigeria Sierra Leone Ivory Despite poor data quality and data gaps, there is nevertheless There is currently no established national or regional framework Li be Ghana consensus on directional trends and order of magnitude. In sum: for implementing a circular economy across industries in the r ia Coast • In tier 1 there is a selection of countries with an AIDI Index WACA region; the current regulatory focus is on recycling. Togo Cameroon of less than 18, and per capita estimated plastic waste • There is insignificant trade in plastic waste and scrap between Plastics recycling in the region is limited: an estimated Tier 1 Benin generation (PCPW) of the maximum of 17kg per capita Equatorial Guinea WACA countries. 10 percent (0.5 million tons) of total plastics are recycled, Tier 2 which is roughly 1 percent higher than the recycling rates in the São Tomé and Príncipe • A few countries have significant conversion industries—by far Tier 3 Gabon Tier 2 United States and Canada, respectively. Bans on single-use the largest being Nigeria, Ghana, and Côte d’Ivoire. plastics—and, in some countries, EPR policies— have been 3.1% • Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire are also significant exporters of new enacted as a circular economy initiative. Finally, an absence of The 17 WACA countries were segmented into three tiers, 11.8% plastic products. economically feasible alternatives to plastics, and lack of access according to two types of profiles. These were: a) Infrastructure: to the required technology, hinders regional governments’ RESOURCE LOSS • Though approximately half of WACA countries report adoption of circular economy policies. based on the 2020 Africa Infrastruc-ture Development Index significant imports of plastic products, the majority of plastic (AIDI), and b) Plastic consumption: based on plastic-waste- 6.2 – 6.7 mn generation intensity (on a per capita basis to indicate the relative tons 85.1% enters the region as plastic contained in finished goods Countries from Tier 2 (Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, (multimaterial products). and Equatorial Guinea) represented around 87 percent of the intensity) also gauged against total plastic waste generation in region’s resource loss (6.2 to 6.7 million tons in 2021), driven the WACA countries. • Estimates for the amount of plastic entering and exiting use to a large extent by regional heavyweights, Nigeria and Ghana in the WACA region in 2018 (in other words, plastic entering Tier 1: Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Benin, Guinea-Bissau, (Figure 17). Resource loss of countries from Tier 1 was between or produced for local consumption, and plastic waste, Mauritania, and Togo • Ghana is considered an outlier, Ghana and Nigeria were 0.5 and 0.6 million tons in 2021, representing 88.2 percent respectively) are of the same order of magnitude for 13 of grouped in the same tier due to their economic weight and from the packaging sector; 8.7 percent from construction; and Tier 2: Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, 17 countries. level of industrialization 3.1 percent from fisheries. In the case of Tier 3, the resource and Ghana • Data disagreements are smaller than the uncertainty bounds loss was between 0.2 and 0.4 million tons in 2021. Per capita, • Generally, in tier 2 the AIDI is in between 19-25 and PCPW Tier 3: The Gambia, Senegal, São Tomé and Príncipe, Gabon, of the input parameters. estimated plastic waste generation was between 12 and 30 kg between 15-27kg per capita and Cabo Verde during the year. Tier 3 3.3% 11.0% RESOURCE LOSS 0.2 – 0.4 mn tons 85.8% • In tier 3 there is a selection of countries with an AIDI Index of more than 28, and per capita estimated plastic waste generation (PCPW) is in between 12-30kg per capita © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 39 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 40 6. Recommendations National policies in the WACA region (including defined Some important circular economy initiatives are taking place in waste-management regulations by sector; promotion of this sector. These include: investment in the repair and use of bioplastics; advocating use of glass and metals such as secondhand fishing gear; promotion of natural fibers rather than aluminum and steel; and increased recycling) need to be plastics in new fishing nets; and provision of funding to fishers legislated, implemented, and enforced to enable circular collecting marine litter. Plastics are versatile materials that have many applications and economic advantages over other economy models. materials. But the environmental impacts of plastic production, use, and end of life, are becoming Stakeholder Engagement unsustainable. Owing to the low residual value of this waste, and lack of economical and sustainable National policies in the WACA region (including defined waste-management regulations by sector; promotion of The WACA region’s production of plastic goods is dominated disposal solutions, there are numerous downstream impacts associated with the end of life of plastic products. bioplastics; advocating use of glass and metals such as by imported virgin plastic resin. There is minimal material One of the most effective solutions is to incentivize transition to alternative materials and recycling in a fully aluminum and steel; and increased recycling) need to be substitution with recovered plastics, owing to concerns over circular manner, identifying potential cross-sectoral use of plastic waste. legislated, implemented, and enforced to enable circular quality and security of supply. Low levels of industrialization economy models. in the region also account for the lack of local demand for recovered plastics. Another factor is the region’s limited capacity Construction to absorb potentially recyclable plastics such as PET packaging. Insufficient generation of plastic waste in many WACA countries Most construction in the WACA countries is informal, but also hinders investment in recycling infrastructure. These large domestic and regional material groups play a key role. challenges contribute to low plastic recovery performance across The formal construction sector, on the other hand, contributes the WACA region. Likewise, they disincentivize investments materially to local economies. This is especially so in the case in waste segregation infrastructure to enhance plastic waste of the larger economies (for instance, from 3 percent of GDP in recovery. Liberia to about 7 percent of GDP in Nigeria and Ghana). Across the region, the construction sector is expected to grow from 3 to Plastic consumption trends also directly influence the plastic- 6 percent per annum through 2026. waste-management challenge in the WACA region. For example, consumption trends play a significant role in reducing the market Plastic packaging value of recovered plastics. Plastic film waste, a ubiquitous component of plastic waste in the WACA region, usually has a Almost the entire WACA region is dependent on plastic imports. high level of contamination. Nigeria, which has its own production, is a notable exception. With a circular economy model, the plastics industry in Nigeria There is also a relatively weak policy framework for promoting is expected to grow at a rate of about 10 percent from 2021 to circularity in plastics management in the WACA region. With 2026, and packaging is estimated to grow between 1.5 and the exception of recent regulatory developments in Nigeria, 2 times as fast as the economy. there is generally an absence of policies that incentivize virgin plastic resin substitution. Policies introduced to promote circular Important initiatives are taking place in the WACA region. These consumption patterns have likewise struggled to find a footing. include: investment in plastic waste management facilities/ For example, attempts at introducing laws banning plastic have deposits/transportation; implementation of trading programs mostly proven unsuccessful, as there are weak enforcement where used plastic bottles can be exchanged for durable mechanisms. With strong enforcement and monitoring alternatives (for example, bottles made of aluminum, bamboo, mechanisms still lacking in many WACA countries, the viability and glass); and investments in new technologies for plastic of future policy innovations and structural changes to plastic repair and welding. waste recovery remains uncertain. Additionally, effective policy Fisheries development is hampered by a lack of systems for accurately tracking plastic flows, especially in informal settings. Fisheries in the WACA region compose a fragmented sector. The industry is dominated by artisanal fishing, with a combination Likewise, sensitization of consumers on circular approaches of licensed and unlicensed vessels (from other regions). to plastic consumption remains a major obstacle to plastic- Nevertheless, overfishing has led to increased government waste prevention in the WACA region, particularly with regard involvement and improvements in regulatory enforcement. This to the consumption of single-use plastics. This is further sector is expected to expand at a compound annual growth rate compounded by concerns over the affordability of alternatives to of about 2.5 percent through 2026, representing 3 to 5 percent plastics. Across the WACA region, policies incentivizing circular of GDP in the region. consumption patterns are largely nonexistent. © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 41 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 42 The cost of virgin plastic is a significant factor in the identification Materials Flow Analysis Table 7: Recommendations for initiatives across three sectors in the WACA region of viable alternative plastic materials/products. Plastic is inexpensive, holding very low marginal value at the end of life. The materials flow analysis task highlighted three key At the same time, its environmental costs could be extremely recommendations for policy makers and relevant stakeholders Across sectors Construction Packaging plastics Fisheries high, affecting production costs as a whole if an Extended in the WACA region: Producer Responsibility (EPR) policy was in place. Deposit • Since there is overreliance on imports from foreign markets Return Schemes are a particularly effective means to add to meet plastic demand in the WACA countries, any attempts New business • Regulatory initiatives • Adoption of green • Support increased use of • Mandate and promote in value at end of life, and could be expanded to most plastic to incorporate circular-economy-based solutions to plastic models including bans, EPR construction approach bio-based plastics through coordination with industry items. One of the main aims of governments is to identify management will benefit from engaging with the countries policies including use of metals, import subsidies and associations the use of opportunities to reduce or eliminate the indirect cost of the and companies that export plastic products and plastic- • R&D partnerships with bamboo and composites investment in production natural fibers for fishing environmental management of plastic products’ end of life. containing goods into the region. research institutions to • Adopt use of similar technology nets and plastic lines Sustained investment in innovation, infrastructure, and logistics develop alternatives Building Information • Support research and • Use technology including to plastic modeling (BIM) technology implementation new bio- RFID tags to create is required to create a circular economy based on refilling, use of • Governments in the WACA countries (with support from • Propose regulations currently used in Europe material mycelium-based inventory of commercial alternative materials (including bioplastics), and recycling. With bilateral and multilateral partners) should take the lead that promote imports of by Sanda Hus to reduce packaging as compostable shipping nets in the region a view to reducing the contribution of plastics to climate change in investing in research on the circularity potential of the products containing a set plastics use in the industry alternative to plastics to reduce new ghost gear and improving the economic impacts of downstream solutions, large volumes of plastic waste generated. As the circularity minimum % of recycled • Institute and encourage like plastics for like exchange programs overall recommendations include: potential is largely unclear, this approach would facilitate especially for replacing better assessment of the commercial value of proposed PET bottles for glass/wood/ • Develop and innovate in bio-based feedstocks, via green circular economy business models in the region. metal alternatives procurement by governments. • Governments in the WACA region, working closely with the • Standardize packaging to create low-emission refill and private sector and informal stakeholders, need to invest in reuse. increasing the completeness and accuracy of plastic value Extend lifespan • Regulatory policies • Select reused or higher • Invest in plastic repair/ • Promote policies • Recognize and involve informal waste reclaimers as part of chain data in the region. defining industry product recycled content products welding technology as a encouraging use of content standards and materials (e.g., plastic means of prolonging use of second-hand/discarded the solution. • Employ fiscal policy Assessment of Three Key Sectors measures including recycled content blocks, reclaimed bricks, locally existing plastics • Promote transfer/ fishing equipment especially nets, ropes and • Factor GHG emissions into the cost of plastic throughout the spending, taxes and recycled aggregates) installation technology. crates Several initiatives across the three sectors are recommended value chain, via taxation. by this study (Table 7). These include, to: rebates to shape industry • Modify the specification for For example, Notpla • Work with research and consumer behaviour building elements company helped address institutions to develop • Finance infrastructure for waste management and impose a (e.g., lower- weight roof a biodegradable solution to seaweed/algae based and total ban on waste exports—plastic pollution from one country • Adopt new business models, such as a green construction design, water pipe material plastic packaging for water commercially viable plastic affects the entire planet. approach (including the use of metals, bamboo, and sachets for use in fishing industry composites). • Enact policies that • Provide education and clear labelling. encourage mono-color use • Increase use of bio-based plastics and invest in production of PET bottles (white) for • Press upon manufacturers that they have sole responsibility technology (packaging). enhancing recycled PET to move away from damaging practices and products, and to resin availability supply environmentally sound alternatives. • Use new geo-tags technology on nets to reduce fishing ghost gear and renew the inventory of commercial shipping nets. • Extend the lifetime of products, including through their reuse Use materials • Development of targeted • In coordination with • In coordination with • Support policies that and the production of materials with higher recycled content. waste management industry associations, industry associations encourage collection of policies mandate use of non-plastic and research institutions marine plastic waste + • Introduce policies that encourage the use of mono-color PET • Awareness and material for packaging of evaluate increased ghost gear by fishermen bottles and develop biodegradable seaweed- or algae-based participation campaigns building materials possibilities of chemical by providing rebates on plastic for use in the fishing industry. Instead of mono-color from govt, private sectors • Support public entities recycling purchase of new gear and NGO’s in developing tender • Promote segregation and • Enact policies in PET, we can use clear or transparent PET bottles. requirements for affordable collection of plastics by coordination with industry housing and infrastructure type including bottle associations that provide • Industry associations deposit schemes subsidies and or tax breaks and waste management • Invest in plastic waste for exchange of plastic bodies to align with cement recycling technology fishing equipment for industry to ensure MSW similar to TECO which other materials stream for alternative fuels transforms waste into • Support programs enable usable roofs, furniture and exchange of lost fishing school benches gear for vouchers for food • Invest in collection or school supplies centers in urban centers as most plastic waste is concentrated in cities vs. rural areas © Smart Edge 43 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 44 Fisheries Plastic packaging • Engage national/local authorities to analyze the feasibility of a minimum percentage use of alternative packaging material. Over the next five years, new circular business models can The plastic packaging sector can focus on new circular business motivate the fisheries sector to extend the life span of plastic models to extend the life span and reuse of plastic materials over • Ban single-use plastics in the tourism sector and restaurant products and reuse plastic materials. Resource loss mitigation the next five years (through 2026). Resource loss mitigation business. in 2026 assumes an optimistic and radical approach to circular in 2026 is premised on a radical and optimistic approach to a • Subsidize bioplastics and cardboard manufacturers to enable economy. For the fisheries sector, this “ideal” scenario of circular economy. For the packaging sector, this “ideal” scenario plastic substitution. plastic avoidance would mean the reduction of CO2 emissions of plastic avoidance would reduce CO2 emissions between of between 0.04 and 0.06 million tons, and waste recovery, 0.6 and 0.9 million tons, and waste recovery, between one and • Invest in glass/aluminum container manufacturers; and between 0.07 and 0.08 million tons. Subsequently, the potential 1.8 million tons. Consequently, the potential variation between support drinking water/beverages providers. variation between original resource loss in a liner economy original resource loss in the linear economy model and in the • Collaborate with plant nurseries in cities.49 model and in the circular economy scenario, represents a 40 to circular economy scenario represents a 56 to 75 percent circular 52 percent circular economy opportunity. Recommended next economy opportunity. Recommended