Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Synthesis Paper and supporting Technical Reports were The World Bank would like to thank the governments of Côte prepared under the guidance of Maria Sarraf (Practice Manager d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone for for the Environment, Natural Resources, and the Blue Economy engaging in case studies that have informed the conclusions and in West Africa) at the World Bank. recommendations of the Technical Reports. The core task team consisted of Peter Kristensen, Sarah Jung, The team also thanks Sara Lindemann of Leapfrog Projects, Sergio Vallesi, Madjiguene Seck, and Jayne Kwengwere. The Sami Syrjälä at the Finnish Innovation Fund SITRA, and © 2023 The World Bank Group Economics Technical Report was led by Susmita Dasgupta, Umberto Binetti of the Waste and Resources Action Programme and included Subhendu Roy and David Wheeler. The Circular (WRAP) UK for collaborations in connection with the 2022 World 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Economy Technical Report was led by Dario Quaranta and Circular Economy Forum in Rwanda. included Tze Ni Yeoh, Maria Daniela Cordova Pizarro, Kweku Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org Attafuah-Wadee, Roland Geyer, Keene Morrow, Robert The team wishes to thank Delphine Arri, Milagros Cecilia Aime, Madeira, Carolina Pereira, and Prashant Singh. The Senegal and Anjali Acharya from the PROBLUE team for their guidance Technical Report was led by Philippe Ambrosi and included and support during the implementation of the studies, as well This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank Group, with external contributions. “The World David Dupré La Tour. The visuals team was led by Madjiguene as Ernesto Sanchez-Triana and Helene Naber for ensuring Bank Group” refers to the legally separate organizations of the International Bank for Reconstruction Seck and included Mel D. Cole and Fatou Ndiaye. The eBook linkages to the World Circular Economy Forum. and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance team was led by Sergio Vallesi and included Samuel Paquier, This work was made possible by financial contributions from the Corporation (IFC), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). 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Cole for World Bank © SmartEdge TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Plastic entering use in West and Central coastal Africa in 2018 Figure 2: Plastic demand from packaging, construction, and aquaculture and fisheries in 21 Foreword by the West African Economic and Monetary Union 8 coastal West Africa 22 Figure 3: Figure 3: Plastics consumption, resource loss and leakage to the ocean in coastal Foreword by the World Bank 10 West Africa in 2021 22 Figure 4: Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the packaging sector to plastic waste and Executive Summary 12 marine litter in 2021, by polymer and product 23 Figure 5: Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the construction sector to plastic waste I. Plastic Pollution Situation in Coastal West Africa 20 and marine litter in 2021, by polymer and product 23 A. The existing linear plastic economy 21 Figure 6: Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the fisheries sector to plastic waste and B. Three significant sectors for the implementation of circular economy marine litter in 2021, by polymer and product 23 strategies for plastic reduction: Packaging, construction, and fisheries 22 Figure 7: Regional plastic waste generation per square kilometer in 2018 24 C. Plastic pollution hotspots and vectors of transport 24 Figure 8: Plastic waste generation hotspots in 2018 24 D. The economic cost of plastic pollution 26 Figure 9: Maps showing the likelihood of river transport of plastic waste 24 Figure 10: Damage cost estimates from plastics for marine ecosystem services 26 II. Challenges to Managing Marine Plastic Pollution 28 Figure 11: Damage cost estimates from plastics for marine ecosystem services 26 A. Waste management, infrastructure, and logistics 29 Figure 12: Study area 26 B. Public awareness and littering 29 Figure 13: Plastic waste in the canal in Chad 26 C. Demand for single-use plastic and lack of alternatives 29 Figure 14: Health effects of plastic water containers—Evidence for Ghana and Nigeria 30 D. Plastic value chains and market dynamic for recovered plastics 31 Figure 15: A comparison of the maturity of the plastic value chains in Germany, Sierra Leone, E. Plastic policies in West African coastal countries 33 and Côte d’Ivoire. 32 Figure 16: Circular economy opportunities across the product life cycle 37 III. A Circular Economy Approach to Managing Plastics 36 Figure 17: Plastic resource loss mitigation scenario in 2026 (million tons) 38 A. Embracing a circular economy approach 37 Figure 18: CO2 emissions mitigation based on a circular economy (CE) resource-loss B. Circular economy scenarios 38 scenario in 2026 (million tons CO2 emissions) 38 C. Circular economy gap analysis 39 D. Four tracks to get to a circular economy 40 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Plastics related legislation across the 17 WACA countries 34 Table 2: Challenges and leverages to implement a plastic circular economy in the WACA countries 39 Table 3: Recommendations for initiatives across three sectors in the WACA countries 41 LIST OF BOXES Box 1: Case study: Designing a cleanup strategy for marine plastic pollution 25 Box 2: Case study: The health effects of plastic containers 30 Box 3: Case study: Import taxes on thin polyethylene sheets 43 Box 4: Case study: Producer responsibility organizations to manage polyethylene terephthalate bottles in Senegal 45 ©SmartEdge ABBREVIATIONS & DEFINITIONS CE circular economy: A productive-economic model which uncouples economic growth from resource consumption and associated environmental impacts, while enhancing social value. It rethinks the conventional linear economy (“take-make-dispose”) by adopting designs, business models, and policies that regenerate natural systems and keep materials in use to retain embedded energy. Strategies to keep resources in use include regeneration, sharing, reuse, maintenance, repair, refurbishing, remanufacturing, and recycling. CO2 carbon dioxide ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EPR extended producer responsibility F.CFA West and Central African CFA Franc kg kilogram km kilometer kt kiloton LEM linear economy model LE linear economy: An economy in which finite resources are extracted to make products that are used—generally not to their full potential—and then thrown away (“take-make-dispose”) NGO Non governemental organization PE polyethylene PEHD high-density polyethylene PET polyethylene terephthalate PP polypropylene PRO producer responsibility organization PS polystyrene PVC polyvinyl chloride rPET recovered polyethylene terephthalate SMEs small and medium-sized enterprises SUP single-use plastic TPS thin polyethylene sheet UNEP United Nations Environment Programme WACA West Africa Coastal Areas Management Program WACA countries The 17 coastal countries and island states covered by the WACA Program include: Benin, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo WAEMU West African Economic and Monetary Union ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank FOREWORD by the West African Economic and Monetary Union West Africa and its West Africa and its people need a clean and healthy coastal people need a clean environment that is resilient to climate change. That is why the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) has, for and healthy coastal over three decades, supported countries and regional institutions in managing their coastlines, water resources, and environment. environment that is At WAEMU, my department is leading regional integration on environmental affairs among member states. resilient to climate With support from the World Bank, this integration now includes coordination with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS). In 2021, this regional integration was demonstrated by WAEMU convening West Africa’s environment change. ministers to endorse the State of the Coast Report. The report, validated by a scientific committee, provides the arguments for imperative action to protect and manage the natural and man-made coastal areas. On plastics specifically, WAEMU has promoted a regional harmonized policy since 2013. Within WAEMU, regulations to ban plastic bags and their components have been in process of adoption since 2017 and expanded to ECOWAS. We need to do more, especially in view of the recent decision by 175 countries of Kako Nubukpo the United Nations to develop a legally binding agreement on plastic pollution by 2024, prompting a major step towards reducing both pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Commissioner Department of Food Security, Agriculture, Mines, and Environment As the WACA plastics reports suggest, a regionally integrated solution is needed because plastics products West African Economic and Monetary Union are largely imported into West Africa, and because there are economies of scale in working across countries and regional institutions to harmonize policies, share knowledge and solutions, and build the capacity of key actors. Looking ahead, WAEMU will continue developing a regional approach to plastic and waste management in West Africa that engages public decision-makers and private-sector leaders alike. We look forward to working with members states of ECCAS, ECOWAS, and WAEMU, as well as scientists and centers of excellence (like the Africa Center of Excellence for Coastal Resilience at University of Cape Coast, Ghana), to make this a reality. We have successful operations and will seek the support of development partners to bring these to scale. We also look forward to collaborating with the World Bank, a key partner in bringing innovation and finance to countries for sustainable development. Sincerely, Kako Nubukpo Commissioner Department of Food Security, Agriculture, Mines, and Environment West African Economic and Monetary Union 8 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 9 FOREWORD by the World Bank The World Bank’s vision is West Africa boasts a shoreline with myriad coastal and marine ecosystems. These ecosystems provide countries and communities to help countries reduce with food, livelihoods, and economic opportunities, while protecting against the impact of climate change, which disproportionately poverty and increase shared affects Africa’s most poor and vulnerable. prosperity, including by developing Plastics, while providing tremendous benefits to health and efficiencies for delivering services to population, has become a development challenge. Projections suggest that the problems will get bigger with time, unless addressed head on. sustainable blue economies. The World Bank’s vision is to help countries reduce poverty and increase shared prosperity, including by developing sustainable blue economies. The World Bank also aims to address pollution, which is Boutheina Guermazi threatening the productivity of Africa’s coastal and marine ecosystems. Plastic pollution, for example, Regional Integration Director for Africa worsens the effects of floods, thus exacerbating the vulnerability of those living in flood zones and along and the Middle East West Africa’s coastline. World Bank How can West African coastal countries manage plastics and maximize circular economy opportunities, while supporting the health and productivity benefits plastics offer? The World Bank can help. Drawing on our experience in West Africa and across the world, we look forward to supporting countries in creating regional solutions that can be operationalized. Visionary ideas, innovations, and applicable science are all clear and available. Our aim now is to make sure that we channel these resources to initiatives that make a difference for the most vulnerable populations and sectors, and support healthy and productive sustainable economic development for all. Sincerely, Boutheina Guermazi Regional Integration Director for Africa and the Middle East, World Bank 10 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 11 Plastic pollution is a worldwide environmental EXECUTIVE challenge. In coastal West Africa, about 80 percent of plastic waste is mismanaged, posing escalating challenges to people, the economy, and the coastal and marine environment. SUMMARY This Synthesis Paper was prepared to inform decision-makers from the region about the challenges of plastic pollution and to convey the urgent need for action. Since its inception at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21), the West Africa Coastal Areas Management Program (WACA) has focused on coastal erosion, flooding, and pollution. There are seventeen coastal countries and island states covered by the WACA program: Benin, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Physical interventions are under way in nine of the seventeen countries to help manage healthy coastal landscapes and support national processes to advance a cleaner coastal environment. Other countries benefit from capacity building and knowledge exchange. Aware of the ongoing plastic pollution challenge globally, including a projection that Africa could surpass Asia in becoming the world’s largest plastic polluter, the World Bank set out to investigate trends, explore best-fit solutions, and identify critical actions. In the process WACA rallied not only local and international technical and financial partners but also affected communities. The aim is to curb plastic pollution in West Africa’s coastal countries through combined efforts. A regional approach has been initiated by regional institutions: WAEMU (West African Economic and Monetary Union) and ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) are working jointly on the development of a regional strategy for sustainable plastic waste management, while the Abidjan Convention advocates for member states to contribute momentum for the adoption of a legally binding international treaty against plastic pollution. These initiatives need support. Plastic pollution (marine in particular) is a transboundary challenge that is rooted in unsustainable production and consumption patterns; poor solid waste management; lack of infrastructure; lack of adequate legal and policy frameworks; a lack of financial resources; and poor enforcement—including on interregional cross-border trade of plastic waste. Joint action is needed to reduce plastic pollution, while ensuring a single market with high environmental standards and legal certainty for businesses. ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank 12 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 13 KEY FINDINGS AND MESSAGES This Synthesis Paper summarizes the findings from the research and engagement activities initiated by the World Bank, under the Plastic consumption is increasing in West Africa’s coastal countries. Urbanization and economic growth have WACA Program, to tackle the problem of plastics pollution in coastal West Africa. It is supported by a series of three technical reports, contributed to plastics becoming the primary material used in the food and water packaging industry. This generates an eBook, and a multi-media package. a large amount of plastic waste. Plastic consumption in the 17 West African coastal countries was estimated at • West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential • Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) to Manage 7.9 million tons in 2021; at current growth rates, this could increase to 12 million tons by 2026. of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis: This report includes Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Bottles in Senegal: three areas of analysis at the regional level (covering This report explores options and opportunities for PET bottle 17 countries spanning from Mauritania to Gabon): (i) a plastic recycling. Coastal West Africa has few plastic production sites. Most countries rely on imported virgin plastic resins and material flow analysis across borders in West Africa; (ii) a plastic products (such as wrapping) owing to sparse domestic production and limited recovered plastics. About three- plastics circularity assessment in three sectors (construction, • WACA Plastic eBook: A significant amount of data and quarters of the plastic used within the region is imported, mostly from Asia. Nigeria is the sole producer of virgin plastic fisheries, and packaging); and (iii) a stakeholder engagement analysis has been generated in the various countries. The resin (generating 486 kilotons (kt) in 2018) and only Nigeria, Ghana, and Côte d’Ivoire have significant conversion among public and private parties in West Africa team compiled the most compelling of these resources, industries. These countries are also the largest exporters of plastics in the region. In the case of Côte d’Ivoire, with a view to making them accessible to technical and 95 percent of plastic-related exports go to West African countries. • The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for financial partners. This valuable body of knowledge is in West African Coastal Countries: This report examines four the WACA Plastic eBook, available on the WACA website. economic areas: (i) the economic cost to society of marine The interactive format allows visitors to navigate summaries plastic waste; (ii) policy and economic tax measures to by country and data compilations, while accessing links to About 80 percent of plastic waste is mismanaged in coastal West Africa. West African coastal countries lack reduce pollution from single-use plastics; (iii) a water sachet additional resources and organizations. Various technical waste management systems, leading to a higher risk of solid waste ending up in marine and terrestrial environments, analysis that explores trade-offs between plastic pollution reports and case studies are included. The eBook should help via wind, tidal transport, and/or transport to coastlines by inland waterways. A survey of the current literature reveals prevention and other social policies; and (iv) an economic- individuals to create their own rationale for mobilizing action. that, in 14 out of 17 targeted West African coastal countries, the share of mismanaged plastic waste in proportion to the spatial analysis that proposes strategies for cost-effective total exceeds 80 percent. The main contributors to this pollution are Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Senegal. cleanup operations. • Multi-media package: a visual and artistic human narrative: Multimedia approaches are used to present a human narrative on how plastics affect livelihoods. The real damage cost of marine plastics in West Africa is estimated to be around US$ 10,000 to US$ 33,000 per ton of plastic waste. The four sectors that are particularly hard hit by plastic pollution (fisheries and aquaculture; marine-linked tourism; beach property; biodiversity and ecosystems) suffer potential damages between US$ 2,000 and US$ 7,000 per ton of plastic waste. The hidden cost of plastic bags is substantial. The production cost of a single-use plastic (SUP) bag is estimated at three cents per bag. If one were to add to this cost the real damage that a SUP bag costs to the environment, the cost of a bag would rise to between nine and 21 cents. Multiple studies have shown that such an increase in price would result in a substantial fall in demand and virtual elimination of plastic bag use. Plastic products have been inexpensive for a long time because their prices do not reflect the damage they do to the environment, the planet, and society. By fixing this price distortion, plastic use will be reduced. The cost to society of plastics pollution in just one canal in N’Djamena was estimated at over US$ 3,000 per ton West Africa Circular The Economics Producer WACA Plastic E-book in 2020. Economy: Realizing of Plastic Use and Responsibility the Potential of Cleanup Priorities for Organisation to Plastics West African Coastal manage Polyethylene Improvements are needed in solid waste management overall and plastic waste management in particular Countries Terephtalate bottles (waste collection, plastic containment in landfills, and informal plastic sorting for reuse). This includes in Senegal recycling infrastructure. Only about 10 percent of total plastic waste is recycled in coastal West Africa. 1 For detailed calculations, see Section 3 of The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West Africa Coastal Countries, World Bank, 2023. 14 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa An econometric analysis indicates that import taxes on polyethylene (PE) sheets could play a role in reducing Most of the plastic pollution stems from packaging, primarily from SUP for food and water consumption, marine pollution by driving down SUP waste. In West African coastal countries, most SUP sachets, bags, and and sanitary purposes. Consumers—particularly in urban areas—tend to prefer SUP products, such as plastic film, other containers are fabricated from thin polyethylene sheets (TPS), virtually all of which are imported. An econometric carrier bags, water sachets and PET bottles, because of their convenience and relative affordability, or because there analysis of TPS import demand for seven West African coastal countries indicates a high degree of income and price is a lack of alternative solutions. Single-use water sachets have become particularly popular in West Africa, given the responsiveness. A tariff on bulk imports of polyethylene could therefore act as a potent weapon in the struggle to challenges faced in the provision of potable water for drinking, even in urban areas with piped networks. This reality reduce SUP pollution. However, given that SUPs are widely used for safe drinking water, the potential public should encourage governments and development partners to include drinking water supply as a measure health impacts of such measures will need to be carefully considered. Similar consideration needs to be given to address plastic pollution. to the distributional effects of such import taxes on the poor. Overall, solid and plastic waste management and infrastructure need to improve. Effective plastic waste A circular economy model (based on the principle of avoidance/reuse/recycling) offers strong potential for management requires efficient waste collection, improved plastic containment in landfills, and better regulation of reducing plastic waste and associated carbon dioxide (C02 ) emissions. If countries introduce a pragmatic circular informal plastic sorting for re-use. Plastic production for industrial or business initiatives does not make sufficient use of recovered plastic from the WACA countries. Investments in plastic waste recovery infrastructure would economy scenario—meaning 40 to 50 percent less plastic—in three significant sectors (packaging, construction, and help to establish local supply and mobilize this untapped potential for greater sourcing of plastic waste and scrap from fisheries), then 2.9 to 3.8 million tons less plastic waste will enter the environment by 2026. This will correspond to within the WACA countries. Existing recycling facilities have limited capacity to absorb recyclable plastic such as PET reducing carbon emissions by 30 to 60 percent (or 6 to 9.1 million tons of CO2 emissions). packaging. More sophisticated recycling infrastructure needs to be developed across the region. Since virgin plastic products are cheaper than recycled plastics, policy support may be required to increase the Support of governments promoting and enabling a change in consumer consumption patterns could increase viability of a circular plastic economy. Governments need to set in place regulations to enable private sector the demand for recycled plastics. Policymakers can facilitate the creation of markets for more sustainable and easy- investment and the creation of a dynamic market for recycled plastics and alternative plastics products. to-recycle products, by incentivizing recyclable/reusable products and fostering reduction of non-recyclable materials for packaging. They can also facilitate international partnerships with leading global universities researching new and innovative packaging materials made from sustainable sources. The development and promotion of alternative Extended producer responsibility (EPR) policies could achieve significant results. In Senegal, analysis shows reusable products requires planning well in advance of implementing plastic-reduction policies/incentives/financing that an eco-organization focused on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) could go a long way towards cleaning mechanisms to support the transition from conventional plastic to alternative plastic producers. up the country. Use of PET in the bottling industry in Senegal represents about 38,000 tons of plastic every year and accounts for 15 to 16 percent of plastic waste generated in the country. Unlike other plastic polymers like high-density polyethylene (PEHD) or polypropylene (PP), there is so far little collection and recycling of PET taking Effective waste management requires consumer sensitization, stakeholder participation in policy and strategy place in Senegal. By building on the existing network of informal waste reclaimers and setting up 37 collection points design, and promoting the development of environmentally friendly alternatives. Successful global experience and four pellet plants in strategic regions, an eco-organization could help tackle 50 percent of PET pollution in indicates that effective outcomes require broad-based awareness-raising about plastic pollution that includes regular Senegal within two to three years. With eco-contributions ranging from between 1 and 5 Central African CFA Franc public consultations; stakeholder engagement in designing mitigation policies and strategies; and the development (F.CFA) per bottle or container (and in line with current plastic taxation levels) the eco-organization would be able to of reasonably priced, environmentally friendly alternatives well in advance of implementing plastic-reduction policies. support collection prices up to 150 F.CFA per kilogram (kg), or twice the current level in local initiatives. This would encourage collection and improve the livelihoods and income of a vast number of people. It is estimated that the eco-organization could generate about 3,000 full-time jobs with decent remuneration. Data for the plastics value chain in the region is sparse. Both government and private sector stakeholders will need to facilitate the development of data collection systems that track the flow of plastics across the value chain. This will enable the orientation and prioritization of strategies and policies suited to specific regional and local situations. Coastal West African countries generated around 6.9 million tons of plastic waste in 2018 (about 30 percent of the total plastic waste generated in Africa).2 Of this waste, about 20 percent was generated within 30 kilometers (km) of the coast, contributing to marine litter and coastal environmental degradation. A spatial analysis of plastic waste generation was performed to identify hotspots of plastic waste production. The highest levels of plastic waste There is no one-size-fits-all solution. It is important to acknowledge the specific situational realities in each country and to search were generated in densely populated coastal cities and along trade routes connected to roads or rivers. Seventy-one for solutions that are fit for purpose in each context. Location-specific analyses are needed to determine the most cost-effective individual pollution hotspots were identified, with 32 in Nigeria alone. Nigeria produced the most, at 4.7 million policy mix for plastic waste remediation, with the most practical policy solutions likely entailing some combination of quantity- and tons per year. The island nations of Cabo Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe produced the least plastic waste. price-based approaches, balanced by highly targeted cleanup strategies. 