66560 v i l l a g e s u r v e y r e s u lt s : x x 1 the world bank februAry 2011 Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions Village Survey Results: Mali february 2011 S o C I a L D e v e L o p m e n t D e pa rt m e n t | S o C I a L D I m e n S I o n S o f C L I m at e C h a n g e Costing adaptation through Local Institutions Village Survey Results: Mali © 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H St., NW Washington, DC 20433 U.S.A. Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/sdcc E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved. February 2011 This paper is based upon work that has been commissioned by the World Bank as part of the work program on the role of local institutions in climate change adaptation. The results reported in the paper are preliminary and subject to revision. 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For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone 978-750-4470; Internet: www.copyright.com iii CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix SUMMARY x Costing Adaptation Through Local Institutions in Mali x Study Organization x Main Results x Households are Extended Families… x . . . and have Few Sources of Income x Vulnerability Profiles of the Villages are Different x Cluster Analysis Defines Intervention Strategy xii Strategies can be Subdivided into Four Categories xii Most Households Make use of Similar Strategies xii Assistance to Villages is Divided Among Institutions xii Main Conclusions xiii Communal Strategies are Not Often Used… xiii … and Training is Completely Absent xv Assistance is Limited to Inputs… xv … and is Channeled through NGOs and Community Institutions… xv … and is Focused on Short-term Aid xv Policy Recommendations xv There is Little Variation in the Strategies Adopted xv There is Limited Ownership to Implement Community Strategies xv Institutions are Poorly Visible xvi Successful Strategies Should Focus on Creating Ownership xvi 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Background and Objectives of the CALI Project 1 Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions (CALI)—objectives 1 Design of the CALI Study 1 iv C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Data were Collected on Strategies Adopted… 2 …the Role of Institutions… 2 …and Costs of Adaptation Options 2 The Focus is on Past Household Behavior 2 Report Objectives 2 Organization of the Report 3 2. COUNTRY CONTEXT: MALI 4 Mali’s Vulnerability to Climate Variability 4 Mali’s Climate is Characterized by High Variability… 4 … and Local Climate is Difficult to Predict 4 Not Only Climate Variability Affects Rural Environments 4 Climate Variability: the Policy Framework 5 Climate Adaptation Initiatives in Mali 7 Costs of Adaptation to Climate Change 8 Complications in Cost Estimation 8 The Costing Estimates are a First Step and Should be Interpreted with Care 8 3. DATA COLLECTION AND STUDY AREA CHARACTERISTICS 10 Costing Methodology 10 Step 1: Distinguish Four Categories of Adaptation Strategies 10 Step 2: Disentangle the Different Costing Elements 10 Data Collection 11 Criteria for the Selection of the Villages 11 Organization of the Fieldwork 11 Vulnerability 11 Vulnerability Depends on Exposure, Sensitivity, and Coping Capacity 11 Vulnerability Depends on Many Factors 12 Consider Two Types of Vulnerability Analysis 12 Description of Study Area and Study Villages 13 Villages Cover the Major Climate Zones and Agricultural Systems 13 Sahelian Villages Fambougou and Kondogola Depend on Millet-based, Rainfed Agriculture 14 N’Tjila is in a Favorable Rainfall Zone 14 Sahelian Villages Touara and Kandara Benefit from the Presence of the Niger and Bani Rivers 15 Togou Benefits from Controlled Flooding 15 Observations on Village Studies 16 Farmers Observe Increasing Temperatures and Decreasing Rainfall 16 Major Occupations are the Same for Almost all Households in the Sample 16 4. VULNERABILITY PROFILES AND ADAPTATION PRACTICES 17 Village Vulnerability Profiles 17 Key Similarities 17 Key Differences 19 Vulnerability Levels are Illustrated by the Hunger Period 21 Household Vulnerability Profiles 21 Household Clusters Show Vulnerability Classes 22 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I v Different Types of Households are Present within each Village 24 Villages Exhibit Signs of a Social Divide 24 The Cluster Analysis Confirms the Village Analysis 24 Climate-Related Hazards are Important for the Households 24 Vulnerability and Adaptation 26 Top Five Strategies Adopted Contain Four Individual Strategies 26 Villages Select Similar Strategies 27 Strategies Aim Both at Sensitivity Reduction and Coping 27 Cost Estimates are Difficult to Interpret 28 Highest Costs are Made for Cereal Banks 28 Institutional Access and Climate Adaptation 29 Institutions Have Focus Villages 29 Poor Households are Difficult to Reach… 29 . . . but Receive Assistance from NGOs and Village Communities 30 International Donors, National Authorities, Banks, Schools, and Religious Communities are Almost Absent 30 Institutions Only have Limited Incentives to Improve their Operations 30 Assistance Given is Especially in Terms of Inputs 31 Assistance in Climate Adaptation Strategies is Limited 32 Costing Adaptation 32 Implementing Strategies Requires Cooperation 32 Adoption of Low-Cost Strategies Depends on their Expected Benefits 34 Adoption of High-Cost Strategies Requires Cash Income or Institutional Assistance 34 More Expensive Communal Strategies Face Financial and Managerial Constraints 35 Assistance from Formal and Informal Institutions May Relieve Adoption Constraints 35 5. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 36 Main Findings 36 Households are Extended Families 36 Vulnerability Profiles of the Villages are Different 36 Cluster Analysis Defines Intervention Strategy 37 Strategies can be Subdivided into Four Categories 37 Most Households make use of Similar Strategies 37 Assistance to Villages is Divided Between Institutions 38 Communal Strategies are not Often Used… 38 . . . and Training is Completely Absent 38 Assistance is Limited to Inputs… 38 . . . and is Channeled Through NGOs and Community Institutions 38 Policy Recommendations 39 There is Little Variation in the Strategies Adopted 39 There is Limited Ownership to Implement Community Strategies 39 Institutions are Poorly Visible 39 Successful Strategies Should Focus on Creating Ownership 39 REFERENCES 41 vi C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S APPENDIX 1. METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 42 A1.A. Methodology and Costing Framework 42 A1.B. Household questionnaire 47 Rationale of the Questionnaire 47 Notes on How to Conduct the Questionnaire 49 Question 1: 50 Question 2: 50 Question 3: 50 Question 4: 50 Question 5: 51 Question 6: 51 Question 7: 51 Question 8: 52 Question 9: 52 Tableaux De La Question d6: Types Et Montants Des Moyens Des Production En Nature 64 Illustrative photos 65 A1.C Institutional Stakeholder Questionnaire 68 A1.D. Focus Group Discussion 71 APPENDIX 2. DATA ANALYSIS 73 A2.A. Descriptive analysis of the households 73 A2.B. Descriptive analysis of the clusters 81 A2.C. Strategies adopted for villages and clusters 86 A2.D. Institutional access for villages and clusters 92 APPENDIX 3. SUMMARY OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS 97 Village N°1: Kandara 97 Village N°2: Touara 98 Village N°3: Kondogola 99 Village N°4: Fambougou 99 Village N°5: Togou 100 Discussion avec les femmes 101 Village N°6: N’Tjila 102 APPENDIX 4. SUMMARY OF INSTITUTIONAL STAKEHOLDER INTERVIEWS 104 Question 1: General Statistics of Respondents 104 Question 2: Hazards Faced by Villages 105 Observations by the Respondents 105 Question 3: Organizations Present in the Villages 106 Question 4a: Which Organization(s) are in Your Opinion Most Helpful or Best to Help the Population Adapting to the Risks of Weather Variability? 107 Question 4b: What Type of Assistance do Households Need in Order to Adapt to the Risks of Weather Variability? Training, Knowledge, Inputs, Financial Aid, Communal Projects on e.g. Irrigation, Soil Erosion Prevention or Water Harvesting,. . . .? 108 Question 4c: What Kind of Problems Hamper to Your Opinion the Activities of the Organizations Who are Assisting the Population to Adapt to Changing Weather Variability 109 Question 4d: What Kind of External Assistance or Help do Organizations Who are Working in this Field Need in Order to Improve their Results? Financial Help, Knowledge/Training, Inputs/Material, Back-up From Governmental or International Organizations, . . . . .? 110 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I vii Question 5 and 6: General Questions on Institutions 111 Question 7: Membership and Clients of Institutions 114 Question 8: Funding 117 Question 9: Climate Impacts 118 Question 10: Government Policies Supporting Institutions 122 BOX Box 1. Observations from the Institutional Stakeholder Interviews 31 FIGURES Figure 1. The Villages’ Scores on The Vulnerability Characteristics xi Figure 2. The Cluster Scores on the Vulnerability Characteristics xiii Figure 3. Percentage of Times Households Choose a Particular Adaptation Option xiv Figure 4. Percentage of Households in the Villages Having Contacts with Different Institutions xiv Figure 5. Climate Zones and Land Use in West Africa 5 Figure 6. Agroecological Zones of Mali 6 Figure 7. Location of Study Villages 13 Figure 8. The Villages’ Scores on Vulnerability Characteristics 20 Figure 9. The Cluster Scores on the Vulnerability Characteristics 23 Figure 10. Percentage of Households Choosing a Particular Adaptation Option 26 Figure 11. Percentage of Households in the Villages Having Contacts with Different Institutions 29 Figure 12. Percentage of Household Clusters Across the Villages Having Contacts with Different Institutions 30 Figure 13. Overview of Costs and Investments Needed to Implement Adaptation Strategies 33 Figure A.1. Histogram of Asset Ownership Per Village 78 TABLES Table 1. Country-Specific Adaptation Strategies 9 Table 2. Selected Study Sites 14 Table 3. Vulnerability Scores for the Different Villages 21 Table 4. Overview of Months in which Households Face a Food Shortage (%) 21 Table 5. Distribution of Clusters Over the Different Villages 22 Table 6. Normalized Vulnerability Scores for the Six Clusters 22 Table 7. Average Ranking of Hazards for the Different Clusters (1 = Most Important; 10 = Least Important) 25 Table 8. Annual Cost Estimates of the Adaptation Strategies (CFA Franc (XOF), 1US Dollar = 499.860 CFA) 28 Table 9. Allocation of Assistance Over the Different Clusters and Villages (% of Households Receiving) 32 Table A.1. Main Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sites – See Also Table A2.1b Below 73 Table A.2. Differences in Education and Migration – See Also Table A2.2b Below 73 Table A.3. Main Activities of Households in the Study Sites 74 Table A.4. Main Types of Crops Grown 74 Table A.4B. Details on Area Cultivated and Land Owned 75 Table A.5. Livestock Ownership 76 Table A.5B. Fisheries Activities 77 viii C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Table A.6.Asset Ownership 77 Table Detailed Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sites A.1B. 79 Table Detailed Education Characteristics of the Study Sites A.2B. 80 Table B.1.Household Characteristics 81 Table B.2.Agricultural Characteristics 82 Table Details on Area Cultivated B.2B. 82 Table B.3.Livestock Characteristics 83 Table B.4.Average Ranking of Hazards and Observations on Whether the Hazard has Become More Threatening 84 Table B.5. Percentage Households Facing Food Shortages in Particular Months 85 Table C.1. Percentage of Households from Clusters and Villages Adopting Particular Strategies 86 Table C.2. Ranking of Adaptation Options for Clusters and Villages 88 Table C.3. Annual Cost Estimates of Adaptation Options for the Options that had a Positive Cost Estimate for at least 10 Observations (CFA Franc (XOF), 1 US Dollar = 499.860 CFA) 90 Table C.4. Average Annual Cost Estimates of Adaptation Options for the Clusters and Villages for the Most Important Strategies (in XOF) 91 Table D.1. Number of Times a Household Receives Assistance from a Certain Institution as Percentage of the Households in a Cluster or Villages 92 Table D.2. Percentage of Times a Household Receives Assistance from a Certain Institution, if it Adopts a Certain Strategy 93 Table D.3A. Number of Times a Certain Type of Assistance is Received as % of the Times Assistance is Given 94 Table D.3B. Number of Times a Certain Type of Assistance is Received as Percentage of the Number of Households 94 Table D.4. Type of Assistance Institutions are Giving to the Households 95 Table D.5. Type of Assistance Households Receive, if they Adopt a Certain Strategy 96 PHOTOS Photo 1: Agriculture 65 Photo 2: Elevage 65 Photo 3: Emploi Journalier 65 Photo 4: Peche 65 Photo 5: Autre Emploie Privé (Non-Agricole) 65 Photo 6: Commerce 65 Photo 7: Fonctionnaire 66 Photo 8: Other 66 Photo 9: Sécheresse (Diminution Des Pluies Pendant La Saison Des Pluies) 66 Photo 10: Maladies Humaines 66 Photo 11: Sécheresse (Périodes De Sécheresse Pendant La Saison De La Pluie) 66 Photo 12: Maladies Animales Et Attaques Des Cultures 66 Photo 13: Inondation à Cause De La Pluie Excessive 67 Photo 14: Diminution De La Fertilité Des Sols 67 Photo 15: Dommage à Cause Des Pluies Diluviennes 67 Photo 16: Problèmes Avec L’achat D’intrants Et La Commercialisation Des Produits 67 Photo 17: Changement Des Temperatures En Moyen Et Extrême 67 Photo 18: Prix Elevés Des Besoins Alimentaires 67 ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS coordination was provided by Dr. Arjan Ruijs and Mark de Bel. Substantial technical support was provided by Taoufiq Bennouna (AFTEN) from the World Bank The “Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions� country office in Mali as well as by Florence Richard (CALI) study was a joint effort by the World Bank (AFTEN). Social Development Department (SDV), University of Michigan, the Royal Haskoning and Wageningen We could not have completed this work without the University. The overall study, comprising of three individ- continuous logistical support provided by Mustafa ual case study reports from Ethiopia, Mali and Yemen, as Pajazetovic (SDV) and Carmen Martinel (SDV). well as a synthesis report, was designed and implemented Financial support was provided by the Bank- in close collaboration with regional colleagues from Netherlands Partnership Program (BNPP). AFTAR, AFTEN, MNSEN and MNSAR. Additionally, participants in the workshops in Mali The study was undertaken by a core team led by Nicolas provided important technical expertise and insight and Perrin (ECS4), Robin Mearns (SDV), Minna Kononen included: T. Huvio (Embassy of Denmark), I. Doumbia (SDV), Anne Kuriakose (SDV) and Arun Agrawal (GDT), K. Coulibaly (ET GDT), H. Ouologue (SECO (University of Michigan). Research partners in Mali ONG), A. Alkassoum Maiga (BCAT), A.S. Cissé were Royal Haskoning and GID Consultants and the (World Bank), A. Dembélé (DNH, region Djenné), study team was led by Marjolein de Bruin and Harm A. Touré (GDT), O. Diallo Baha (DNAT), A. Kone Jan Raad from Royal Haskoning and L. Diabaté from (CRES, N’Tjila), O. Traoré (DNA), A. Bagayoko GID Consultants. Support in methodology, field survey (CNRST NAPA), L. Diabaté (GID), A. Salam Bah design, workshop organization as well as overall (Université de Bamako, FLASH), A. Hahn (GTZ). x SUMMARY M A I N R E S U LTS Households are Extended Families… COS T I NG ADAPTATION T HROUGH L OCAL INSTITUTIONS In all the studied villages, households consisted of I N MA LI extended families, with several generations sharing a “concession� or group of houses. The typical household This report presents the results of the World Bank- size ranged from 13 to 16 people. In general, the people funded project on Costing Adaptation through Local in the study villages had very limited access to formal Institutions (CALI). The objectives of the CALI project education. There were significant gender differences in are to (1) identify the costs of adaptation through local school enrollment; girls continue to lack the capacities institutions, and (2) investigate which institutions to improve their situation themselves compared to boys. support households in adapting to climate variability, what efforts and costs are needed to realize the adapta- . . . and have Few Sources of Income tion options, and how they facilitate adaptation to climate variability. The study has been carried out in Agriculture is the main source of income for almost all Mali, Ethiopia, and Yemen. This report discusses the the households that were interviewed. Cereals are the results for Mali. main crops grown by all villages, although all villages also grow cash crops, vegetables, and fruits. In five of the Stu dy Organi zati on six villages a large majority of the households report they own livestock. The exception is N’Tjila, where just Village surveys were conducted in six villages in Mali under 50 percent of the households said they did not and expert workshops were organized to discuss the own any livestock. Another important source of income organization of the study and evaluate the draft results for the households is migration. Most of the households from the fieldwork. Based on household surveys, focus indicated that at least one member of the household had group discussions, and institutional stakeholder inter- migrated. views, the study assessed the vulnerability of the inter- viewed households. In addition, it analyzed the strategies Vu l n e r a b i l i t y P r o f i l e s o f t h e Vi l l a g e s households adopt to reduce the hazards caused by a r e D i ff e r e n t climate change and the assistance households receive from institutions. Vulnerability profiles found that Vulnerability of the villages is determined by exposure, household vulnerability differs substantially among and sensitivity, and coping capacity. The villages of within villages. Kondogola and Fambougou in the Ségou area are the V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I xi most exposed villages. The village of Fambougou, with a Kandara and Touara in the Mopti area and Togou in the low agroecological score and high dependency on agri- Ségou area currently have a medium to high exposure, culture and livestock, is very sensitive to climate change. they have good coping capacities due to their high rates The village of N’Tjila, which is located near Sikasso and of migration, cash crop earnings, and income diversifica- has a relatively low level of exposure, has a limited coping tion. The general favorable position of these villages is capacity and a strong focus on agriculture. It is thus quite illustrated in the spider diagrams below (Figure 1), sensitive to climate change. Although the villages of which confirm the relative prosperity of these villages. FIGURE 1. THE VILLAGES’ SCORES ON THE VULNERABILITY CHARACTERISTICS 1 1 1.00 1.00 10 0.80 2 10 2 0.80 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 9 3 9 3 0.20 0.20 0.00 0.00 8 4 8 4 7 5 7 5 6 6 Kandara Touara Kondologo Fambougou 1 1.00 1. Climate hazard 10 0.80 2 2. Agroecology 0.60 3. Inverse of dependency ratio 0.40 4. Percentage of households with migrated members 9 3 5. Average years of education 0.20 6. Average asset score 0.00 7. Average acreage 8. Cash crop earnings 8 4 9. Tropical livestock units (TLU) 10. Involvement in fisheries 7 5 6 Togou N'Tjila xii C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S C luster An al ysi s Defi nes Inter venti on Strategies can be Subdivided into Four Strate gy Categories To look at the villages away from their geographical The different strategies used by all the different house- location, we used a cluster analysis of the households. holds in the study villages were subdivided into four In this analysis, households with similar coping categories: capacity characteristics were compared against each other. By comparing the coping capacity of the • Agricultural techniques. These strategies include the households, we obtained better insight into which adoption of drought-tolerant or resistant crops, as households were better equipped to deal with well as fertilizer and pesticide applications. hazards themselves and which households would • Water management techniques. These include the use need more assistance. The clusters are described as of water harvesting and irrigation techniques and follows: improvements. • Income diversification techniques. These include tem- 1. Better educated, wealthy livestock farmers. These are porary or permanent migration, home-garden agri- better educated livestock farmers, owning large culture, and the draw-down of livestock or savings. herds of small and large cattle, and producing • Communal pooling techniques. These include soil ero- cereals and cash crops. sion prevention programs, communal water harvest- 2. Diversified, rich farmers. These households are rich ing techniques, and communal irrigation. in assets, landholdings, and livestock, and have a diversified income. Most Households Make use of Similar 3. Large fisheries households. These households produce Strategies cereals and a few cash crops, are involved in fisher- ies, and have a high percentage of permanent As is illustrated by Figure 3 most households make use of migration. a limited number of coping strategies. During the house- 4. Larger cash-crop growing households. These are better hold interviews, the five most important strategies to educated cash crop producers with low migration adapt to climate change were (1) improved seeds, (2) and a high percentage of cash crops. using manure of the family herd on the farm, (3) adapting 5. Poor households. These households have small rumi- fertilizer/ pesticide applications, (4) temporary migration nants, produce cereals and some cash crops, have to urban areas, and (5) a cereal bank. low levels of education, a relatively high dependency ratio, and low migration. These strategies aim both at reducing sensitivity to 6. Small holder cash crop growers. These households are climate variability—for example, through the selection smallholder cash-crop growers, cultivating especially of drought-resistant crops and increased use of soil cereals and cash crops and owning only a few improvements—as well as improving coping capacity animals. through migration and improved food storage. It is important that strategies focus on both these elements of vulnerability. The range of strategies adopted, The spider diagram for the different clusters is illus- however, is rather limited, which carries the danger of a trated in Figure 2. certain “saturation� of the effectiveness of a specific strat- egy when it is used too often. Based on the cluster analysis, we can conclude that the “poor households� and the “small cash-crop producers� A s s i s t a n c e t o Vi l l a g e s i s D i v i d e d A m o n g (clusters 5 and 6) are the most vulnerable to climate Institutions change. The “diversified rich farmers� and the “large migrant farmers� (clusters 2 and 3) are the least Based on the analysis of the institutions that were vulnerable. present in the villages, the study concluded that not all V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I xiii FIGURE 2. THE CLUSTER SCORES ON THE VULNERABILITY CHARACTERISTICS 1 1 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.80 8 2 8 2 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 0.20 0.20 7 0.00 3 7 0.00 3 6 4 6 4 5 5 Better educated livestock Diversified rich Large fisheries Larger cash-crop growing 1 1.00 0.80 1. Dependency ratio 8 2 0.60 2. Percentage of households with migrated members 0.40 3. Average years of education 4. Average asset score 0.20 5. Average acreage 7 0.00 3 6. Cash crop earnings 7. TLU 8. Involvement in fisheries 6 4 5 Poor households Smallholder cashcrop growers institutions were present in every village. Although each M A I N C O N C LU S I O N S village normally receives support from more than one institution, there is a clear focus of certain institutions C o m m u n a l S t r a t e g i e s a r e N o t O f t e n U s e d… on certain villages. The institutions seem to have agreed to spread their attention over as many villages as possi- Of the top five strategies, only one is a communal strat- ble and try not to duplicate their efforts. This is illus- egy. Communal actions seem to be difficult to imple- trated by Figure 4, showing the percentage of ment in the study villages. This behavior could partly be households in contact with the various institutions that caused by a family orientation instead of an orientation give assistance to the study villages. toward the community. Another reason may be the xiv C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 3. PERCENTAGE OF TIMES HOUSEHOLDS CHOOSE A PARTICULAR ADAPTATION OPTION 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% A01 A02 A03 A04 A05 B01 B02 C01 C02 C03 C04 C05 D01 D02 D03 A01 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application C02 Temporary migration to other rural areas (e.g. plantations) A02 Improve food storage facilities C03 Home-garden agriculture A03 Improved seeds C04 Handicrafts A04 Change production practices C05 Draw down on livestock, surpluses, or savings A05 Use manure of family herd on the field D01 Holy forest B01 Use irrigation D02 Cereal bank B02 Drainage D03 Communal support C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad FIGURE 4. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE VILLAGES HAVING CONTACTS WITH DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONS 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Regional Local Extension NGO Cooperatives Village Micro-finance Self help authorities authorities agency communities institution group Kandara Touara Kondogola Fambougou Togou N'Tjila V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I xv continuous stream of direct inputs from donors to rural … and is Focused on Short-term Aid communities. Acording to the results of this study, donors seem to be insufficiently invested in training and Furthermore, the type of assistance the institutions do not emphasize enough the importance of the house- provide seems to be directed more toward short-term holds taking responsibility themselves and creating aid in the form of inputs, rather than training to house- adequate ownership of the strategies. holds or the development of community self-help infra- structure through community programs. Training usually … and Tra in i ng i s Compl etel y Absent is an effective way of providing the households with the skills needed to make adequate decisions themselves. According to the findings of the household interviews, Community programs are important; they can tackle the training is absent in the listing of assistance received. From bigger hurdles on the way to improved agricultural the institutional stakeholder interviews, it also follows that, production (such as water management, reduced soil for example, the stakeholders working for the communal erosion, reforestation) or set the boundaries for better institutions (cooperatives and micro-finance) especially functioning market systems (such as improved credit focus on managing the institution, without giving much facilities). advice or training to its members. A few institutions claim they give training to households. Apparently, the house- P O LI C Y R E C OM M E N D ATI O N S holds do not envisage this as training. T h e r e i s L i t t l e Va r i a t i o n i n t h e Assista nce i s Li mi ted to Inputs… Strategies Adopted Almost all households indicated that the assistance There is little variation in the strategies that are selected provided by the institutions was helpful, although the by the different households and the different villages. assistance in adopting adaptation strategies is perceived The strategies that are most commonly used by the to be limited. Extension agencies and cooperatives were households are basically the same in all the villages. deemed especially useful in providing support in adopt- Although the villages are from different climate zones ing strategies like irrigation and home-garden agricul- and have different farming systems, they select the same ture. Although these are typically strategies that would strategies to mitigate climate variability. Even over the require some form of training, the assistance from these different household clusters, the most used adaptation institutions—as indicated by the households—was strategies are the same. This has consequences for the limited to inputs only. institutions that are planning interventions for the miti- gation of climate change, since the targeting of strategies … and is C h annel ed thr ough NGOs is thus relatively simple and there is no need for tailor- and C o m m uni ty Insti tuti ons… made interventions for different types of households. Although this facilitates the design and targeting of Several institutions were active in the study villages, strategies, it carries the danger of “saturation� for certain especially NGOs and community institutions that may types of strategies. It would therefore seem appropriate be cofinanced by national or international donors. to think of “new� innovative strategies that can be Extension agencies and authorities apparently only play implemented on an individual basis. a minor role in the study villages. Moreover, many households in general do not recognize the usefulness of There is Limited Ownership to Implement the institutions in adopting new adaptation strategies Community Strategies against climate change. Alternatively, because of the long persistence of the drought in the Sahelian zone, house- Communal actions are difficult to set up in the study holds may not perceive climate change to be such an villages. Communal actions need investments and train- acute problem that new strategies have to be employed, ing from external institutions, as well as a sense of or they are pessimistic about the efficiency of these urgency and a feeling of ownership on the part of the strategies and thus don’t request help from the households. Although several institutions are actively institutions. attempting to implement community development plans, xvi C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S these seem in general not to be successful. Free rider of activities. Institutions need to remain innovative in behavior could partly explain why many projects are not their approach to remain “visible� and to keep develop- sustainable once donor involvement stops. This behavior ing their approach. is partly caused by the family orientation of the house- holds instead of an orientation toward the community. Successful Strategies Should Focus on Another problem that could provide a partial explanation Creating Ownership of the underutilization of communal strategies is the continuous stream of direct inputs from the institutions Furthermore, another striking observation from the (donors) toward rural households without, according to interviews is that several of the household and institu- the results of this study, sufficient investment in training tional stakeholders responded that they need more and without sufficient emphasis on the importance of resources. This is in contrast to the large number of adequate ownership on the part of the households. existing donor-driven programs that have funded households and institutions in Mali for several decades. In stitutions ar e Poor l y Vi si bl e These programs apparently have not succeeded suffi- ciently in improving the capacities or a sense of According to the household survey responses, institu- ownership of these institutions in such a way that they tions like international and national authorities, banks, can support themselves in a sustainable way. The inter- schools, and religious communities were not mentioned nal capacity of institutions to keep projects running as institutions that were in contact with the households. once donor financing stops still is limited. Moreover, However, from the interviews with the institutional there only is a limited incentive on the side of the stakeholders, we know that many of these institutions institutions to improve their operations as the willing- are in direct contact with the households and that they ness to support them is large among the donor receive financial and sometimes technical support from community. Furthermore, donors seem to put insuffi- these institutions. One explanation might be that cient emphasis on improving the sense of ownership because of the long lasting support the institutions among institutional stakeholders. Donors should put provide to the villages, these institutions have become a more emphasis on training and capacity building and part of the “daily routine� of the households. They are on setting up institutional management systems in thus not always recognized as performing a function in which responsibilities and some form of self-financing support of a household or village in the implementation is incorporated. 1 1. INTRODUCTION This study is a reflection of the increasing engagement of the World Bank in the issue of climate change, particu- larly bearing in mind that (a) poor, natural resource B A CK GROU ND AND OBJ ECTIVES communities and households are bearing most of the OF T HE CAL I PROJ ECT impacts of climate change; (b) an understanding of local adaptation processes is important for informing sound Climate change is a global phenomenon. Observations economic policies; (c) adaptation involves more than across countries show that people perceive recent techniques and infrastructure, but also involves institu- changes in their environment as an impact of climate tions and socioeconomic aspects; and (d) in developing change, and in particular changes in temperatures, rain- future adaptation options, it is crucial to analyze the costs fall, and other weather patterns such as the timing and and benefits of concrete, historical adaptation strategies. occurrence of seasons. Although a lot of this “evidence� is anecdotal and needs scientific confirmation, we can The CALI study falls within the wider framework of assume that most people are making rational statements the World Bank Social Development Department’s and therefore do relate the changes to their life experi- work on climate change, but has a narrower focus on the ences. It is also becoming clearer that the people most following objectives: (a) identifying the main adaptation affected by the immediate impacts of climate change are strategies adopted by households; (b) investigating the world’s most vulnerable people and that the people which institutions support households to adapt to and countries the least responsible for the occurrence of climate variability, and how the institutions facilitate climate change carry most of its burden, at least in the adaptation to climate variability; and (c) identifying short run. important adaptation cost elements and estimating adaptation costs—labor, material, and cash—for C o stin g Adaptati on thr ough Local Instit u t i o n s households. (C ALI)—obje cti ves Design of the CALI Study The World Bank’s Social Development Department commissioned a study to estimate the cost of climate The study involves an assessment of the adaptation change adaptation in Yemen, Mali, and Ethiopia. The options rural households pursue and what the study is designed to provide recommendations to deci- perceived costs of these adaptation options are for them sion makers in development projects and government and for the institutions through which the adaptation agencies regarding the risks, costs, and benefits of adap- options are channeled. In doing so, the differential tation options in the rural context, and the institutional access/adoption of various vulnerability groups is inves- investments necessary to facilitate cost-effective tigated, as well as the drivers for adopting particular adaptation. strategies. Respondents were not asked which 2 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S adaptation strategies they would like to practice, but past, irrespective of whether these hazards might change rather the adaptation options they were already more in the future. For decades, farmers have been facing practicing. severe climate-related hazards like extreme droughts and rainfall, rainfall fluctuations, and temperature fluctuations. D a ta w e re Col l ected on Str ategi es Ado p t e d … These hazards are likely to intensify in the future. The focus of the project is not on how households will respond In order to obtain information about the strategies to these climate hazards, but on how they have responded adopted, respondents were asked to indicate whether in the past through the various adaptation strategies and they used particular techniques or adaptation options. costs of these adaptation strategies. As a result, some strat- The importance of each option was then based on the egies that households might like to adopt may not come number of households that adopted them. Adoption of forward as being important. For example, small-scale irri- particular options depended on the importance of the gation works are often initiated or channeled through perceived climate hazards—such as drought, rainfall external institutions, but are rationed among households variability, flood, and increasing heat—versus other based on various criteria. They may thus be inaccessible to general hazards such a price and market conditions or some households, even though they maybe would like to personal health. In doing so, visual aids were used to benefit from irrigation as well. As a result, the list of strat- help respondents rank a list of potential hazards. egies presented in this report should not be interpreted as being the best or most wanted strategies to cope with …th e R o le of Insti tuti ons… climate variability. It reflects current practice in Mali and shows what households currently do themselves or with To obtain more insight about the role of institutions, we institutional assistance. investigated the institutions supporting households in adapting to climate variability. We specifically looked at R E P O RT O B J E C TI V E S the efforts and inputs provided for the adoption of the adaptation strategies and how they facilitated adaptation The CALI study is the outcome of a series of meetings, to climate variability. We focused on institutions such as consultation workshops, and institutional contacts local authorities, extension agencies, NGOs, coopera- concerning the study design, the organization of the tives, religious institutions, and informal village groups. data collection, and the interpretation of results. Primary Respondents were asked to indicate the institutions they and secondary data were collected in order to achieve have contacts with and those that have been helpful in the research objectives. Primary data were collected from climate adaptation. For the identified institutions, six villages in different climate zones in Mali using respondents indicated the duration and purpose of household questionnaires, focus group discussions, and contact and type of assistance obtained from the institutions. …and C o sts of Adaptati on Opti ons To obtain more information about the costing of adap- tation options, the study estimated the costs that house- holds incurred for each of the strategies adopted. A costing framework was developed to capture the labor, material, and cash cost that households incurred during the first year a strategy was adopted. T h e F o cu s is on Past Househol d Behav i o r The focus of the project is on the manner in which rural households have dealt with climate-related hazards in the V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 3 stakeholder interviews. The study developed a quantita- of this report is to present the reader with an overview tive estimate of the data obtained from household ques- of the main findings of the CALI study in Mali and to tionnaires, focus group discussions, and stakeholder provide policy recommendations. interviews. To complement the primary data, secondary data were collected from published and unpublished OR GA N I ZATI O N O F TH E R E P O RT sources. The report is structured in the following way. Chapter 2 This document is the final country report for Mali. It presents a brief description of climate change, including has been prepared within the framework of the Costing its effects, adaptations, and climate change actions in Adaptations through Local Institutions Project (CALI) Mali. Chapter 3 describes the study’s methodological as implemented by Royal Haskoning and LEI approach. Chapter 4 presents the main findings. Wageningen UR in the Netherlands and several national Chapter 5 provides the main conclusions drawn from consultants in Ethiopia, Mali, and Yemen. The objective the analysis and policy recommendations. 4 2. COUNTRY CONTEXT: MALI Africa, there are other factors that have a significant and lasting impact on the rural economy. Most impor- tant are population pressure and changes in lifestyle. MA LI ’ S V UL NERABIL ITY TO CL IMATE Population pressure has resulted in the need to increase VA RI A B I LI TY agricultural production and thus to utilize frequently the more marginal lands that would otherwise be left M a li’s C lim ate i s Char acter i zed by fallow for several years in order to restore natural H igh Va riabi l i ty… fertility. Climate has always been highly variable in the West In the past, human vulnerability could be mitigated African region and it is difficult to identify patterns in through generations of trusted kinship networks climate change. Sudan-Sahelian farmers (and their (Roncoli et al. 2001). However, changes in social struc- crops) still are “experts in resilience� (Batterbury and ture in rural society hamper the effective functioning of Warren 2001). The 1950s and 1960s were wet periods, these networks. These changes are partly the impact of followed by the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s, and donor and NGO-driven development, which often then followed again by a recovery of rainfall during the advocate more individualistic development strategies. 1990s and 2000s. Thus adaptation to changes in climate Furthermore, new communication and information conditions, and rainfall in particular, are part of the daily systems—like satellite television, mobile telephones, and life of farmers in this region of Africa. the internet—have significantly changed daily life in rural areas. … and Loca l Cl i mate i s Di ffi cul t to Pr e d i c t Added to these changes, variability in climate has had a Climate models are influenced in the region by the Sahara significant impact on the social fabric and economic Desert, a tremendous landmass in its back yard (Figure 5). returns. Hence, the local climate is strongly affected by parameters other than the ocean, making it less predictable than climate in other parts of Africa. Relying on a subset of The combination of impacts on the social fabric and mostly oceanic and atmospheric predictors fails when the economic returns presents a difficult challenge to the distribution of rainfall is widespread (Traoré et al. 2007). aspirations of the population. Whereas the struggle for food, shelter, and security may have long been the N o t On ly C li mate Var i abi l i ty Affects prime challenge to rural areas in Mali, today luxury R u ra l En viro nments items have become an ingredient in the quality of life for the rural population. This has led to a whole series Although many claim that climate has an overwhelm- of adaptation strategies aimed at satisfying these ing effect on changes in the rural environment in West aspirations. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 5 FIGURE 5. CLIMATE ZONES AND LAND USE IN WEST AFRICA CLI MAT E VARIABIL ITY: THE POL ICY old structures of “sous-prefets� are also still in place, F RA ME W OR K but with redefined tasks). Since that moment, the formal influence of villages on local government has With decentralization a major element in the develop- considerably increased. The closer proximity between ment strategies of Sahelian countries, one would expect decision makers and citizens has already led to a to find an increase in the influence of local governmen- profound change in the relationships among govern- tal institutions to support the population in climate ment agents, elected local authorities, and the local change preparedness. However, several studies have population. found that the performance of local governmental insti- tutions is still rather weak. This section provides infor- The process of decentralization has offered new oppor- mation on the different processes that take place on a tunities and challenges for decentralized natural resource regional and local level. management. Natural resources are used by multiple groups who often have competing interests. With the Decentralization is one of the main policy initiatives impact of climate change and socioeconomic develop- of the 1990s in the Sahel. The decentralization process ment, management of the natural resources and the in Mali started in the early 1990s and local govern- formal and informal institutions that govern them are ments have been operational since 1999 (although the increasingly put to the test (KIT 2008). 6 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 6. AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES OF MALI In Mali, customary or informal local institutions continue to play an important role in natural resources management. At the same time, the central government intervenes more and more in the management of natural resources, particularly in areas with valuable resources. Conflicts between government and communities have erupted, mostly over rights to cut firewood, hunting rights, and access to wetlands. In remote areas with a poor resource base, the government’s presence is more limited. In addition to all these institutions, new actors are entering the process, such as an urban middle class, local and foreign companies, and other investors. Some of them are involved in corrupting local institutions; others undermine the local institutions by ignoring local deci- sions and calling directly upon the support of central A study by CIFOR (2008) in the region of Timbuktu government (KIT 2008). This makes adaptation to concluded that local adaptation efforts are not accompa- climate change through local institutions a haphazard nied by adequate institutional and political changes and so exercise. remain isolated and spontaneous. Even in a decentralized V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 7 context, institutional and political support for local adap- The NAPA is coordinated by the Centre National de la tation could not be observed. The local population seems Recherche Scientifique et Technologique, an autonomous to be entirely disconnected from higher-scale planning public institution established to coordinate efforts of the and decision-making processes, especially in adaptation National Research Institutes (NRIs) of Mali. The NAPA activities. Local areas generally lack management plans, covers all sectors of agriculture and food security, natural technical or capacity support by governmental bodies, and resources management, energy, and health. A number of an adaptive legislative framework. interventions are incorporated in this national action plan, including the “Programme National de Lutte Contre la During interviews and at the inception workshop, some Désertification� (National Program to Fight experts confirmed the limited involvement of local Desertification) and the “Cadre Stratégique de Lutte government in the adaptation process of the rural popu- contre la Pauvreté� (Strategic Framework to Fight Poverty). lation. According to the IER, farmers turn to local branches of Malian NGOs, farmers’ associations, and There are a number of programs and projects imple- extension services to be informed about the risk and mented by different governmental organizations, with or possibility in their search to mitigate the impact of without the support of international partners, with close climate change. Of these three institutions, the extension linkages to climate change issues. The most prominent services are the only governmental organization. example is the Sustainable Land Management Program. The governmental focal point for this program is the Other experts, however, also suggest that nongovern- “Secrétariat Technique Permanent du Cadre mental organizations have a limited role in assisting the Institutionnel de la Gestion des Questions rural population in adjusting their practices to reduce Environnementales � (Permanent Technical Secretariat the hazards of climate-related changes. Interventions of the Institutional Framework for the Management of and innovations are mainly initiated by certain families Environmental Issues). in the villages with better access to financial resources and/or with a higher level of (informal) education. Institutions like the “Departement National Hydraulique (DNH)� and the “Direction Nationale de la Meteorologie During the preparatory visits to the villages, we