next steps for this sector • Ensure stringent enforcement of plastic ban laws and steps for the sector are as follows: are as follows: recycling initiatives, and mandate maximum allowable plastics content requirements for imported products. • Ban new models of plastic nets (for example, improve • End the use of single-use plastics in water and food servitization, whereby fishers pay for the net service rather containers. • Mandate customs duty reductions for products having than buying the equipment) and incentivize the use of minimum recycled plastic percentages. biodegradable fishing gear. • Install strategically located recycling plants in urban centers. • Increase patrolling of WACA countries’ sea limits to enforce marine littering laws. • Incentivize marine litter collection through fishing industry associations, in exchange for vouchers for weight of litter collected. • Implement additional taxes on new plastic fishing gear and offer tax rebates on purchase of secondhand and biodegradable fishing gear. • Invest in local manufacturers of natural fibers for use in nets and support fishing equipment manufacturers using metal and wood. • Ensure stringent enforcement of plastic ban laws and recycling initiatives. • Mandate a customs duty increase for fishing gear with a high plastic content. © Xavier Bourgois 49 Plant nurseries have been identified as a good choice for native plant conservation, increase pollination in green cities and part of houses and buildings to maintain a cool temperature in the infrastructure. © Mel D. Cole for World Bank A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 46 Construction • Introduce conditional financing for the use of green Stakeholder Engagement construction techniques that focus on reducing and avoiding New business models in the construction sector can focus on plastics on mega projects. According to stakeholders in the WACA region, a number of life-span extension and reuse of materials for trial pilots over opportunities can be explored to incorporate circular economy the next five years. Resource loss mitigation in 2026 assumes • Invest in steel/metal manufacturers and providers supplying strategies within the region’s plastics value chain: radical and optimistic circular economy interventions. For the the construction industry; mandate architects and engineers construction sector, this “ideal scenario” of plastic avoidance to adopt green construction techniques; and subsidize circular • Governments in the WACA region can significantly reduce economy researchers. the amount of plastic waste ending up in the environment will reduce CO2 emissions between 0.2 and 0.3 million tons, and by establishing new policies geared toward circularity and waste recovery between 0.1 and 0.2 million tons. Therefore, the • Ensure stringent enforcement of a ban on plastic pipes and plastic waste prevention. In practice, this means critically potential variation between original resource loss in the linear fittings in new construction projects; and establish regional considering regulations on packaging standards; green economy model and in the circular economy scenario represents building codes. procurement initiatives; EPR schemes; and fiscal policies a 36 to 50 percent circular economy opportunity. Recommended next steps for this sector are as follows: • Accept the International Green Construction Code and that incentivize plastic waste prevention, reuse, and recycling. foster partnerships between renowned universities and local Additionally, countries in the region with economies of scale, • Ban plastic pipes and fittings in new construction projects50. R&D centers. such as Ghana, would benefit from increased investment in industrial recycling infrastructure. • By harnessing their respective strengths, closer collaboration between public, private, informal, and development stakeholders would help address challenges in the region’s plastics sector. For example, strategic engagements with the informal sector would expand WACA countries’ efforts towards increased access to segregated plastic waste collection. Likewise, closer collaboration could facilitate effective behavioral change campaigns. • Policy makers in the WACA region can stimulate the acceptance of circular-economy-related products by making available R&D funds for project design innovations. With funding for extensive research, WACA countries can, for example, explore the potential of biodegradable packaging as an alternative to single-use plastic packaging. • The concentration of plastics recycling capacity in just a few WACA countries—namely Nigeria, Ghana, and Côte d’Ivoire—presents a strong case for increasing intraregional trade in recovered plastics to reduce the plastic waste burden on smaller economies in the region. • Development of circular economy solutions in the region requires technical and financial support from bilateral donors and development banks such as the World Bank, the African Development Bank and the Islamic Development Bank, among others. © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 50 Plastic pipes can be replaced with galvanized steel, aluminum, copper, or cast iron. 47 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics © Mel D. Cole for World Bank A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 48 Appendices Appendix B. Methods for Plastic Waste The 17 countries were segmented into three tiers using two types of profiles: Reduction through Circular Economy Models in the WACA Countries • Infrastructure: This is an indication of the ability of the existing asset base and institutions to handle and process Appendix A. Methods for Material Flow Analysis The WACA region spans 17 countries from Mauritania to Nigeria, plastic waste (Africa Infrastructure Development Index 2020). and includes Cabo Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe. Chapter Figure A.1 shows a process flow diagram of the material flow analysis (MFA) conducted for the West Africa Coastal Areas (WACA) two of this flagship report aims to provide an overview and • Plastic consumption: This refers to plastic-waste-generation Management Program. One of the objectives of the plastic MFA is to estimate the amount, origin, and composition of the plastic intensity for the countries, analyzed on a per capita basis analysis of the potential for reducing—in particular marine— waste generated in the WACA countries. The methodology is applied separately to each of the 17 countries that make up the WACA to indicate relative intensity, and also gauged against total plastic waste in the region, through a circular economy model. region. All MFA data are for the year 2018.51 plastic waste generation. The analysis focuses on three sectors: construction, plastic Figure A.1. Process flow diagram of the WACA plastic MFA packaging, and agriculture (oriented around the fisheries The clustering was driven by the two primary metrics: subsector). All numbers and references herein refer to only plastic waste generation and the infrastructure development Net import of Net import of Net import of these three sectors. index (Figure B.1). Plastic waste generation per capita was resin plastic articles plastic in goods calculated based on World Bank data (MFA) until 2018, Using plastic-waste data, the World Bank conducted a material flow analysis (MFA) in the region. Adjusting the data using gross domestic product (GDP) growth rates forecasted for various factors, and estimating it for 2021 and beyond, by the International Monetary Fund’s April 2021 update for the MFA quantified the marine plastic pollution problem in the 2021–26. A total of four factors (including the African WACA countries. Infrastructure Development Index, the Environmental Domestic resin Domestic resin Plastic waste Plastic use Performance Index, total plastic-waste-generation, and plastic production conversion generation waste generation per capita) were assessed. However, only two were actually utilized to help map the list of countries.15 Net import of WACA Region Figure B.1. The 17 WACA countries clustered by tier Legend plastic scrap Tier 1 EPI: 38-46 Tier 2 EPI: 30-33 The supply chain of plastic begins with the production of plastic Plastic waste generation is calculated by combining data on per 35 Africa Infrastructure Development Index Tier 3 EPI: 26-30 resin. The WACA plastic MFA accounts for domestic production capita solid-waste generation with estimates of its plastic content Senegal Gabon EPI: 23-26 of resin and resin trade. The next step in the supply chain is the and population data. The calculation can be done per country— conversion of resin in plastic products through processes such or in a more spatially explicit way—using geographic information 30 Cape Verde as injection molding and thermoforming. The total amount of systems and data layers of population density. In the latter case, The Gambia Ghana primary, or virgin, resin consumed by the domestic conversion heat maps of plastic waste generation can be generated for the São Tomé industry is the sum of domestic production and net import. entire WACA region and each country. The polymer composition 25 and Príncipe Ivory Coast Net import is defined as imports minus exports. Trade and of plastic waste generation is not available. Rough estimates can Cameroon domestic production, and conversion data, are available by be made by applying available waste characterization studies country and by polymer type. A third source of plastic for the from other countries or regions. Nigeria 20 Equatorial Guinea domestic conversion industry is plastic waste, or scrap. Net Guinea Benin In principle, the amount of plastic leaving the use phase and Mauritania import of plastic waste and scrap is therefore also included for the amount of plastic waste generation should be identical, each country. The polymer composition of this plastic waste and Liberia even though they are estimated using different data and 15 Guinea-Bissau scrap is not available. methods. However, all used data are subject to concerns about Togo The amount of plastic that enters the use phase is calculated completeness and accuracy. As a result, the data should not be Sierra Leone as apparent consumption, defined as domestic production plus expected to match. The following data reconciliation procedure 10 imports minus exports. The trade data account for net imports is used to generate a matching and internally consistent dataset 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 of plastic products and net imports of plastic contained in final for each country: i) adjust net imports of resins to match domestic goods. It is assumed that plastic products are entirely made conversion minus production; ii) adjust the given plastic content Estimated plastic waste generation per capita of polymer, while only a fraction of the final goods is plastic. of solid-waste generation to match the country’s gross national The polymer composition of net imports of plastic products income per capita; and iii) adjust the net imports of plastic and plastic in final goods is not available. Rough estimates can products and plastic in goods to match the value of plastic waste Plastic consumption is allocated to the three sectors covered in economy opportunities in the next five years, per tier). The be made by applying typical polymer compositions of product generation minus resin conversion. this study and analyzed across the WACA countries. Figure B.2 impact sizing of these tiers was determined on the basis of i) the categories or sectors. Modeling trade in this way in the WACA presents the circular economy opportunity in the three identified size of the sectors (today to five years’ hence); ii) plastic use and plastic MFA accounts for not only the fact that a large fraction of industrial sectors: construction, plastic packaging, and fisheries. waste with a linear economy model (today to five years’ hence); the used plastic comes from outside the WACA region, but also As Figure B.2 shows, the 17 WACA countries were organized iii) definition of the main initiatives to reduce plastic use and for trade within the region. and analyzed by tiers. The tiering is based on plastic waste per waste based on the “9Rs” framework; and iv) estimated impact capita and environmental infrastructure (initiatives for circular of plastic that can be eliminated from the value-chain sectors. 51 Here is a quick summary of the data sources used for the WACA plastic MFA: Resin production and conversion data by country and by polymer are from Wood Mackenzie. All trade data have been sourced from the UN Comtrade database. Solid waste generation data are from the 2018 World Bank report, “What a Waste 2.0.” Data on the plastic content of solid waste are sourced from “What a Waste 2.0” and also Jambeck et al. (2015). Population data are from the World Bank Database. The spatially explicit population data used are from the fourth version of the Gridded Population of the World collection from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and Columbia University. 49 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 50 Figure B.2. Circular economy opportunity focused WACA on three identified industrial sectors: construction, countries packaging, and fisheries Figure B.4 A multistep quantification to size the circular economy potential opportunity (million tons of plastic) Plastic avoidance (2021 and 2026) Impact sizing Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3 Size sectors today and forecast in Refuse Based on a Sector growth natural units for next five years Rethink benchmarking study1 Reduce Construction A B C Packaging Demand Calculate linear model plastic Embedded estimated based on the R Group 1 Packaging D E F use and waste today and 5-year plastics New Business forecast for covered segments shared plastic consumption Models CE demand Plastic and waste Fisheries G H I Resin Imports volumes potential consumption Nine Study (building on Using the CE “9Rs” framework, and adjusting anlytical scope ... define main initiatives and their Resin Production nodes of WB 2018 data) the study respective ability to reduce plastic & Recycling A-I use and waste + Other sectors 2021 2026 – LEM 2026 – CE CE opportunity Estimate impact in tons of plastic (mn tons) that can be eliminated from the Water recovery (2026F) sector value chain Re-use Repair Based on a CE • Plastics consumption is calculated from the resin imported Figure B.3. Circular economy opportunity from a linear/LEM to a circular/ benchmarking study1 opportunity CE economic model, applying the “9Rs” framework, 2021–26 Refurbish for domestic manufacturing, plus the import of other (%) plastic goods. It also considers packaging from wrapping Use of plastic (BAU LEM vs CE) LEM Remanufacture containers and packing elements, and domestic generation Original Resource loss Repurpose (manufacturing resin, recycling, and recovery). The total resource Sector CE loss after sector use of plastic for circular economy opportunity is a 5-year out: Sector BAU improvement plastic combination of reducing plastic intensity (use) and stranded through BAU LEM vs Recycle LEM avoidance material (waste). Resource loss is calculated on application CE sector R Group 2 “9 Rs” Recover of the “9Rs” framework on the linear economy model 2021–26 Extend LEM consumption (Figure B.3). lifespan CE remaining • Size of sector • Improvement • LEM BAU resource loss resource loss • Circular economy potential opportunity: A multistep • Consumption of Initiatives by R sector plastic R Group 3 consumption quantification methodology was developed and employed to plastic within sector • Directional sense Use materials size the circular economy potential of the three sectors. This today for impact of key • CE model plastic is defined as the sum of plastic avoidance (the application of initiatives consumption R Group 1 to linear economy model consumption in 2026) 2021E 2026F – LEM 2026F – CE and waste recovery (the application of R Groups 2 and 3 to Use (embedded) resultant reduced demand after plastic avoidance in 2026). This is demonstrated in Figure B.4. + Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions mitigation: This calculation is based on the potential reduction in resource loss for the circular economy scenario, using kilogram (kg) of CO2 emissions/kg plastics coefficients. It compares kg of CO2 emissions for linear economy model original resource loss (2021–26) and kg of CO2 emissions for circular economy resource loss potential (2021–26). Stranded / waste This is demonstrated in Figure B.5. • Total sector plastic CE opportunity is combination of reducing the plastic intensity (use) and stranded material (waste) 51 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 52 Figure B.5. CO2 emissions mitigation based on resource loss (linear economy model/LEM vs. circular economy/CE model) Appendix C. Country Briefs Kg of CO2 emissions for Country briefs were prepared for the 17 WACA countries, highlighting details relating to socioeconomics; plastic industry; the LEM original solid-waste-management trends relating to plastics; and plastic-related legislation. Table C.1 lists the different types of plastics-related resource loss legislation across the WACA region. PE Polymer based coefficients – kg CO2 emission per kg of plastic (range Poly Ethylene Kg of CO2 CO₂ EMISSIONS and average)1 Table C.1: Plastics-related legislation across the WACA region (Source: https://circulareconomy.earth/) MITIGATION: emissions for PP the CE resource (%) Lower end Higher end Average Poly Propylene loss potential WACA Countries Legislations/Regulations description PE 1.1 2.1 1.6 Benin Interministerial Order No. 136 / DHAB, 1995 This order regulates the activities of PS PE collection, treatment, and disposal of solid waste in Benin. Poly Styrene • Calculated based PP 1.1 2.0 1.6 PP on the potential PVC reduction on Law No. 98-030, 1999 This law sets the legal framework for waste management in Poly Vinyl PS resource loss for the PS 2.8 3.5 3.2 Benin. It prioritizes the polluter pays principle for waste Chloride CE scenario, using PVC management. kg CO2 emissions/kg PVC 1.9 2.5 2.2 Others plastics coefficients Others Others 1.7 2.4 2.0 Law No. 98-005, 1999 Article 93 of this law mandates municipal governments as 2026F – LEM 2026F – CE responsible for the collection and treatment of solid waste other than industrial waste. Cabo Verde Decree-Law No. 56/2015 establishing the This law establishes the general regime for prevention, general regime for prevention, production, and production and management of waste. This general