2 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2018. Africa Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. Call to action The World Bank is issuing a call to action—with short-term achievability—to find suitable plastic substitutes to meet growing demand for plastics in the WACA countries. With regional integration as a prerequisite, the World Bank proposes the following solution areas: • Investment: Key investment is needed in solid waste management infrastructure. • Regulation: Consideration of regional policies and agreements, and careful assessment of regulations (for example, screening for social and economic impact using tools like The Plastics Policy Simulator (PPS). • Plastic substitutes: Development of new products made of plastic alternatives, a transition that will require innovation and business incentives. • Circular economy: Commitment to a circular economy, requiring transformative policies that increase the viability of local or regional efforts. • Multi-stakeholder dialogues: Close engagement with members of the public and the private, informal, and development sectors. • Plastic supply: Adjustment of countries’ rules on plastic products and plastic waste imports, with incentives on regional imports, and either a ban or taxes on the import of polyethylene sheets and waste. This can play a key role in reducing plastic waste in the region. • Plastic demand: Promotion of innovations in SUP alternatives, coupled with consumer education on plastic pollution risks and the importance of a circular approach. • Workers in collection and sorting: Recognition of informal waste reclaimers and involvement of the informal sector in seeking solutions. • Recycling: Discussions on recovered-plastic trade and coordination of industrialization plans at the regional level. It is imperative to have coordinated regional action that offers economies of scale. Based on previous engagement by the World Bank it is clear that, for economies of scale, coordinated action needs to be anchored in regional commissions. This ensures that cross-border solutions consider national implementation and local solutions. A community of partners would convene, innovate, leverage, attract finance, and set goals. This combined effort would support countries in the ongoing process of developing and implementing the legally binding agreement on plastic pollution expected by 2024, a major step towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions from plastic production, use, and disposal. ©Smart Edge 18 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 19 I. Although the plastic waste ratio per person in Sub-Saharan Africa (15 kg/capita/year)3 is low compared with European Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries (114 kg/capita/year) or the United States (221 kg/capita/year), Africa is estimated to be the second-largest source of ocean plastic pollution from rivers, with a share of 7.8 percent (after Asia).4 PLASTIC POLLUTION Three African rivers figure among the world’s top 20 plastic pollution sources: the Cross River (Nigeria and Cameroon), the Imo River (Nigeria), and the Kwa Ibo River (Nigeria).5 This is because waste management systems in the region are less effective than those in high-income countries. About 80 percent of plastic waste is mismanaged in coastal West Africa. SITUATION IN COASTAL Projections for 2025 indicate that mismanaged plastic waste from Africa will likely comprise 10.6 percent of the global total. With continuing rapid urbanization, Africa could become the largest contributor to global mismanaged plastic waste by 2060.6 WEST AFRICA A. Plastics are versatile materials that have many applications The existing linear plastic economy and economic advantages over other materials. However, the Plastics—especially virgin plastic and raw material such as Figure 1: Plastic Entering Use (Imports and Resin Production) in West and Central Coastal Africa in 2018 resins—are inexpensive, holding very low marginal value at environmental impacts of plastic production, use, and end-of-life end-of-life. Under these circumstances, the economics of plastic Nigeria are becoming unsustainable. circularity are challenging. This is the case even for highly Côte d’Ivoire developed economies such as Canada and the United States, Ghana With an estimated lifetime of centuries, plastic waste has become a major stressor on terrestrial and marine ecosystems. which have achieved recycling rates of only about nine percent. Cameroon Globally, it is estimated that 8 million metric tons of plastic (comparable to the volume of 3,200 Olympic-size swimming Senegal pools) enter the ocean each year, on top of the estimated 150 million metric tons that currently circulate in marine The plastic material flow analysis conducted for the 17 WACA Benin environments. Healthy oceans provide food, jobs, and economic opportunities for the 2.4 billion people who live within countries shows that countries depend highly on imported virgin Togo 100 km of coastlines. Marine plastic pollution is a threat to the development of “blue economies” worldwide. plastic resins and plastic products, owing to sparse domestic Guinea production/conversion and limited recovered plastics.7 Sierra Leone In West Africa, the use of plastic products has increased significantly over the past decades as a direct consequence of Liberia urbanization, and population and economic growth. Unregulated disposal of plastic waste is creating a host of terrestrial Plastic consumption in the WACA countries was estimated at Mauritania and marine environmental problems. 7.9 million tons for 2021, growing to 12.0 million tons by 2026 Gabon using a linear economy (or business-as-usual) model. Plastic Resin imports (kt) Gambia enters the WACA countries in direct (resin and production) Resin production (kt) Guinea-Bissau and indirect (embedded, wrapping) forms, which compose Equatorial Guinea Finished plastic product imports (kt) 43 percent and 57 percent of the total, respectively. Nigeria Cabo Verde Plastic in finished goods imports (kt) is the only producer of virgin plastic resin (generating 486 kt São Tomé and Príncipe in 2018) and only a few countries have significant conversion 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 industries—notably, Nigeria, Ghana, and Côte d’Ivoire. These countries are also the largest exporters of plastics in the region. Using UN Comtrade data for 2018, 10 countries in the West In the case of Côte d’Ivoire, 95 percent of all plastic-related Africa region reported importing plastic waste and scrap from exports go to West African countries. around the world. Nigeria, Ghana, and Senegal are the largest importers of recovered plastic, and Asia (US$ 17 million), Europe Though approximately half of coastal West African countries (US$ 4 million), and North America (US$ 1 million) are the largest report significant imports of plastic articles, most plastic enters sources of plastic waste and scrap imports for the reported the region in finished goods, such as plastic embedded in multi- 10 countries in 2018. By contrast, only US$ 0.13 million of plastic material goods, or as packaging and wrapping. Three-quarters waste and scrap was imported from West African sources. of the plastic consumed within the region is imported, mainly This differential highlights the need to reduce the sourcing of from Asia. plastic waste from outside West Africa and to increase the levels of investment in plastic waste recovery infrastructure within the region. 3 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2022. “Global Plastics Outlook: Policy Scenarios to 2060.” Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/aa1edf33-en. 4 Jambeck, Jenna R. et al. 2015. “Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.” Science 347, no. 6223 (February): 768–771. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352. 5 Lebreton, Laurent C.M. et al. 2017. “River plastic emissions to the world’s oceans.” Nature Communications 8, no. 15611 (June). http://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15611. 6 Lebreton, Laurent C.M. and Anthony Andrady. 2019. “Future scenarios of global plastic waste generation and disposal.” Palgrave Communications 5, no. 6 (January). http://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0212-7. 7 Material flow analysis conducted using data relating to plastic trade, domestic industrial production, and waste generation, in “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis” (World Bank, 2023). ©Adobe Stock 20 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 21 B. Figure 2: Plastic demand from packaging, construction, Packaging Figure 4: Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the packaging sector to plastic waste and marine litter in Three significant sectors for the and aquaculture and fisheries in coastal West Africa in 2021 and 2026 under a business-as-usual (BAU) 2021, by polymer and product By polymer 2021 (mn tons) By product 2021 (mn tons) implementation of circular economy scenario (in Million Tons) Fisheries Packaging Construction Polyvinyl chloride Polystyrene Polyethylene Plastic bottles Plastic sachets strategies for plastic reduction: 10 0.4 Polypropylene Others Plastic bags Others Packaging, construction, and fisheries 8 Resource loss Resource loss TOTAL: 4.1 TOTAL: 4.1 Marine leakage The analysis8 explored the potential for reducing plastic waste in coastal West TOTAL: 2.9 Marine leakage 6 0.26 Africa through a circular economy model. Three sectors (packaging, construction, 7.1 0.1 0.5 TOTAL: 2.9 0.2 and fisheries) were considered because of their relative importance to the mn tons 0.2 0.1 1.0 economies in the region and their identification as industries with significant 4 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.7 opportunities for the incorporation of circular economy solutions.9 4.6 0.2 1.2 2 3.3 0.7 2.4 The three sectors represent 78 percent of total plastic demand in 2021. 1.2 2 1.4 1.0 The packaging sector is the largest plastics consumer sector across the region, 0 with a demand of 4.6 million tons in 2021 (58 percent of the region’s demand). 2021 2026 BAU scenario Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” Figure 3: Plastics consumption, resource loss and leakage to the ocean in coastal West Africa in 2021 Plastics resource loss by sector Construction Figure 5: Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the construction sector to plastic waste and marine litter in 2021, by polymer and product Plastics resources lost in the WACA countries (mn tons) 2% 41% Fisheries By polymer 2021 (mn tons) By product 2021 (mn tons) Others 7.9 12 Polyvinyl chloride Polystyrene Polyethylene Cables Pipes Polypropylene Others Window/door profiles Others 6% 2021 2026 Construction Resource loss 52% Packaging TOTAL: 0.47 Resource loss Nigeria presents the largest plastics resource loss in the region, accounting for 63%, Marine leakage TOTAL: 0.47 TOTAL: 0.28 Marine leakage due to the country’s dominance in size and population. Others include automobile industry; electric TOTAL: 0.28 and electronic goods; sports and leisure. 0.08 0.07 0.005 0.04 0.03 0.09 0.09 0.003 0.07 Plastics consumption Plastics resource loss Plastics marine pollution 0.04 0.12 0.06 0.05 Packaging Construction Fisheries Packaging Construction Fisheries Packaging Construction Fisheries 0.07 0.3 0.26 0.15 0.19 0.11 • Of the selected • Embedded plastics • It is estimated that sections, 86% of are a major contributor 70% of the waste Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” 1.2 plastic consumption is 0.1 to resource loss, produced in these attributed to packaging. 0.5 corresponding to sectors is mismanaged, • Nigeria, Ghana, and 46 percent of overall contributing to pollution. Fisheries Figure 6: Contribution (million tons of plastic) of the fisheries sector to plastic waste and marine litter in plastics consumption 0.1 2021, by polymer and product Ivory Coast are the top 0.3 • The population on contributors. • It is estimated that on the coasts and in By polymer 2021 (mn tons) By product 2021 (mn tons) 4.6 average for these sectors upstream cities results 4.1 Polyvinyl chloride Polystyrene Polyethylene Fishing fleets Hard plastics/sheets/films • Consumption is driven for each ton of plastic in accumulation and 2.9 Polypropylene Others Others by imports, given limited consumed, 0.78 tons of overflow of waste regional production. Resource loss Resource loss waste is produced. through water systems. TOTAL: 0.14 TOTAL: 0.14 Marine leakage Marine leakage 6.1 mn tons 4.7 mn tons 3.3 mn tons TOTAL: 0.11 TOTAL: 0.11 0.01 Across the three sectors, 4.7 million tons of consumed plastic are estimated to be “lost resources” (unused products or waste), from 0.07 0.03 which 3.3 million tons will enter the marine environment. 0.01 0.003 0.03 Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 8 World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” 0.02 0.003 0.09 0.07 9 World Economic Forum. 