deter- (DNM)� have established early warning and information mined the names of the families that play this innova- systems for inhabitants of risk zones and the rural popu- tive role in the community. With their permission, we lation. The DNH has enlarged the reach of its agromete- invited a representative of these families to the focus orological information system such that weather forecasts group discussions. can be made applicable at the village level. The program has turned from a pilot project into a national program During the fieldwork for the household interviews, the covering all southern districts of Mali. These existing focus group discussions in the villages, and the discus- tools can play an essential role during the implementa- sions with key stakeholders and representatives from the tion of climate change interventions. various institutions, we investigated the activities and institutional framework regarding the various initiatives The Ministry of Environmental Affairs intends to set on climate adaptations. up a structure that will be responsible for generating and guiding new initiatives in the field of climate change, CLI MAT E A D APTATION INITIATIVES but so far the installation of this organization or I N MA LI committee has not been confirmed. Activities in the field of climate change mitigation and Of the ongoing projects, the following projects are cofi- adaption in Mali are dominated by a limited number nanced by the World Bank and implemented in close programs, projects, and studies that are mostly initiated cooperation with CALI: by international organizations and donors in Mali. The National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) is the • SLM Advisory Services: key institutional, financ- overall strategy for all these initiatives. ing, and economic elements for scaling 8 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S up sustainable land management in Mali and C O S TS OF A D A P TATI ON TO Niger—managed by IFPRI in cooperation with C LI M ATE C H A N GE ICRISAT. • Case studies of SLM approaches to mitigate and Complications in Cost Estimation reduce vulnerability to climate change in Sub- Sahara Africa—managed by IFPRI in cooperation Table 1 presents an overview of possible adaptation with ICRISAT. strategies for Mali. The costing framework used in this study is presented in Appendix 1. Three complications Both these studies are part of TerrAfrica’s Sustainable in the estimation of the cost of climate adaptation are Land Management Program. A third study—dealing clear from the outset. First, it is difficult to disentangle with area-based development and climate change the cost incurred for the adaptation strategies per se and adaptation—is executed by the Stockholm those incurred for normal activities; for example, the Environmental Institute with research in Niger, labor time spent on the climate adaptation strategies and Senegal, and Burkina Faso. With the support of the other daily farming activities. The problem is further World Bank team, the teams executing these studies complicated where labor is found to be a key input for agreed to share their preliminary reports. many of the adaptation strategies in a setting where the daily working time for normal and adaptive farming Another initiative of the SLM program is the “Étude activities is flexible and increasingly becoming weather- diagnostic, technique et ecosystemique� (Diagnostic and driven. Second, rural households do not keep records of Technical Ecosystem Study). The goal of this initiative how much labor, material, and cash they invested when is to set up a nationwide GIS-based database that gath- they adopted a strategy due to lack of information and ers and connects all information on sustainable land use education. As a result, this study is forced to rely on the practices in a certain area or village in Mali. As soon as households’ recollections for estimating the adaptation the system is operational, researchers and project officers costs. Obviously, the reliability of adaptation cost esti- will be able to find all information on geographic data, mates based on households’ recollections decreases with land use practices, and studies done in a certain region the increase in the number of years since the strategies or village by mouse-clicking on the map. A test file will were first adopted. Third, the current household soon be available on: <>. Another ongoing study is the “Adaptation household adaptation activities and inputs used during Project�—financed by UNEP/GEF, private sources the first year of adopting the strategy and hence are (Swiss Re, Standard Chartered Bank), and foundation unable to give a reasonable estimate of the cost incurred sponsors (Climate Works, Rockefeller)—implemented for the specific strategy. by McKinsey. The Costing Estimates are a First Step and On February 24–25, 2009, the Ministry of Should be Interpreted with Care Environment of Mali and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark co-hosted a Regional Workshop If reasonable cost estimates are to be obtained for “Dialogue on Climate Change Adaptation for rural climate adaptation efforts, it may be an option to Land and Water Management.� The participants back up the actual and less precise cost estimates with concluded the following in the concluding plenary estimates from valuation techniques for non-market session: “There is a specific need to establish processes for goods. The adaptation cost estimates obtained through creating a regional voice and securing an African position. household recollection could only be taken as a good There is also a particular need to generate the targeted indicator of the degree of importance of the various information and knowledge needed by financial institutions inputs for a given adaptation strategy. This approach is and ministries to support decision making, including even more important where there is a need to differenti- awareness of the cost of inaction, and to enhance capacity to ate between the costs of the adaptation strategies farm- communicate this knowledge to decision makers ers prefer to practice in the future (given the necessary (Workshop summary).� inputs and services) and the costs of continuing the V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 9 TABLE 1. COUNTRY-SPECIFIC ADAPTATION STRATEGIES Agricultural strategies Water management • Adaptations in the use of agricultural fields (changes in rotation) • Micro dams • Fertilization of soils by the herd of the farmer’s family • Irrigation by pumping • Mixing of different agricultural practices (horticulture, agroforestry, • irrigation « à la calebasse » (manual irrigation) arable farming) • Improvement in management of water points • Intercropping (e.g. combining sorghum and cowpeas in one field) • Improvement in drainage Diversification Community pooling • Other sources of energy: cow dung / gas/ petrol/ improved ovens/ • Improved protection of natural resources by community rules biodiesel and regulations • Migration in search of better soils • Recovery of “sacred forests� • Migration to areas with mining activities • Collective fishing or hunting • Apiculture/ beekeeping • Cereal banks • Fish breeding / artificial restocking of fish in ponds • Seed banks • Sale of land • Collective work and solidarity (temporary support for a family • Improved interaction between agriculture and cattle breeding during the harvesting period when one of the family members is • Setting up nurseries not able to work) adaptation strategies that households are currently prac- needs to be taken in the interpretation of the estimates ticing. For instance, focus group discussions and stake- and making recommendations and extrapolations based holder interviews show that quite a number of highland on such estimates. farmers are interested in using water harvesting wells, but are unable to do this due to the lack of necessary One should also be aware that, apart from the variation inputs, which are inadequately delivered through the in climate-related hazards and hence adaptation local agricultural and rural development office. The responses across regions, households’ access to inputs, adaptation costs estimated through applying household services, and information varies across regions due to recollections only provide the costs incurred by the strat- infrastructural and institutional factors. This is particu- egies the households have adopted given their current larly the case in many parts of the country where insti- constraints (e.g. market, services and information), but tutions play important roles in initiating some of the not what the households would prefer to practice in the adaptation strategies. As a result, adaptation strategies future if those constraints were eased. Hence, caution and associated costs vary across regions. 10 3. DATA COLLECTION AND STUDY by rural households. Four types of strategies are distinguished: AREA CHARACTERISTICS • Agricultural techniques to adapt to changes in rain- fall regimes, such as seed selection, adapting plant- This chapter briefly describes the methodological organ- ing dates, adapting fertilizer application, adapting ization of the CALI study. A detailed description and feed techniques, improving food storage facilities, background on the methodology is available in the and changing the pastoral system. CALI inception report (Ruijs 2009). The chapter then • Water management techniques to adapt to changes discusses the definition of vulnerability adopted in the in rainfall regimes, such as the use of water harvest- report. Finally, it describes the study area, including ing techniques, rehabilitating terraces, improving some general characteristics of the villages and the irrigation techniques, and improving watering sites households in the study villages. in pastoral areas. COS T I NG METHODOL OGY • Diversification techniques in order to diversify income sources, such as temporary or permanent The objective of the CALI project is (1) to identify the migration, use of alternative sources for fuel wood, costs of adaptation through local institutions, and (2) to home-garden agriculture, changing consumption investigate which institutions support households to patterns, or drawing down livestock. adapt to climate variability, the costs and effort required • Communal pooling techniques, such as reforesta- to realize the adaptation options, how these institutions tion, rangeland preservation, communal food storage interact, and how they facilitate adaptation to climate facilities, or local water management rules. variability. The focus of the project is on the adaptation options households currently apply or have adopted in S t e p 2 : D i s e n t a n g l e t h e D i ff e r e n t the past in order to reduce hazards from climate varia- Costing Elements bility. These hazards—for example, a delayed start of the rainy season, prolonged periods of drought, flood risk, In the costing framework, the different adaptation and temperature changes—are expected to become more options indicated which costs have to be made in order severe and occur more frequently in the future. to implement the options. This refers to (a) monetary costs that have to be made by the household; Ste p 1: D isti ngui sh Four Categor i es (b) household labor requirements; (c) household training of Ad apta tion Str ategi es requirements; (d) required help from the community; (e) required help from institutions like authorities or The first step in the costing methodology is to learn NGOs; and (f ) financial needs by institutions,necessary which adaptation strategies are applied most frequently to implement their work. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 11 Using a range of interview techniques (see next describes the questionnaires and set-up of the focus section), the study attempted to assess the range of group discussions used in Mali. costs households have made in the past to adapt their strategies to (climate-related) hazards. For the institu- For the household interviews, within each village, tions, the study assessed which institutions rural 50 households were selected randomly in cooperation households most frequently had contact with, the with the representatives of the local authorities. The extent to which they assisted households in reducing questionnaire contained three main categories of ques- their hazards, and what type of resources these institu- tions. The first category consisted of general questions tions needed in order to perform their tasks. These on household size, level of education, main activities, estimates will serve as a basis for judging the invest- crops cultivated, livestock raised, and assets owned. ments or aid needed by the government or donors to These questions were used to analyze whether different promote particular adaptation interventions. It will clusters of households could be distinguished. The show which entry points can be selected in order to second category consisted of questions related to the promote particular strategies. climate and non-climate-related hazards households face and their vulnerability with respect to food short- Appendix 1 shows the envisaged cost elements of the ages. The third category of questions dealt with the different adaptation options. The organization of the costing framework. Households were asked which adap- household questionnaire and the focus group discussion tation strategies had been adopted, which investments is based on this framework. had been made, which hazards have been reduced (if any), which institutions had been helpful, and what kind DATA COLL ECTION of assistance they received from these institutions. C riteria fo r t he Sel ecti on of the Vi l l age s V U L N E R A B I LI TY For the selection of the study sites, we have taken the This study investigated the extent to which households following criteria as previously defined in the inception had different vulnerability profiles. Next, it assessed report: whether the adoption of adaptation strategies, cost of adaptation strategies, and the institutions that assisted • The villages for the field surveys should be located the households differed between the different vulnera- within the study area of IFPRI/ICRISAT. bility classes. Several definitions of vulnerability exist; • At least three villages should be affected by drought depending on the scale and focus of the system in a range from a high to a low risk in a similar analyzed, different elements are part of the definition of area/zone. vulnerability. • Two villages should run the risk of flooding in a range from a higher to a lower risk within a similar Vu l n e r a b i l i t y D e p e n d s o n E x p o s u r e , S e n si ti v i ty, zone/area. and Coping Capacity • One village should be applying irrigation in the region covered by the Office du Riz Ségou. In general, vulnerability refers to the potential of a • For logistical reasons, villages should be within a system to be harmed by an external stress (Kok and distance of 1 day traveling from Bamako. Jäger 2009) or to the capacity of people and communi- • Villages should give a balanced representation of the ties to cope with threats (UNEP 2002). Most frame- farming systems in Mali. works for vulnerability analysis distinguish three components of vulnerability: exposure, sensitivity, and Org anization of the Fi el dwor k coping capacity (resilience). Exposure refers to the exter- nal stress to people or communities, which is caused by The village studies took place in May 2009 before the factors such as changes in rainfall and temperature start of the rainy season. All interview activities were patterns due to climate change. Sensitivity refers to the conducted simultaneously within each village. Appendix 1 extent to which people or communities are susceptible 12 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S to exposure to the stress. For example, farmers using patterns, and agroecological characteristics (esp. soil irrigation are less susceptible to less rainfall than farmers quality and level of soil erosion) are different between relying on rainfed farming systems. Coping capacity the different villages, but more or less similar within the refers to the ability to cope with the external stress. village and depend mostly on geographical location. The Factors affecting coping capacity include level of educa- first vulnerability analysis assessed the extent to which tion, access to other resources, and availability of insur- exposure, sensitivity, and coping capacity differed ance. In general, high levels of exposure, high levels of between the villages. sensitivity, and low levels of coping capacity result in high levels of vulnerability. High exposure, however, In order to determine the vulnerability of the villages, does not necessarily result in high vulnerability if, for we evaluated according to the following characteristics; example, coping capacity is high. 1. climate situation of the village Vu ln era bility Depends on Many Factor s 2. agroecological situation of the village 3. dependency ratio Sensitivity and coping capacity depend on many differ- 4. level of education ent factors. Factors affecting vulnerability include finan- 5. asset-owned cial status, geographical location, ethnicity, gender, level 6. migration rate of education, employment, and group affiliation. Wealth 7. average acreage cultivated status is an important factor, but in turn depends on a 8. cash crops number of other factors. For example, farmers cultivat- 9. number of livestock owned ing a relatively large area can still be in a very vulnerable 10. involvement in fisheries situation if they only cultivate one crop and if they have no other income sources. Even households receiving In this analysis, exposure depends on the first and income from several activities can still be in a vulnerable second factors, which are indicators of the hazards of situation if these activities are all linked to the same climate variability (late start of the rainy season, stressor, as for example if they are all highly dependent drought, floods, heat waves) and soil characteristics (soil on rainfall. Important factors affecting the wealth quality and soil erosion). Factors three through five status of rural households are (a) the amount of land indicate the wealth status and the social situation of the cultivated; (b) agroecological and soil quality conditions; household; lower education, more young children, and (c) types of crops grown and marketed (food vs. cash less financial resources in the households increase the crops); (d) amount of livestock owned; (e) amount of sensitivity of the household to changing external assets owned; (f ) income earned from other activities circumstances. Factors seven through ten are elements (e.g. off-farm activities or commerce); and (g) remit- of a household’s coping capacity. The larger each income tances received from migrated household or family source or the larger their income diversity, the higher members. the coping capacity. C o nsider Two Types of Vul ner abi l i ty An a l y s i s The second form of vulnerability analysis focuses on the elements affecting coping capacity. Results of the This report performed two types of vulnerability analy- cluster analyses show that if agroecological and clima- sis, depending on different clustering principles. As tological conditions are included as variables in the mentioned earlier vulnerability is determined by expo- cluster analysis, six clusters are determined replicating sure to climate variability, the sensitivity of households almost entirely the six individual villages. Therefore it to these changes, and coping capacity. can be concluded that exposure variables are the major determinants of the vulnerability classes. However, First, it analyzed the extent to which the different when exposure variables are excluded from the cluster villages were vulnerable to climate change. All house- analysis and only the eight sensitivity and coping holds within a village face more or less the same expo- capacity variables are considered, classes of households sure to climate change. The different villages, however, are distinguished, each having similar levels of coping face different levels of exposure. Temperature, rainfall capacity. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 13 DE S C RI P T I ON OF STUDY AREA • Northern Guinean agroecological zone: N’tjila, A ND S T UDY VIL L AGES Commune Wateni, Cercle Nienna, region Sikasso Villa ges C over the Maj or Cl i mate Zone s a n d With the support of the DNH, Departement Nationale Agricu ltura l Systems Hydraulique, we selected the following two villages for the case study of the risk of flooding: The villages were selected based on criteria that were discussed with different stakeholders during a workshop • “Agriculture de décrue� (receding flood farming) in held in Bamako on the 27th of April 2009 and are the Inland Niger Delta : Touara, Commune Djenne, presented in Figure 7. Cercle Djenne and Kandara, Commune Mougan, Cercle Djenne, region of Mopti In cooperation with the SLM study team of ICRISAT, we selected the following villages: With the support of Office du Riz Segou (ORS), we selected a village in their command area: • Southern Sahel millet-based cropping system: Fambougou and Kondogola, Commune Cinzana, • “Submersion controlée� (irrigation by controlled Cercle Ségou, Region of Ségou f looding) in the Sudan agroecological zone: FIGURE 7. LOCATION OF STUDY VILLAGES 14 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE 2. SELECTED STUDY SITES Study site Region Farming system Hazard Fambougou Ségou Southern Sahel millet-based cropping system Drought Kondogola Ségou Southern Sahel millet-based cropping system Drought N’Tjila Sikasso Northern Guinean agroecological zone Drought Touara Mopti Receding flood farming Flooding Kandara Mopti Receding flood farming Flooding / drought Togou Ségou Irrigation through controlled flooding Drought Togou, Commune de Togou, Cercle Segou, region S a h e l i a n Vi l l a g e s F a m b o u g o u a n d of Segou Kondogola Depend on Millet-based, Rainfed Agriculture With this first selection of villages, the study cases did not give a complete picture of the agricultural sector in The villages of Fambougou and Kondogola are located Mali. As already discussed, a limited number of irriga- in the region of Ségou close to the rural center of tion schemes in Mali are responsible for a large share of Cinzana. The agroecologic zone is the Sahel zone, with the country’s food production. an annual precipitation varying from 650 mm to 730 mm and an average temperature varying from 28 to The motivation to develop these irrigation schemes in 33°C. The cropping system is millet-based and the the past did not lie in the threat of a changing natural village survey covers dry or rainfed cereal-based farming environment. The country’s largest irrigation scheme— systems, which is being applied most regularly in the “Office du Niger�—was developed in the 1930s under Sahel. the supervision of Mali’s French colonial administra- tion to supply the French textile industry with cotton With 130 households (or “concessions�), Kondogola is a and to contribute to food security for the whole Sahel larger village in the region. Fambougou counts region of the French Empire. Moreover, Office du Riz 49 concessions.1 Most people in the village are Bambara, Segou and Office du Riz Mopti had already been whereas some are Fulani, Sarakolé, and Kakolo. The developed in the 1960s before the great drought in the main economic activity is agriculture, but households are Sahel region. involved in animal breeding and small-scale horticulture as well. Nevertheless, irrigation has been identified as an impor- tant adaptation strategy for climate change. It is there- The climate hazard that the people of Fambougou and fore likely that the occurrence and importance of Kondogola are facing is persistent drought. The Sahelian irrigated agriculture will grow, either in intensity or size, agroecological zone is threatened by desertification. as a result of increased climate change hazards. We have included a village that is located in one of these irriga- N’Tjila is in a Favorable Rainfall Zone tion schemes. The village of N’Tjila is located only 30 kilometers from Consequently, we have selected a village in a region that Mali’s second biggest town, Sikasso. However, the settle- applies “submersion controlee� (controlled flooding), as ment has maintained a strong and rather isolated village this type of irrigation demands less investment and is therefore considered a more suitable adaptation strategy 1 Due to time restrictions, we proposed to continue our survey in that is accessible and applicable on a local level. Table 2 Fambougou even though the desired number of 50 household ques- gives an overview of the villages selected. tionnaires could not be fulfilled. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 15 of the Bani River. The village was built on a hillock, but with the growth of the population of the village, houses have been built on the lower areas in the river- bed. Due to a good rainy season in the area in 2007 and 2008, the new dwellings were damaged by floods. Building in a riverbed does not increase the risk of flooding, but is bad planning. Flood risk increases when existing villages are flooded due to, for example, heavier rains or increased runoff caused by deforestation. Kandara is located in the plain that lies between the Niger River and its tributary, the Bani River. Kandara is built on a hillock and from the start of the rainy season through the end of the year the village can only be reached by boat. Traditionally, the villagers produce rice, but due to a diminution of water availability, the popula- character. The village has about 60 households and is tion has changed production to dry (rain fed) cereals located in the Sudan-Guinean ecological zone. The such as millet. average annual rainfall is between 800 and 1500 mm. The region is fed by the water resources of the Bagoe The Sarakollé people are the main ethnic group in the River. In addition, there are several small lakes close to villages, followed by Bozo fishermen. Kandara has 174 the village. The villagers grow maize, sorghum, millet, households, while Touara counts over 100 households. and rice as cereals. Other products are cotton and Touara’s composition is more varied, with groups such as peanuts. In the past two years, a number of households Dogon and Fulani. Touara is the only village in the have been experimenting with small plots of horticul- survey sample with a significant group of migrants from ture. The majority of the population are Fulani, who other ethnic groups. Villagers classify themselves as practice sedentary agriculture. Moreover, there is a farmers, with fishery as their second important minority of Bambara. economic activity. Due to its location in the south of Mali, it is less likely To g o u B e n e f i t s f r o m C o n t r o l l e d F l o o d i n g that the village will be threatened by droughts. By comparing N’tjila with the villages of Fambougou and The village of Togou is an example of a village in one of Kondogola, it is possible to compare strategies from the irrigation schemes of “submersion controlée� drought-affected villages with less-drought-affected (controlled flooding). The village is next to a vast plain, villages. During the preparatory visit to the village, which is demarcated by a one-meter high dyke. When however, people argued that unfavorable rainfall had the river starts to recede, the gates in the dykes are lowered their yield during the last few years. closed to keep the water on the plain long enough to let the rice mature. The water level drops as the water starts Sahelian Vil l ages Touar a and Kandar a to evaporate. The village is located in the Sahel zone Benefit fro m the Pr esence of the with an average annual precipitation of above 600 mm. N iger a nd Bani Ri ver s Although the farming system of “submersion controlée� lowers the dependence on water availability, the village is The villages of Touara and Kandara are located in the still strongly dependent on the timely start of the rainy Sahel zone, but thanks to the presence of one of season. In case the monsoon does not start before the Africa’s biggest rivers, water resources are abundantly level of the river starts to rise, farmers do not have suffi- available. The average annual rainfall is 600 mm and cient time to prepare the land and plant rice. In that the average temperature is 38°C. Touara is on the banks case, the technical service of the Office du Riz Ségou 16 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S agricultural inputs and strong variation in prices for agricultural products. There is a widespread awareness that climate has changed considerably since the 1960s, with major droughts during the early 1970s and 1980s. Although rains have increased since the 1990s, there is a common belief that the rains have not reached their former, pre-1960, levels. These climate changes, combined with several human-induced effects caused by population pressure, have resulted in a general degradation of the natural environment. Major Occupations are the Same for Almost all Households in the Sample In general, for all households cultivation of cereals is advises the famers to cultivate dry cereals on the plots their principal activity, followed by livestock keeping and surrounding their dwellings. However, as much land is fishing if the village is close to a river. The most impor- developed for the “submersion controlée�, the village tant crops are cereals (maize, sorghum, millet and rice) finds itself with insufficient land for the production of followed by a wide range of cash crops, of which cotton, millet and sorghum (interview technical service ORS). peanuts, and sesame are the most important. Furthermore, most households practice some form of Togou has a rather homogenous population of the homestead vegetable growing. Farm sizes vary between Sarakollé ethnic group. The main economic activity is 2 and 30 ha, and most households do not possess any agriculture, followed by animal herding on the plains modern agricultural equipment. Most household dwell- after the harvest. ings are made of dried mud brick. OB S E RVAT IONS ON VIL L AGE STUDIE S The most adopted adaptation measures observed during the field visits were: F a rm ers Obser ve Incr easi ng Temper atu r e s and D e creasi ng Rai nfal l • Improved seeds • Intercropping • Use of fertilizer and • Vegetable growing During the field visits to the six villages the general pesticides • Sale of agricultural impressions of the day-to-day and climate-related • Organic manure products problems for all villages were similar. Villagers • Migration • Irrigation complained about increasing climate variability, espe- • Improved storage • Drainage cially about increasing temperatures and decreasing techniques • Handicrafts rainfall. They also observed a number of general prob- lems, mostly related to the fact that market mecha- Detailed results from the fieldwork are presented in the nisms do not function adequately, resulting in lack of next chapter. 17 4. VULNERABILITY PROFILES AND ADAPTATION PRACTICES This chapter presents the main results obtained from the data analysis. More detailed tables are presented in Appendix 2. The study identified clusters of households, each of which hold similar vulnerability characteristics. For the villages, this chapter discusses their average level of vulnerability. Next, once the main characteristics affecting coping capacity are identified, for the different clusters and for the different villages, the following elements are discussed in more detail. First, we discuss the characteristics that explain the V I LLA G E V U LN E R A B I LI TY P R O FI LE S adoption of particular adaptation strategies. Do differ- ent types of households adopt different adaptation In Appendix 2, differences between the villages are strategies and why? Do costs of adopting a strategy shown in detail. The main messages from these tables differ between groups of households? Are strategies are discussed below. adopted for different reasons? Second, we discuss whether particular institutions focus on particular types Key Similarities of households or facilitate particular types of adaptation strategies. We also discuss which resources institutions Households are Extended Families need for properly targeting their work. These analyses are done both for the clusters and for the villages. By The villages all hold similar demographic characteristics. focusing on the clusters, we can determine whether Average household size is in the range of 13 to 16 particular household types adopt particular types of people and is a sign of the presence of extended families, strategies or need particular types of assistance. By or “concessions,� which is normal in Mali. The percent- focusing on the villages, we can determine whether age of male members is slightly higher than that of particular villages need more or different types of assist- women. The dependency ratio is not high and the aver- ance than others. Both conclusions are relevant for age age within the households is 22–25 years. The socio- targeting assistance. Third, the costing of the strategies cultural phenomenon of extended families brings both is discussed in more detail. advantages and disadvantages. An advantage is that 18 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S people care for one another—reducing the negative married. Furthermore, in general there are fewer job impacts of droughts, for example—but an important opportunities for women, making it more difficult to disadvantage is that it hinders development in the find income generating activities. Besides petty trade, households, as better-off family members are culturally most financial and employment decisions are made by obliged to take care of their less fortunate household men, giving women few opportunities to improve their members, thus minimizing rewards for household own situation. members that develop successful economic activities. As discussed below, this disadvantage has important conse- A g r i c u l t u r e i s T h e M a j o r A c t i v i t y f o r A l m o s t Al l quences for the types of strategies adopted in the Households villages. Table A.3 presents the main activities of the households Sch ool En ro l l ment i s Low in the study sites. Agriculture is clearly the main source of income for almost all households that were inter- The people in the villages studied only had limited viewed. Furthermore, livestock keeping is the most access to formal education, with on average less than important second priority activity in almost all house- 2 years of formal education (Table A.2). Only the village holds. Fishery is an important secondary activity in the of Kondogola actually has a school in the village. In villages of Kandara and Touara. Other activities that are general boys enjoy more time in school than girls. Boys performed by the households are of less importance, in Kondogola have considerably more time in school although daily labor and trade and commerce is prac- than girls in the same village and than children from the tised by 25 percent of households in all villages except in other villages. Gender differences in school enrollment the villages of Togou and N’Tjila, which have very few remain marked in the study villages, due to which girls activities outside of agriculture and livestock. continue to lack the capacities to improve their situation themselves. The general low education level of boys and N e x t t o C e r e a l s , A l m o s t A l l H o u s e h o l d s G r ow girls is a sign that in the next decades, many people will Cash Crops lack the capacity to take their futures in their own hands. This is supported by conclusions from IFPRI Cereals are the main crops grown by all villages, (2010a) that households with higher education levels are although all villages also grow cash crops, vegetables, more likely to invest in new techniques. and fruits (Table A.4). Some root crops are grown, usually as a sort of “living cereal bank� for use during F o r M any H ousehol ds, Some Member s H a v e hunger periods. Cereals grown are similar for all villages M igra te d with an important focus on sorghum and millet, while the villages of Kandara, Touara, and Togou have an Migration is a common characteristic within all the important rice crop. In all villages a significant propor- villages studied, with the majority of households having tion of households indicate that they sell part of their either temporary and/or permanent migrated family cereal production. For vegetables and cash crops, the members (Table A.2). Temporary migration is much majority of the households indicate that they sell at least more common than permanent migration. The villages part of their yield, making these important cash earners of Kandara and Kondogola show a higher level of for the households. permanent migration than the other villages. Table A.4b presents the details on area cultivated and Migration is a useful strategy for diversifying household land owned in the six villages with the average acreage income and is seen as a contribution to higher coping lowest in N’Tjila and highest in Touara. However, capacity of the households. Given the large size of the differences between households within the village are households in the studied villages in Mali, migration biggest in Kandara and Touara villages, while differ- does not cause many social problems. Women migrate ences between households within the village are small- less often than men, which is culturally determined with est in N’Tjila. In general households do not cultivate all women staying within the household until they get the land they own; part of the land is left fallow. More V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 19 land owned does not necessarily mean that households in trade and commerce. In Mali, many women earn are wealthier. Yield differences between the different some cash through petty trade of handicrafts, vegetables, rainfall zones are large; for example, one hectare in fruits, and fish. N’Tjila is much more productive than one hectare in Fambougou. On the basis of the survey data, it cannot We a l t h D i ff e r e n c e s B e t w e e n H o u s e h o l d s be analyzed whether fallow periods have decreased due are Large to factors such as climate variability or population pressure. The household survey also estimated productive and luxury assets using a weighted sum of assets owned, with M o st H o use hol ds Own Li vestock the weights depending on average prices (Table A.6). There is a big gap between the richest and poorest asset In five of the six villages a large majority of the house- owners in Kandara and Kondogola. In both villages, a holds report that they own livestock (Table A.5a). The few households own a large number of assets, but the exception is N’Tjila in which just under 50 percent of number of rich asset owners is low compared to the the households report they do not own any livestock. other quartiles. In the fishing village of Kandara only a The village of Ntjilla has lost a lot of cattle during the few households own a boat,2 whereas half of the house- past two years, reportedly due to diseases and misuse of holds in Touara own one. In Touara, about half of the pesticides, which led to contamination of the water population owns a television, whereas it is almost absent pools from which the cattle drank. Poultry and sheep are in the other villages. Moreover, it is striking to see that the most common types of livestock in the study cellphone ownership is increasing fast, with currently villages, followed by small numbers of breeding cattle about 40 percent of households owning one. In Touara and traction livestock. and Kondogola, cell phone ownership is highest (52 percent and 66 percent, respectively). In Touara, the Table A.5b presents the fisheries activities of the higher rate of ownership can be explained by the rela- communities. It is clear from this table that Kandara tively wealthy state of the village; for Kondogola, it may and Touara are the villages that hold significant fish- be because of the higher rate of migration. ing communities, whilst fishing is only a marginal activity in most other villages. Kondogola and Touara Vu l n e r a b i l i t y P r o f i l e s D i ff e r S u b s t a n t i a l l y are the villages that are mostly involved in the sales of B e t w e e n t h e Vi l l a g e s fish. It is remarkable that Kandara, where fishing is common, does not seem to be involved in the sale of Figure 8 summarizes in a spider diagram the main fish. This may partly be explained by their isolated vulnerability characteristics for the different villages.3 situation during the rainy season, but may as well be The results are all on a 0 to 1 scale, in which a score of explained by misunderstanding of the questions or 1 indicates being least vulnerable. The smaller the area reluctance to give interviewers insights into their of the spider web, the more vulnerable a village. financial situation. Illustrating vulnerability by using a spider web diagram clearly shows the multifaceted character of vulnerability. Key D iffe re nces The spider diagrams provide an indication of the T h e R o le s o f Men and Women i n Incom e vulnerability of the households toward climate change. Earn in g Acti vi ti es Di ffer The villages of Kondogola and Fambougou are the most Livestock, daily labor, and to a lesser extent fisheries are 2 This may be because they have a “piroque� (canoe), which is not con- almost exclusively done by men, while women play a sidered to be a boat by the respondents. role in agriculture. Usually, agricultural activities are 3 Chapter 2 explained which characteristics are considered in this vul- gender-specific, where the men do the heavier tasks like nerability analysis. All characteristics—except for the climate hazards score and agroecological score—are based on the village data. The cli- land preparation and women and children take care of mate hazards score and agroecological score are based on secondary the weeding activities. Furthermore, women play a role information. 20 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 8. THE VILLAGES’ SCORES ON VULNERABILITY CHARACTERISTICS 1 1 1.00 1.00 10 0.80 2 10 0.80 2 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 9 3 9 3 0.20 0.20 0.00 0.00 8 4 8 4 7 5 7 5 6 6 Kandara Touara Fambougou Kondologo 1 1.00 10 0.80 2 1 Climate hazard 0.60 2 Agro-ecology 0.40 9 3 3 Inverse of dependency ratio 0.20 4 Percentage of households with migrated members 0.00 5 Average years of education 6 Average asset score 7 Average acreage 8 4 8 Cash crop earnings 9 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU)1 10 Involvement in fisheries 7 5 6 N'Tjila Togou Note: 1) TLU = tropical livestock units. TLU conversion factors: Cattle in herd: 0.7, Cows: 1.0, Sheep: 0.1, Goat: 0.08, Poultry: 0.01 (see Kassam et al., 1991). exposed villages. Furthermore, the village of Fambougou, on agriculture. It is thus quite sensitive to climate with a low agroecological score and high dependency on change. Nevertheless, their position is currently good, as agriculture and livestock, is very sensitive to climate their exposure at present is very low. Although the change. The fact that this village also has a relatively low villages of Kandara, Touara, and Togou currently have a score on migration and little involvement in fisheries medium to high exposure, they have good coping capac- gives this village a low coping capacity. The village of ities due to their higher rates of migration, good cash N’Tjila has limited coping capacity and a strong focus crop earnings, and involvement in fisheries. The V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 21 generally favorable position of these villages is illustrated this annual cycle—for example, by lengthening the dry by the relatively high asset scores, confirming the general season—this is likely to result in a lengthening of the prosperity of these villages. hunger period. The normalized scores for the six villages are summa- H O U S E H OLD V U LN E R A B I LI TY P R OFI LES rized in Table 3 below. The previous section compared vulnerability profiles of Vu ln era bility Level s ar e Il l ustr ated by t h e the different villages. In this section, clusters of house- H u nger Pe riod holds are formed, each having similar coping capacity characteristics. If the exposure characteristics are included Kandara is the village most affected by food shortages, in the cluster analysis, six clusters would emerge, each notably in the months of July through September. The again consisting of the households of each individual other villages all show food shortages at the end of the village. This shows that exposure is an important charac- rainy season, before the crops are harvested (Table 4). teristic of vulnerability. Comparing the coping capacity of The wider, annual fluctuations and the onset of the rainy the households provides better insight into which house- season seem to be important vulnerability determinants. holds are better equipped to deal with hazards themselves If climate change were to have a worsening impact on and which households need more assistance. TABLE 3. VULNERABILITY SCORES FOR THE DIFFERENT VILLAGES Characteristics 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kandara 0.67 0.58 0.76 1.00 0.34 0.88 0.68 0.82 0.76 0.69 Touara 0.67 0.58 0.78 0.97 0.57 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Kondogola 0.25 0.25 1.00 0.84 0.93 0.84 0.82 0.43 0.90 0.12 Fambougou 0.25 0.25 0.82 0.84 0.47 0.74 0.97 0.51 0.79 0.02 Togou 0.67 0.83 0.70 0.90 0.35 0.73 0.80 0.97 0.55 0.07 N’Tjila 1.00 1.00 0.85 0.77 1.00 0.69 0.66 0.95 0.30 0.00 Note: See Figure 8 for key to column headings. TABLE 4. OVERVIEW OF MONTHS IN WHICH HOUSEHOLDS FACE A FOOD SHORTAGE (%) Household with food shortages May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr 1 Kandara 96 10 30 60 66 66 6 26 0 0 2 2 2 2 Touara 74 0 22 50 62 48 12 2 2 0 0 2 0 3 Kondogola 72 6 14 36 54 48 4 0 0 0 0 0 6 4 Fambougou 60 2 2 18 48 52 16 8 8 0 0 0 2 5 Togou 62 0 2 8 58 38 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 N’Tjila 72 6 10 26 62 42 10 0 0 0 0 4 4 total 73 4 13 33 58 49 9 6 2 0 0 1 2 22 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S H o use hold Cl uster s Show Vul ner abi l i ty producing cereals and cash crops (peanuts and C lasses sesame). 2. Diversified, rich farmers. Members of this cluster Table 5 shows the distribution of households from the consist of more diversified households with house- different villages over the clusters. holds that are rich in assets, land holdings (esp. for cereals/rice), livestock and income from fisheries, Appendix 2 presents some general household character- and hardly any permanent but much temporary istics of the clusters. The main vulnerability characteris- migration, especially from Touara. tics distinguished in this report are presented in Table 6 3. Large fisheries households. This cluster is composed of and in Tables B.1 through B.3 in Appendix 2. The large households, producing especially cereals (much results are also presented graphically in Figure 9. rice) and a few cash crops, involved in fisheries, hav- ing low asset holdings and a high percentage of per- The clusters are described as follows: manent migration, having low levels of education, and originating especially from Touara and 1. Better educated, wealthy livestock farmers. This cluster Kondogola. is composed of better educated livestock farmers, 4. Larger cash-crop growing households. This cluster is having large herds of small and large cattle, and characterized by better educated cash crop producers TABLE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF CLUSTERS OVER THE DIFFERENT VILLAGES Cluster Village 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Kandara 12 0 28 2 7 1 50 Touara 2 31 10 2 3 1 49 Kondogola 24 3 1 2 12 7 49 Fambougou 19 0 1 3 22 4 49 Togou 10 1 3 3 26 7 50 N’Tjila 6 0 0 5 8 29 48 Total 73 35 43 17 78 49 295 Note: See text above for key to cluster types. TABLE 6. NORMALIZED VULNERABILITY SCORES FOR THE SIX CLUSTERS Dependency ratio % hh with temp. Average years Mean asset Average acreage Cash crop % hh involved Cluster (inverse) migration of education score per hh earnings TLU1) in fisheries. 1 0.79 0.89 0.95 0.74 0.70 0.40 0.93 0.00 2 0.88 1.00 0.50 0.95 1.00 0.76 1.00 1.00 3 0.92 0.89 0.43 1.00 0.85 0.83 0.86 0.98 4 0.86 0.75 1.00 0.96 0.79 1.00 0.50 0.12 5 1.00 0.88 0.54 0.75 0.69 0.38 0.39 0.00 6 0.82 0.78 0.76 0.66 0.44 0.39 0.11 0.02 Note: 1) TLU = tropical livestock units. TLU conversion factors: Cattle in herd: 0.7, Cows: 1.0, Sheep: 0.1, Goat: 0.08, Poultry: 0.01 (see Kassam et al., 1991). V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 23 FIGURE 9. THE CLUSTER SCORES ON THE VULNERABILITY CHARACTERISTICS 1 1 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.80 8 2 8 2 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 0.20 0.20 7 0.00 3 7 0.00 3 6 4 6 4 5 5 Better educated livestock Larger cash-crop growing Diversified rich Large fisheries 1 1.00 0.80 8 2 1. Inverse of dependency ratio 0.60 2. Percentage of households with migrated members 0.40 3. Average years of education 0.20 4. Average asset score 7 0.00 3 5. Average acreage 6. Cash crop earnings 7. TLU 8. Involvement in fisheries 6 4 5 Smallholder cashcrop growers Poor households (highest education level), low migration but a high cereals and some cash crops (peanuts and sesame) percentage of cash crop (cotton and peanut) and and some homestead vegetables, with low levels of fruit production (mango and watermelon) from all education, a relatively high dependency ratio, and a villages. low level of migration. 