regime management of waste, 2015 on waste establishes the principles for waste management and extended responsibilities of the producer. It regulates the prevention, planning and waste management, including the technical standards of waste management operations, the legal regime of licensing and concession of waste management operations, the functioning of Waste Information System (SIRES) and the Animal Carcasses Collec-tion System (SIRCA) and packaging waste, including reusable and non-reusable packaging and the essential requirements for the composition of packaging. Waste management Strategic National Plan for the Prevention and This Decree-Law approves the National Strategic Plan for policies Management of WastDecree-Law No. 26/2020 Waste Management (PENGeR) for the period 2015-2030. for urban waste management services, 2020 PENGeR is especially focused on the production, management (PENGeR) Decree–Law No. 32/2016, 2016 and prevention of municipal waste, but also covers other types of waste, equally relevant at national level, such as those associated with the business sector (industry, commerce and services) and health care (hospital waste), treatment and appropriate final destination of solid waste (organic and inorganic), listing as specific goals the increased management capacity of municipalities to assume responsibilities in this area and the management of waste in order to control and reduce pollution. Decree-Law No. 26/2020 for urban waste With this ordinance, it is intended, in addition to complying management services, 2020 with the legal provisions, to provide managing entities with a tool to facilitate and standardize the preparation of regulations for waste management services, which are approved by the municipal waste services, thus improving the organization of the sector and protecting users as to the minimum information to which they should have access, within the scope of entering into a contractual relationship with one of the managing entities of these sectors. © Smart Edge 53 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 54 WACA Countries Legislations/Regulations description WACA Countries Legislations/Regulations description Cameroon Environmental law 96/12, 1996 This law outlines the overarching legal framework for Liberia Environment Protection and Management Law This law ensures the sustainable use of Liberia's natural environmental management in Cameroon. Amongst its policy of Liberia, 2002 resources in pursuance of social and economic development foci, it regulates the handling of waste in Cameroon and includes without undermining the ecosystem renewal and re-supply requirements for recycling. process. It regulates disposal at the national level (solid It also has provisions that encourage the reuse of materials waste/ litter regulation). It sets out standards for solid waste through recycling and public awareness. management, as well as hazardous waste management and sets out prohibitions for water and solid waste pollution. National Strategy for Waste Management, 2007 This strategy outlines the body of rules broadly dealing with waste. It also lays out guiding principles for waste management Mauritania Law No. 2000-045 This law lays down the general principles of the national policy in Cameroon: sustainable develop-ment, the polluter pays on environmental management for the sake of sustainable principle, the principle of equity, and the right to information of socioeconomic development. Waste management is broadly the dangers of dealing with waste. covered in this law. Decree No. 2012/2809, 2012 This decree lays down the conditions for sorting, collecting, Nigeria National Policy on solid waste management, The policy promotes a clean and healthy environment for storing, transporting, recovering, recycling, treating, and 2020 sustainable socio-economic development of the country. It disposing of waste. provides a framework for a comprehensive integrated solid waste management. Côte d’Ivoire Framework Act 96-766 under the Environmen- This law provides fundamental provisions concerning the National Environmental Regulations This regulation makes adequate provisions for waste control tal Code, 1996 protection of natural and human environments. It provides a (Sanitations and wastes control), 2009 and environmental sanitation including punishments in cases legal framework for the management of of malfeasances. human and natural environments, including provisions on waste collection and management. São Tomé and Environmental Law No. 10/99, 1999 This law provides the basic legislation on environmental Príncipe protection and sustainable development. It affirms the right to National Environmental Policy, 2011 The policy looks at different aspects of waste: domestic waste, environment and lists the basic principles such as prevention industrial and medical waste, technological waste. Waste and precaution, ecosystems carrying capacity, adequate management management and use, participation and access-to-information, policies user-pays and polluter-pays. The Law defines objectives and Gabon Decree No. 000541/PR/MEFEPEPN regulating This decree regulates waste disposal to prevent or reduce the waste disposal, 2005 production of waste. measures to be implemented in the environmental policy. It advocates for the reuse of waste. Waste Gambia, The National Environmental Management Act, 1994 Senegal Environmental Code 2001 (Law No. 2001-01), States that all kinds of wastes should be disposed of or recycled management 2001 in an environmentally sound way, such as to remove their policies harmful effects on human health, natural resources, flora and Waste Management Bill, 2007 This bill complements the National Environmental Management fauna, and the quality of environment. Act by filling the enforcement gaps in the existing environmental legislation in waste management, and thereby Decentralization Law (Acte III de la These laws give local governments the responsibility to provide ensuring that NEMA environmental protection principles are Décentralisa-tion) and the Local Governments waste management services. complied with in respect of international principles and standards Law (Code des Collectivités Territoriales). on waste management. Sierra Leone National Environmental Health and Sanitation This plan provides the framework that will guide the efforts Strategy of the Ministry of Health and Sanitation (MoHS) and its Anti-Littering Regulation, 2008 This regulation considers indiscriminate littering as a public partners over the next five years in attaining the health related offence. It also introduced a nationwide monthly cleansing MDGs. It reflects the Minis-try’s fundamental belief that waste exercise, locally known as “Set-Setal”, to promote proper management and sanitation is a measure of human health environmental sanitation and hygienic practices among and poverty. the population. Togo Framework Law on the Environment 2008-005, The law includes section on waste 2008 (Section 8: Waste, Articles 101-111) concerning safe and Ghana Environmental Sanitation Policy, 2009 This policy establishes a clear, nationally accepted vision of environmentally sound disposal of urban and rural household environmental sanitation in Ghana. It advocates for awareness waste, industrial waste as well as hazardous waste. drives relating to waste management and alternative uses of wastes through Reduction, Reuse, Recycling and Recovery. The policy was originally published in 1999 and revised in 2009 Nigeria National Policy on Plastic Waste Management, The policy promotes the sustainable use of plastics in Nigeria 2020 and encourage the development of a Circular Economy around plastic waste. National Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Provides strategies and related action planning elements Action Plan, 2010 that cover all aspects of environmental sanitation including solid waste. Gabon Gabon Green Operation Plan The plan sets the green strategy for Ga-bon, with the 'aim to National circular increase the level of wealth produced while controlling the economy footprint ecological effects of human ac-tivities'. It specifically Guinea Environmental Code, 2019 The Environmental Code includes articles (Title V, Articles policies mentions the appli-cation of circular economy principles in the 103-119) concerning safe and environmentally sound disposal plan and the promotion of waste recy-cling channels. of waste, waste management and reduction as well as hazardous waste. The responsibility to organize household Ghana National Plastic Management Policy waste collection sits with local authorities. 55 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 56 WACA Countries Legislations/Regulations description WACA Countries Legislations/Regulations description Cabo Verde Decree-Law No. 32/2016 Strategic National Plan for the One of the components of PENGeR is São Tomé and Decree-Law No. 64/2013 on Extended Producer This Decree-Law introduces the principle of Prevention and Management of Waste (PENGeR), 2016 environmental education in the field of waste Príncipe Responsibility, 2013 the extended responsibility of the producer management as a shared responsibility of goods to the production of waste as a between management and waste producers. cornerstone for the proper man-agement of The importance of shared responsibility urban solid waste and the protection of the among the islands is also noted given the environment. This Decree-Law is applicable size and dispersion of the islands in to a set of products and articles placed on the Cape Verde. The plan considers it important market, which by their nature are considered to construct Transfer Stations on some priorities in terms of waste management. islands, and subsequent transport of the Art. 5 establishes the Environmental Impact accumulated waste within the same island, Fee (called TIA), to be paid by all economic to a centralized unit, or between different Extended agents importing packaging, products and islands, assuming a shared solution. producer articles included in the attached list. The responsibility list of products attached to this law, defined Côte d’Ivoire Extended producer responsibility regarding plastic bags The Decree on prohibition of plastic bags according to its impact on the environment - Decree No. 2013-327, 2013 includes Extended Producer Responsibility as and on waste management, should be the part of the regulations. subject of a revision proposal in accordance with article 8, which will be under the Direction of Customs. Gambia, The EPR included in the Plastic Bag Ban, 2015 The Gambia requires importers to return plastic or recycle it at own costs, Senegal Single Use Plastics Prohibition Law—Law No. 2020-04 The Single Use Plastics Prohibition Law and manufacturers to be responsible 2020-04 includes the Extended Producer for recycling. Responsibility on plastics producers; it imposes the responsibility of plastic waste collection and processing on the producers of Ghana Extended Producer Responsibility (Hazardous and Electronic This legal framework requires producers and the products covered by the law. Waste Control and Management Act 217), 2016 private importers to register with Ghana’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Benin Plastic Ban Law No. 2017/39, 2017 This law prohibits the manufacture, import, and pay an advance ecolevy for imported use and sale of non-biodegradable plastic electronic goods and tires. Collected funds bags in Benin. Article 15 of this law specifies are used to facilitate implementation, fines for breaching the law, ranging from five monitoring and enforcement of the legal thousand (5000) CFA francs to one hundred framework and support the formalization of thousand (100 000) CFA francs. informal actors as well as provide finance for Cabo Verde Law 99/VIII/2015 - Ban of Non-Reusable Plastic Bags for The law establishes the prohibition of the management of electrical and electronic Wholesale and Retail Trade, 2015 production, import, marketing and use of Extended waste and reduce the impact of e-waste on plastic bags for packaging, including goods, producer humans and the environment. which are not reusable, provided in the responsibility wholesale or retail trade. It also regulates the National Plastics Management Policy, 2020 This policy includes the establishment of an introduction of protecting measures aimed Extended Producer Responsibility Scheme: to reduce progressively plastic bags in the 1. Develop a comprehensive EPR scheme, environment or replacing them by degradable taking into consideration the already existing and or biodegradable bags and compostable, Plastic Waste Recycling Fund. 2. Create the which are consistent with minimizing the enabling environment for the Private sector generation and disposal of waste. Offences participation through the development of an and penalties are specified in the text. appropriate Legislative Instrument for the Cameroon Plastic Bag Ban, 2014 The Cameroonian government introduced a EPR scheme. 3. Undertake Cost-Benefit- ban on non-biodegradable plastic bags. Analysis (CBA) of options identified under the Product EPR scheme. 4. Support the Private Sector to policies/ Côte d’Ivoire Decree No. 2013-327 on the ban of the use of plastic bags, 2013 This Decree is to prohibit the production, set-up take-back, collection centers. plastic bans import, marketing, possession and use of non-biodegradable plastic bags light-weight Nigeria National Environmental Regulations, 2009 and 2011 All manufacturers or importers shall subscribe polyethylene derivatives or similar plastic with (introduce EPR requirements for selected industries: food, to an Extended Producer Responsibility a thickness less than 50 microns. beverages, tobacco, pharma-ceuticals, soap and detergent, Program including the Buy Back Program. Gabon Order No. 1489 / MECIT prohibiting the import and marketing of The purpose of this decree is to ban the electricals and electronics, and plastics) NESREA will work with the sector to achieve non-recyclable plastic bags, 2010 importation and marketing in Gabon of the Buy Back Program within three years from non-recyclable plastic bags. the commencement of the regulations. Gambia, The Regulation 4 – Ban on Plastic Bags Order, 2015 The Gambian Government introduced a ban on the sale, importation and use of plastic Extended Producer Responsibility Program, 2016 The Extended Producer Responsibility bags. A fine applied to persons in breach of (EPR) program is a framework of action for the regulation. a collaborative and partnership approach between Government, Business, and the Guinea-Bissau Decree Law 16/2013 – Plastic bag ban, 2013 Prohibits the use, manufacture, import, sale larger society towards achieving a and distribution of plastic bags and sacks. zero-waste society in the near future. The overall objective of the EPR program is Mauritania Decree No. 2012-157, 2012 The Mauritanian Government introduced a to ensure a decreased in the total ban on the manufacture, use and importation environmental impact from a product of plastic bags. This intervention was noted including its packaging. to aid in reducing the estimated 70 percent of cattle and sheep deaths attributed to plastic bag ingestion. 57 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 58 WACA Countries Legislations/Regulations description WACA Countries Legislations/Regulations description Nigeria Plastic bag prohibition bill, 2019 Act to prohibit the use, manufacture, and Benin Interministerial Decree No. 2004 N ° 077 / ME-HU / MFE / DC / SG This decree authorizes the collection of importation of all plastic bags used for / DE / SLRCCAME / DLRE / SA, 2004 environmental taxes and fines for pollution commercial and household packaging in caused by disposable plastic packaging. order to address harmful impacts to oceans, rivers, lakes, forests, environment as well as human beings and also to relieve pressure on Cabo Verde Law No. 86/IV/93 establishing the environmen-tal policy, 1993 This Act sets forth the bases of environmental landfills and waste management and for other policy in Cape Verde. It advocates for the related matters. The bill further states that a application of fiscal and financial instruments retailer should offer a paper bag to customers that encourage recycling and reuse of waste. at the point of sale. Senegal Single Use Plastics Prohibition Law—Law No. 2020-04, 2020 The aim of the law is to prevent and reduce Ghana Customs and Excise (Duties and Other Taxes) (Amendment) A 10 percent tax is applied on imported environmental impact of plastic products by Act, 2013 plastics and plastic products, with at least half prohibiting single-use plastic products such as of the revenue accrued meant to be directed cups, lids, pipettes and all sachets intended to toward the funding of plastics recycling and be used to condi-tion water or any other drink. the production of plastic waste bins and bags The law came into force on April 20, 2020 and and biodegradable plastics. However, the repeals and replaces the 2015 Act funds generated from the tax have yet to be disbursed to the local plastics recycling sector due to the absence of an approved fund Togo Decree No. 2011-003-PR setting the manage-ment methods for The decree establishes the modalities for the management authority. plastic bags and packaging, 2011 management of the production, importation, distribution, marketing, use, collection and Product recycling of plastic bags and packaging in policies/ Togo banning the produc-tion, import and Fiscal policies Eco-levy on imported electric and electrical goods and tires This legal framework requires producers and plastic bans marketing of non-biodegradable plastic bags. (Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act private importers to register with Ghana’s It also authorizes the production, import, 917), 2016 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) marketing, use, collection and recycling of and pay an advance eco-levy for imported biode-gradable plastic bags and packaging; electronic goods and tires. Collected funds sa-chets for medical and pharmaceutical are used to facilitate implementation, use; bags used in agricultural activities; monitoring and enforcement of the legal non-toxic food bags. In addition, it governs framework and support the formalization of the prevention and reduction of the volume informal actors as well as provide finance for of plastic waste and its harmfulness through the management of electrical and electronic setting up a national committee responsible waste and reduce the impact