2021. “Five Big Bets for the Circular Economy in Africa.” Geneva: World Economic Forum. https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/five-big-bets-circular-economy-africa Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” 22 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 23 ©Adobe Stock C. CASE STUDY 1 Plastic pollution hotspots and vectors of transport Designing a cleanup strategy for marine plastic pollution The study estimated that the 17 coastal West African countries generated 6,930 kt of plastic waste in 2018. Of this, about 20 percent 10 was generated within 30 km of the coast. A spatial analysis of plastic waste generation was performed to identify hotspots of plastic Understanding the specifics of waste generation and transport in the region can help in designing waste production. This study found that the highest levels of plastic waste were generated in densely populated coastal cities and the most relevant strategies. along trade routes connected to roads or rivers. A case study developed an illustrative cleanup strategy for marine plastic pollution in Accra and Lagos. Its focus The island nations of Cabo Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe produced the least plastic waste, while Nigeria produced the most, at was single-use plastic (SUP) drinking-water containers. A hotspot targeting strategy was developed for the two 4,719 kt per year. Seventy-one hotspots were identified, with 32 in Nigeria. cities, using a methodology that combined georeferenced household survey data on plastic use; measures of seasonal variation in marine plastic pollution from satellite imagery; and a model of plastic waste transport to the ocean using information on topography, seasonal rainfall, drainage to rivers, and river transport to the ocean. The Figure 7: Regional plastic waste generation per square kilometer in 2018 Figure 8: Plastic waste generation hotspots in 2018 results provide clear evidence of the accumulation of SUP container waste in hotspots during low-rainfall periods, followed by rapid river transport through flooding and runoff with the return of heavier rainfall. Plastic waste collection would also benefit from cleanup measures with better targets. Priority should be given to areas with a high incidence of plastic waste disposal near rivers, particularly more elevated areas with steeper slopes. Cleanup resources should be concentrated in marine plastic hotspot areas before the onset of the first- semester rainy season. Plastic waste Hotspot Hotspots are Annual plastic waste generation Z-score extent defined as contiguous areas with a Z-score greater than 0.0028 1,702,350kg/km2 -0.63 76.91 o two standard deviations. Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” Figure 9: Maps showing the likelihood of river transport of plastic waste ACCRA LAGOS Likelihood Score 0-5 31-35 61-65 91-95 6-10 36-40 66-70 96 11-15 41-45 71-75 97 16-20 46-50 76-80 98 21-25 51-55 81-85 99 26-30 56-60 86-90 100 Source: World Bank. 2023. “The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries.” 10 World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” SYNTHESIS PAPER 25 D. The economic cost of plastic pollution The study estimates the real damage The literature describes two main approaches to estimate the external costs of plastics in the marine environment: (i) damage A study12 conducted in Chad estimates the damages caused by the inappropriate disposal of plastic waste in an inland context. cost of marine plastics at to overall marine ecosystem services (holistic approach) and The study area is located along a canal that crosses N’Djamena, (ii) aggregation of sector-specific costs (partial approach). the capital. Using data from a primary survey and applying standard valuation techniques, the study estimates the social Using the first approach, the annual damage cost was estimated cost of plastic pollution at over US$ 3,000 per ton of plastic US$ 10,000 to in a range of US$ 10,000 to US$ 33,000 per ton of plastic.11 waste in 2020. It also shows that the impacts of plastic waste The second approach investigated four sectors where economic vary significantly across the study area: households residing damage from the presence of plastic is clearly visible: (i) fisheries within 20 meters of the canal bear more than 75 percent of the and aquaculture; (ii) marine-linked tourism; (iii) waterfront total damages. US$ 33,000 per ton property values; and (iv) biodiversity and ecosystems. The Figure 12: Study area: canal in Chad where the social cost of plastic annual damage cost for these sectors was estimated to range pollution was estimated (Source: Google Earth) from US$ 2,000 to US$ 7,000 per ton of plastic waste. Figure 10: Damage cost estimates from plastics for marine ecosystem services $35,000 Cost per ton of plastic $30,000 OF PLASTIC WASTE $25,000 $20,000 $15,000 $10,000 $5,000 $0 Figure 13: Plastic waste in the canal in Chad (Source: A. Singambaye) Minimum Maximum Source: World Bank. 2023. “The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries.” Figure 11: Damage cost estimates from plastics for marine ecosystem services Fisheries Tourism Mangroves Beach properties $7,000 $6,000 Cost per ton of plastic $5,000 $4,000 $3,000 $2,000 $1,000 $0 Minimum Maximum Source: World Bank. 2023. “The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries.” 11 Barrett et al. 2020; Conservancy 2015; Costanza et al. 2014; Jang et al. 2015. ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank 12 Croitoru, Lelia, Amos Singambaye, and Aurélie Rossignol. 2022. “The Cost of Plastic Pollution in N’Djamena: A Case Study.” Journal of Environmental Protection 13, no. 8 (August): 575–588. https://doi.org/ 10.4236/jep.2022.138036. SYNTHESIS PAPER 27 II. A. Waste management, infrastructure, and logistics CHALLENGES TO Solid waste management is a pressing issue in West Africa. Population growth, amid high poverty rates, makes waste- infrastructure, policies, and practices in place, to lower the risk of plastic waste generated in coastal areas entering the oceans. MANAGING PLASTIC service fee collection and financing of the overall system key challenges for the region. Because governments have limited resources, waste often becomes a lower priority sector,13 A stakeholder engagement exercise similarly highlighted concerns about the means for the plastic value chain within POLLUTION resulting in high rates of mismanaged solid waste. the West Africa region. Plastic industry stakeholders identified that countries are struggling to secure funding for recycling A survey of the current literature reveals that, in 14 out of infrastructure. This is largely because of the relatively low 17 targeted West African coastal countries, the share of profitability linked to low levels of suitable recyclable plastic. mismanaged plastic waste in proportion to the total exceeds While a significant informal workforce has developed in regions 80 percent.14 West African coastal countries lack waste lacking solid-waste-management infrastructure, informal management systems, leading to higher risk of solid waste collectors use rudimentary collection methods. The majority of ending up in marine and terrestrial environments. All coastal plastic retrieved from waste is contaminated and not suitable countries need well-functioning plastic-waste-management for recycling. B. Public awareness and littering According to private sector stakeholders interviewed in Ghana, Private industries do not prioritize consumer education on plastic there are limited efforts at consumer sensitization on the part products and packaging (for example, through waste prevention of public stakeholders. Coupled with nonexistent incentives to campaigns or adequate labeling information on appropriate final access and improve waste collection services and infrastructure, disposal and recycling). This contributes to the elevated levels of this impedes the promotion of plastic waste prevention and at- contamination of potentially recoverable plastics. The challenge source segregation by households and businesses. is further heightened by the ease with which citizens can engage in improper waste disposal, as indicated by public and private Consumers across the region are unaware of the sector interviewees in Liberia and Nigeria, respectively. Many importance of properly managing plastic and plastic waste. Nigerian citizens have grown accustomed to illicit waste disposal Similarly, commercial and industrial establishments are not activities, such as burning and burying plastic waste, in a climate sensitized to circular economy business models and practices. of weak enforcement. C. Demand for single-use plastic and lack of alternatives Many consumers in the WACA countries lack critical awareness According to private sector recyclers in Ghana and Nigeria, of the importance of circular approaches to plastic consumption, the adoption of water sachets is a notable consumption trend thereby exacerbating the region’s plastic management in the region over the last three decades. The challenges faced challenge. As indicated by public and private sector interviewees in the provision of potable water for drinking, even in urban from Ghana, Liberia, and Nigeria, many consumers—especially areas with piped networks, have contributed to the proliferation in urban areas—tend to prefer single-use plastic (SUP) products of plastic film, single-use water sachets across the WACA such as plastic film, carrier bags, and PET bottles. For example, countries, especially among low-income households. These according to a prominent private sector recycler in Ghana, water sachets, as well as SUP film in food packaging, have Ghanaians have a high preference for SUPs, largely because been shown to improve water and food hygiene and thereby of their convenience and relative affordability, with limited or no reduce potential health risks to the population. It could be risky consideration given to sustainable consumption. to eliminate this consumption practice, considering the public health benefit it has offered. 13 Kaza, Silpa; Lisa C. Yao; Perinaz Bhada-Tata; Frank van Woerden. 2018. “What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050.” Urban Development. ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/30317 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. 14 These figures are for 2010, which is the latest year for which the available data permits cross-comparison. 28 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 29 CASE STUDY 2 The health effects of plastic containers D. While the case for public intervention to reduce plastic waste seems clear, attention must be paid to potential conflicts with public health outcomes. Plastic value chains and market dynamic for recovered plastics An econometric analysis was conducted for Ghana and Nigeria mortality (42 percent and 20 percent) and incidence of diarrhea Current interest in reuse and recycling should be welcomed and The plastic value chain analysis performed in the region to assess the public health risks from policies to reduce waste (21 percent and 10 percent) for all children up to five years of encouraged. However, one should be wary of naive enthusiasm highlights a weak market dynamic for recovered plastics. Most from using SUP drinking water containers. Using Demographic age, attributable to SUP container use across and within years. regarding their potential and feasibility. Circular supply chains West African countries have a short plastic value chain and and Health Survey data for the two countries, the analysis for plastic waste are operationally challenging, and the costs of limited capability to add value within the chain, compared to tested whether child morbidity and mortality are lower in Thus, measures to reduce plastic sachets and bottles should operations and processes can quickly exceed the achievable more advanced economies such as Germany, as illustrated in households that use SUP drinking-water containers, after be accompanied by programs designed to improve health revenues. The true economic potential and feasibility of plastic the figure on the next page. > page 33 controlling for income, education, and other socioeconomic outcomes for children, particularly in poor households. reuse and recycling requires detailed knowledge of local costs factors widely cited in the literature. The individual results Alternatively, subsidies could be provided for biodegradable and conditions. Potential and viability are likely to vary across showed notable declines in the median predicted rate of child drinking water containers, which are more costly to produce. locations and types of plastic waste. Figure 14: Health effects of plastic water containers—Evidence for Ghana and Nigeria Child mortality rates Without plastic container use With plastic container use Ghana Nigeria 2003 2014 2003 2018 200 300 200 100 100 0 0 Child incidences of diarrhea Without plastic container use With plastic container use Ghana Nigeria FINDINGS 2003 2014 400 2003 2018 • Notable declines for 300 comparable measures across years 300 200 • Notable declines attributable to plastic 200 water container use within years. 100 100 0 0 Source: World Bank. 2023. “The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries”. ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank 30 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 31 Figure 15: A comparison of the maturity of the plastic value chains in Germany, Sierra Leone, and Côte d’Ivoire. Though every WACA country has uniquse market features, To improve the demand, governments could introduce the plastics waste streams in many countries lack reliable product specifications for green procurement (construction) domestic market demand,15 which is a major disincentive and imported products (packaging), regulating the content Plastic Value Chains to efficient collection of plastic waste. This significantly of recycled plastic (minimum quantities and origin of affects the potential for solutions downstream of the plastic recycled plastic). Voluntary plastic credit schemes16 could A comparison of the maturity of plastic value chains in Germany, Sierra Leone, and Côte d’Ivoire. value chain (recycling facilities), requiring more structured provide additional incentives to improve the economics of Estimation number of firms given in the nodes. strategies to increase the demand for recycled plastics in recycling facilities. key sectors such as packaging, construction and fisheries. Germany 2020 Plastics machinery manufacturers E. Plastics producers Plastics compounders Plastics converters Manufacturing different types of plastics resins Plastics formulations; mixing blending polymers and additives From the plastics resins and compounds into finished products Plastic policies in West African coastal countries Raw material 200 200 2,900 suppliers A wide range of instruments can be tailored to specific Yet, without an enabling environment and consultation with the Plastics products Plastics end-of-life conditions, whether regulatory (for example, bans, standards, private sector, the government has encountered challenges to 56 Distributors/users (application business Specialists in waste input thresholds, or limits) or economic (for example, taxes its implementation. industry/OEM manufacturers and Waste managment companies/ and fees, subsidies, extended producer responsibility, and recycling retailers) recyclers and energy from deposit refund schemes). A review of plastic-related policies in Improvements in effective monitoring systems to track formal 10,000 waste operators 350 and informal plastic product flows, and enforcement of coastal West Africa shows that lawmakers in the region have started taking action to address the issue in the 2010s. Bans regulations, are the most challenging activities for governments Research and development Universities, companies and non-university institutes and disincentives were then mainly considered to address in WACA countries. However, those are critical steps for the 76 problematic plastic waste. Mauritania was the first country to implementation of regulations aiming to reduce plastic waste. adopt such a policy. To date, 11 out of 17 WACA countries have The introduction of green product standards could facilitate the Sierra Leone 2021 instituted laws to eliminate the production and distribution of creation of a market for recycled plastics. Except for Nigeria— SUPs, such as bans on the production and use of plastic bags. which, as of 2016, introduced food-grade standards for Plastics converters From the plastics resins and However, isolated measures, combined with low enforcement, recovered plastics—many WACA countries currently lack clear compounds into finished products struggle to produce results on the ground. Government efforts to policy frameworks to incentivize or mandate the incorporation reduce plastic pollution through influencing plastic consumption of circularity (minimum requirement of recycled plastic content) 10 trends, have to date had little impact in WACA countries. in plastics production. This has deterred investors and private Plastics products Plastics end-of-life Countries have more recently introduced economic measures enterprises from transitioning to more circular approaches to Distributors/users business plastic product manufacturing. Hence, many manufacturers Waste managment companies/ such as fiscal policies (taxes and fees) and extended producer responsibility for some plastic products (mainly associated with continue to rely on virgin plastic resin and produce SUP recyclers ? 15 e-waste), with mixed results. In Ghana, for example, the funds products. Similarly, few policies or certification programs are generated from the tax have yet to be disbursed to the local designed specifically to incentivize local manufacturers in the Research and development plastics recycling sector due to the absence of an approved fund production of reusable or recyclable plastic products. Universities, companies, and non-university institutes 2 management authority. There is currently no regional framework on plastic waste These policies must be part of broader national strategies with management or plastic circular economy in West Africa. Côte d’Ivoire 2019 However, the West African Economic and Monetary Union a comprehensive regulatory framework considering the entire plastic value chain. Some countries have begun taking this path: (WAEMU) and the Economic Community of West African Plastics compounders Plastics converters Plastics formulations; mixing From the plastics resins and in October 2019, Ghana launched the National Plastic Action States (ECOWAS) are working jointly on the development of blending polymers and additives compounds into finished products Partnership (NPAP) under the Global Plastic Action Partnership a regional strategy for sustainable plastic waste management. (GPAP) initiative and Nigeria is following suit. Senegal also Similarly, the Abidjan Convention (Regional Sea Programme 1 150 adopted an ambitious plastic law in 2020 introducing regulatory for the Atlantic Coast of the West, Central and Southern Africa Plastics products Plastics end-of-life measures (bans) and economic measures (taxes, extended Region) is engaged to provide the sub-region with a regional Distributors/users business producer responsibility, and deposit refund schemes). action plan to protect coasts and oceans from plastic pollution. Specializing in plastic Waste managment companies/ recycling recyclers 288 55 15 Many WACA countries do not generate enough recovered plastics to feed large-scale recycling facilities. The challenge pertaining to economies of scale has limited the Sources: Plastics Sector Competitiveness Strategy and Action Plan for Côte d’Ivoire, final report, November 2019 and “Plastic Value Chain Mapping Report”, prospects of capital-intensive investments in large-scale material recovery and recycling facilities. Moreover, private recyclers in Ghana indicated that lack of infrastructure for PET plastic waste pelletization means PET plastic recovery in the WACA countries is not as profitable as other plastic waste recovery streams. Recycling businesses Sierra Leone Circular Economy in Plastics for Sustainable Tourism and Economic Diversification, August 2021 cannot afford the prohibitive cost of this infrastructure without financing support. Also, since informal operators are compensated based on the weight of recovered plastics, they find PET-based products (for example, water and beverage bottles) unattractive, as they are lighter than PEHD (in other words, non-film) and PP plastic products. Because PET plastics have this low value, they constitute a considerable proportion of the plastic waste found on land and in marine environments. 16 The Plastic Waste Reduction Program (Plastic Program) enables the robust impact assessment of new or scaled-up waste collection and recycling projects. https://verra.org/programs/plastic-waste-reduction-standard/ 32 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 33 Table 1: Plastics related legislation across the 17 WACA countries WACA countries Legislations/Regulations WACA countries Legislations/Regulations Ghana National Plastic Management Policy, 2020 National Plastic Interministerial Order No. 136 / DHAB, 1995 policies Nigeria National Policy on Plastic Waste Management, 2020 (including CE) Benin Law No. 98-030, 1999 Senegal Plastic Law—Law No. 2020-04 Decree-Law No. 32/2016 Strategic National Plan for the Prevention and Law No. 98-005, 1999 Cabo Verde Management of Waste (PENGeR), 2016 Decree-Law No. 56/2015 establishing the general regime for prevention, production, Extended Producer Responsibility regarding plastic bags - Decree No. 2013-327, Côte d’Ivoire and management of waste, 2015 2013 Strategic National Plan for the Prevention and Management of Waste (PENGeR) Cabo Verde The Gambia EPR included in the Plastic Bag Ban, 2015 Decree-Law No. 32/2016, 2016 Extended Producer Responsibility (Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Decree-Law No. 26/2020 for urban waste management services, 2020 Management Act 217), 2016 Ghana Extended Environmental Law 96/12, 1996 National Plastics Management Policy, 2020 producer responsibility National Environmental Regulations, 2009 and 2011 (introduce EPR requirements Cameroon National Strategy for Waste Management, 2007 for selected industries: food, beverages, tobacco, phar-maceuticals, soap and Nigeria detergent, electricals and electronics, and plastics) Decree No. 2012/2809, 2012 Extended Producer Responsibility Programme, 2016 Framework Act 96-766 under the Environmental Code, 1996 Côte d’Ivoire São Tomé and Príncipe Decree-Law No. 64/2013 on Extended Producer Responsibility, 2013 National Environmental Policy, 2011 Senegal Plastic Law—Law No. 2020-04 Gabon Decree No. 000541/PR/MEFEPEPN regulating waste disposal, 2005 Benin Plastic Ban Law No. 2017/39, 2017 National Environmental Management Act, 1994 Law 99/VIII/2015 - Ban of Non-Reusable Plastic Bags for Wholesale and Retail Cabo Verde Trade, 2015 The Gambia Waste Management Bill, 2007 Waste Cameroon Plastic Bag Ban, 2014 management Anti-Littering Regulation, 2008 policies Côte d’Ivoire Decree No. 2013-327 on the ban of the use of plastic bags, 2013 Environmental Sanitation Policy, 2009 Order No. 1489 / MECIT prohibiting the import and marketing of non-recyclable Ghana The Gambia plastic bags, 2010 National Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Action Plan, 2010 Product policies/plastic Guinea-Bissau Decree Law 16/2013—Plastic bag ban, 2013 Guinea Environmental Code, 2019 bans Mauritania Decree No. 2012-157, 2012 Liberia Environment Protection and Management Law of Liberia, 2002 Nigeria Plastic Bag Prohibition Bill, 2019 Mauritania Law No. 2000-045 Senegal Plastic Law No. 2020-04, 2020 National Policy on Solid Waste Management, 2020 Decree No. 2011-003-PR setting the management methods for plastic bags and Nigeria packaging, 2011 National Environmental Regulations (Sanitation and Wastes Control), 2009 Togo Order No. 11/13/MIZFIT/CAB setting out the management proce-dures for biodegradable plastic bags and packaging in Togo, 2013 São Tomé and Príncipe Environmental Law No. 10/99, 1999 Interministerial Decree No. 2004 N ° 077 / MEHU / MFE / DC / SG / DE / SLRCCAME Benin / DLRE / SA, 2004 Environmental Code 2001 (Law No. 2001-01), 2001 Cabo Verde Law No. 86/IV/93 establishing the environmental policy, 1993 Decentralization Law (Acte III de la Décentralisation) and the Local Governments Senegal Law (Code des Collectivités Territoriales). Customs and Excise (Duties and Other Taxes) (Amendment) Act 863, 2013 Law no. 2022-18 to designate SONAGED as the entity responsible for waste Fiscal policies Ghana management throughout the national territory, 2023 Eco-levy on imported electric and electrical goods and tires (Hazard-ous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act 917), 2016 Sierra Leone National Environmental Health and Sanitation Strategy Guinea Ecotax on Electrical Equipment and Electronics and Tyres, 2019 Togo Framework Law on the Environment 2008-005, 2008 Senegal Plastic Law—Law No. 2020-04 34 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 35 III. A. A CIRCULAR ECONOMY Embracing a circular economy approach APPROACH TO MANAGING As stated above, there are significant needs in the solid waste Circular economy is an umbrella concept that aims to decrease management sector in West Africa. However, addressing plastic material inputs and minimize waste generation.17 Over the pollution does not rely exclusively on improvement of the solid past decades, circular economy has emerged as a paradigm PLASTICS waste management system (the downstream sector); it also that promotes more responsible production and consumption requires more responsible production and consumption patterns patterns. The accelerated global consumption of goods has with regard to plastic products (the upstream sector). From this resulted in over-exploitation of natural resources. The concept perspective, the role of the private sector is critical to ensure of circular economy therefore arises in response to the need the development of sustainable value chains able to improve to reduce environmental pressure from economic growth by the use of untapped resources and minimize the generation of consolidating a system focused on reduction, reuse, recycling, waste to landfill. and recovery of materials in the processes of production, distribution, and consumption.18 Figure 16: Circular economy opportunities across the product life cycle Product life extension: resell Circular Product life extension: supplies repair/upgrade Product Sales and End-of-life Reverse design Procurement Manufacturing Logistics marketing Product use disposal logistics Resource recovery: waste as resource Share product Waste leakage as service (eliminate) Other production process Source: World Bank. 2022. “Squaring the Circle: Policies from Europe’s Circular Economy Transition.” Adapted from Bani and Blom. 2020. “ Rethinking the Road to the Circular Economy.” https://think.ing.com/uploads/ reports/Rethinking_the_road_to_the_circular_economy_FINAL_RB1.pdf. 17 Moraga, Gustavo, Sophie Huysveld, Fabrice Mathieux, Gian Blengini, Luc Alaerts, Karel Van Acker, Steven De Meester, and Jo Dewulf. (2019). “Circular economy indicators: What do they measure?” Resources Conservation and Recycling. 146. 452-461. 10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.03.045. 18 Negrete-Cardoso, Mariana, Genoveva Rosano-Ortega, Erick Alvarez-Aros, Maria Tavera Cortés, Carlos Vega-Lebrún, and Francisco Sanchez-Ruiz. (2022). “Circular economy strategy and waste management: a bibliometric analysis in its contribution to sustainable development, toward a post-COVID-19 era.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29. 10.1007/s11356-022-18703-3. ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank 36 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 37 B. C. Circular economy scenarios Circular economy gap analysis The assessment of three key sectors—packaging, construction, Based on a linear economy model, the three economic sectors The challenges raised in the gap analysis can be presented and Table 2 presents and summarizes the current difficulties and fisheries—in coastal West Africa looked at the potential covered in this study (construction, fisheries, and packaging4) addressed through the prism of the circular economy model, encountered in the plastic circular economy model in the WACA for reducing (in particular marine) plastic waste in the region represent a resource loss scenario of 13.2 million tons CO2 by considering the general motivations and phases involved in an countries. It also identifies enabling conditions and recommends through a circular economy model at the 2026 horizon. 2026. However, if a pragmatic scenario is applied, the estimate effective circular economy scenario. Success relies on fulfilling tools in each phase to bridge the gaps toward stimulating a for emission reductions is estimated to be in a range between a market need with a cost-effective solution (products and/or sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective plastic circular economy Results highlight the strong potential for reducing plastic waste, 5.5 and 9.2 million tons CO2. services) that can be commercialized with consistent front-end in the region. and associated C02 emissions, through a circular economy sourcing and back-end processing. model. Under the pragmatic circular economy scenario, 39 to 51 percent less plastic would be lost to the environment Figure 18: CO2 emissions mitigation based on a pragmatic circular Table 2: Challenges and leverages to implement a plastic circular economy in the WACA countries economy scenario in 2026 (million tons CO2 emissions) (end as waste) compared to the linear economy model (business-as-usual). Fisheries Packaging Construction Business case for Challenges for a plastic circular a plastic circular Leverages economy model in WACA economy model Figure 17: Plastic resource loss mitigation based on a pragmatic circular CO₂ EMISSIONS economy scenario in 2026 (million tons) MITIGATION: Market need Three key sectors still in need of plastic • Ban certain single-use plastics, with control and enforcement products • Promote and incentivize “reuse, repurpose, recycle” solutions and Fisheries Packaging Construction 31%–58% use of alternative materials TOTAL: TOTAL: 13.2 Consumers’ demand Expectations regarding food secu-rity and • Introduce biodegradable materials substitutes 7.4 water quality TOTAL: 0.2 0.5 5.5–9.2 Cost competitivity • Virgin plastic cheap in comparison to • Ban and/or tax virgin plastic recovered plastic • Redirect public and private financing toward recovered plastic 0.3–0.4 • Cost of R&D and capital investment • Impose and enforce standards in plastic compositions CE OPPORTUNITY: • Emphasize CO2 credit benefits 39%–51% Main phases in a CE model 10.8 TOTAL: 3.6 – 4.5 Design and process • No substitute for some plastic products • Identify main contributors and promote solutions through “reuse, • No recycling options for some varieties repurpose, recycle” innovations and initiatives of plastic 0.1–0.2 6.3 Energy • Energy cost and availability • Evaluate waste to energy opportunities 4.1–7.2 Material input • Low value of virgin resin • Tax virgin plastic (imported and domestic) • Low quality of recovered plastic • Incentivize recovered plastic • Insufficient volume of recovered plastic • Develop regional organization and trade for consistent recovered 1.9 1.2–1.6 plastic flow Business-as-usual Circular economy model • Improve and specify raw material quality for recovered plastic 2.9–3.7 Infrastructure • Few manufacturing facilities • Secure finance for infrastructure and capital investment and workforce • Low recycling capacity • Create private sector investment incentives (production) • Seek public funding or offer tax rebates Polymer based emissions factor – kg CO₂ emission per kg of plastic Lower end Higher end Average Use Low awareness and sensitization of users: Educate and sensitize general population and stakeholders 0.9 Polyethylene 1.1 2.1 1.6 (i) against littering; (ii) for sorting; and (iii) for 0.6–0.6 Polypropylene 1.1 2.0 1.6 recovered plastic or alternative plastic Polystyrene 2.8 3.5 3.2 products Business-as-usual Circular economy model polyvinyl chloride 1.9 2.5 2.2 Collect/remove • Insufficient means • Increase means and workforce for collection, sorting Sector-based range displayed with pattern Others 1.7 2.4 2.0 • Informal practice and cleaning Sector-based minimum value displayed with solid color • Implement extended producer responsibilities (EPR) schemes Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” • Organize a reliable and consistent recovered plastic flow Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis.” • Engage informal reclaimers (with plastic credit schemes) In the plastic packaging sector, adopting a pragmatic circular Recycle • Few recycling facilities Fund capital investment through: scenario (through avoidance/reuse/recycling) will reduce plastic • Low value of recycled plastic • Private sector investment incentives waste by 2.2 and 4 million tons, equivalent to CO2 emission • Public funding or tax rebates reductions between 3.6 and 6.7 million tons. • Implementation of EPR schemes • Request for CO2 credit benefits Dispose • Lack of formal and effective disposal • Improve infrastructure sites • Launch clean-up campaigns in hotspots in the relevant season • Leakage of sanitary landfills 38 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 39 Table 3: Recommendations for initiatives across three sectors in the WACA countries D. Four tracks to get to a circular economy Across sectors Construction Packaging plastics Fisheries The potential roadmap to facilitate a transition from a linear to a • Additionally, extended producer responsibility (EPR) circular economy in the WACA countries requires a combination policies can address funding gaps and cost-effectiveness New business • Regulatory initiatives • Adopt green construction • Support increased use • Mandate and promote “in of top-down and bottom-up approaches. Governments need in the recovery of plastic waste and non-plastic packaging models including bans, EPR approach including use of bio-based plastics coordination with industry to set in place regulations to enable private sector investment alternatives, with well-thought-out systems of taxes, rebates, policies of metals, bamboo, and through import subsidies associations” the use of • R&D partnerships with composites and investment in natural fibers for fishing and the creation of a dynamic market for recycled plastics and and other fiscal policy measures. Those EPR tools can also research institutions to • Adopt use of similar production technology nets and plastic lines alternative plastics products. The private sector needs to identify be used to shape manufacturing sector trends and consumer develop alternatives Building Information • Support research and • Use technology, including opportunities to invest in resource efficiency and industrial behavior toward maximizing plastic waste prevention, plastic to plastic modeling (BIM) technology implementation of new RFID tags, to create symbiosis to improve the recovery of plastics, change the product reuse, and plastic recycling. • Propose regulations currently used in Europe bio-material mycelium- inventory of commercial that promote imports of by Sanda Hus to reduce based packaging as shipping nets in the region design of the products to include more recycled plastic content, and develop alternative products/services for non-recoverable • Both government and private sector stakeholders will need products containing a set minimum % of recycled plastics use in the industry compostable alternative to plastics to reduce new ghost gear plastics. The challenges and benefits of different strategies can to facilitate the development of data collection systems that plastics • Institute and encourage be summarized as follows: track the flow of plastics across the value chain. This will like-for-like exchange enable the orientation and prioritization of strategies and programs, especially for • Targeted plastic product bans, especially in scenarios where policies suited to specific regional and local situations. replacing PET bottles with glass/wood/metal affordable and regionally sourced alternatives are available, alternatives could influence the market demand toward a plastic circular • Governments, the private sector, and academia should economy model. The quest for viable alternatives in the work on programs to facilitate the use of new technologies WACA countries must be contingent on support for research to recover plastics; create alternative plastic products; and/or and development partnerships with research institutions that develop common synergies to foster innovation, adopt new Extend lifespan • Regulatory policies • Select reused or higher • Invest in plastic repair/ • Promote policies solutions, and exchange best practices to improve the plastic defining industry product recycled content products welding technology as a encouraging use of are testing potential plastic substitutes. content standards and materials (e.g., plastic means of prolonging use of second-hand/discarded footprint of the region. • Employ fiscal policy recycled content blocks, existing plastics fishing “equipment” • Nonetheless, in the short- to medium-term, it is very likely measures including reclaimed bricks, locally • Promote transfer/ especially nets, “ropes” that the WACA countries will still be a largely import-based Several initiatives across the three economic sectors presented spending, taxes and recycled aggregates) installation technology. and crates market for plastic products and other goods with embedded earlier have been identified and recommended (Table 3). rebates to shape industry • Modify the specification for For example, Notpla • Work with research plastic. Hence, governments will need to introduce circular- and consumer behaviour building elements company helped to find a institutions to develop (e.g., lower- weight biodegradable solution seaweed/algae-based and economy-based specifications for plastic-related imports, roof design, water pipe to plastic packaging for commercially viable plastic such as setting a minimum content percentage of recycled material) water sachets for use in fishing industry plastics within an imported plastic-based product. • Enact policies that encourage mono-color use of PET bottles (white) for enhancing recycled PET resin availability Use materials • Development of targeted • In coordination with • In coordination with • Support policies that waste management industry associations, industry associations encourage collection of policies mandate use of non-plastic and research institutions marine plastic waste and • Launch government, material for packaging of evaluate increased ghost gear by fishermen private sector and building materials possibilities of chemical by providing rebates on NGO awareness and • Support public entities recycling purchase of new gear participation campaigns in developing tender • Promote segregation and • Enact policies “in requirements for affordable collection of plastics by coordination with industry housing and infrastructure type, including bottle associations” that provide • Align industry associations deposit schemes subsidies and or tax and waste management • Invest in plastic waste breaks for exchange of bodies with cement recycling technology plastic fishing equipment industry to ensure MSW similar to TECO, which for other materials (municipal solid waste) transforms waste into • Support programs that stream for alternative fuels usable roofs, furniture and enable exchange of lost school benches fishing gear for vouchers • Invest in collection for food or school supplies centers in urban centers, as most plastic waste is concentrated in cities rather than rural areas Source: World Bank. 2023. “West Africa Circular Economy: Realizing the Potential of Plastics. A Regional Gap Analysis”countries ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank 40 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 41 CASE STUDY 3 BUILDING ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS FROM TABLE 3, THE MOVE TO A CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR PLASTICS IN COASTAL WEST AFRICA COULD BE ACTIONED IN FOUR PARALLEL TRACKS, AS FOLLOWS: Import taxes on thin polyethylene sheets In West African coastal countries, all single-use plastic (SUP) sachets, bags, and other containers are fabricated from thin polyethylene sheet (TPS), virtually all of which is imported. TRACK 1 Influence the market demand/offer toward a plastic circular economy model One appealing policy would directly target bulk imports of polyethylene; however, evaluating this policy also requires understanding the expected response of TPS imports to the imposition of tariffs. The role of the private sector is critical for the implementation of Ban, limit, control, and enforce regulation A specific study showed that import taxes on polyethylene sheets can play a key a circular economy strategy. By promoting circular innovations role in reducing SUP waste but understanding the distributional implications for the and associated research and development towards new product Global experience indicates that both bans and price-based poor is critical. Taxation of the imported polyethylene that comprises most designs in the field of polymers for packaging, governments strategies can be effective ways to reduce plastic waste. of the production feedstock for SUP in West Africa is a potentially can stimulate market