5. Poor households. This cluster can be described as 6. Smallholder cash-crop growers. This cluster consists of poor households, having small ruminants, producing smallholder cash-crop growers having only a few 24 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S hectares of land, especially for cereals and cash T h e C l u s t e r A n a l y s i s C o n f i r m s t h e Vi l l a g e crops (cotton, peanuts), and owning only a few Analysis animals. If we use the cluster analysis to further evaluate the D iffere nt Typ es of Househol ds ar e Pr e s e n t villages, the initial findings are confirmed that the nega- w ith in each Vi l l age tive situation for the villages of Fambougou and Kandara is caused by the high exposure of these villages, Whereas the analysis of the villages includes exposure to combined with a high sensitivity and poor coping capac- climate change, the cluster analysis only looks at the ity. The villages of Touara and Kondogola have high coping capacity and sensitivity to climate change of the exposure, but have good coping capacity and low sensi- clusters. More than one cluster exists within each village. tivity. The villages of Togou and N’Tjila currently have a In this way the cluster analysis gives more insight into relatively good position because they have a low expo- the detailed groups of households that are present in the sure but are sensitive to future climate change and have villages. From the cluster analysis, it can be concluded limited coping capacity. that the “poor households� and the “small cash-crop producers� (clusters 5 and 6) are the most vulnerable to The cluster analysis further reveals that the villages of climate change. The “diversified rich farmers� and the Kandara, Touara, and Kondogola have the majority of “large migrant farmers� (clusters 2 and 3) are the least their households in clusters 1–4, confirming their rela- vulnerable. tively high resilience in the face of climate change. Furthermore, it confirms that although the village of The dependency ratio and rate of migration are not N’Tjila is currently not suffering from exposure from determining factors in the analysis of household vulner- climate change at the moment, this village is indeed very ability. All households score more or less the same on vulnerable to any future climate change, with more than these parameters. Education, cash-crop earnings, and 75 percent of its households in clusters 5 and 6. In the livestock are important characteristics explaining the village of Fambougou, and to a lesser extend Togou, differences between the clusters. Involvement in fisheries there is a clear division between the “haves� and the is important for increasing income diversification and “have nots� in these villages, with an important minority thus increasing coping capacity. of the village households as members of the less vulner- able clusters 1–4, while the majority of the clusters Villa ges Exhi bi t Si gns of a Soci al Di vi d e belong to the very vulnerable clusters 5 and 6. It is striking to see that the “better educated, wealthy C l i m a t e - R e l a t e d H a z a r d s a r e I m p o r t a n t f or livestock farmers� (cluster 1) and the “poor house- the Households holds� (cluster 5) are the largest clusters. Most of these households live in Kondogola, Fambougou, and Table 7 shows which hazards are identified by the Togou. In these villages there seems to be a social households themselves as being the most important in divide between the better-off and worse-off house- defining the risks that these households face (see also holds. Also the fisheries community is subdivided into Table B.4). Drought and human diseases are identified two groups (cluster 2 and 3), of which the more diver- by all clusters as the single most important hazards. sified households from cluster 2 seem to be somewhat Hazards caused by an abundance of rainfall or floods are better of than those of the “large fisheries households� considered by all clusters to be of minor importance. (cluster 3). Cluster 4—the “large, cash-crop growing Diseases in general (human, animal, and crop) and soil households�—is a relatively small group. They have a fertility are considered of average importance to all less diversified income, but their higher education households. Many of the identified hazards are not levels and higher cash earnings put them in a less climate-related such as food price increases. The house- vulnerable situation than many of the other holds indicate that many of these non-climate hazards households. have become more severe over the past years. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I TABLE 7. AVERAGE RANKING OF HAZARDS FOR THE DIFFERENT CLUSTERS (1 = MOST IMPORTANT; 10 = LEAST IMPORTANT) 1. Drought due 2. Drought due to less rainfall to periods of 3. Floods due 4. Damage due 5. Changed average 7. Animal or 9. Problems with during the rainy drought during to excessive to excessively and extreme temper- 6. Human crop pests 8. Decreasing input purchase or 10. High Cluster season the rainy season rainfall heavy showers atures diseases and diseases soil fertility output sales food prices 1 1 3 9 8 10 2 5 4 7 6 2 1 3 6 8 9 2 4 5 10 6 3 1 3 10 9 6 2 4 5 8 7 4 1 2 8 6 10 3 4 5 7 9 5 1 3 9 8 10 2 5 4 7 6 6 2 6 9 8 10 1 3 4 5 7 Overall: 1 3 9 8 10 2 4 5 7 6 25 26 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V ULNE RA BIL ITY AND ADAPTATION agriculture, increase in market sales, charcoal or timber sales, changing consumption patterns, and In the village study, households were asked which strate- draw down of livestock or savings. gies they had adopted in order to manage the effects of • Communal pooling techniques. These include restora- the hazards they face. Four categories of strategies were tion of homestead or mountain forests, rangeland distinguished. preservation, soil erosion prevention programs, com- munal water harvesting techniques, or communal • Agricultural techniques. These include the adoption irrigation schemes. of drought-tolerant or resistant crops, changing planting dates, changing cropping densities, chang- To p F i v e S t r a t e g i e s A d o p t e d C o n t a i n F o u r ing fertilizer and pesticide application, changing Individual Strategies the pastoral system, changing the herd composi- tion, and applying different feed techniques. On average each household adopted 3.5 strategies. • Water management techniques. These include the use Figure 10 shows which strategies are chosen by the of water harvesting techniques, improvement or reha- highest proportion of households. Tables C.1 and C.2 bilitation of terraces, the use of irrigation techniques, (Appendix 2) show the proportion of households and improvement of watering sites in pastoral areas. choosing each strategy by cluster and by village. • Income diversification techniques. These include tem- Figure 10 only includes strategies with more than porary or permanent migration, non-timber forest 10 observations. For all households together, the top product commercialization, home-garden five most important strategies are: FIGURE 10. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS CHOOSING A PARTICULAR ADAPTATION OPTION 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% A01 A02 A03 A04 A05 B01 B02 C01 C02 C03 C04 C05 D01 D02 D03 A01 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application C02 Temporary migration to other rural areas (e.g. plantations) A02 Improve food storage facilities C03 Home-garden agriculture A03 Improved seeds C04 Handicrafts A04 Change production practices C05 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings A05 Use manure of family herd on the field D01 Holy forest B01 Use irrigation D02 Cereal bank B02 Drainage D03 Communal support C01 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 27 1. Improved seeds types adopt the same type of strategies implies that 2. Use manure of family herd on the farm intervention does not necessarily have to be tailor-made 3. Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application for each different type of household. On the other hand, 4. Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad the fact that everybody adopts the same strategies, inde- 5. Cereal bank pendent of the agroecological and climatological charac- teristics, also shows that many households lack the Only one of these strategies, the cereal bank, is a means or capacity to invent innovative strategies. A few communal strategy. Moreover, water management strate- observations can be made here. First, one has to accept gies, which usually require communal action, are that the agroclimatological circumstances are so difficult adopted by only a small part of the households, even that there may be only few strategies available that though drought is identified as one of the major threats would allow households to reduce sensitivity to climate to peoples’ livelihoods. Communal actions seem to be change or improve coping capacities. Second, a number difficult to set up in the study villages. Communal of the missing strategies that may alter sensitivity to actions need on the one hand investments and training climate change—such as irrigation, erosion prevention, from external institutions, but on the other hand a sense and reforestation—require collective action, which appar- of urgency and a feeling of ownership from the side of ently is difficult in the Malian context. Third, several the households. In many villages several institutions are strategies go beyond the capabilities of farmers, like actively attempting to implement community develop- developing more drought-resistant crops and improving ment plans, but free rider behavior could partly explain marketing and credit facilities. why many projects are not sustainable once donor involvement stops. This behavior is partly caused by a As discussed above, the strategies that are selected are culture that is to a large extent family-oriented instead predominantly individual strategies. There are only few of community-oriented. Moreover, the family culture is strategies—such as cereal banks and irrigation—that focusing on equilibrating wealth inside the extended are used that require a communal approach. family instead of advancing an individual’s capabilities. Furthermore, it seems that these communal strategies Another issue, which may also partially explain the are initiated through outside assistance to the village underinvestment in communal strategies, is the continu- and carry a substantial external funding component. ous stream of direct inputs from donors to rural commu- This is further confirmed by the institutional stake- nities. According to the results of this study, this holder interviews. assistance seems to be invested insufficiently in training and does not emphasize to households the importance S t r a t e g i e s A i m B o t h a t S e n s i t i v i t y R e d u c ti on of taking responsibility for their actions and creating and Coping adequate ownership from the households. This point is also discussed in the next section. The strategies that are adopted aim at both reducing the sensitivity to climate variability—through selection Villa ges Se l ect Si mi l ar Str ategi es of drought-resistant crops and increased use of soil improvements—and improving coping capacity The most important strategies selected in the different through migration and improved food storage. It is villages are basically the same as the overall preference important that strategies focus on both these elements of strategies, although the rank order of importance of vulnerability. The range of strategies adopted, varies slightly among the villages (see Tables C.1 and however, is rather limited. As explained above, strate- C.2). It is remarkable to see that although the villages gies requiring collective action are almost absent. Next are from different climate zones in Mali and have to that, the regions in which the study villages are different farming systems, they select similar strategies located only allow for a few strategies to diversify to mitigate climate variability. Even over the different income. Due to low income levels, the consequential clusters the adaptation strategies that are most low levels of household demand and poorly functioning frequently used are the same. From the point of view of credit markets, there is only limited scope for broaden- institutional intervention, the fact that all household ing the strategies households can choose from to 28 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S diversify their income. This is an important reason why framework adopted in this study and questionnaire was migration is such a popular coping strategy. already very elaborate, it would have been difficult to ask even more details on the costing elements. This would C o st Estim ates ar e Di ffi cul t to Inter pr e t have been too time consuming. An eventual follow-up study could put more emphasis on the different Information on the costs of the adaptation strategies is elements of these costs. This could shed more light on given in Table 8 (see also Tables C.3 and C.4). the costs households incur and on whether they can bear Interpretation of the cost estimates is difficult. Many these costs themselves or need assistance from outside people did not give an adequate cost estimate for the institutions. A more qualitative assessment of costing is strategies adopted. For many of the strategies the house- provided later in this chapter. holds did not list direct costs, possibly because people have difficulties in translating non-cash expenditures for Highest Costs are Made for Cereal Banks strategies as costs incurred. Furthermore, for some strat- egies there are one-time investments costs, whereas Taking into account the objections raised above, some other strategies have annually recurring costs. Moreover, careful observations can be made on the costs and time for some strategies it is not immediately clear which invested in the adaptation strategies. Cereal banks are costs have to be made; for example, adapting planting most costly and they require substantial investments in dates or adapting cropping densities. It has to be storage facilities and storage equipment, which can only concluded from the analysis of the cost data that it is partially be borne by the households themselves. difficult to give reliable cost estimates. As the costing Usually, outside assistance is required for setting up TABLE 8. ANNUAL COST ESTIMATES OF THE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES (CFA FRANC (XOF), 1 US DOLLAR = 499.860 CFA) mean 25% 50% 75% stdev # obs. Agricultural techniques Adapt fertilizer/pesticide 74,565 29,438 50,000 90,000 72,529 110 Improve food storage facilities 20,000 2,500 20,000 . 24,749 2 Improved seeds 11,386 2,500 4,000 6,750 30,171 164 Change production practices 18,118 7,500 10,000 37,000 14,856 17 Use manure 30,104 11,250 15,000 22,500 14,856 181 Water management techniques Use irrigation 54,815 21,625 50,000 68,750 39,823 25 Drainage 24,500 15,000 16,000 33,500 12,966 9 Income diversification techniques Temporary migration urban areas 15,324 8,750 10,000 16,500 12,154 17 Temporary migration rural areas 36,000 6,250 12,500 26,250 66,779 8 Home-garden agriculture 85,000 70,000 85,000 . 21,213 2 Handicrafts 79,000 47,500 100,000 100,000 28,810 5 Draw-down on livestock/savings 293,462 55,000 100,000 300,000 532,179 13 Communal pooling techniques Cereal bank 470,909 13,750 26,250 530,000 848,836 22 Communal support 11,000 10,000 11,000 . 1,414 2 Note: The averages were calculated only for the strategies for which more than 10 positive cost estimates were given. For the others, the estimates were too unreliable and were therefore excluded from the analysis. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 29 cereal banks and training the households to properly is given through NGOs and cooperatives. Extension manage it. agencies only play a minor role, and women’s groups and micro-finance groups are reported to be almost From the costing data in Table C.4 (Appendix 2) it absent. This is in contrast to the institutional stake- cannot be concluded that any of the cluster types make holder interviews, in which several institutions inter- more investments than others. This is striking, as it might viewed specifically focus on micro-finance for women. be expected that poorer, more vulnerable households These types of institutions (“ton�) are possibly seen as make fewer investments. Only the households in Togou village community groups instead of distinct institutions seem to invest more in climate-related strategies; these in themselves. costs are related to their irrigation system. In Touara and Togou, they seem to make monetary investments in more P o o r H o u s e h o l d s a r e D i ff i c u l t t o R e a c h … adaptation strategies than in the other villages. Figure 12 illustrates the more wealthy households I NS T I T UT I ONAL ACCESS AND CL IMATE receive on average more assistance than the poor house- A DA P TAT I ON holds. The smallholder cash-crop growers also receive less support from the institutions. However, for villages In stitutions Have Focus Vi l l ages in the area of influence of the CMDT and ORS, one would expect a much higher contact with institutions. Figure 11 clearly shows that institutions are not all For N’Tjila, which is located in the CMDT area, assist- present in every village. Although each village receives ance by the CMDT might not directly be interpreted as support from more than one institution, there is a clear contact with an institution. It is rather seen as contact focus of certain institutions in certain villages. It seems with a wholesale buyer of cotton, as in principle the there has been a division between the institutions to cultivation of cotton brings the households in contact spread their attention over as many villages as possible, with the CMDT, either through the purchase of farm- and to try not to duplicate their efforts. Most assistance ing inputs or the sale of cotton. The same holds true for FIGURE 11. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE VILLAGES HAVING CONTACTS WITH DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONS 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Regional Local Extension NGO Cooperatives Village Micro-finance Self help authorities authorities agency communities institution group Kandara Touara Kondogola Fambougou Togou N'Tjila 30 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE 12. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLD CLUSTERS ACROSS THE VILLAGES HAVING CONTACTS WITH DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONS 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Regional Local Extension NGO Cooperatives Village Micro-finance Self help authorities authorities agency communities institution group Better educated livestock Diversified rich Large fisheries Larger cash-crop growing Poor households Smallholder cashcrop growers the farmers cultivating in the command area of the national authorities, banks, schools, and religious ORS. communities are not mentioned as institutions that are in contact with households. However, from the inter- . . . b ut R ece i ve Assi stance fr om NGOs a n d views with the institutional stakeholders, we know that Villa ge C o mmuni ti es many of the institutions that are in contact with the households receive financial and sometimes technical However, a significant proportion of the poor house- support from the national authorities and international holds do receive assistance from NGOs and village donors. Apparently, this is not seen by the households, communities. From the institutional stakeholder or it is not perceived as assistance for giving people the interviews, it follows that several villages have means to improve their situation. community groups and cooperatives (often women groups) providing micro-finance. This type of insti- I n s t i t u t i o n s O n l y h a v e L i m i t e d I n c e n t i v e s to tution (“ton�) has existed for a long time and they Improve their Operations claim that they reach almost all households in the villages. As many of these groups require small An observation from the interviews is that several of the monthly or annual payments, it may be possible that household members and institutional stakeholders inter- the poorest groups lack the means to get access to viewed responded that they need more resources, these groups, so they stay in a poverty trap. logistical means, or money for improving their situation or services. This is in contrast with the large number of In te rn ational Donor s, Nati onal Author i t i e s , donor-driven programs that have funded households Banks, School s, and Rel i gi ous Commu n i t i e s and institutions in Mali for a number of decades. These are Alm ost Absent programs apparently have not succeeded in improving the capacities of the institutions in the study villages in According to the findings of the household inter- such a way that they can support themselves sustainably. views and focus group discussions, international donors, The internal capacity of institutions to keep projects V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 31 BOX 1. OBSERVATIONS FROM THE INSTITUTIONAL STAKEHOLDER INTERVIEWS Interviewees from the institutional stakeholder group belong to a selection of local organizations (CBOs, coop- eratives), NGOs, and governmental institutions (schools, extension services, administration). In general the institutional stakeholders confirm the hazards identified by the household interviews. Droughts and variations in rainfall followed by the problems in the sale of agricultural products and high prices for goods are mentioned as the most important problems facing village households. Furthermore, these hazards are perceived to have increased over time. NGOs are fairly well-represented in the villages. However, the role of the identified external institutions is not considered to be helpful (or effective) in assistance to mitigate climate-related problems. Only microcredit and self-help groups (and to a lesser extent village committees and religious institutions) are identified as helpful in this matter. However, these institutions apparently are known only to a few stakeholders. None of the interviewees were able to allocate their budget over their activities, confirming the general prob- lems in the costing of strategies. Representatives of larger institutions, such as ORS or CMDT, are aware of the total budget of their organization, but are unaware of the specific budget for their office/department. Although institutions at a higher level—such as the central government, NGOs, and international donors—are in general considered the best-equipped for interventions related to climate change, these institutions do not have a recognized presence in the villages. Quite a number of international donors actually do play a financing role in the institutions that are present in the villages. In general, problems of lack of awareness by the population toward the problems of variability in the climate and the general low levels of education are considered the most important problems of the population affect- ed by climate change. In this respect it is remarkable to notice that additional assistance identified by the insti- tutional stakeholders is financial only, instead of additional training on skills and awareness creation. running once donor financing stops still is limited. also follows that those working for the communal institu- Moreover, institutions have limited incentives to tions (cooperatives and micro-finance) especially focus on improve their operations, as they already receive substan- managing the institution, without giving much advice or tial support from the donor community. Several institu- training to the members. Other institutions seem to tions seem to have only a low sense of ownership. In execute agricultural, environmental, or