of e-waste on for monitoring and evaluation of the humans and the environment management of the bags and packaging, biodegradable or not. Guinea Ecotax on Electrical Equipment and Electronics and Tires, 2019 The State of the Republic of Guinea, acting through the Ministry of the Environment, Order No.11/13/MIZFIT/CAB setting out the management This decree sets out how biodegradable Water and Forests, implements in the procedures for biodegradable plastic bags and packaging in plastic bags and packaging are managed country of origin, the verification, collection, Togo, 2013 in Togo. These biodegradable plastic bags and receipt of the Ecotax on Electrical and and packaging (defined under Decree No. Electronic Equipment and (EEE) new or 2011-03/PR of 05 January 2011) include second hand, as well as tires which are bags, plastic bags and packaging used for the exported to the Republic of Guinea. packaging of food, beverages, drinking water and other food products. © Smart Edge 59 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 60 Benin 201959) Benin’s coastline measures 171 kilometers (km) but over Currently, waste management in Benin is driven by two a quarter of its population (over three million in 201460) reside legislative instruments and an interministerial order: Map of African continent in coastal areas, including the important port city of Cotonou. • Law No. 98-030, 1999: As the primary legal framework, Law Plastic industry and ecosystem No. 98-030 prioritizes the “polluter pays” principle as the main driving force for waste management in Benin.67 In 2018 and 2019, Benin had no domestic resin production. Its conversion industry processed 1 kiloton (kt) of polyethylene • Law No. 98-005, 1999: This law mandates local governments terephthalate (PET) in both years. Similar to other West African as directly responsible for the collection and treatment countries, Benin is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, 6.7 million of MSW.68 kg of plastics were imported into the country, with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) accounting for about • Interministerial Order No. 136/DHAB, 1995: This order regulates the activities of collection, treatment, and disposal 89 percent of the imports.61 Only 45,380 kg of plastics were Benin of solid waste in Benin.69 exported from Benin that same year, 70 percent of which was classified as scrap plastics.62 Though a national circular-economy strategy has yet to be introduced by Benin’s government, Benin has made some strides WACA Countries Solid waste management in the adoption of product and fiscal policies geared toward Benin generates 0.34 kg of municipal solid waste (MSW) promoting resource efficiency. Notably, a plastic ban law was Indicator Data per capita per day and this amounts to an overall daily MSW introduced in 2017. In addition to prohibiting the manufacture, Population, 2019 (no.) 11,801,151 generation of 1.9 million kg.63 However, the West African import, use, and sale of non-biodegradable plastic bags, the Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of nation has struggled to effectively manage its waste arisings— law also applies serious fines to persons who contravene its 101.85 land area) about 3 percent of MSW generated in Benin is inadequately stipulations.70 Likewise, in 2004 an interministerial order was Coastal population, 2014 (no.)52 3,235,418 managed.64 The Government of Benin increasingly cites plastic introduced to authorize the collection of environmental taxes Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 47.9 waste management as a pressing environmental issue for the and fines for pollution caused by disposable plastic packaging.71 Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)53 685,936 nation. Plastic waste accounts for just below 8 percent of MSW arisings,65 with a daily generation rate of about 331,000 kg. Socioeconomic profile Legislation, policies, and other initiatives Benin is a lower-middle-income country in West Africa, bordered by Nigeria, Togo, Niger, and Burkina Faso. Its economy is highly Benin’s government has assigned responsibility for guidance on dependent on the informal re-export and transit trade with waste management legislation to four state agencies66: Nigeria, as well as the export of cotton.54 The country comprises • The Ministry of Living Conditions and Sustainable Development 12 regional départements and runs a unitary presidential (responsible for Urban Planning, Housing and Environment republic system, with a parliament. • The Ministry of Public Health In 2019, Benin recorded an overall GDP (purchasing power parity) just below $39 billion and a GDP (purchasing power • The Ministry of the Interior and Public Security parity) per capita of $3,287.56,57 With an area of 112,622 square • The Ministry of Decentralization and Local Governance. kilometers (km2), it has a population of 11,801,151 (2019) and a population density of 101.85 people per km2 (2018).58 Though In 2018 it created the Société de Gestion des Déchets Solides urbanization has increased in recent decades, the majority of du Grand Nokoué (SGDS-GN) to provide waste management Benin’s population still resides in rural areas (52.1 percent in services in municipalities of Grand-Nokoué. 52 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 53 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 54 World Bank Group, “Benin—Overview,” 2021, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/benin/overview#1. 55 Statoids, “Departments of Benin,” 2019, http://www.statoids.com/ubj.html. 56 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 57 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators” 2020, https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators. 58 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators” 2020. 59 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators” 2020. 60 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 61 UN Comtrade, 2018, “UN Comtrade Database,” https://comtrade.un.org/. 62 UN Comtrade, 2018, “UN Comtrade Database,” https://comtrade.un.org/. 67 Chatham House 2020, “Policies,” https://circulareconomy.earth/. 63 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. 68 Chatham House 2020, “Policies,” https://circulareconomy.earth/. Washington, DC: World Bank. 69 Chatham House 2020, “Policies,” https://circulareconomy.earth/. 64 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 70 Chatham House 2020, “Policies,” https://circulareconomy.earth/. 65 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 71 Chatham House 2020, “Policies,” https://circulareconomy.earth/. 66 Climate & Clean Air Coalition, “Solid Waste Management City Profile: Porto Novo, Benin” 2017, https://www.waste.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/files/city_profile_porto-novo_english_vf.pdf. 61 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics © Mel D. Cole for World Bank A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 62 Cabo Verde The majority of Cabo Verde’s population resides in urban areas In 2015, a law banning the production, import, marketing, and (66.2 percent in 2019.)81 use of plastic bags for nonreusable packaging, was provided in Map of African continent the wholesale or retail trade.90 Also, since 1993, Cabo Verde’s Plastic industry and ecosystem environmental policy law—Law No. 86/IV/93—has advocated for In 2018 and 2019, Cabo Verde had no domestic resin production the application of fiscal and financial instruments that encourage or conversion. Cabo Verde is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, recycling and reuse of waste.91 1.2 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with PE accounting for about 84 percent of the imports.82 Only 4,200 kg of plastics were exported from Cabo Verde that same year, all of which consisted of scrap plastics.83 Solid waste management Cabo Verde Cabo Verde generates 0.71 kg of MSW per capita per day and this amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of 363,000 kg.84 Around 73.7 percent of MSW generated in WACA Countries Cabo Verde is inadequately managed.85 Plastic waste accounts for about 13 percent of MSW arisings,86 with a daily generation Indicator Data rate of about 46,000 kg. Population, 2019 (no.) 549,935 Legislation, policies, and other initiatives Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of 134.93 land area) The government ministry responsible for municipal waste Coastal population, 2014 (no.)72 522,245 management in Cabo Verde is the Ministry of Agriculture and Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 66.2 Environment.87 Waste management in Cabo Verde is driven by Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 73 132,555 the following laws: • Decree-Law No. 56/2015 establishing the general regime for Socioeconomic profile prevention, production, and management of waste, 2015: Cabo Verde is a lower-middle-income archipelago of 10 islands, This law highlights the principles for waste management and located 500 km off the coast of Senegal.74 Although Cabo extended producer responsibility (EPR). It also spells out the Verde’s economy is driven by a vibrant tourism sector,75 it is legal regime of licensing and concession of waste management also dependent on remittances from its large pool of emigrants.76 operations; the functioning of the Waste Information System The country is divided into 22 administrative municipalities77 and (SIRES); and the management of packaging waste—including runs a parliamentary republic system. reusable and nonreusable packaging and the essential requirements for the composition of packaging.88 In 2019, Cabo Verde’s overall GDP (purchasing power parity) fell just below $4 billion, with a GDP (purchasing power parity) • Strategic National Plan for the Prevention and Management per capita of $7,172.78,79 With an area of 4,033 km2, Cabo Verde of Waste (PENGeR) Decree-Law No. 32/2016, 2016: This has a population of 549,935 (2019) and a population density of law approves a 15-year national plan for the management 134.93 people per km2 (2018).80 of MSW.89 72 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 73 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 74 World Bank Group, “Cabo Verde—Overview,” 2021, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/Cabo Verde/overview#1. 75 World Bank Group, “Cabo Verde—Overview,” 2021, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/Cabo Verde/overview#1. 76 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), The World Factbook: Cabo Verde (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cabo-verde/#economy. 77 Ibid. 78 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $). 79 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 80 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 81 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 82 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 83 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 84 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 85 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 86 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 87 Ministry of Agriculture and Environment, “Water and Sanitation,” 2018, http://maa.gov.cv/index.php/agua-e-saneamento. 90 Chatham House, “Policies.” © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 88 Chatham House, “Policies.” 91 Chatham House, “Policies.” 89 Chatham House, “Policies.” A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 64 © Freepik Cameroon Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent Cameroon is a lower-middle-income country in West Africa Cameroon generates 0.42 kg of MSW per capita per day and this bordered by Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, the amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of 8.9 million kg.103 Republic of Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. The country However, about 81.4 percent of MSW generated is inadequately is endowed with rich natural resources, such as fossil-fuel managed.104 reserves, minerals, high-value timber species, and agricultural Plastic waste accounts for just below 6 percent of MSW products.94 Cameroon is a unitary state divided into 10 arisings,105 with a daily generation rate of about 616,000 kg. administrative regions, each with an elected regional council.95 It runs a unitary presidential republic system, with a parliament. Legislation, policies, and other initiatives In 2019, Cameroon recorded an overall GDP (purchasing power The government ministry responsible for municipal waste parity) just above $94 billion and a GDP (purchasing power management in Cameroon is the Ministry of the Environment, Cameroon parity) per capita of $3,642.96,97 With an area of 475,440 km2, it Nature Protection and Sustainable Development106: Currently, has a population of 25,876,380 (2019), and a population density waste management in Cameroon is driven by the following laws/ of 53.34 people per km2 (2019).98 The majority of Cameroon’s regulations: WACA Countries population—57 percent in 201999—resides in urban areas. In 2014 just under two million people resided in the country’s • Environmental law 96/12, 1996: This law regulates the coastal areas,100 including the important city of Douala. handling of waste in Cameroon and includes requirements Indicator Data and provisions for reuse and recycling.107 Population, 2019 (no.) 25,876,380 Plastic industry and ecosystem Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of 53.34 • National Strategy for Waste Management, 2007: This strategy land area) In 2018 and 2019, Cameroon had no domestic resin production. stipulates the guiding principles for waste management in Coastal population, 2014 (no.)92 1,986,723 Its conversion industry processed 34 kt of resin (9 kt PP, 10 kt Cameroon—sustainable development; the “polluter pays” Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 57.0 PE, and 15 kt PET) in 2018 and 39 kt of resin (4 kt PP, 20 kt principle; the principle of equity; and the right to information Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)93 3,270,617 PE, 15 kt PET) in 2019. Similar to other West African countries, on the dangers of dealing with waste.108 Cameroon is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, 40 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with PE, PP, and PVC • Decree No. 2012/2809, 2012: This decree states the conditions accounting for about 99 percent of the imports.101 In comparison, for sorting, collecting, storing, transporting, recovering, 852,652 kg of scrap plastics were exported from Cameroon that recycling, treating, and disposing of waste.109 Additionally, same year.102 in 2014, the Cameroonian government introduced a plastic bag ban. This policy instituted a ban on the use of non- biodegradable plastic bags.110 92 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 103 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 93 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank 104 Jambeck et al. “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 94 World Bank Group, “Cameroon—Overview,” 2021, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/Cameroon/overview#1. 105 Jambeck et al. “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 95 Aaron Neba, Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon, 3rd ed. (Bamenda: Neba Publishers, 1999). 106 Climate & Clean Air Coalition, “Solid Waste Management City Profile: Douala, Cameroon,” 2017, https://www.waste.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/files/city_profile_douala_english.pdf. 96 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $). 107 Chatham House, “Policies.” 97 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 108 Chatham House, “Policies.” 98 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 109 Chatham House, “Policies.” 99 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 110 Chatham House, “Policies.” 100 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 101 UN Comtrade, “UN Comtrade Database,” 2019, https://comtrade.un.org/. 102 UN Comtrade, “UN Comtrade Database,” 2019, https://comtrade.un.org/. 65 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 66 Côte d’Ivoire In 2019, Côte d’Ivoire recorded an overall GDP (purchasing Legislation, policies, and other initiatives power parity) of just over $134 billion, with a GDP (purchasing Map of African continent power parity) per capita of $5,213.115,116 With an area of 322,463 The government ministry responsible for municipal waste management in Côte d’Ivoire is the Ministry of Environment km2, the country has a population of 25,716,544 (2019) and its and Sustainable Development.129 Currently, waste management population density falls around 78.83 people per km2 (2018).117 in Côte d’Ivoire is driven by the following law: The majority of Côte d’Ivoire’s population resides in urban areas (51.2 percent in 2019).118 In 2014 over 6 million Ivorians resided • Framework Act 96-766 under the Environmental Code, 1996: in coastal areas,119 Abidjan being the most important coastal city. This law highlights the legal framework provisions for the collection and management of waste.130 Plastic industry and ecosystem Furthermore, a decree banning the use of plastic bags (Decree In 2018 and 2019, Côte d’Ivoire had no domestic resin No. 2013-327) was introduced in 2013. It prohibits the production, production. Its conversion industry processed 197 kt of resin Côte d’Ivoire import, marketing, and use of non-biodegradable plastic bags (117 kt PE, 57 kt PP, 23 kt PET) in 2018 and 174 kt of resin with a thickness less than 50 microns.131 However, exceptions (128 kt PE, 17 kt PP, 29 kt PET) in 2019.120 In keeping with the were made for some applications of plastic bags. These trend found in West Africa, Côte d’Ivoire is also a net importer of WACA Countries included their use in the agricultural sector; in primary packaging plastics. In 2019, over 241 million kg of plastics were imported of perishable foods and pharmaceutical products; and in the into the country, with PE, PP, and PVC making up about 99 storage of MSW.132 Additionally, Decree No. 2013-327 includes an percent of the imports.121 Only 4.4 million kg of plastics were Indicator Data EPR requirement.133 exported from Côte d’Ivoire that same year, 74 percent of which Population, 2019 (no.) 25,716,544 was classified as PVC.122 Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of 78.83 land area) As of 2019, there were 110 plastic manufacturing firms operating Coastal population, 2014 (no.)111 6,230,583 in Abidjan.123 Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 51.2 Solid waste management Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 112 4,440,814 Côte d’Ivoire generates 0.6 kg of MSW per capita per day. This aggregates to an overall daily MSW generation of approximately Socioeconomic profile 12.2 million kg.124 About 81.6 percent of MSW generated in Côte d’Ivoire is a lower-middle-income country in West Africa Côte d’Ivoire, however, is inadequately managed.125 Plastic bordered by Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Ghana. waste is reported to make up about 13 percent of MSW As the economic hub of Francophone West Africa, Côte d’Ivoire arisings in Côte d’Ivoire,126 with a daily generation rate of about is one of the world’s fastest-growing economies and remains 1.9 million kg. the globe’s leading producer and exporter of cocoa beans According to Anteja (2019),127 63 plastic recycling businesses and cashew nuts.113 The country comprises 12 administrative operate in Abidjan. Currently, both PE and PP plastic waste districts and two district-level autonomous cities.114 It runs a is locally recycled to produce nonfood articles such as black unitary presidential republic system, with a parliament. tarpaulins, plastic bags, and other household items.128 111 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 112 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 113 World Bank Group, “Côte d’Ivoire—Overview,” 2021, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/cotedivoire/overview. 