acceptance of circular-economy-related Experience shows that people are more likely to accept a effective price-based policy, with relatively low administrative costs. products. They can also facilitate international partnerships ban or price-based strategy if they have access to suitable, Plastic demand exhibits a very elastic response to changes in the with leading global universities researching new and innovative environmentally friendly alternatives that are reasonably priced. price of imported polyethylene. Import taxes have a potentially major packaging materials made from sustainable sources (including Eleven out of 17 WACA countries have instituted bans on SUP cost advantage over directly targeted measures, since the former can new resins and bio-polyethylene). bags, with various levels of enforcement and success. For be administered at relatively few entry points while the latter require a The development and promotion of alternative or reusable example, Nigeria (the region’s sole producer of plastics and its widely distributed cadre of enforcement agents. Since a tariff may have a products requires planning well in advance of implementing largest consumer) instituted a ban on plastic bags in 2014. In disproportionate impact on the poor, policymakers should consider potential plastic-reduction policies. The jobs created in the alternative 2019 the government strengthened the legislation by instituting distributional implications before implementing a tariff on polyethylene. sectors can also mitigate opposition arising from potential loss a N500,000 fine or a three-year jail sentence. However, as there Source: World Bank. 2023. “The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries.” © Freepik of employment in the plastics industry. Taking the extra time for is inadequate municipal infrastructure to address drinking water advance planning and publicity can help both the plastics industry or waste management requirements, enforcement remains a and the public to adjust to a scenario with lower plastic usage. point of concern. Command-and-control approaches minimize the external costs Define and implement harmonized standards and green procurement specifications generated by plastic products by banning their use through regulation and enforcement. An important hindrance highlighted by private sector interviewees According to private recyclers in Nigeria, entrepreneurs RECOMMENDATIONS ACROSS in Nigeria and Ghana, is the prevailing weak policy landscape pursuing circular economy initiatives would benefit from THE THREE SECTORS ARE TO: Introduce taxes and economic incentives for promoting circularity in plastics production through recycled the harmonization of standards for recovered plastics. The content standards. Introducing a green taxonomy and setting African Circular Economy Alliance considers the African Free • Adopt new business models, such as a green Incentive-based approaches include levying production excise a minimum percentage of recycled plastic content in plastic Trade Agreement as a tool for promoting circular economy in construction approach (including, for instance, the taxes or import duties on raw materials, or taxing plastic products products could facilitate private sector investment in material the management of plastics, especially when it comes to the use of metals, bamboo, and composites). at the point of sale. recovery facilities and recycling units. harmonization of regulation and standards for plastics recycling. To realize the Agreement’s potential to increase intra-African • Increase use of bio-based plastics and investment in As practical tools for promoting alternatives to plastics and Governments in the WACA countries must work toward trade, it is important to develop standards that regulate the production technology (packaging). circular economy approaches to plastics recovery, governments introducing policies that incentivize (i) standards for recycled reuse, recycling, and disposal of plastics. Hence, the African in the WACA countries can consider the introduction of fiscal content; (ii) production of reusable products; and (iii) use • Use new geo-tags technology on nets to reduce Development Bank collaborates with the World Economic Forum policies and price-based systems such as tax breaks, levies, of recovered plastics as a substitute for virgin plastics in the fishing ghost gear, and renew the inventory of and African Standardization Organization to enable greater and deposit-refund schemes. The removal of import tariffs for production of plastic products. These could include mandating commercial shipping nets. levels of trade in plastic polymers, and to provide technical plastic recycling equipment, and the introduction of tax breaks a defined percentage of recycled plastic in all PET bottles, or assistance for the development of harmonized, continental for local manufacturers of alternatives to SUP packaging, are a elaboration of import standards for plastic packaging content. • Extend the lifetime of products, including through standards for PET plastics. few examples of fiscal policy initiatives that could be explored. To (These standards would need to be formulated on a regional their reuse and the production of materials with higher determine the most appropriate approach, governments would basis to carry weight with importers.) Standards for the use of State agencies responsible for public works and other critical recycled content. do well to prioritize consultation with manufacturers and other recovered plastics can attract more investment into the market. infrastructural investments can consider introducing mandates • Implement policies that encourage the use of relevant stakeholders in the design of fiscal policies. For example, the recent introduction of standards for food-grade for contractors to incorporate specifications advocating mono-color PET bottles, and develop seaweed- or applications of recovered polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) for a circular economy model. For instance, construction The establishment of such fiscal initiatives can lay the foundation algae-based, biodegradable plastic for use in the in Nigeria has contributed to increased interest from private inputs could be required to be entirely or partially made from for the development of a viable EPR scheme, coupled with fishing industry. investors and expansion of potential off-takers of recyclable recovered plastics. Road construction works are a particularly networks of satellite plastic buy-back centers. plastic materials. advantageous context for application of such initiatives. Backed by the relevant policy framework, such green procurement policies can facilitate the creation of a stable demand market. 42 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 43 CASE STUDY 4 Implement extended producer responsibility for packaging Extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes aim to reduce the environmental and economic burdens of waste management Producer responsibility organizations to manage for municipalities by extending producer responsibility to the end-of-life stage. Globally, the trend has been for EPR schemes to polyethylene terephthalate bottles in Senegal evolve from partial to full-cost coverage, with producers more commonly now responsible for the entire net operational costs of the packaging they put on the market. This means that producers are typically required to cover not only the administrative costs for the Establishing an eco-organization (or producer responsibility organization (PRO) in EPR program but the management costs of packaging waste—including collection, sorting, and recycling. Senegal, as envisaged in the 2020 Plastic Law, could achieve significant results in tackling plastic bottle pollution, as it already does in other African and European countries. The introduction of EPR schemes is pivotal to entrenching circular economy solutions in the WACA countries. These schemes must include all businesses involved in the introduction of plastic and plastic-based products into consumer markets. This will require Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) use for bottling in Senegal represents about 38,000 tonnes every year and an effective system of identifying and tracking the activities of the relevant stakeholders, particularly water sachet producers and accounts for 15 to 16 percent of plastic waste generated in the country. Unlike other plastic polymers, like PEHD importers of finished plastic products. Also, the funds raised through the scheme should be ring-fenced and managed transparently or PP, there is so far little collection and recycling of PET taking place in Senegal. Only two plants that produce to engender continued participation on the part of all stakeholders. PET pellets for export are in operation and the price for collected PET is too low to encourage collection beyond the immediate vicinity of these two plants. EPR schemes should be linked to effective systems for plastic waste recovery, including deposit return schemes and a network of buy-back centers. Those policies will support a cleaner and more reliable supply of recovered plastics by directly incentivizing plastics The Senegal Technical Report shows that an eco-organization focused on PET could go a long way toward cleaning consumers and waste collectors to increase the capture of recovered plastics. up the country. An eco-organization is a form of extended producer responsibility through which producers and importers can join forces to manage waste like PET or packaging. This collective effort helps reach economic Furthermore, governments in the WACA countries must implement EPR schemes to aid the development of efficiency and scale (as opposed to individual corporate social responsibility-like programs). It also helps address effective traceability and duty-of-care systems for tracking the flow of products across the plastic value chain. competitiveness issues between national producers and importers, and helps monitor more closely and accurately Though EPR policies would facilitate effective collection of plastic waste, governments in the WACA the volume of waste produced and its fate. countries must be cautious of replicating the EPR systems that have been developed in advanced Analysis developed for this report shows the large potential of an eco-organization in Senegal, which could economies. They are unlikely to be appropriate for the African context, particularly due to progressively gain in scale (that is, outside the Dakar conurbation) and momentum (in other words, targeting other the predominance of informal waste collectors and low-income consumption of plastics. types of wastes, like plastic film, packaging, and so on). Building on the existing network of informal waste reclaimers and the establishment of collection points (37) and pellet plants (4) in strategic regions, an eco-organization could help tackle 50 percent of PET pollution in Senegal within two to three years. With eco-contributions ranging from 1 to 5 F.CFA per bottle or container (and in line with current plastic taxation levels), the eco-organization would be able to support collection prices up to 150 F.CFA per kg (or twice the current level in local initiatives), thereby encouraging collection and improving livelihood and income for a vast number of people. It is thus estimated that Educate and sensitize consumers the eco-organization could generate about 3,000 full-time jobs with decent remuneration. and stakeholders There is already considerable experience with designing and operating eco-organizations on the African continent Consultations with stakeholders in the WACA countries and in Europe, which could inform any action in Senegal. The main bottleneck currently is the existence of a plastic highlighted the need for stronger joint efforts between public, tax, whose revenue is not directed towards managing plastic. Double taxation is a strong disincentive for private, civil society, and NGO stakeholders on plastic industrialists. For a broad adhesion to the eco-organization, the tax (on PET) should be transformed management sensitization. into some form of eco-contribution, which would support the functioning of the eco-organization. Indeed, greater collaboration on education campaigns and adequate labeling can inculcate proper packaging, waste disposal, and recycling practices. A joint effort towards sensitization will facilitate the provision of consistent messaging, as well as increase the efficiency of resource allocation and targeting of different communities. Such educational programs—particularly those that emphasize the negative environmental implications of improper plastic waste disposal and highlight practical approaches to behavioral IMAGE change and sustainable consumption—are vital to strengthen the foundation for circularity in WACA countries. ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank 44 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank SYNTHESIS PAPER 45 ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank TRACK 2 Consolidate infrastructure, logistics, workforce, and supply chain Improve solid waste management as Organize recovered plastic sourcing well as plastic manufacturing and Plastic recyclers noted the inconsistent supply of recovered recycling infrastructures plastics among both formal and informal waste collection operators as another factor responsible for low demand— According to public and private stakeholders, logistical including from plastic manufacturers with lower quality thresholds. challenges mean that many formal waste collection operators Hence, even though there are regional manufacturers interested are unable to engage in segregated plastic waste collection. in using recycled plastics in the production of packaging, there This contributes to the disposal of plastic waste at landfills. are concerns over predictability of supply and contamination of These firms need dedicated recyclable waste collection vehicles, raw products. These challenges eventually stifle attempts by as well as the associated waste transfer stations required to manufacturers to pursue plastic-packaging-related recycling accommodate multiple waste streams. Also, increased space and sustainability targets. for collaboration with informal operators, and fast-tracked government efforts to include informal operations, would Similarly, expert interviews with private stakeholders in Ghana contribute to limiting the common mixing of waste collection and Nigeria highlighted that the dominance of virgin plastic from residential and commercial sources. resin use was partly driven by concerns that recovered plastics obtained by informal operators from nonsegregated sources— Those difficulties—as well as lack of infrastructure and means— such as landfills—were potentially polluted and unsuitable for need to be solved, both to reduce the level of plastic waste and recycling. The use of recovered plastics for the manufacture to improve the quantity and quality of recovered plastic. of new plastic products (especially for food and beverage packaging) could therefore be increased with improved Furthermore, there is a direct relationship between plastic cleanliness and compliance with quality threshold requirements. manufacturing infrastructure and plastic circularity in the WACA countries. Amid the region’s low level of plastic manufacturing To address the supply risks of manufacturers, governments must infrastructure, there are limited opportunities for the incorporation consider appropriate incentive schemes for greater collaboration of upstream circular economy initiatives for plastics (such between formal and informal waste operators. This will increase as designing reusable and easily recyclable products). the volume and quality of recovered plastics, thereby increasing For example, interviews with public sector stakeholders in domestic and regional demand. Liberia revealed that, like many economies in the WACA countries, Liberia has a minuscule plastics manufacturing sector Increased intraregional collaboration on plastic waste and subsequently relies heavily on imports of manufactured management among the WACA countries, and trade between plastic products. This imported plastic could be an untapped them in recovered plastics, could help achieve economies of resource for the private sector to consider for regional scale in smaller markets such as those of Liberia, Sierra Leone, recycled plastic trade. and The Gambia. It is essential to assess and develop political solutions to the implications of such trade in relation to the Basel Countries in the region with economies of scale, such as Ghana, Convention. Intraregional collaboration could also benefit these could thus benefit from increased investment in industrial smaller economies around knowledge and technology transfer, recycling infrastructure. and awareness-creation on circular economy and plastics. These could provide enabling conditions for the private sector to invest in material recovery facilities or recycling plants. The local recycled plastics could also be used in other domestic products, if the quality of recyclates is comparable to that of virgin plastics. 46 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 47 TRACK 3 Improve cost-effectiveness of alternative and circular plastic products Funding and incentive Valorization of circular economy benefit, Financing and financial fiscal tools CO2 and plastic credit services facilitation One of the main efforts of governments is to identify opportunities Switching from imported virgin plastics to domestic secondary Sustained investment in innovation, infrastructure, and logistics to reduce or eliminate the extra cost of managing end-of-life of plastics creates an opportunity to build domestic value chains is required to create a circular economy, based on refilling, use plastic products. As a general and indicative evaluation, the and increase employment in the WACA countries. This benefit of alternative materials (including bioplastics), and recycling. cost of reducing plastic pollution has been assessed and would has not been estimated but could justify public or development However, plastic industry stakeholders identified that countries fall within the range of the estimated external plastic costs in funding and grants for supporting circular economy initiatives. are struggling to secure funding for recycling infrastructure, the WACA economy presented above. In practice, this would largely because of the relatively low profitability. mean that direct or indirect subsidies, coming from public funds, With respect to CO2 credit benefits, a study has estimated that in could be provided to encourage the use of biodegradable and 2021 plastic consumption will generate environmental impacts Development partners have an important role to play in of between 7.9 and 11.1 million tons of CO2, growing between supporting the growth of circular economy solutions for plastics ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank circular economy plastic products, compensating for their higher production cost, in addition to their development cost 12 and 16.9 million tons by 2026 if the linear business model does management. As an example, the African Development Bank and associated capital investment. not progress to a pragmatic circular economy model. However, addresses the challenge small and medium-sized enterprises if a pragmatic scenario is applied, the emission reduction by (SMEs) face in securing private sector financing by providing The study considered three main approaches for reducing 2026 will be between 5.5 and 9.2 million tons CO2. Depending de-risking financial instruments for small private entities like plastic pollution: (i) incentives; (ii) command and control; and on different price scenarios and their underlying drivers, if the start-ups and SMEs. These include grants and credit guarantees (iii) removal of plastic waste through cleaning, recycling, and WACA countries move towards a circular economy pragmatic given directly to regional credit unions and commercial banks, safe disposal. model, this will generate a possible purchasing of carbon credits such as Ecobank. Additionally, the African Development Bank of between US$ 30 million and US$ 58 million. aims to operationalize a financing vehicle (the African Circular Incentive-based approaches include levying production excise Economy Facility) to facilitate the disbursement of funds for taxes or import duties on raw materials, or taxing plastic products Finally, the introduction of plastic credit systems could also investment in circular-economy-based solutions. at the point of sale. Command-and-control approaches minimize benefit companies’ and informal sector plastic recovery. the external costs generated by plastic products by banning As plastic waste recovery in the WACA countries is driven by The financing of plastics recovery should be primarily driven by their use through regulation and enforcement. In principle, both the informal sector, the introduction of credible plastic credit market dynamics (aided by governments creating a conducive incentive-based and command-and-control approaches can schemes has the potential to contribute toward safeguarding business environment). However, governments can also reduce the use of many plastic products. However, complete the livelihood of—often poorly paid— informal waste operators. provide small allocations of capital to informal waste operators elimination may not be feasible for some, in which case the The plastic credit system aims to enable companies with plastic to encourage greater levels of plastic collection. It is important removal of plastic waste through cleaning, recycling, or safe footprints to pay for plastic waste recovery equivalent in volume to ensure that such investments are allocated to the appropriate ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank disposal will be beneficial. These three approaches are not to their plastic production. According to a waste management recipients, to maximize the benefits accrued. mutually exclusive. Rather, they can be tailored to a particular company with operations in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire (Coliba) the country’s local economic and political conditions to achieve the incorporation of plastic credits in its operations helped subsidize Given the critical importance of financial incentives for informal most cost-effective mix. waste purchases from the informal waste sector. In addition, operators, coupled with the fact that many informal operators plastic credits provided an earnings buffer for informal operators lack access to bank accounts, mobile money technology during episodes of oil price falls, and the associated decline in offers a means of facilitating access to financial services. the demand for recovered plastics. Commercialization of circular economy business models within a smaller production environment is a challenge faced by stakeholders in the largest economies of the WACA countries. However, this hurdle can be minimized by using well-established tools—such as mobile technology—to significantly improve the efficiency of value-chain transactions. 19 World Bank. 2023. “The Economics of Plastic Use and Cleanup Priorities for West African Coastal Countries.” 20 Carbon credits (often referred to as “offsets”) have an important dual role to play in the battle against climate change. They enable companies to support decarbonization beyond their own carbon footprint, thus accelerating the broader transition to a lower-carbon future. They also help finance projects for removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere—delivering negative emissions, which will be needed to neutralize residual emissions that will persist even under the most optimistic scenarios for decarbonization. (McKinsey Sustainability 2020) 21 According to Oil Price Information Service (OPIS), the average price of voluntary carbon credits—frequently sold, premier forestry offsets—is about US$ 7.50 per ton CO2 over the last 12 months in 2022 (IHS Markit Energy Expert 2022). 48 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank SYNTHESIS PAPER 49 TRACK 4 Manage the change towards circular economy Engage stakeholders in policies and strategies Creating new markets All stakeholders of the plastic value-chain should be engaged Greater levels of collaboration between public, private, informal, Governments should cooperate with the private sector to identify plastic materials. At the same time, they should work with in the design and implementation of policies and strategies. and development stakeholders would harness the individual effective enabling conditions to attract investments, or to develop the private sector to facilitate the necessary investment to These include: government ministries and agencies; private strengths of each in addressing challenges in the region’s public-private partnership projects for new infrastructures that recover these materials and to help establish local supply businesses; industry associations; plastic producers/convertors; plastics sector. For example, strategic engagements with aim to recover untapped resources and generate new markets. chains for them—for example, by engaging with the main the major plastic packaging users (PET bottles, high-density the informal sector can expand efforts to increase access to Countries that import plastic products should design trade plastic product exporters in the region to foster foreign direct polyethylene [PEHD] water-sachet manufacturers); municipal segregated plastic waste collection. Likewise, collaboration can strategies to impose more stringent requirements for imported investment opportunities. solid waste (MSW) departments; plastic waste segregators facilitate effective behavioral change campaigns. products, requiring higher content of recyclable/recoverable (including informal waste reclaimers); resin producers; and civil society organizations, including consumer associations. Collect more location-specific knowledge (plastic flow analysis; waste-induced losses; remediation effectiveness) Private-sector stakeholders in Ghana and Nigeria highlighted More local case studies on sector-specific losses from plastic the general absence of high-quality data on plastic products and waste are needed in West African coastal countries. At present, waste flows in the WACA countries, particularly regarding the the WACA countries do not have sufficient data for estimating activities of informal operators. This hampers efforts to promote country- and sector-specific costs. Better data on waste plastic effective national strategies for plastic waste recovery. externalities can play a key role in assessing the benefits and costs of policy options for plastic waste remediation. A cost-effective mix of approaches Location-specific analyses are needed to determine the most cost-effective policy mix for plastic waste remediation in each country. West African coastal countries require urgent intervention because mismanaged plastic waste in the marine environment will continue to increase at high rates. However, there is no one-size-fits-all solution. As options for plastic waste management improve, the most practical policy solutions will likely entail a balance of cleanup strategies and some combination of innovative, quantity- and price-based approaches. Determining the most cost-effective policy mix for each country should involve location-specific analyses. ©Mel D. Cole for World Bank 50 Plastic Pollution in Coastal West Africa SYNTHESIS PAPER 51 www.wacaprogram.org | waca@worldbank.org