trade activities addition, donors often do not put sufficient emphasis on jointly with their members. A few institutions claim they improving the sense of responsibility among institu- give training to households. Apparently, the households tional stakeholders. It is important for donors to put do not envisage this as training. more emphasis on training and capacity building and on setting up institutional management systems in which It is remarkable that training and capacity building responsibilities are clearly described and enforced. apparently receive so little emphasis in the institutions’ activities. Training is one of the major ways to give Assista nce Gi ven i s Especi al l y i n people the capacity to take responsibility and initiate Term s o f Inputs activities to improve their livelihoods. This is confirmed in a recent IFPRI study, which concluded The type of assistance institutions provide to households that better trained households adopt more new tech- is predominantly given in the form of inputs like seeds, niques (IFPRI 2010a). This may be because they are fertilizers, and pesticides (see Table 9). A small percentage wealthier or because they can better assess the benefits of assistance is given in the form of cash or food. Training from their investments. It seems that development is absent in the listing of assistance received by the house- assistance in the study villages focuses more on top- holds. From the institutional stakeholder interviews, it down initiatives, on maintaining traditional 32 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE 9. ALLOCATION OF ASSISTANCE OVER THE DIFFERENT CLUSTERS AND VILLAGES (% OF HOUSEHOLDS RECEIVING) Cluster Training Labor Inputs Cash Food Village Training Labor Inputs Cash Food 1 0.0 0.0 15.1 2.7 8.2 Kandara 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 22.0 2 0.0 0.0 65.7 2.9 0.0 Touara 0.0 0.0 68.0 0.0 0.0 3 0.0 0.0 25.6 4.7 0.0 Kondogola 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 4 0.0 0.0 23.5 0.0 0.0 Fambougou 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0 11.5 0.0 6.4 Togou 0.0 0.0 54.0 0.0 0.0 6 0.0 0.0 8.2 2.0 0.0 N’Tjila 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 cooperative institutions, and on providing inputs. change to be such an acute problem that new strate- Contacts with trade organizations like the CMDT gies have to be employed, or that they are pessimistic and ORS also focus more on input provisioning than about the efficiency of these strategies and thus don’t on training to improve peoples’ capacities. Better request help from the institutions. Moreover, as is educated people are not only capable of identifying the confirmed by the focus group discussions (see challenges to improve their livelihoods, they are also Appendix 3), the type of assistance the institutions better able to take responsibility for the activities provide seems to be directed more toward short-term taking place in their villages. aid in providing inputs, rather than to the provision of training to households or the set-up of community Assista nce i n Cl i mate Adaptati on Str at e g i e s self-help infrastructure through community programs. is Lim ited Training is usually an effective way of providing the households with the skills and the ownership they Almost all households indicated that the assistance need to make adequate decisions themselves. provided by the institutions was helpful, although the Community programs are important as they may percentage of assistance in adoption of adaptation strat- tackle the bigger hurdles on the way to improved agri- egies is perceived to be limited. As can be seen in Tables cultural production techniques—for example, water D.1 and D.2 in Appendix 2, extension agencies and management, reduced soil erosion, reforestation—or cooperatives are deemed useful in providing support in set the boundaries for better functioning markets, such the adaptation of irrigation, home-garden agriculture, as through improved access to credit. and the set-up of cereal banks. Although these are typi- cally strategies that would require some form of training, C O S TI N G A D A P TATI O N the assistance listed by the households from these insti- tutions was limited to inputs. I m p l e m e n t i n g S t r a t e g i e s R e q u i r e s C o o p e r ati on From the above, it can be concluded that several insti- The survey gives evidence of the types of investments tutions are active in the study villages, especially the stakeholders have to make for implementing adapta- NGOs and community institutions, which may be tion strategies. For many strategies, households are not cofinanced by (inter)national donors. Extension agen- (or only to a limited extent) capable of choosing and cies and authorities apparently only play a minor role implementing these themselves. Households may lack in the study villages. Moreover, many households in the knowledge, the skills, the labor, or the money. general do not recognize the usefulness of the institu- Figure 13 gives an overview of the investments needed tions in adopting new adaptation strategies against to choose and successfully implement a strategy. The climate change. Alternatively, because of the long figure shows the type of resources needed by the house- persistence of the drought in the Sahelian zone, it may holds, the community institutions, and NGOs or also hold that households may not perceive climate governmental institutions to implement a strategy. FIGURE 13. OVERVIEW OF COSTS AND INVESTMENTS NEEDED TO IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION STRATEGIES Strategy Household Community Governmental or Constrained by V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I institutions non-governmental institutions Action M L T C M L T C M L T C Top-5 stragies Selection of improved seeds Awareness creation ll lll Willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Purchase and application l l ll credit constraints for households Use manure of family herd on the field Awareness creation ll lll Willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Collection and application ? h m ll Adequate supply of manure from own animals, otherwise funds will be needed for purchase of manure Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application Awareness creation ll lll Willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Implementation m ll ll credit constraints for farmers, Temporal migration Implementation l Adequate labour availability within the household that can be spared for migration and off-farm labour Cereal bank Awareness creation l m l m l mm Willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Install infrastructure h ll ? lll h ll credit or financial constraints, depending on who finances infrastructure Create management organisation l h m h l mm managerial constraints for households and/or (N)GO's; high commitment needed to sustain operation Maintain infrastructure and management system lll h l h l mm managerial constraints for households and/or (N)GO's; danger of "free-rider" behavior; commitment needed to sustain operation Other relevant strategies Use irrigation: installation and management of communal irrigation systems Awareness creation ll l m ll m Willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Install irrigation systems ? h l h ? h l hhh m h constraint for commitment from community, high labour input by households and high financial needs by extension agencies of NGO's Operate irrigation systems m ll h lll h ll h constraint for financial needs (e.g. for pumps) and managerial skills; high commitment needed to sustain operation Maintain irrigation systems mm l h lll h mm h constraint for financial needs (e.g. for pumps) and managerial skills; high commitment needed to sustain operation Water harvesting techniques: installation of individual water harvesting equipment (e.g. tanks, small ponds) Awareness creation ll l m ll m Willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Installation of water harvesting equipment ? h l m ? ll m l m credit or financial constraints, depending on who finances equipment; labour contstraints for farmers; managerial constraints for (N)GO's Operation and maintenance of equipment lll m lll m labour and knowledge constraints for farmers; commitment needed to sustain operation Home garden agriculture: promote vegetable and fruit cultivation on home gardens Awareness creation ll llll Willingness and ability to set up suitable training activities by extension agencies or NGO's; budgetary and managerial constraints for extension agencies Apply home garden agriculture l m l credit and labour constraints during some months for the farmers 33 34 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S A distinction is made between the following resources; are large, community institutions only play a small role in mobilizing households, and only a few institutions • M = monetary needs provide the back-up to initiate those more demanding • L = labor inputs required to actually carry out the communal strategies. tasks • T = time needed for training, negotiations, and There are several other promising low-cost strategies for social contacts livelihood diversification—like handicrafts, charcoal • C = commitment needed, which refers to the willing- sales, or non-timber forest product commercialization— ness to furnish the effort to successfully and, in case that are selected by only a few households. Home- of communal action, jointly implement the strategies. garden agriculture is a technique that could be selected by many more households and is expected to have high For each of the resources it is indicated whether low, benefits both in nutritive value and as cash earnings. medium, or high investments are expected and what The importance of these off-farm activities for adopting currently constrains the successful implementation of the improved agricultural techniques and thus improving strategy. Given the general lack of information about the coping capacities is underlined by IFPRI (2010b). There costs of implementing adaptation strategies, the sensitivity may, however, be several reasons why expected benefits to ask such information from households and the low turn out to be negative: (a) markets for these goods may response rate on these questions, it has not been possible be too thin or; (b) inputs may be difficult to acquire if to elicit reliable quantitative costing information. Reliable markets are missing; (c) households may lack the knowl- costing information from other sources is also almost edge to implement the strategies; and (d) for home- nonexistent. Moreover, no distinction is made between garden agriculture, households may lack seeds, assistance to be provided by governmental or by non- irrigation/watering equipment, or storage techniques to governmental institutions. Even though in Mali, govern- make it a successful strategy. mental institutions provide less assistance than nongovernmental institutions, in principle the same type Alternatively, households may not perceive the focus on of assistance can be provided by both types of institutions. coping capacities as being useful in reducing their vulnerability even if net benefits are positive. For most Adoption of Low- Cost Str ategi es Depen d s o n people, agriculture is the main income source already for th eir Exp ect ed Benefi ts decades and only migration has become a popular strat- egy to diversify income. It is not evident that people Figure 13 and the above discussion on adaptation strate- easily initiate new income earning activities, especially if gies shows that low-cost strategies for which households there is not an enabling environment for this activity expect immediate gains are already chosen by many and if education levels are low. An important role in the households. This is especially true for sensitivity reducing adoption of these strategies is apparent for both formal agricultural strategies, such as the use of improved seeds, and informal institutions; for example, they can provide adapting fertilizer applications, or changing production training, raise awareness, and promote good practices. practices. For these strategies, little institutional assis- tance is required. Training, however, may improve effi- Adoption of High-Cost Strategies Requires ciency of the farming systems, which may increase yields Cash Income or Institutional Assistance (IFPRI 2010a). Moreover, institutions can play a role in mitigating some of the constraints, like poorly function- The more expensive individual adaptation strategies, like ing markets, which constrain the purchase of inputs. The the use of water harvesting techniques and the use of results provide some evidence that without assistance, individual irrigation (e.g. pumps), are also constrained by adoption of strategies may reach a saturation level and knowledge and credit constraints. Many of these strate- new innovative strategies—for even more severe climatic gies have positive expected net benefits but face financ- variability—may not be developed. As already discussed ing constraints and require higher skills. Their adoption above, in Mali households adopt only few communal and also introduces new risks, so expected returns on invest- more demanding strategies, in part because households ment may turn out to be negative, which according to V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 35 IFPRI (2010a) is an important determinant for choos- Assistance from Formal and Informal ing strategies. Institutions May Relieve Adoption Constraints M o re Exp ensi ve Communal Str ategi es F a c e F inancial a nd Manager i al Constr ai nts From the above, three conclusions can be drawn. First, low-cost, individual strategies with low require- Implementation of the communal strategies requires ments for labor and skills already are adopted by coordination among the different households in order to almost all household types. Second, adoption of some avoid free rider behavior and share the costs and benefits promising strategies may be constrained by financial in an equitable way. Expected net benefits of these strat- constraints or knowledge constraints. Labor egies are in many cases positive, but they are constrained constraints seem to be less of a problem in Mali by financing and managerial skills. Such projects often because of the household sizes. As discussed above, have high costs that cannot be raised by the participat- these strategies have several types of cost elements, ing households themselves and can only be recovered in each of which may constrain adoption. More wealthy the longer run. For that reason, the involvement of household types, usually having more cash income, NGOs or governmental institutions is often necessary. more assets, more cash crop cultivation and more Additionally, this type of project often requires technical diversified income sources, can adopt the more expen- expertise, which most households do not possess. sive strategies that reduce their sensitivity or increase Moreover, informal community institutions play an their coping capacity. Higher educated households, important role in guaranteeing sufficient commitment having a larger share of household members who among the participating households. The longer run attended at least primary education, are better capable investments (in terms of money and labor) such as of choosing the strategies that best fit their liveli- communal irrigation schemes require commitment hoods. Intervention from formal and informal institu- among all participants to operate and maintain. This tions may lessen some of these constraints. It requires, also implies creating a sense of ownership among the however, tailor-made strategies by the institutions, participants to assure that the strategies can also be carefully targeting the different constraints to strategy applied in the longer run. More training and knowledge adoption. Third, implementation of communal strate- transfer about the requirements and pros and cons of the gies requires back-up by formal and informal institu- different strategies should help improve this sense of tions. These strategies require awareness raising, ownership and stimulate households to make their own creation of commitment, technical expertise, financial choices. For NGOs or governmental institutions, imple- support, and managerial back-up. Each of these cost menting these communal strategies implies that their elements may constrain the successful implementation presence and involvement should be assured over a of the communal adaptation strategies. Long-term longer period as well. For this, it is important to have commitment and coordinated action by the interna- coordinated, longer term and integral commitment from tional donor community may lessen some of these international donors. Experience in Mali shows that constraints. Some of the actions are specific for coordination among NGOs is often limited. Moreover, particular strategies; others are more general invest- the results of this study give evidence that for the study ments in public goods necessary to create an environ- villages insufficient emphasis is put on creating owner- ment that is suitable for sustaining adaptation ship among the households. strategies. 36 5. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY Households are Extended Families IMPLICATIONS For all the studied villages the households constitute of extended families, with several generations sharing a “concession� or group of houses. The average household MA I N F I NDINGS size is in the range of 13 to 16 people. In general the people in the study villages only had very limited access The objectives of the CALI project were (1) to identify to formal education. There are significant gender differ- the costs of adaptation through local institutions, and ences in school enrollment; girls continue to lack the (2) to investigate which institutions support households capacity to improve their situation. to adapt to climate variability, which efforts and costs are needed to realize the adaptation options, and how Agriculture is clearly the main source of income for they facilitate adaptation to climate variability. This almost all households interviewed. Cereals are the main report presents the results of the village studies in Mali. crops grown by all villages, although all villages also We formulated vulnerability profiles based on house- grow cash crops, vegetables, and fruits. In five of the six holds’ exposure to climate variability, their sensitivity to villages, a large majority of the households report that the exposure, and their coping capacity to deal with it. they own livestock. The exception is N’Tjila in which These profiles show that household vulnerability differs just under 50 percent of the households report they do substantially among and within villages. Size and diver- not own any livestock. sity of income and the ability to flexibly decide on alter- native measures to mitigate the adverse climate Another important source of income for the households effects—which depends on, for example, level of educa- is migration. Most of the households indicate that they tion and dependency ratio—have effects on the adapta- have a migrated member. Given the large size of the tion options households adopt and the type of households, migration does not cause many social prob- institutional assistance they receive. lems, although usually the most productive young men migrate, thus causing a drain on available labor for agri- This section presents the main findings and conclusions cultural tasks. from the data analysis. For this study, surveys took place in six villages in Mali. For that reason, the conclusions are not representative of the entire country and general- Vu l n e r a b i l i t y P r o f i l e s o f t h e Vi l l a g e s izing the main results and policy recommendation for a r e D i ff e r e n t other regions with different agroclimatological and soci- oeconomic characteristics should be done with care. The Vulnerability of the villages is determined by exposure, main conclusions are presented below. sensitivity, and coping capacity. The villages of V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 37 Kondogola and Fambougou are the most exposed 6. Smallholder cash crop growers. This cluster includes villages. Furthermore, the village of Fambougou, with a smallholder cash-crop growers, cultivating especially low agroecological score and high dependency on agri- cereals and cash crops and owning only few animals. culture and livestock, is very sensitive to climate change. The fact that this village also has a relatively low score From the cluster analysis it can be concluded that the on migration and other alternative sources of income “poor households� and the “small cash-crop producers� gives this village a low coping capacity. The village of (clusters 5 and 6) are the most vulnerable to climate N’Tjila, although not very exposed, has limited coping change. The “diversified rich farmers� and the “large capacity and a strong focus on agriculture. It is thus quite migrant farmers� (clusters 2 and 3) are the least vulnerable. sensitive to climate change. Although the villages of Kandara, Touara, and Togou currently have a medium to Strategies can be Subdivided into Four high exposure, they have good coping capacities due to Categories their high rates of migration, cash crop earnings, and income diversification. The generally favorable position The different strategies that are used by all the different of these villages is illustrated by the relatively high asset households in the study villages are subdivided into four scores, confirming the general prosperity of these villages. categories: C luster An al ysi s Defi nes Inter venti on S t r a t e g y • Agricultural techniques. These include the adoption of drought-tolerant or resistant crops, and adapting fer- Abstracting from specific village and geographical loca- tilizer and pesticide applications. tions, a cluster analysis was performed of all the house- • Water management techniques. These include the use holds across the villages. In this analysis, households of water harvesting techniques and irrigation tech- having similar coping capacity characteristics were niques and improvements. compared with one another. By comparing the coping • Income diversification techniques. These include tem- capacity of the households, we obtained better insight porary or permanent migration, home-garden agri- into which households are better equipped to deal with culture, and draw-down on livestock or savings. hazards themselves and which households will need more • Communal pooling techniques. These include soil ero- assistance. The clusters are described as follows: sion prevention programs, communal water harvest- ing techniques, or communal irrigation schemes. 1. Better educated, wealthy livestock farmers. This cluster includes better educated livestock farmers, owning Most Households make use of Similar large herds of small and large cattle, and producing Strategies cereals and cash crops. 2. Diversified, rich farmers. This cluster includes house- During the household interviews the following top five holds that are rich in assets, land holdings, and live- most important strategies to adapt to climate change stock, and have a diversified income. were mentioned: 3. Large fisheries households. These are households pro- ducing cereals and few cash crops, involved in fish- 1. Improved seeds eries, and having a high percentage of permanent 2. Using manure of the family herd on the farm migration. 3. Adapt fertilizer/pesticide applications 4. Larger cash-crop growing households. This cluster 4. Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad includes better educated cash-crop producers with 5. Cereal bank low migration and a high percentage of cash crops. 