114 Permanent Committee on Geographical Names, “Ivory Coast—Administrative Structure,” 2015, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/499705/Ivory_Coast_Administrative_Structure.pdf/. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/499705/Ivory_Coast_Administrative_Structure.pdf 115 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $). 116 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 117 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 118 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 119 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 120 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 121 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 122 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 129 Climate & Clean Air Coalition, “Abidjan, Ivory Coast,” 2017, https://www.waste.ccacoalition.org/participant/abidjan-ivory-coast. 123 Anteja 2019, “Présentation de la filière des déchets plastiques en Côte d’Ivoire. » 130 Chatham House, “Policies.” 124 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 131 Chatham House, “Policies.” Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 132 UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), Legal Limits on Single-Use Plastics and Microplastics: A Global Review of National Laws and Regulations (Nairobi, Kenya: 125 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” UNEP, 2018), https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/27113/plastics_limits.pdf. 126 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 133 UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), Legal Limits on Single-Use Plastics and Microplastics: A Global Review of National Laws and Regulations (Nairobi, Kenya: 127 Anteja 2019, “Présentation de la filière des déchets plastiques en Côte d’Ivoire.” UNEP, 2018), https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/27113/plastics_limits.pdf. 128 Anteja 2019, “Présentation de la filière des déchets plastiques en Côte d’Ivoire.” A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 68 © Xavier Bourgois Equatorial Guinea Socioeconomic profile Plastic industry and ecosystem Map of African continent Equatorial Guinea is an upper-middle-income country in West In 2018 and 2019, Equatorial Guinea had no domestic resin Africa, bordered by Gabon and Cameroon. Equatorial Guinea’s production or conversion, and the country is a net importer economy is dominated by the country’s oil and gas sector.136 of plastics. In 2019, 789,734 kg of plastics were imported, The country is divided into eight administrative provinces137 and with PE accounting for about 99 percent of the imports.143 runs a presidential republic system with a parliament. Only 92,195 kg of plastics were exported from Equatorial Guinea that same year, all of which consisted of PE.144 In 2019, Equatorial Guinea’s overall GDP (purchasing power parity) was just above $25.2 billion, with a GDP (purchasing Solid waste management power parity) per capita of $18,558.138,139 With an area of 28,051 Equatorial Guinea generates 0.45 kg of MSW per capita per km2, Equatorial Guinea has a population of 1,355,986 (2019) day. This amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of and a population density of 46.67 people per km2 (2018).140 Equatorial Guinea 543,300 kg.145 Approximately 30.5 percent of MSW generated The majority of Equatorial Guineans—72.6 percent of the in Equatorial Guinea is inadequately managed.146 Plastic waste total population in 2018—reside in urban areas.141 In 2014, accounts for about 12 percent of MSW arisings147 with a daily approximately 351,600 Equatorial Guineans lived in coastal WACA Countries generation rate of about 46,600 kg. areas,142 notably in the capital city, Malabo. Legislation, policies, and other initiatives Indicator Data A prominent government ministry dealing with waste Population, 2019 (no.) 1,355,986 management issues in Equatorial Guinea is the Ministry of Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of land area) 46.67 Agriculture, Livestock, Forests and Environment.148 Currently, Coastal population, 2014 (no.)134 351,600 there are no laws or regulations dealing specifically with municipal waste management. Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 72.6 Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 135 198,443 134 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 143 UN Comtrade 2018, “UN Comtrade Database.” 135 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. 144 UN Comtrade 2018, “UN Comtrade Database.” Washington, DC: World Bank. 145 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 136 CIA, The World Factbook: Equatorial Guinea (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/equatorial-guinea/. Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 137 CIA, The World Factbook: Equatorial Guinea (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/equatorial-guinea/. 146 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 138 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 147 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 139 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 148 Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Forest and Environment, Republic of Equatorial Guinea 2019, First National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Malabo, Equatorial Guinea: Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Forest and Environment, Republic of Equatorial Guinea). 140 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/INC%20of%20Equatorial%20Guinea_English%20version.pdf. 141 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 142 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 69 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 70 Gabon Gabon’s overall GDP (purchasing power parity) in 2019 was Legislation, policies, and other initiatives just below $32 billion and reported a GDP (purchasing power Map of African continent parity) per capita of $14,950.153,154 With an area of 267,667 The government ministry responsible for municipal waste management in Gabon is the Ministry of Waters, Forests, Sea, km2, it has a population of 2,172,579 (2019) and a population Environment, Climate Plan and Land Use Plan.163 Currently, density of 8.22 people per km2 (2018).155 Gabon has a highly waste management in Gabon is driven by the following law: urbanized population, with 89.7 percent of Gabonese living in urban areas in 2019.156 In 2014, over 862,000 of Gabon’s • Decree No. 000541/PR/MEFEPEPN: This decree stipulates residents, accounting for about 46 percent of the population, the legal framework for the management of waste in Gabon resided along the country’s coastline,157 particularly in the capital and emphasizes waste prevention efforts.164 city of Libreville. In 2010, the Gabonese government announced a decree Plastic industry and ecosystem (Order No. 1489 / MECIT) that banned the importation and marketing of nonrecyclable plastic bags.165 Furthermore, in 2015, Gabon In 2018 and 2019, Gabon had no domestic resin production or the Gabon Green Operation Plan was introduced. It is one of conversion. Similar to its regional neighbors, Gabon is a net a few African government plans that specifically calls for importer of plastics. In 2019, approximately 2.7 million kg of WACA Countries application of circular economy principles in the promotion of plastics were imported into the country, with PE, PP, and PVC waste recycling channels.166 making up about 96 percent of the imports.158 Only 462,190 kg of Indicator Data plastics were exported from Gabon that same year, 88 percent Population, 2019 (no.) 2,172,579 of which were classed as PVC and PE.159 Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of Solid waste management 8.22 land area) Coastal population, 2014 (no.)149 862,328 Gabon generates 0.56 kg of MSW per capita per day, amounting Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 89.7 to an overall daily MSW generation of 652,000 kg.160 About Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)150 238,102 34 percent of MSW generated in Gabon is inadequately managed.161 Plastic waste accounts for 12 percent of MSW Socioeconomic profile arisings,162 with a daily generation rate of about 118,000 kg. Gabon is an upper-middle-income country in West Africa bordered by Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, and the Republic of Congo. According to the United Nations Development Programme, Gabon is one of Sub-Saharan Africa’s wealthiest nations, due to its petroleum reserves and foreign private investment.151 The country comprises nine administrative provinces152 and runs a unitary presidential republic system, with a parliament. 149 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 150 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 151 UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), 2018 Human Development Report (New York: UNDP, 2018), https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203906/http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update. 152 Statoids, “Provinces of Gabon,” 2016, http://www.statoids.com/uga.html. 153 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $). 154 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 155 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 156 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 157 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 158 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 159 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 163 Extractive Hub 2020, “Gabon,” https://www.extractiveshub.org/servefile/getFile/id/7663. 160 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 164 Chatham House, “Policies.” 161 Jambeck et al. 2014, “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 165 Chatham House, “Policies.” 162 Jambeck et al. 2014, “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 166 Chatham House, “Policies.” 71 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 72 © Mel D. Cole for World Bank The Gambia Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent The Gambia is a low-income country in West Africa which—with The Gambia generates 0.41 kg of MSW per capita per day. This the exception of the Gulf of Guinea—is bordered by Senegal. amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of approximately The Gambia’s economy is dependent on agriculture and tourism, 530,000 kg.178 Approximately 83.6 percent of MSW generated normally accounting for approximately 33 percent and 20 percent in The Gambia is inadequately managed.179 of GDP, respectively.169 Administratively, The Gambia is divided Plastic waste accounts for 9 percent of MSW arisings in into five regions, one municipality, and one city (Banjul).170 It runs The Gambia,180 with a daily generation rate of about 74,000 kg. a presidential republic system with a parliament. Legislation, policies, and other initiatives In 2019, The Gambia had an overall GDP (purchasing power parity) of approximately $5.2 billion, with a GDP (purchasing The government ministry responsible for municipal waste power parity) per capita of $2,223.171,172 With an area of 11,300 management in The Gambia is the Ministry of Environment.181 The Gambia km2, The Gambia has a population of 2,347,706 (2019) and Waste management in The Gambia is driven by the following: a population density of 225.31 people per km2 (2018).173 The population is highly urbanized, with 61.9 percent of Gambians • National Environmental Management Act, 1994: This act WACA Countries residing in urban areas in 2019.174 Though its coastline measures provides the framework for environmental quality standards, only 70 km, 1.3 million Gambians resided in coastal areas as of monitoring, and enforcement covering waste management 2014,175 notably in the capital city, Banjul. activities.182 Indicator Data Plastic industry and ecosystem • Waste Management Bill, 2007: This bill complements the National Environmental Management Act, closing its Population, 2019 (no.) 2,347,706 In 2018 and 2019, The Gambia had no domestic resin production enforcement gaps relating to waste management.183 Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of 225.31 or conversion. The Gambia is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, land area) 1.6 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with PE • Anti-Littering Regulation, 2008: This regulation is responsible Coastal population, 2014 (no.)167 1,324,214 for making indiscriminate littering a public offence, and and PVC accounting for about 82.6 percent of the imports.176 Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 61.9 promotes proper environmental sanitation and hygienic Only 28,039 kg of plastics were exported from The Gambia that Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)168 193,441 same year, 99.9 percent of which consisted of PE.177 practices through the institution of a nationwide monthly cleansing exercise.184 In 2015, the Gambian government instituted a ban on the sale, import, and use of plastic bags.185 In addition to imposing fines for breaches, the law also mandated manufacturers to be responsible for the recovery and recycling of plastic bags.186 167 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 178 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 168 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 179 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 169 CIA, 2021, The World Factbook: Gambia, The (Langley, VA: CIA), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gambia-the/#government. 180 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 170 CIA, 2021, The World Factbook: Gambia, The (Langley, VA: CIA), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gambia-the/#government. 181 Climate & Clean Air Coalition 2017, “Solid Waste Management City Profile: Lomé, The Gambia,” https://www.waste.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/files/lome_city_profile_0.pdf. 171 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 182 UN (United Nations) 2015, “Sanitation Country Profile: Gambia,” https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Gambia.pdf. 172 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 183 Chatham House, “Policies.” 173 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 184 Chatham House, “Policies.” 174 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 185 Chatham House, “Policies.” 175 Jambeck et al,, “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 186 Chatham House, “Policies.” 176 UN Comtrade, 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 177 UN Comtrade, 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 73 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 74 Ghana In 2019, Ghana recorded an overall GDP (purchasing power Solid waste management of plastics recycling and the production of plastic waste bins and parity) of approximately $165 billion and a GDP (purchasing bags, and biodegradable plastics. However, in the absence of Map of African continent power parity) per capita of $5,413.192,193 With an area of Ghana generates 0.45 kg of MSW per capita per day, amounting an approved fund-management authority, the funds generated to an overall daily MSW generation of 9.7 million kg.205 About 238,533 km2, it has a population of 30,417,856 (2019) and a from the tax have yet to be disbursed to the local plastics 81 percent of MSW generated in Ghana is inadequately population density of 130.82 people per km2 (2018).194 Due to recycling sector.217 managed.206 Plastic waste accounts for just below 5 percent of increasing urbanization, the majority of Ghana’s population MSW arisings207 with a daily generation rate of about 743,000 kg. In 2019, Ghana signed up to the Global Plastic Action Partnership resides in urban areas (56.7 percent in 2019.)195 Just under and set up a National Plastic Action Partnership It is currently eight million Ghanaians reside in coastal areas (2014),196 Currently, there are only 25 plastic recycling companies developing a National Plastic Management Policy.218 Ghana’s particularly in important enclaves such as Accra, the capital, operating in Ghana, with a combined processing capacity of EPR (Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Tema, and Takoradi. 320 tons of flexible plastic per day, mainly sourced from water Act 2017), introduced in 2016 Please check dates. 2016 predates sachets.208 Though a few formal waste management companies Plastic industry and ecosystem the date of the Act., covers plastics embedded in waste electrical recover plastic waste for export as scrap, 209 more than Ghana and electronic equipment. In 2018 and 2019, Ghana had no domestic resin production. 95 percent of recovered plastics in Ghana is captured by informal Its conversion industry processed 262 kt of resin (158 kt PE, waste operators.210 The recovered plastics, dominated by 53 kt PP, 51 kt PET) in 2018 and 205 kt of resin (135 kt PE, thin-film plastic sachets for drinking water, are supplied to local WACA Countries 15 kt PP, 55 kt PET) in 2019. Similar to other West African reprocessors that produce shopping bags.211 Only two percent countries, Ghana is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, of PET bottles in Ghana are recycled.212 Indicator Data 233 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with PE and Legislation, policies, and other initiatives Population, 2019 (no.) 30,417,856 PVC accounting for about 86 percent of the imports.197 Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of Comparatively, only 1,041,278 kg of plastics were exported from The government ministries responsible for municipal waste 130.82 land area) Ghana that same year, 90 percent of which were classified as management in Ghana are the Ministry of Sanitation and Coastal population, 2014 (no.)187 7,727,702 PE and scrap plastics.198 Water Resources and the Ministry of Environment, Science, Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 56.7 Technology and Innovation.213 Currently, waste management As Ghana lacks a well-developed downstream oil and gas Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 188 3,538,275 in Ghana is driven by the following: sector, plastics are imported into Ghana as either virgin pellets or finished products, mainly from Asia and Europe.199 • Environmental Sanitation Policy, 2009: This policy emphasizes Socioeconomic profile The imported virgin pellets feed Ghana’s burgeoning domestic the promotion of the “Four Rs” for waste management in plastics industry.200 With at least 120 manufacturers operating in Ghana—reduction, reuse, recycling, and recovery.214 Ghana is a lower-middle-income country in West Africa bordered the country,201 the local plastics industry produces semi-finished by Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, and Togo. As the second-largest goods, such as bottles, plastic bags, and plastic film for water • National Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Action Plan, economy in the Economic Community of West African States,189 2010: This government initiative highlights the strategies and sachets.202 According to the Ghana Plastics Manufacturers West Africa’s regional body, Ghana’s economy is driven by its related action plans for promoting solid waste management Association, the industry produces 27,000 million tons per three main export commodities: oil, cocoa, and gold.190 Ghana in Ghana.215 annum of flexible packaging for domestic consumption by comprises 16 administrative regions191 and runs a unitary multinational corporations and informal microenterprises.203 To facilitate funding for plastic waste management in Ghana, presidential republic system with a parliament. Furthermore, the association also highlights that PET bottle the government applies an environmental excise tax on plastic production in Ghana stands at 68,000 million tons per year.204 and plastic products. According to the Customs and Excise (Duties and Other Taxes) (Amendment) Act, 2013,216 a 10 percent 187 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” tax is applied on imported plastics and plastic products, with at 188 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development least half of the revenue accrued intended to go toward the funding Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 189 Carmen Torres and Jeske van Seters 2016, “Overview of Trade and Barriers to Trade in West Africa: Insights in Political Economy Dynamics, with Particular Focus on Agricultural and Food Trade,” https://www.tralac.org/images/docs/10274/overview-of-trade-and-barriers-to-trade-in-west-africa-insights-in-political-economy-dynamics-agricultural-trade-ecdpm-july-2016.pdf. 190 World Bank Group 2021, “Ghana—Overview,” https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/Ghana/overview#1. 205 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. 191 City Population 2020, “Ghana: Regions, Major Cities & Urban Localities: Population Statistics in Maps and Charts,” retrieved October 6, https://www.citypopulation.de/en/ghana/cities/. Washington, DC: World Bank. 192 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $). 206 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 193 World Bank Group, 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 207 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 194 World Bank Group, 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 208 Trinomics, Circular Economy in Africa-EU Cooperation. 195 World Bank Group, 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 209 GEF, Establishing a Circular Economy Framework. 196 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 210 World Bank, Ghana: Country Environmental Analysis. 197 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 211 World Bank, Ghana: Country Environmental Analysis. 198 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 212 Trinomics, Circular Economy in Africa-EU Cooperation. 199 World Bank 2020, Ghana: Country Environmental Analysis (Washington, DC: World Bank, 213 Netherlands Enterprise Agency, “Market Survey Waste and Circular Economy in Ghana,” 2019, https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2019/08/Ghana-Market-Survey-Waste-Circular- http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/419871588578973802/pdf/Ghana-Country-Environmental-Analysis.pdf. Economy.pdf. 200 World Bank 2020, Ghana: Country Environmental Analysis (Washington, DC: World Bank, 214 Chatham House, “Policies.” http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/419871588578973802/pdf/Ghana-Country-Environmental-Analysis.pdf. 215 Chatham House, “Policies.” 201 GEF (Global Environment Facility) 2019, Establishing a Circular Economy Framework for the Plastics Sector in Ghana (Washington, DC: GEF), 216 Parliament of the Republic of Ghana 2013, “Customs and Excise (Duties and Other Taxes) (Amendment) Act” http://www.odekro.org/Images/Uploads/Customs%20and%20Excise%20 https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/web-documents/10401_MFA_PIF.pdf. Duties%20(Amendment)%20Act%202013.pdf. 202 World Bank, Ghana: Country Environmental Analysis. 217 Trinomics, Circular Economy in Africa-EU Cooperation. 203 World Bank, Ghana: Country Environmental Analysis. 218 Trinomics, Circular Economy in Africa-EU Cooperation. 204 Trinomics 2020, Circular Economy in Africa-EU Cooperation: Country Report for Ghana (Brussels: European Commission), http://trinomics.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Country-Report-Ghana_Final_20122020.pdf. A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 76 © Xavier Bourgois Guinea Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent Guinea is a low-income country in West Africa bordered by Guinea generates 0.2 kg of MSW per capita per day. Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, and This amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of Sierra Leone. Guinea’s mining sector drives the economy of 1.6 million kg.230 However, the West African nation has struggled the nation—particularly gold, bauxite, and diamond mining.221 to effectively manage its waste arisings—about 83.5 percent of The country comprises seven administrative regions and one MSW generated in Guinea is inadequately managed.231 Plastic gouvenorat,222 and runs a presidential republic system, with waste management has increasingly been cited by Guinea’s a parliament. government as a pressing environmental issue for the nation. Plastic waste accounts for 5 percent of MSW arisings232 with a In 2019, Guinea recorded an overall GDP ( purchasing power daily generation rate of about 616,000 kg. parity) of $32.7 billion and a GDP ( purchasing power parity) per capita of $2,562.223,224 With an area of 245,857 km2, it has Legislation, policies, and other initiatives Guinea a population of 12,771,246 (2019) and a population density of In Guinea, the Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests is 50.52 people per km2 (2018).225 Though urbanization has been responsible for overseeing waste management.233 Currently, increasing, the majority of Guinea’s population still resides in WACA Countries waste management in Guinea is driven by the following: rural areas—approximately 63.5 percent in 2019.226 In 2014, two million Guineans resided in coastal areas,227 predominantly in • Environmental Code, 2019: This law establishes guidance on Indicator Data the capital city, Conakry. appropriate waste reduction, management, and disposal.234 Population, 2019 (no.) 12,771,246 Plastic industry and ecosystem Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of 50.52 land area) In 2018 and 2019, Guinea had no domestic resin production. Coastal population, 2014 (no.)219 1,996,496 Its conversion industry processed 15 kt of resin (14 kt PE, 1 kt Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 36.5 PET) in 2018 and 17 kt of resin (16 kt PE, 1 kt PET) in 2019. Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 220 596,911 Similar to other West African countries, Guinea is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, 51.9 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with PE and PP accounting for about 90.2 percent of the imports.228 Only 25,948 kg of PVC plastics were exported from Guinea that same year.229 219 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 230 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 220 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 231 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 221 CIA, The World Factbook: Guinea (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/. 232 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 222 CIA, The World Factbook: Guinea (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/. 233 World Bank 2019, Republic of Guinea: Planning, Connecting, Financing in Conakry (Washington, DC: World Bank), https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/ handle/10986/31757/Guinea-Urban-Sector-Review-Planning-Connecting-Financing-in-Conakry.pdf;jsessionid=6987DA2905ACB4AD6B6E7B37CA971373?sequence=1. 223 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 234 Chatham House, “Policies.” 224 World Bank Group, 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 225 World Bank Group, 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 226 World Bank Group, 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 227 Jambeck et al, “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 228 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 229 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 77 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 78 Guinea-Bissau Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent Guinea-Bissau is a low-income country in West Africa Guinea-Bissau generates 0.45 kg of MSW per capita per day, bordered by Senegal and Guinea. Guinea Bissau’s economy is amounting to an overall daily MSW generation of 793,000 dependent on subsistence farming and cashew nut exports.237 kg.246 About 83.5 percent of MSW generated in Guinea-Bissau The country comprises nine administrative regions and runs a is inadequately managed.247 Plastic waste accounts for about semi-presidential republic system of government.238 9 percent of MSW arisings248 with a daily generation rate of about 79,500 kg. Guinea-Bissau’s overall GDP (purchasing power parity) in 2019 was approximately $3.8 billion. It reported a GDP (purchasing Legislation, policies, and other initiatives power parity) per capita of $1,989.239,240 With an area of The main government ministry responsible for municipal waste 36,125 km2, Guinea-Bissau has a population is 1,920,922 (2019) management in Guinea-Bissau is the Ministry of Health.249 and a population density of 66.7 people per km2 (2018).241 Guinea-Bissau Currently, there are no overarching laws dealing specifically Most of Guinea-Bissau’s residents (56.2 percent of the total with waste management in Guinea-Bissau. However, in 2013 population in 2019) live in rural areas.242 In 2014, just over the government introduced a ban on the use, manufacture, 1.2 million Guinea-Bissau residents lived along the country’s WACA Countries import, sale, and distribution of plastic bags through Decree coastline,243 particularly in the capital city of Bissau. Law 16/2013.250 Plastic industry and ecosystem Indicator Data Population, 2019 (no.) 1,920,922 In 2018 and 2019, Guinea-Bissau had no domestic resin Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of production. Its conversion industry processed 2 kt of PE 66.65 land area) resin in 2018 and 2019. Similar to its regional neighbors, Coastal population, 2014 (no.)235 1,208,106 Guinea-Bissau is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 43.8 5.2 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 236 289,514 PE and PP making up about 93.2 percent of the imports.244 In that same year, no plastic products or resin were exported from Guinea-Bissau.245 235 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 244 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 236 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 245 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 246 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 237 CIA, The World Factbook: Guinea-Bissau, Langley, VA: CIA, 2021, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea-bissau/. Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 238 CIA, The World Factbook: Guinea-Bissau, Langley, VA: CIA, 2021, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea-bissau/. 247 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 239 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 248 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 240 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 249 Katia Ferrari, Streng Cerise, Rita Gamberini, Bianca Rimini, and Francesco Lolli 2016, “An International Partnership for the Sustainable Development of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa,” XXI Summer School “Francesco Turco,” September, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309373688_An_international_partnership_ 241 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” for_the_sustainable_development_of_Municipal_Solid_Waste_Management_in_Guinea-Bissau_West_Africa. 242 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 250 Chatham House, “Policies.” 243 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” © Freepik 79 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 80 © Mel D. Cole for World Bank Liberia Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent Liberia is a low-income country in West Africa bordered by Liberia generates 0.44 kg of MSW per capita per day and this Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Côte d’Ivoire. Liberia’s principal amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of 1.5 million kg.262 exports are iron ore, rubber, diamonds, and gold, while palm oil It should be noted, however, that about 84.4 percent of MSW and cocoa are emerging increasingly as new export products.253 generated in Liberia is inadequately managed.263 Plastic waste The country is divided into 15 administrative counties254 and runs accounts for about 14 percent of MSW arisings264 with a daily a presidential republic system with a parliament. generation rate of about 290,400 kg. In 2019, Liberia’s overall GDP ( purchasing power parity) was Legislation, policies, and other initiatives just above $7 billion, with a GDP ( purchasing power parity) per The government ministries responsible for municipal waste capita of $1,428.255,256 With an area of 111,369 km2, Liberia has management in Liberia are the Ministry of Health and Social a population of 4,937,374 (2019) and a population density of Welfare, and the Ministry of Lands, Mines and Energy.265 Waste 50.03 people per km2 (2018).257 Majority of Liberians— Liberia management in Liberia is driven by the following law: 51.6 percent of the total population (2018)—reside in urban WACA Countries areas.258 In 2014, 2.1 million Liberians resided in coastal • Environment Protection and Management Law of Liberia, areas,259 most notably in the capital city, Monrovia. 2002: This law regulates solid waste disposal at the national level.266 Plastic industry and ecosystem Indicator Data Population, 2019 (no.) 4,937,374 In 2018 and 2019, Liberia had no domestic resin production. Its Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of conversion industry processed 5 kt of PE resin in 2018 and 2 kt 50.03 land area) of PE resin 2019. Liberia is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, Coastal population, 2014 (no.)251 2,148,271 13.3 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 51.6 PE and PP accounting for about 94.6 percent of the imports.260 Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)252 564,467 Only 125,606 kg of plastics were exported from Liberia that same year, all of which consisted of PE.261 251 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 262 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 252 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 263 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 264 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 253 CIA, The World Factbook: Liberia (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/liberia/. 265 Victor Emery David, Yasinta John, and Shahid Hussain 2020, “Rethinking Sustainability: A Review of Liberia’s Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems, Status, and 254 CIA, The World Factbook: Liberia (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/liberia/. Challenges,” Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 22 (1299–317, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10163-020-01046-x. 255 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 266 Chatham House, “Policies.” 