5. Poor households. These are households having espe- These strategies aim both at reducing sensitivity to cially small ruminants, producing cereals and some climate variability—through selection of drought-resist- cash crops, having low levels of education, a rela- ant crops and increased use of soil improvement—as tively high dependency ratio, and low migration. well as improving coping capacity through migration 38 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S and improved food storage. It is important that strate- execute agricultural, environmental, or trade activities gies focus on both these elements of vulnerability. The jointly with their members. A few institutions claim range of strategies adopted, however, is rather limited, they give training to households. Apparently, the house- which carries the danger of a certain “saturation� of the holds do not envisage this as training. effectiveness of a certain strategy when it is used too often. It is a striking observation that training and capacity building apparently receive so little emphasis in the Assista nce to Vi l l ages i s Di vi ded Betw e e n activities of institutions. Training is one of the major In stitutions ways to give people the capacities to take responsibility and initiate activities to improve their livelihoods. It From the analysis of the institutions present in the seems that development assistance in the study villages villages, we found that not all institutions are present in is focusing more on setting up top-down initiatives, in every village. Although each village normally receives maintaining traditional cooperative institutions, and support from more than one institution, there is a clear providing inputs. focus of certain institutions on certain villages. It seems that there has been a division between the institutions to Assistance is Limited to Inputs… spread their attention over as many villages as possible, and try not to duplicate their efforts. Almost all households indicated that the assistance provided by the institutions was helpful, although the C o m m unal S tr ategi es ar e not Often Us e d … percentage of assistance in adoption of adaptation strat- egies is perceived to be limited. Especially extension Of the top five strategies used, only one of these strate- agencies and cooperatives are deemed useful in provid- gies, the cereal bank, is a communal strategy. Moreover, ing support in the adaptation of irrigation, home garden water management strategies, which usually require agriculture and the set-up of cereal banks. Although collective action, are adopted by only a small number of these are typically strategies that would require some households, even though drought is identified as one of form of training, the inputs listed by the households the major threats to livelihoods. Communal actions from these institutions as indicated by the households is seem to be difficult to implement in the study villages. limited to inputs only. This behavior could partly be caused by a culture that is to a large extent family-oriented instead of community- . . . and is Channeled Through NGOs and oriented. Another problem, which may also provide a Community Institutions partial explanation of the underinvestment in communal strategies, is the continuous stream of direct inputs from From the above, it can be concluded that several institu- donors to rural communities. According to the results of tions are active in the study villages, especially NGOs this study, assistance seems to be invested insufficiently and community institutions that may be cofinanced by in training and does not emphasize to households the (inter)national donors. Extension agencies and authori- importance of taking responsibility for one’s actions and ties apparently only play a minor role in the study creating a strong sense of ownership by the households. villages. Moreover, many households in general do not recognize the usefulness of the institutions in adopting . . . a nd Tra i ni ng i s Compl etel y Absent new adaptation strategies against climate change. Alternatively, because of the long persistence of the Training is completely absent in the listing of assistance drought in the Sahelian zone, it may also hold that received by the households. From the institutional stake- households may not perceive climate change to be such holder interviews, it also follows that, for example, the an acute problem that new strategies have to be stakeholders working for the communal institutions employed, or that they are pessimistic about the effi- (cooperatives and micro-finance) especially focus on ciency of these strategies and so don’t request help from managing the institution, without giving much advice or the institutions. Moreover, the type of assistance the training to the members. Other institutions seem to institutions provide seems to be directed more toward V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 39 short-term aid of providing inputs, rather than to the rider behavior could partly explain why many projects provision of training to households or the set-up of are not sustainable once donor involvement stops. This community self-help infrastructure through community behavior is partly caused by the family orientation of the programs. Training is usually an effective way of provid- households instead of an orientation toward the ing the households with the skills and the ownership community. Another problem that partly explains the they need to make adequate decisions themselves. underutilization of communal strategies is the continu- Community programs are important as they may tackle ous stream of direct inputs from the institutions (e.g. the bigger hurdles on the way to improved agricultural donors) toward rural households without, according to production techniques (e.g. water management, the results of this study, sufficient investment in training reduced soil erosion, reforestation) or set the boundaries and without sufficient emphasis on the importance of for better functioning markets (e.g. improved access to adequate ownership and of taking responsibility for one’s credit). actions on the part of the households. P OLI CY RECOMMENDATIONS I n s t i t u t i o n s a r e P o o r l y Vi s i b l e T h ere is Littl e Var i ati on i n the Str ategi e s Based on the household interviews, international Adopte d bodies, national authorities, banks, schools, and reli- gious communities are not mentioned as institutions There is little variation in the strategies that are that are in contact with the households. However, selected by the different types of households and the from the interviews with the institutional stakeholders, different villages. The strategies that are most we know that many of these institutions are in fact in commonly used are basically the same in all the villages. direct contact with the households and that they It is remarkable to see that although the villages are receive financial and sometimes technical support from from different climate zones in Mali and have different these institutions. One explanation might be that farming systems, they select the same strategies to miti- because of the long-lasting support the institutions gate climate variability. Even over the different house- provide to the villages, these institutions have become hold clusters that are identified, the most commonly a part of the “daily routine� of the households, and as used adaptation strategies are the same. For the institu- such are not always recognized as performing a func- tions planning interventions for climate change mitiga- tion in the support of a household or village in the tion, this means that targeting of strategies is relatively implementation of activities. Institutions need to simple. There is no need for interventions to be tailor- remain innovative in their approach toward their made for each different type of household. Although stakeholders to remain “visible� and to keep develop- this facilitates the design and targeting of strategies, it ing their approach. holds the danger of “oversaturation� for certain types of strategies. It would therefore seem appropriate to think Successful Strategies Should Focus on of “new� innovative strategies that can be implemented Creating Ownership on an individual basis. Another observation from the interviews is that several T h ere is Lim i ted Owner shi p to Impl eme n t of the household and institutional stakeholders C o m m unity S tr ategi es responded that they especially need more resources. This is in spite of the large number of existing donor-driven Communal actions seem to be difficult to set up in the programs that have funded households and institutions study villages. Communal actions need investments and in Mali already for several decades. These programs training from external institutions, but they also require apparently have not succeeded in improving the capaci- a sense of urgency and a feeling of ownership on the ties or creating a sense of ownership of these institutions part of the households. Although several institutions are in such a way that they can support themselves active that attempt to implement community develop- sustainably. The internal capacity of institutions to keep ment plans, these seem in general not successful. Free projects running once donor financing ends is still 40 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S limited. Moreover, there only is a limited incentive on ownership among institutional stakeholders. Donors the side of the institutions to improve their operations, should put more emphasis on training and capacity as the willingness to support them is large among the building and on setting up institutional management donor community. Furthermore, donors seem to put systems in which responsibilities and some form of insufficient emphasis on improving the sense of self-financing is incorporated. 41 REFERENCES KIT. 2008. Local governance institutions for sustainable natural resource management in Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. KIT Working Paper G1. Batterbury, S.P.J., and A.Warren, eds. 2001. “The Amsterdam: KIT. African Sahel 25 years after the Great Drought.� Global Environmental Change 11 (1): 1–96. Kok, M.T.J., and J. Jäger, eds. 2009. “Vulnerability of people and the environment – challenges and opportu- CIFOR. 2008. “Adaptation at the interface of forest nities.� Background report for chapter 7 of the Fourth ecosystem goods and services and livestock production Global Environment Outlook (GEO-4). Bilthoven, The systems in Northern Mali.� CIFOR Info Brief, No. 19. Netherlands: PBL, UNEP. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR. Roncoli, C, K. Ingram, and P. Kirshen. 2001. “The Costs IFPRI. 2010a. “SLM Advisory Services: Key institu- and Risks of Coping with Drought: Livelihood Impacts tional, financing and economic elements for scaling up and Farmers’ Responses in Burkina Faso.� Climate sustainable land management in Mali: benefit-cost anal- Research 19(2): 119–132. ysis.� Washington D.C.: IFPRI. Ruijs, A. 2009. CALI Inception Report. Netherlands: IFPRI. 2010b. “SLM Advisory Services: Key institu- Royal Haskoning. (Report to The World Bank). tional, financing and economic elements for scaling up sustainable land management in Mali: review of public Traoré, S., Y.M. Wang, T. Kerh, and A. Ouedraogo. expenditures in sustainable land and water manage- 2007. “Application of CROPWAT simulation model for ment.� Washington D.C.: IFPRI. rainfed and irrigated agriculture water planning in Burkina Faso.� Journal of International Cooperation Kassam, A.H., H.T. van Velthuizen, P.H. Sloane, G.W. 3: 1–26. Fischer. and M.M. Shah. 1991. Agro-Ecological Land Resources Assessment For Agricultural Development UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). Planning. A Case Study of Kenya. World Soil Resources 2002. Global Mercury Assessment. Geneva: United Reports, 71/5. Rome: FAO. Nations Environment Programme. 42 APPENDIX 1. METHODOLOGY AND endowments, 4) perceived climate hazards, 5) adaptation strategies, 6) institutional contacts and 7) costs associated RESEARCH FRAMEWORK with the strategies. The focus group discussion aims at obtaining hands-on and detailed information on 1) concepts, perceptions, ideas of a group on perceived A 1. A . ME T H ODOL OGY AND COSTING climate-related hazards and their effect on livelihoods of F RA ME W OR K the different social groups, 2) the adaptation strategies, 3) the type of institutional support obtained to deal with In order to reach the objectives of the study, the study climate-related hazards, and 4) the costs associated with set out to answer the following research question: the adaptation strategies. Institutional stakeholder inter- • Which adaptation strategies have been adopted in views focus on 1) the types of services provided by the the past? various institutions, 2) their role in assisting households • For which hazards have these strategies been with adaptation, 3) their linkages with authorities, and adopted and to what extent are the adaptations 4) the costs used for performing their tasks as well as related to climate variability hazards rather than identifying their constraints. other hazards? • Which inputs in terms of cash, materials, informa- The household data was analyzed to explore whether tion, or labor were required in order to adapt to the clusters of households, livelihood, or vulnerability changed circumstances? profiles can be distinguished in order to see the link- • Which household and livelihood characteristics ages between adaptations and clusters. Furthermore, a explain why certain households adopt particular costing framework was set up (see below) to identify strategies? important cost elements of the different adaptation • Which formal or informal institutions are most rel- strategies. The use of a combination of household ques- evant for assisting or stimulating households to tionnaires, focus group discussions, and institutional adopt certain strategies? stakeholder/expert interviews helps to increase the reli- ability of data by increasing the tools for triangulation, The study was conducted in Mali with a reasonable among other things. Moreover, data on some of the representation of major agroecological regions. Both questions involving community activities were verified primary and secondary data were collected for the analy- in focus group discussions. Finally, the results were sis. The primary data were collected through a household cross-checked with experts working in related areas. We questionnaire, focus group discussions, and institutional are aware of the limitation of the number of research stakeholder interviews. The household questionnaires villages for representation and wider generalization. aim at obtaining information on 1) household composi- However, the issue of representation cannot be tion, 2) demographic characteristics, 3) resource addressed by just increasing the number of regions by COSTING FRAMEWORK Costs Costing Adaptation Methodology Individual costs Communal costs External costs V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I Adaptation options inputs time training needs inputs time Inputs training needs Agricultural techniques Seed selection: select costs of improved or training on improved seeds training on use of drought resistant/tolerant different seeds cultivation methods improved seeds crops like sorghum and heat and salinity resistant crops. Adapt planting dates changes in labor training on training on allocation cultivation methods cultivation methods Adapt cropping densities/ changing input costs additional labor time training on training on mixed cropping due to intensification cultivation methods cultivation methods Adapt fertilizer/pesticide changing input costs additional labor due to training on fertilizer and training on application changed input use cultivation methods pesticides cultivation methods Adapt tillage practices changing input costs additional labor time training on new tillage tools training on (changes in priorities in related to new tilling cultivation methods cultivation land use, land area methods methods cultivated, labor input) Apply different zero costs for feed use; costs additional labor due to training on livestock communal labor material for stall training on grazing techniques for stall construction changing livestock management provisioning construction; feed livestock farming farming methods Change composition of costs for feed ; additional labor training on livestock herd (e.g. more goat and opportunity costs for related to changing management less cattle) and livestock different types of livestock farming products livestock methods Improve food storage costs for food storage labor for storage training on food communal labor training on food facilities construction facility construction storage facilities provisioning storage 43 (continued next page) 44 COSTING FRAMEWORK Costs Costing Adaptation Methodology Individual costs Communal costs External costs Adaptation options inputs time training needs inputs time Inputs training needs Change the herd costs for livestock labor time for training of livestock composition purchase/sales alternative herd management management Change the pastoral labor time for system (distance and alternative herding frequency of mobility) regimes Water management techniques Use water harvesting materials needed for labor time training on water land for water labor time for materials needed training on water techniques: collect water water harvesting harvesting wells, harvesting construction for water harvesting from roofs, collect water systems and and harvesting techniques in tanks, . . . ponds maintenance of water storage facilities Improve, construct or materials needed for labor time for training on farming land for terraces labor time for materials needed training on terrace rehabilitate terraces terrace construction and construction, on terraces construction, for terrace construction and renovation maintenance and maintenance construction and maintenance and rehabilitation and renovation on farming on rehabilitation terraces Use irrigation materials for construction labor for construction training on the use land for irrigation labor for materials needed training on setting and maintenance of of irrigation systems; of irrigation facilities canals and construction of for set up of up and maintaining irrigation systems; time for communal and water systems irrigation irrigation irrigation; training costs for water; costs for water management management systems; set up systems; legal on communcal pumping of water user documents for water association or a organizing water management comparable user associations organizaton Reuse treated waste systems to redistribute labor for managing set up of labor to set up, materials for training on water water from wastewater waste water treatment wastewater maintain and wastewater wastewater facility to plots and for applying storage and manage storage and treatment facilities treated wastewater treatment facility wastewater treatment facility and management treatment facility; training on wastewater treatment and management C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Improve watering sites in labor for well and land for ponds; labor for pond materials for determination of pastoral areas pond construction materials for construction; designing, optimal location designing, set up of water constructing and and design of constructing and user maintaining ponds; assistance maintaining association ponds with water user ponds association Diversification Use alternative sources costs for new cooking training on new cooking capacity building for fuel wood. facilities and fuel alternative cooking facilities and fuels on cooking, facilities. fuelwood problems, etc. Temporary migration to investments in transport reduced on-farm labor dependence of awareness raising V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I urban areas or abroad costs and living availability during those staying at on (dis)advantages expenditures off-season home on of migration neighbors Temporary migration to investments in transport reduced on-farm labor dependence of awareness raising other rural areas (e.g. costs and living availability during those staying at on (dis)advantages plantations) expenditures off-season home on of migration neighbors Permanent migration (to investments in transport reduced on-farm labor dependence of awareness raising other rural areas, urban costs and living availability during those staying at on (dis)advantages areas or abroad) expenditures entire year home on of migration neighbors Non-timber forest product investments in tree labor time needed for investments in labor time investments in training on non- commercialization (e.g. cultivation planting and tree cultivation needed for tree cultivation timber forest gum production) maintaining forests planting and product maintaining commercialisation forests Home-garden agriculture/ investments in home- labor for home-garden improve training on legume based gardens; seeds, fertilizers cultivation marketing home-garden agroforestry/horticulture channels; cultivation seeds, etc. (continued next page) 45 46 COSTING FRAMEWORK Costs Costing Adaptation Methodology Individual costs Communal costs External costs Adaptation options inputs time training needs inputs time Inputs training needs Increase market sales labor for marketing improve local improve information on markets marketing price fluctuations channels and and price road development infrastructure Handicrafts/commerce inputs for handicrafts labor for handicrafts improve local improve information on markets marketing price development channels Reduce expenses by lower costs but high changing consumption opportunity costs due to patterns (meal reduced productivity composition, frequency of meals) Draw down on livestock, lower reserves surpluses or savings Communal pooling Restore and preserve costs of reforestation labor for replanting training on labor for trees, seeds, training on homestead or mountain reforestation replanting materials, reforestation forests to reduce erosion fertilizers, . . . and peak-flows from intense rainfall Rangeland preservation labor for implementing rangeland set up of a legal embedding assistance with and grazing restrictions management systems management rangeland of rangeland rangeland training management management management system systems system Set up community seed labor for facility storage facilities labor for storage facilities knowledge on banks and food storage implementation storage optimal storage facilities management techniques Soil erosion prevention costs for erosion labor for erosion labor for inputs needed for training on erosion programs of farming land prevention works measures erosion erosion measures prevention measures (e.g. stones, measures (e.g. trucks, materials) rock bunds, . . .) Change local water labor for alternative water management labor for water training on water management rules and water management training management management regulations assoc. C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 47 one or the number of villages within the regions. This 2. Information on perceptions regarding climate- would only reduce the errors. The study represents a related hazards. case study approach and the results should be inter- 3. Information on the adaptation strategies adopted preted in this light. and the costs made to apply the strategies in terms of money, time and in-kind inputs. The questionnaire has been pre-tested to judge if it is 4. Information on the institutions with whom house- comprehensible to the average respondent. holds have contacts. A 1. B . HOUSEHOL D QUESTIONNAIRE Compared to the household questionnaire in the incep- tion report, the order of some questions was changed, R a tionale of the Questi onnai r e questions 2 to 6 have changed and some of the costing elements asked for and the way they are asked for has Compared to the household questionnaire as presented changed. The main reason for simplifying and shorten- in the inception report, the questionnaire as used in the ing the questions 2 to 6 is that for the purpose of this villages contains a number of changes. The changes were study, it is not necessary to obtain detailed information made in response to comments received during the three on individual household member characteristics and launching workshops, lessons learned from the missions household activities. For example, it is not necessary to to the three project countries, observations from the know members of the project team and lessons learned during the pilot interviews. • for each household member how many years of edu- cation they have; The objective of the household questionnaire was • what is the exact relation between land cultivated, to learn about the following issues (in order of yields and sales; importance): • the exact number of each possible type of livestock owned and the exact sales of animals; • Which adaptation strategies do rural households • the exact catch and sales of fish. adopt? Which climate-related hazards explain why households choose these strategies? In these questions we ask for information in such a level • What are the costs the households have to make of detail that it allows us to define different types of when they adopt a particular strategy? households and livelihoods and to be able to analyze • Which institutions are most helpful to assist the which characteristics explain the choice of a particular households adopting particular adaptation strategy. More detailed information on the above issues strategies? is interesting and relevant for farming systems studies or • Are there differences in the adaptation strategies household analyses. For the purpose of our study, adopted by particular household types or wealth however, this information is not necessary and would classes; which livelihood characteristics best explain distract us from the main objective. Moreover, much of which strategies are adopted? the information that is not asked for (e.g. on the amount harvested and the number of animals owned) is sensitive In order to reach these objectives, information was information for which it can be wondered whether relia- collected on four issues: ble answers will be given. Furthermore, in the question- naire, a number of additional questions are raised in 1. Factors explaining livelihood type and wealth order to obtain gender specific information on adapta- class: this contains information on e.g. tion. Below, the questions are discussed one by one. primary activity (e.g. farming type), household characteristics (size of household, level of 1. The first question is necessary in order to obtain education, . . .), assets owned, land cultivated, general information about the respondent and the crops cultivated, livestock owned, and access to type of household the respondent is representing. financial resources. An important determinant of the adaptation 48 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S strategies adopted will be the main activity of the sold part of their harvest on the market. The size of household. For that reason, the respondent is asked the land cultivated with particular crops tells us to rank using a participatory approach (using cards which type of farming system we are dealing with indicating the possible occupations, if possible using (small-middle-large farm, subsistence-mixed-cash pictures) the importance of the different activities crop oriented farm). The yes-no question on sales for their household. For small households, it is pos- tells us whether households take part in the money sible that they are only involved in one or two activi- economy. We also ask information about ownership ties. Larger households and especially extended status of land to see whether land ownership has an families are probably involved in multiple activities. effect on the adaptation strategies adopted. For Here, it is also asked whether the activity is per- countries for which it is sure that the entire house- formed especially by the men or women in the hold budget is managed by the men, this question household, in order to learn more about the gender can be deleted. issues. 