256 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 257 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 258 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 259 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 260 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 261 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 81 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 82 Mauritania Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent Mauritania is a lower-middle-income country in West Africa Mauritania generates 0.36 kg of MSW per capita per bordered by Western Sahara/Morocco, Algeria, Mali, and day, amounting to an overall daily MSW generation of Senegal. Its economy is dominated by agricultural production 1.2 million kg.278 About 82.4 percent of MSW generated in and extractive industries such as oil, gold, and copper.269 The Mauritania is inadequately managed.279 Plastic waste accounts country comprises 15 administrative regions270 and runs a for about 9 percent of MSW arisings,280 with a daily generation presidential republic system of government. rate of about 146,100 kg. Mauritania’s overall GDP (purchasing power parity) in 2019 was Legislation, policies, and other initiatives approximately $23.5 billion and it reported a GDP (purchasing The government ministry responsible for municipal waste power parity) per capita of $5,197.271,272 Though Mauritania management in Mauritania is the Ministry of Environment.281 has an area of 1,030,700 km2, its population is only 4,525,696 Mauritania Currently, waste management in Mauritania is driven by the (2019). Population density is 4.27 people per km2 (2018).273 following law: The majority of Mauritania’s residents (54.5 percent of the total WACA Countries population in 2019) live in urban areas.274 In 2014, just over • Law No. 2000-045: This law spells out the general principles one million of Mauritania’s residents lived along the country’s of Mauritania’s national policy on environmental management coastline,275 particularly in the capital city of Nouakchott. and includes waste management.282 Indicator Data Plastic industry and ecosystem In 2012, the government introduced a decree (Decree No. 2012- Population, 2019 (no.) 4,525,696 157) that banned manufacture, use, and import of plastic bags.283 Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of In 2018 and 2019, Mauritania had no domestic resin production 4.27 land area) or conversion. Similar to its regional neighbors, Mauritania is a Coastal population, 2014 (no.)267 1,005,481 net importer of plastics. In 2019, 9.2 million kg of plastics were Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 54.5 imported into the country, with PE and PP making up about Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 268 454,000 94.3 percent of the imports.276 Only 980,560 kg of plastics were exported from Mauritania that same year, 90.4 percent of which were classed as scrap plastic.277 267 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 278 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 268 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank 279 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 269 CIA 2021, The World Factbook: Mauritania (Langley, VA: CIA), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritania/#economy. 280 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 270 CIA 2021, The World Factbook: Mauritania (Langley, VA: CIA), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritania/#economy. 281 GIZ, Report on the Solid Waste Management in Mauritania (Tunis: GIZ, 2013), https://www.resource-recovery.net/sites/default/files/mauritanis_ra_ang_web_0.pdf. 271 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $). 282 Chatham House, “Policies.” 272 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 283 Chatham House, “Policies.” 273 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 274 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 275 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 276 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 277 Ibid. 83 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 84 Nigeria Nigeria has the second-highest population density in the the country, with 18 others at various stages of completion.297 In May 2019, a plastic bag prohibition bill was passed, providing West African region after Gabon, at 215.1 people per km2 There is no current capacity for waste-to-energy, for example, in “an Act to prohibit the use, manufacture and importation of all Map of African continent (2018).288 About half the country live in urban areas while cement kilns or incinerators with heat recovery. The remaining plastic bags used for commercial and household packaging 13.7 percent live in coastal regions.289 plastic waste (~80 percent) goes to landfills and dumpsites.298 in order to address harmful impacts to oceans, rivers, lakes, Examples of businesses that are pioneering circular plastics forests, environment as well as human beings and also to relieve Plastic industry and ecosystem solutions include Lagos-based Salubata, a company that pressure on landfills and waste management and for other Nigeria is Africa’s largest oil producer. The oil and gas sector produces shoes from recycled plastic waste. (This company related matters.”308 The bill further states that a retailer should accounts for about 10 percent of GDP, and petroleum exports was also the recent winner of African Innovation Week 2020.)299 offer a paper bag to customers at the point of sale.309 However, represent around 86 percent of total exports revenue.290 Nigeria this bill is reportedly not yet implemented as the president has Solid waste management is the only resin producer in the WACA region. It produced not assented to it.310 486 kt of resin (325 kt PE, 96 kt PP, 65 kt PET) in 2018 and 498 kt Nigeria generates 0.51 kg of MSW per capita per day, amounting of resin (322 kt PE, 101 kt PP, 75 kt PET) in 2019. Nevertheless, to an overall daily MSW generation of 75.6 million kg.300 About Nigeria the country is a net importer of plastics, which in its raw form is 81 percent of MSW generated in Nigeria is inadequately typically made from oil (naphtha). In 2019, imports of plastics into managed.301 Plastic waste accounts for approximately Nigeria amounted to $1.7 billion, including net imports of all key 13 percent of MSW arisings,302 with a daily generation rate of plastics resins (PE, PP, polystyrene [PS], and PVC).291 Almost about 12.9 million kg. Relatedly, Nigeria is home to three out of two-thirds of demand for virgin resins in Nigeria is currently met the top 20 plastic polluting rivers globally—that is, the Cross, Indicator Data through imports; thus Nigeria is the continent’s largest importer Imo, and Kwa Ibo rivers.303 Studies have found microplastics of resins.292 Nigeria’s conversion industry processed 1,094 kt due to pollution—and especially mismanagement of low-value Population, 2019 (no.) 200,963,599 of resin (581 kt PE, 367 kt PP, 137 kt PET, and 9 kt PS) in 2018 plastics—in aquatic life.304 Nigeria’s recycling industry is still Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of and 978 kt of resin (564 kt PE, 238 kt PP, 164 kt PET, 12 kt PS) largely informal, with recovery and recycling activities dominated 215.1 land area) in 2019. by informal waste reclaimers, intermediaries, artisans, and Coastal population, 2014 (no.)284 27,477,112 re-manufacturing small-scale enterprises305. Nigeria’s large consumption of primary plastics (resins) supports Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 49.5 a robust plastic manufacturing sector. According to market Legislation, policies, and other initiatives reports, plastic production in Nigeria has grown rapidly—at a Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)285 27,614,830 There is significant momentum in Nigeria to tackle plastics rate of 13.9 percent annually—from 120 kt in 2007 to a projected waste through circular economy principles. In 2020, the Nigerian 513 kt in 2020.293 While being a net importer of resin, Nigeria is Federal Executive Council approved a new law on plastic waste Socioeconomic profile West Africa’s largest producer of olefin and polyolefin plastics, to encourage the development of a circular economy around an industry led by Indorama Eleme Petrochemicals Limited.294 Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and West Africa, plastic waste.306 Nigeria has over 3,000 plastic companies today, producing with an estimated 201 million inhabitants in 2019.286 This is products ranging from jerry cans and shopping bags, to tables Nigeria’s National Environmental Regulations307 introduced more than 50 percent of the total population in West Africa. and mats.295 The literature highlights the challenge of managing EPR requirements for the following industries: food; beverages; The Nigerian economy, classified as lower middle income, is waste from water sachets; it is estimated that over 1,500 water tobacco; pharmaceuticals; soap and detergent; electricals and considered a major emerging market in the context of Africa and sachet factories are present in Lagos alone. electronics; and plastics. Additionally, the EPR Programme was globally. The country is a federal republic, comprising 36 states introduced in 2016 as a framework geared toward achieving a and the Federal Capital Territory, where its capital—Abuja—is In terms of plastics recovery, studies have found that less than © Smart Edge zero-waste society, including the reduction of the environmental located. Lagos is the most populous coastal city in Africa, with 12 percent of plastic waste is recycled in Nigeria.296 There are impact of packaging waste. an estimated population of over 24 million residents.287 reportedly eight completed plastic waste recycling plants in 284 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 300 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 285 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 301 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 286 World Bank, “Data: Population, Total,” accessed February 3, 2021, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL.) 302 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 287 Lagos Bureau of Statistics, 2016. 303 Laurent C. M. Lebreton, Joost van der Zwet, Jan-Willem Damsteeg, Boyan Slat, Anthony Andrady, and Julia Reisser, “River Plastic Emissions to the World’s Oceans” 2017, Nature Communications 8, no. 1 (June 7): 15611, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15611. 288 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 304 Emmanuel O. Akindele 2020, “Why Microplastics Found in Nigeria’s Freshwaters Raise a Red Flag” The Conversation, October 13, 289 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” http://theconversation.com/why-microplastics-found-in-nigerias-freshwaters-raise-a-red-flag-147432. 290 OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries), “Nigeria,” accessed February 5, 2021, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/167.htm. 305 Trinomics. 2020. Circular Economy in Africa-EU Cooperation – Country report for Nigeria. Country-Report-Nigeria_Final_20122020.pdf (trinomics.eu). 291 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 306 Inès Magoum 2020, “Nigeria: The FEC Approves a New Law on Plastic Waste Management,” Afrik 21, October 23, 292 World Bank, Internal document Nigerian PROBLUE team. https://www.afrik21.africa/en/nigeria-the-fec-approves-a-new-law-on-plastic-waste-management/. 293 Statista 2020, “Plastic Production Nigeria 2020,” accessed February 4, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/994633/plastic-production-nigeria/. 307 National Environmental Regulation 2009 and National Environmental Regulation 2011. 294 Indorama Eleme Petrochemicals Limited: https://www.indorama.com/affiliated-companies/indorama-eleme-petrochemicals-limited. 308 Chinedu Asadu 2019, “Reps Pass Bill to Ban Plastic Bags, Prescribe 3-Year Jail Term for Sale,” TheCable, May 21, https://www.thecable.ng/reps-pass-bill-to-ban-plastic-bags-prescribe-3-year-jail-term-for-sale. 295 Vanessa Obioha 2019, “Nigeria: Promoting Local Production in Plastic Industry,” allAfrica.com, June 21, https://allafrica.com/stories/201906210661.html. 309 Rachel Karasik, Zoie Diana, Janet Bering, Juan Caldas, Amy Pickle, Daniel Rittschof, and John Virdin, 2020, 20 Years of Government Responses to the Global Plastic Pollution 296 Joshua O. Babayemi, Mary B. Ogundiran, Roland Weber, and Oladele Osibanjo 2018, “Initial Inventory of Plastics Imports in Nigeria as a Basis for More Sustainable Management Problem (Durham, NC: Duke University Press). Policies” Journal of Health and Pollution 8, no. 18 (June 1): 180601, https://doi.org/10.5696/22156-9614-8.18.1. 310 Akindele, “Why Microplastics Found in Nigeria’s Freshwaters Raise a Red Flag.” 297 Down to Earth, “Nigeria Well Placed to Beat Plastic Pollution: Vice President,” accessed February 4, 2021, https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/nigeria-well-placed-to-beat-plastic-pollution-vice-president-60786. 298 Babayemi et al. 2018, “Initial Inventory of Plastics Imports in Nigeria.” 299 Sören Bauer 2021, “Spotlight on Circularity in Africa,” 4, https://revolve.media/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/REVOLVE-38-Spotlight-on-Circularity-in-Africa.pdf. 85 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 86 In 2019, the country’s overall GDP (purchasing power parity) In 2013, the government of São Tomé and Príncipe introduced fell just above $891 million, with a GDP (purchasing power an extended producer responsibility law, applicable to a set of parity) per capita of $3,970.316,317 With an area of 964 km2, São priority products and articles.327 In addition, since 1993 São Tomé Tomé and Príncipe has a population of 215,056 (2019) and a and Príncipe’s environmental policy law (Law No. 86/IV/93) has population density of 219.82 people per km2 (2018).318 Most of advocated for the application of fiscal and financial instruments the population resides in urban areas (73.6 percent in 2019).319 that encourage recycling and reuse of waste, as well as a levy (the Environmental Impact Fee) applied to all economic agents Plastic industry and ecosystem importing the set of priority products and articles.328 In 2018 and 2019, São Tomé and Príncipe had no domestic resin production or conversion. The island state is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, 271,000 kg of plastics were imported into the country, with PE accounting for about 93.4% of the imports320. São Tomé and Príncipe exported only 47,452 kg of plastics that same year, all of which consisted of PE plastics.321 Solid waste management São Tomé and Príncipe generates 0.37 kg of municipal solid waste (MSW) per capita per day. This amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of 70,050 kg.322 About 81.1 percent of MSW generated in São Tomé and Príncipe is inadequately managed.323 Plastic waste accounts for just below 13 percent of MSW arisings,324 with a daily generation rate of about 9,360 kg. Legislation, policies, and other initiatives The government ministry responsible for municipal waste management in São Tomé and Príncipe is the Ministry of Infrastructure, Natural Resources and Environment.325 Waste management in São Tomé and Príncipe is driven by the following law: • Environmental Law No. 10/99, 1999 Note: Hotspots are delineated based on their statistical significance, then associated with the nearest locale. Multiple hotspots may be associated with a single locale (as in the case of 14 and 15 being associated with Oshogbo). This law highlights the basic principles for waste management (including the principles of prevention and precaution, and user-pays and polluter-pays) and also advocates for the reuse São Tomé and Príncipe Indicator Data of waste.326 Map of African continent Population, 2019 (no.) 215,056 Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of 219.82 land area) Coastal population, 2014 (no.)311 163,740 316 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $) Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 73.6% 317 World Bank Group 2020. World Development Indicators. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)312 25,587 318 World Bank Group 2020. World Development Indicators. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators 319 World Bank Group 2020. World Development Indicators. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators Socioeconomic profile 320 UN Comtrade 2019. UN Comtrade Database. https://comtrade.un.org/ 321 UN Comtrade 2019. UN Comtrade Database. https://comtrade.un.org/ São Tomé and Príncipe is a small, lower-middle-income island São Tomé & state 350 km off the coast of West Africa313. It has a small agrarian 322 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. Príncipe economy highly dependent on the exportation of cocoa beans.314 323 Jambeck et al., 2014. Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean. https://jambeck.engr.uga.edu/landplasticinput. São Tomé and Príncipe is divided into six administrative districts 324 Jambeck et al., 2014. Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean. https://jambeck.engr.uga.edu/landplasticinput. WACA Countries and runs a semi-presidential republic system.315 325 General Directorate of the Environment 2018. Minamata Initial Assessment Report: São Tomé and Príncipe. http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Portals/11/documents/MIAs/Sao-Tome-and-Principe-MIA-2018.pdf. 326 Chatham House 2020. Policies. https://circulareconomy.earth/. 311 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 327 General Directorate of the Environment 2018. Minamata Initial Assessment Report: São Tomé and Príncipe. 312 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Portals/11/documents/MIAs/Sao-Tome-and-Principe-MIA-2018.pdf. Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 327 Chatham House 2020. Policies. https://circulareconomy.earth/. 313 World Bank Group 2021. São Tomé and Príncipe – Overview. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/saotome/overview 328 General Directorate of the Environment 2018. Minamata Initial Assessment Report: São Tomé and Príncipe. 314 CIA 2021. World Factbook – São Tomé and Príncipe. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sao-tome-and-principe/#economy. http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Portals/11/documents/MIAs/Sao-Tome-and-Principe-MIA-2018.pdf. 315 CIA 2021. World Factbook – São Tomé and Príncipe. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sao-tome-and-principe/#economy. 328 Chatham House 2020. Policies. https://circulareconomy.earth/. 87 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 88 © Mel D. Cole for World Bank Senegal Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent Senegal is a lower-middle-income country in West Africa Senegal generates 0.44 kg of municipal solid waste (MSW) per bordered by Mauritania, Mali, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and capita per day, amounting to an overall daily MSW generation of Gambia. In recent years, economic growth in Senegal has 6.7 million kg.340 However, the West African nation has struggled been driven by the services sector.331 The country comprises to effectively manage its waste arisings; about 82 percent of 12 regions332 and runs a unitary presidential republic system, MSW generated in Senegal is inadequately managed.341 Plastic with a parliament. waste management has increasingly been cited by Senegal’s government as a pressing environmental issue for the nation. In 2019, Senegal recorded an overall GDP (purchasing power Plastic waste accounts for just below 13 percent of MSW parity) of $ 55 billion and a GDP (purchasing power parity) per arisings,342 with a daily generation rate of about 935,500 kg. capita of $ 3,395.333,334 With an area of 196,722 km2, it has a population of 16,296,364 (2019) and a population density Legislation, policies, and other initiatives Senegal of 82.35 people per km2 (2018).335 Though urbanization In Senegal, the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable has increased in recent decades, the majority of Senegal’s Development is responsible for waste management.343 Currently, population still resides in rural areas (52.3 percent in 2019).336 In waste management in Senegal is driven by the following: 2014, over eight million Senegalese resided in coastal areas,337 including in the capital city, Dakar. • Environmental Code 2001 (Law No. 2001-01), 2001. This law requires the environmentally friendly disposal or recycling of Plastic industry and ecosystem Indicator Data all kinds of waste.344 In 2018 and 2019, Senegal had no domestic resin production. Population, 2019 (no.) 16,296,364 In 2018, its conversion industry processed 47 kt of resin (22 kt • Decentralization Law (Acte III de la Décentralisation) and the Local Governments Law (Code des Collectivités Territoriales). Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of PE, 21 kt PP, 4 kt PET) and in 2019, 37 kt of resin (18 kt PE, 11 82.35 These laws give local governments the responsibility of land area) kt PP, 8 kt PET). Similar to other West African countries, Senegal providing waste management services. Coastal population, 2014 (no.)329 8,125,063 is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, 79.4 million kg of plastics were imported into the country, with PE, PP, and PVC accounting In 2020, the Single Use Plastics Prohibition Law (Law No. Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 47.7 for about 89.7% of the imports.338 Only 8,389,031 kg of plastics 2020-04) was introduced by the Senegalese government. The were exported from Senegal that same year, 91.8% of which law prohibits the use of single-use plastic products such as cups, Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)330 2,454,059 were classed as scrap plastics, PET, and PP.339 lids, and pipettes.345 Additionally, it applies extended producer responsibility to plastic product producers in Senegal.346 329 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 340 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 330 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 341 Jambeck et al. 2014, Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. https://jambeck.engr.uga.edu/landplasticinput. Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 342 Jambeck et al. 2014, Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. https://jambeck.engr.uga.edu/landplasticinput 331 World Bank Group 2021. Senegal – Overview. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/senegal/overview. 343 Development Aid 2021. Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of Senegal. 332 Statoids 2015. Regions of Senegal. http://www.statoids.com/usn.html. https://www.developmentaid.org/#!/donors/view/154893/ministry-of-environment-and-sustainable-development-of-senegal-ministere-de-lenvironnement-et-du-dev. 333 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $). 344 Chatham House 2020. Policies. https://circulareconomy.earth/ 334 World Bank Group 2020. World Development Indicators. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators. 345 ibid. 335 World Bank Group 2020. World Development Indicators. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators. 346 ibid. 336 World Bank Group 2020. World Development Indicators. https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators. 337 Jambeck et al. 2014, “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” https://jambeck.engr.uga.edu/landplasticinput.) 338 UN Comtrade 2019. UN Comtrade Database. https://comtrade.un.org/. 339 UN Comtrade 2019. UN Comtrade Database. https://comtrade.un.org/. 89 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 90 Sierra Leone Socioeconomic profile Solid waste management Map of African continent Sierra Leone is a low-income country in West Africa bordered by Sierra Leone generates 0.31 kg of MSW per capita per Guinea and Liberia.349 Its economy is driven by mining activities, day. This amounts to an overall daily MSW generation of with its principal exports being iron ore, diamonds, and rutile.350 1.7 million kg.363 Around 83.8 percent of MSW generated in Sierra The country is divided into four provinces and one administrative Leone is inadequately managed.364 Plastic waste accounts for area,351 and runs a unitary presidential republic system. just below 9 percent of MSW arisings365, with a daily generation rate of about 186,000 kg. In 2019, Sierra Leone’s overall GDP ( purchasing power parity) was approximately $13.4 billion, with a GDP (purchasing power Legislation, policies, and other initiatives parity) per capita of $1,718.352,353 With an area of 71,740 km2, The government ministry responsible for municipal waste Sierra Leone has a population of 7,813,215 (2019) and a management is Sierra Leone’s Ministry of Health and population density of 105.99 people per km2 (2018).354 According Sierra Leone Sanitation, through its Directorate of Environmental Health and to statistics for 2019, 57.5 percent of Sierra Leone’s population Sanitation.366 Though the Sierra Leonean government is yet to resides in rural areas.355 Likewise, just under three million introduce a law dealing specifically with MSW, it produced the Sierra Leoneans were found to reside in coastal areas in 2014,356 WACA Countries National Environmental Health and Sanitation Strategy. This such as its capital city, Freetown. policy document highlights the proposed actions and activities Plastic industry and ecosystem for enhancing waste management in Sierra Leone, including specific strategies for promoting reuse and recycling.367 In 2018 and 2019, Sierra Leone had no domestic resin Indicator Data production. Its conversion industry processed 6 kt of resin (4 kt PE and 2 kt PET) in 2018 and 2019. Sierra Leone is a Population, 2019 (no.) 7,813,215 net importer of plastics. In 2019, 9 million kg of plastics were Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of imported into the country, with PE and PP accounting for about 105.99 land area) 81.9 percent of the imports.357 It relies heavily on Ghana for its plastic imports—92 percent of Sierra Leone’s plastic imports Coastal population, 2014 (no.)347 2,887,017 were sourced from Ghana in 2019.358 Only 23,200 kg of plastics Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 42.5 were exported from Sierra Leone that same year, 95.4 percent of which consisted of PE.359 Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year)348 610,222 Sierra Leone has a small plastic manufacturing sector, generating 8,750 metric tons of plastic products.360 Fifty percent of locally manufactured plastic products are classed as PE products.361 As a formal plastics recycling sector is nonexistent in Sierra Leone, the informal sector is primarily responsible for the recovery of plastic waste.362 347 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 348 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 349 World Bank Group, “Sierra Leone,” 2021, https://data.worldbank.org/country/SL. 350 CIA, The World Factbook: Sierra Leone: Economy (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sierra-leone/#economy. 351 CIA, The World Factbook: Sierra Leone: Government (Langley, VA: CIA, 2021), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sierra-leone/#government. 352 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 353 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 354 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” © Mel D. Cole for World Bank 355 World Bank Group 2020, “World Development Indicators.” 356 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 357 UN Comtrade, “UN Comtrade Database,” 2019. 358 Anteja, “Sierra Leone Circular Economy in Plastics for Sustainable Tourism and Economic Diversification,” 2021, https://anteja-ecg.com/portfolio-items/accelerating-sierra-leones-circular-economy-in-plastics-for-sustainable-tourism-and-economic-diversification/. 359 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 360 Anteja, “Sierra Leone Circular Economy in Plastics.” 361 Anteja, “Sierra Leone Circular Economy in Plastics.” 362 Anteja, “Sierra Leone Circular Economy in Plastics.” 363 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 366 Ministry of Health and Sanitation, Draft—National Environmental Health and Sanitation Strategy: 2015–2020 (Freetown, Republic of Sierra Leone: Ministry of Health and Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. Sanitation, 2017), https://mohs2017.files.wordpress.com/2017/06/national-environmental-health-and-sanitation-strategy-2015-2020-draft.pdf. 364 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 367 Ministry of Health and Sanitation, Draft—National Environmental Health and Sanitation Strategy: 2015–2020 (Freetown, Republic of Sierra Leone: Ministry of Health and 365 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” Sanitation, 2017), https://mohs2017.files.wordpress.com/2017/06/national-environmental-health-and-sanitation-strategy-2015-2020-draft.pdf. 91 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 92 © Mel D. Cole for World Bank Togo Socioeconomic profile were imported into the country, with PE and PP accounting for about 95 percent of the imports.377 Only 896,069 kg of plastics Map of African continent Togo is a low-income country in West Africa, bordered by were exported from Togo that same year, 95 percent of which Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Benin. Although Togo’s poverty rate consisted of scrap plastics and PE.378 fell from 61.7 percent in 2006 to 53.5 percent in 2017, poverty and inequality remain extremely high, especially in rural areas. Solid waste management In 2015, 69 percent of rural households were living below the Togo generates 0.42 kg of MSW per capita per day, amounting poverty line.370 The country is divided into five administrative to an overall daily MSW generation of three million kg.379 regions,371 and runs a unitary presidential republic system with About 83.5 percent of MSW generated in Togo is inadequately a parliament. managed.380 Plastic waste accounts for just below 11 percent In 2019, Togo’s overall GDP ( purchasing power parity) fell of MSW arisings,381 with a daily generation rate of about just below $13 billion, with a GDP ( purchasing power parity) 366,000 kg. Togo per capita of $1,597.372,373 With an area of 56,785 km2, Togo Legislation, policies, and other initiatives has a population of 8,082,366 (2019) and a population density of 145.05 people per km2 (2018).374 Though urbanization has The government ministry responsible for municipal waste increased in recent decades, the larger part of Togo’s population management in Togo is the Ministry of Environment.382 Waste still resides in rural areas (57.8 percent in 2019).375 Though management in Togo is driven by the following law: its coastline measures only 51 km, just under two million Indicator Data Togolese were living in coastal areas in 2014,376 notably in the • Framework Law on the Environment 2008-005, 2008: This law Population, 2019 (no.) 8,082,366 capital city, Lomé. highlights the legal framework for the management of MSW in Population density, 2018 (people per sq. km of Togo, as well as industrial and hazardous waste.383 145.05 Plastic industry and ecosystem land area) In 2011, through Decree No. 2011-003-PR, the Togolese Coastal population, 2014 (no.)368 1,991,642 In 2018 and 2019, Togo had no domestic resin production. government instituted a ban on the production, import, and Share of people living in urban areas, 2019 (%) 42.2 In 2018 its conversion industry processed 54 kt of resin (37 kt marketing of non-biodegradable plastic bags, while simultaneously PE, 17 kt PP) and in 2019, 43 kt of resin (41 kt PE, 2 kt PP). Togo authorizing the sale and use of biodegradable alternatives.384 Total MSW generated, 2016 (tons/year) 369 1,109,030 is a net importer of plastics. In 2019, 95 million kg of plastics 368 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 377 UN Comtrade 2019, “UN Comtrade Database.” 369 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 378 Ibid. Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 379 Kaza, Silpa, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Frank Van Woerden. 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development 370 World Bank Group, “Togo—Overview,” 2021, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/togo/overview#1. Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. 371 Statoids, “Regions of Togo,” 2015, http://www.statoids.com/utg.html. 380 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 372 GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars) and GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international dollars). 381 Ibid. 373 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators,” 2020. 382 Climate & Clean Air Coalition, “Solid Waste Management City Profile: Lomé, Togo,” 2017, https://www.waste.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/files/lome_city_profile_0.pdf. 374 Ibid. 383 Chatham House, “Policies.” 375 Ibid. 384 Ibid. 376 Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.” 93 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 94 Table D.1: List of plastic waste generation hotspots Appendix D. List of Plastic Waste Generation Hotspots Rank Locale Country Annual Plastic Waste (kt) Population Area (km2) 1 Lagos Nigeria 284.687 12,406,951 2,020.0 The analysis of plastic waste hotspots identified 71 hotspots. Each hotspot was associated with the closest named city from the ESRI Africa Cities dataset. Table D.1 summarizes the attributes of the hotspots for each of the 71 named locales. It ranks them based on 2 Abidjan Côte d’Ivoire 112.358 3,921,628 1,017.9 the total annual plastic waste generation for the delineated hotspot(s) associated with the locale. 3 Kano Nigeria 96.408 4,201,571 538.1 Table Fields 4 Nnewi Nigeria 84.774 3,694,542 1,320.3 Rank. The rank of each hotspot locale based on annual plastic waste generation. 5 Dakar Senegal 75.321 3,743,139 1,017.5 Locale. The named locale closest to the hotspot. 6 Ibadan Nigeria 55.116 2,402,025 442.4 Hotspot area. The area enclosed by the hotspot boundary or boundaries for each locale. This may or may not represent the full 7 Port Harcourt Nigeria 50.427 2,197,649 1,171.3 extent of the indicated locale. 8 Lome Togo 42.687 2,668,914 714.9 Hotspot population. The number of people living within the area enclosed by the hotspot boundary/ boundaries for each locale. 9 Accra Ghana 39.661 4,465,270 1,407.0 This may or may not represent the full population of the indicated locale. 10 Yaounde Cameroon 34.524 4,006,132 582.1 11 Monrovia Liberia 34.219 1,629,266 618.8 12 Orlu Nigeria 32.004 1,394,781 643.3 13 Douala Cameroon 30.294 3,515,388 2,020.1 14 Porto Novo Benin 30.071 3,080,583 1,771.7 15 Kumasi Ghana 29.753 3,349,684 513.2 16 Kaduna Nigeria 25.767 1,122,965 424.0 17 Umuahia Nigeria 21.753 948,036 431.0 18 Aba Nigeria 21.113 920,134 1,171.3 19 Maiduguri Nigeria 18.907 824,001 214.7 20 Nouakchott Mauritania 16.059 1,371,226 553.2 21 Benin City Nigeria 15.209 662,821 304.7 22 Sokoto Nigeria 15.049 655,869 160.9 23 Banjul Gambia, The 13.239 1,067,034 762.4 24 Libreville Gabon 12.841 561,452 634.2 25 Osogbo Nigeria 12.708 553,809 371.1 26 Ilorin Nigeria 12.026 524,091 154.8 27 Enugu Nigeria 11.612 506,073 185.4 28 Conakry Guinea 11.274 2,974,114 1177.4 29 Freetown Sierra Leone 11.113 1,139,197 340.5 30 Bauchi Nigeria 9.485 413,350 102.9 31 Bissau Guinea-Bissau 8.660 605,937 340.4 32 Katsina Nigeria 8.506 370,689 119.0 33 Abeokuta Nigeria 8.337 363,341 96.6 34 Sekondi Ghana 7.788 876,861 392.4 35 Ife Nigeria 7.343 320,001 371.1 36 Zaria Nigeria 6.937 302,308 424.0 © Smart Edge 95 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 96 Rank Locale Country Annual Plastic Waste (kt) Population Area (km2) Appendix E. WACA Plastic Landscape 37 Uyo Nigeria 6.400 278,932 122.6 Table E.1: Net resin imports (kt); plastic resin conversion (kt); and net finished plastic product imports (kt) for WACA countries, 2018 38 Bida Nigeria 6.089 265,358 131.1 Net Finished Plastic Product 39 Minna Nigeria 5.791 252,396 131.1 WACA Countries Net Resin Imports (kt) Plastic Resin Conversion (kt) Imports (kt) Benin 1 1 49 40 Owerri Nigeria 5.739 250,092 643.3 41 Praia Cabo Verde 5.557 166,185 100.7 Cabo Verde 0 0 7 42 Buguma Nigeria 5.393 235,043 1171.3 Cameroon 34 34 96 43 Warri Nigeria 4.697 204,680 304.7 Côte d’Ivoire 197 197 129 44 Abuja Nigeria 4.291 187,005 71.2 Gabon 0 0 13 45 Malabo Equatorial Guinea 4.104 225,602 835.4 Ghana 262 262 34 46 Bo Sierra Leone 2.500 256,325 102.1 Guinea 15 15 19 47 Bafoussam Cameroon 2.267 263,091 228.3 Guinea-Bissau 2 2 7 48 Kenema Sierra Leone 1.893 194,015 81.9 49 Nouadhibou Mauritania 1.778 151,575 352.6 Equatorial Guinea 0 0 7 50 Abomey Benin 1.534 157,106 130.6 Liberia 5 5 17 51 Ilesa Nigeria 1.393 60,721 371.1 Mauritania 0 0 21 52 Cape Coast Ghana 1.184 133,275 93.3 Nigeria 608 1,094 753 53 Sotouboua Togo 1.111 68,148 32.2 São Tomé and Príncipe 0 0 1 54 Kankan Guinea 1.078 284,318 203.1 Senegal 47 47 42 55 Nzerekore Guinea 1.061 279,926 190.8 Sierra Leone 6 6 25 56 Makeni Sierra Leone 1.056 108,225 40.7 57 Yola Nigeria 0.952 41,491 21.7 Gambia, The 0 0 5 58 Labe Guinea 0.790 208,361 159.9 Togo 54 14 59 Dutse Nigeria 0.715 31,174 10.2 60 São Tomé São Tomé and Príncipe 0.662 39,806 54.9 61 Calabar Nigeria 0.556 24,239 15.4 62 Ogbomosho Nigeria 0.518 22,571 371.1 63 Buchanan Liberia 0.392 18,653 65.4 64 Nema Mauritania 0.173 14,755 34.6 65 Selibabi Mauritania 0.169 14,392 44.1 66 Koforidua Ghana 0.137 15,466 10.2 67 Kaedi Mauritania 0.136 11,602 40.8 68 Ayoun El Atrous Mauritania 0.063 5,345 17.1 69 Aleg Mauritania 0.047 3,988 12.4 70 Kissidougou Guinea 0.047 12,294 19.5 71 Macenta Guinea 0.019 5,025 7.1 © Smart Edge 97 West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics A REGIONAL GAP ANALYSIS 98 References and Bibliography Afrik21. 2021. “Africa: The New GACERE Alliance for CIA. 2021. 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