4. The fourth question only applies for households 2. In the second question, we ask for information about owning livestock. Livestock is an important savings household composition and household characteris- source for many households. For pastoralists, it is tics. The way this question is asked may differ per their primary source of income. Different from the country. In principle, it is preferable and easier for draft version, we do not ask for detailed information the interviewer to ask each individual member about on the amount of animals owned and sold for a their age, years of education and relation to the large number of possible types of animals. The main household head. However, for example for Mali, it reason for this is that people are usually not willing may be preferable to ask for more aggregate infor- to give exact insights in the number of animals mation for two reasons. First, in Mali extended owned and sold. Moreover, in order to learn more families may have a too large number of household about the wealth class of the household, it is suffi- members, making this question too time consuming. cient to have information in a more aggregate man- The country teams have the choice to ask one of the ner. For that reason, we ask for information per two questions, as long as all household within one livestock category: breeding cattle, dairy cattle, trac- country receive the same question. The question tion animals (oxen, mule, horse), small ruminants also contains a sub-question on migration. This is (goats/sheep) and poultry. Moreover, we ask about for double-checking the adoption of the adaptation the number of animals currently owned and the strategy to permanently or temporarily migrate. number owned 12 months ago. This gives informa- 3. The third question elicits information about land tion on changes in wealth class. This information is and crops cultivated. In the draft version of the also meant to double check some of the questions questionnaire, we also asked for information about related to the adaptation options, to indicate the amount harvested and the amount sold. whether wealth has increased or decreased and to Moreover, it was proposed by some people to add indicate whether households are participating in the questions about the date since when particular crops money economy. are cultivated and on whether cultivation of particu- 5. The fifth question only applies for households lar crop has increased or decreased. This last ques- engaged in fishing activities. We ask which types of tion would give information about the effect of fish are caught and whether they sold fresh or pro- changing climate characteristics on crops cultivated. duced fish. Like in the previous question, we do not We decided not to add this question as it is already ask for the amount of fish caught because it is too part of question 8. Moreover, it is difficult for difficult to answer such a question. respondents to indicate how much of each crop was 6. The sixth question deals with asset ownership. The harvested and how much was sold. Moreover, this types of assets owned are an important determinant level of detail is not necessary. In order to know of wealth class. The more or more luxury assets more about household type and wealth class, it is owned, the wealthier the household will be. It is sufficient to know how much land is cultivated with expected that wealth class partly explains the types the different types of crops and whether or not they of adaptation strategies adopted. In the analysis, we V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 49 distinguish four types of assets: basic necessary options they have adopted, whether they are adopted assets (especially equipment), basic non-essential by the men or women in the household, and why assets (like radio, jewellery, bicycle/moped, . . .), lux- (which hazard is reduced). Secondly, for those ury assets (like a cell phone, gas/petrol stove, refrig- options adopted, we ask for detailed information erator), and top-level assets (including a television, about the costs. We distinguish between monetary car, and house built of bricks). For the basic neces- costs, time input and in-kind input that were not sary and non-essential assets, also the number of purchased. In the draft questionnaire, a participa- assets owned is asked for. For the other types of tory approach was proposed to ask for the monetary assets it is asked when they are purchased in order costs. The rationale for this was that it was thought to learn more about changes in wealth class. to be difficult to memorize the costs made for a par- 7. The seventh question deals with the hazards house- ticular option. We decided to change this approach holds experience and their perceptions on the based on discussions with several people. For house- importance of these hazards. First, it is asked which holds who are only partially integrated in the mone- climate-related hazards they have experienced in the tary economy, it can be expected that if they actually past and when they experienced them. In a narrative have to spent money for adopting a strategy, they manner, the respondent is asked in what period the know the amount. Next, for the time and money hazard was experienced and whether they can recall spent on the strategy, it is asked who has to make any major climate-related events that have taken the expenses: men-women, individual-communal- place in the last 30 years and that have caused sub- external. This gives information on the gender per- stantial changes in livelihoods. Based on that, it is spective of adaptation and the importance of attempted to link it to a particular year. Next to communal and external aid to adopt particular strat- that, it is asked whether the households have any egies. For the in-kind inputs, it is asked what type specific difficult periods throughout the year in and how much of each input is used. In the data order to learn more about the vulnerability of the analysis phase, it will be attempted to monetarize household. It is also asked to what extent these haz- these inputs in order to learn more about the ards affected their activities and who is affected the implicit costs of the options. Thirdly, it is also asked most. Thirdly, it is asked which hazards are consid- what type of benefit is envisaged if an option is cho- ered most threatening and whether they have sen. We distinguish between earning additional changed. Using a participatory approach (by order- cash income, reducing risk and increasing non-cash ing cards with possible hazards) it is elicited how income. Fourthly, it is asked whether the household households perceive the importance of climate and received help from institutions. This question is non-climate-related hazards. Here, it is also asked important in order to be better able to target assist- whether the hazards especially affect men or ance to institutions. It shows which entry points are women, in order to learn more about gender differ- important and what type of help the institutions ences in hazard perception. need. 8. In Question 8 more information is elicited about the types of institutions households have contacts with. In the first village in which the questionnaire is used, it Moreover, it is attempted to link the reason for con- is evaluated whether the questionnaire works as tacting a particular institution with the hazards expected. If some questions are too difficult or are they are facing (as asked for in question 7). This misinterpreted, they will be reformulated. It is attempted informs us whether particular institutions have a to keep these reformulations as small as possible, such certain focus on particular climate hazards. If they that only the formulation changes but not the rationale are not related to any climate hazard, this is also and its position with the questionnaire. indicated. 9. Question 8 is one of the most important questions N o t e s o n H o w t o C o n d u c t t h e Q u e s t i o n n ai r e of the questionnaire. Compared to the draft version, we have slightly changed the order and types of These notes give tips about how to ask for some of the questions. We first ask for the types of adaptation questions when conducting the questionnaire. 50 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Questio n 1: of a certain age class of have permanently migrated. • Not all questions have to be asked to the respond- • d. ask how many boys/girls/men/women have had ent. Village name and code, household code and sex education in one of the indicated classes. In the of the respondent can be filled in without asking it cells, fill in the number of household members who to the respondent. were in school for a particular number of years. • i. Rank occupations of the household in order of importance: Use the cards as given at the end of the Question 3: questionnaire and ask the respondent to lay them down in such a way that the most important occu- • a. first ask which crops the household cultivated in pation of the household is put on the left side and the last 12 months. Fill in the names of the crops in the least important occupation on the right side. column a. When the questionnaires are finished, the Activities not performed can be put on a separate interviewer has to fill in the crop codes in the first pile. Once the options are ranked, ask whether the column of the table. activities are especially performed by men or by • b. Ask for each crop how much land was cultivated women. An alternative way of ranking is to give the with that crop. In the cells, fill in the amount of respondent 15 stones and ask them the put stones on land cultivated in the last 12 months. Make sure the cards indicating how important they are. The that for all households within a village the same unit interviewer has to write down the number of stones of measurement is used. put on each card. Make sure that for all villages • c. ask for each crop whether the household sold a within one country the same approach is adopted. part of its stock on the market in the last 12 months. Tick yes or no. If a crop is sold, ask Questio n 2: whether the earnings from the sales are managed by the men or the women. If the household budget is First, the country team has to choose whether option 1 managed by both equally, tick both M and W. If it or option 2 is chosen. In case of option 1 aggregate is sure that the entire budget is managed by the men information will be asked for on household composition. (e.g. in Yemen), this question can be deleted. In option 2, questions will have to be asked for per • d. ask for how much land the household has owner- household member. ship rights or permanent or long-term use rights. Use the same unit of measurement as in question b. • a. within each cell, fill in the number of men or • e. ask how much land was rented or sharecropped women within a certain age class. Ask the respond- in. Land sharecropped in is land cultivated by the ent how many boys/girls under the age of 15 life in household that is owned by another household. the household, how many men/women in between 15 and 30 live in the household, etc. Permanently Question 4: migrated people must not be included. Temporarily migrated members should only be included if they • a. First ask whether the household owns livestock. live in the household at the time of the interview. If the answer is no, look around to see whether • b. first ask whether household members have tem- indeed there are no signs that not even poultry is porarily migrated to another village, city or abroad owned. If the household indeed does not own any in the last 12 months; secondly ask for the age of livestock, move to question 5. the migrated household members. In the cells, fill in • b. for the types of livestock indicated in the first the number of people of a certain age class who have column of the table, ask whether the number of ani- temporarily migrated. mals owned is in one of the classes indicated. Tick • c. first ask whether household members have per- the cell indicating the number of animals they own. manently migrated from the village. If people have Check whether the answer given is plausible. If a migrated, then ask the age and sex of the people large number of animals are observed close to the migrated. In the cells, fill in the number of people dwelling, ask more questions about who owns these V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 51 animals. The distinction made between cattle and 2. being more unfavourable than normal years with dairy cattle refers to livestock owned especially for more irregular rainfall, e.g. because it was dry purpose of meat or reproduction or for the purpose for a long time after the first rains or because of milk production and sales. the first rains started later or because there were • c. similarly to question 4b, ask how much livestock too long periods without rain during the farm- was owned 12 months ago. ing season, leading to droughts and reduced yields; Questio n 5: 3. being more unfavourable than normal years because it had periods of excessive rainfall due to • a. first ask whether the household engages in fishing which fields flooded; activities. Tick the correct answer. Secondly, if they 4. being more unfavourable than normal years engage in fishing activities, ask whether they do it because it knew excessive showers leading to individually or as a member of a fishing group. If damage to crops, livestock or property (e.g. the answer to the first question is no, move to destroyed roofs); question 6. 5. being unfavourable than normal years with • b. indicate the type of fish people catch. When higher than average temperatures which com- the questionnaire is finished, the interviewer has bined with long periods without rainfall resulted to fill in the fish codes in the first column of the in scorched crops. table. • b. If they experienced one of the hazard described • c. ask whether the household sells any freshly caught above, ask when the period took place. If they don’t fish during the last 12 months. Tick the correct know the year ask for events that have taken place in answer. that period that can be traced back to a year(s). • d. ask whether the household has sold any processed • c. Ask whether people can recall whether there are fish. Processed fish is cleaned, smoked or dried. any periods in the past 30 years, that can be charac- Tick the correct answer. terized by major droughts, major floods or major shifts in rainfall pattern and that have caused sub- Questio n 6: stantial changes in the way people make a living. • d. Ask people to describe in their own words the • in the table a list is given of possible assets house- major weather related hazard they are facing in their holds can own. For the first list of assets it has to be daily activities. Is it related to the amount of rain- asked whether they own these assets. Tick yes or no. fall, the variability (spread of showers over the rainy If they own them, ask for the number of the asset period), the temperature, . . . . they own. • e. Ask the respondent whether in the last 12 months • For the second list of assets, it has to be asked they had a period in which they experienced prob- whether they own the asset. Tick yes or no. If they lems to sufficiently feed all household members. own the asset, ask when they purchased the asset. Also ask the months in which they experience these problems. Questio n 7: • f. for the hazards for which the respondent indicated that they have experienced it, ask how it affected 1. • a. For the five hazards indicated in the first table of crop production (were yields less??) – 2. area culti- question 7, ask whether people experienced in their vated (did they cultivate less fields??) – 3. livestock lifetime periods of more than one year that can be owned (did animals die or did they sell animals??) – characterized as 4. fish landed (did it affect catch) – 5. assets owned 1. being more unfavourable than normal years with (were assets sold to get cash??) – 6. cash income (did lower amounts of rainfall than normal during they own less cash??) the rainy season, leading to droughts, and which • g. ask whether the effect had a larger effect on the they remember as being distinctly different from men or the women of the household, or whether other periods; there is no difference. 52 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S • h. For the 10 hazards given in the table (and on • d. in this question, we have to ask which invest- cards) ask the respondent to order the cards in such ments had to be made for adopting the strategy. a way that the most important hazard is put on the This refers to cash expenditures that had to be left side and the least important on the right side. made, time needed to make the change and in-kind Hazards that are not at all deemed to be important inputs that were needed. Moreover, it is asked can be put on a separate pile and scored 0. whether the time spent or cash expenditures made • i. ask the respondent whether the hazards indicated are done by men, by women, by the community or in the table have become more or less threatening by external organizations. than in the past. Compared to the past, do they 1. ask whether in first year after adopting the strat- affect production, income and consumption more egy, adoption cost them more time compared to than in the past? their normal activities and how much time (days). • For agricultural activities, this may be clear: Questio n 8: do the new activities cost more time than the usual practice; • a. Ask with which organizations listed in the table • for water management techniques, setting up the household holds contacts with and maintaining the systems asks for time; • b. If they have contacts with the organizations, ask • for diversification techniques relating to how often they have contacts with the organizations. migration, people migrating probably have to • c. If they have contacts with the organizations, ask spent time on preparing their trip and it for how long they are in contact with the takes time before they start earning a living organization. (ask for how much time it takes to find • d. The interviewer has to check whether the work); for diversification techniques relating moment since when they are in touch with an to new activities, it takes time make handi- organization is related to any of the climate events crafts, collect timber or produce charcoal. as listed in question 7. • For communal pooling, the activities indi- • e. ask whether the assistance given by the organiza- cated take time to build. tions is useful to reduce the weather related hazards 2. Also ask who did the work: 1. men from the as discussed in question 7. household, 2. women from the household, 3. men jointly with other men from the commu- Questio n 9: nity, 4. women jointly with other women from the community, 5 people from other • This question is the most important question of the organizations. questionnaire. It is important to get a full overview 3. Ask whether people had to make cash expendi- of the strategies people have adopted to reduce the tures to start the activity. effects of the different hazards asked for in the pre- • For agricultural activities, cash expenditures vious question. refer to seeds, equipment, inputs, building • a/b. For the different strategies listed ask whether materials and other cash expenditures people have made these changes in their activities in • For water management techniques, cash order to reduce their dependence on weather. If they expenditures refer to investments in water adopted a strategy ask whether the decision to adopt collection systems, inputs, equipment, mate- the strategy was made by one of the men or women rials, etc. in the household. Moreover, in that case ask which • For diversification techniques related to of the hazards listed in question 7 was the main rea- migration, cash expenditures refer to travel son for changing their activities. If none of these costs and money needed to cover the first hazards was the reason, give the score 6. period in which people don’t earn an income • c. fill in the strategies asked for in question a were yet. For techniques referring to other activi- adopted to reduce any of the climate-related ties, cash expenditures refer to equipment hazards. and materials needed to start these activities. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 53 • For communal pooling techniques, cash • e. Ask which benefits they obtained from adopting expenditures refer to expenditures on inputs the strategy; and equipment that have to be made by the 1. did they earn more cash income, household. 2. did they have less risk to lose production or ani- 4. If people had to make cash expenditures, how mals; did they have less risk on income or food much money did it cost them in the first year shortages; did they have less risk to water after they adopted the strategy. shortages? 5. Like for question d.3, ask who had to make the 3. did their non-cash income increase (higher pro- expenditures duction, more livestock) 6. Ask the type of in-kind input they needed and • f. ask whether they were assisted, advised, trained or how much. This has to be filled in in a separate supported by organizations or institutions working table. In-kind inputs may include equipment or in the village. materials that are available in the household or • g. if they were assisted by any organization, ask what in the village. It refers to all inputs except for type of input they received: training, labor, inputs, the inputs they purchased and labor input. cash or food. 54 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Zone agro-écologique: Code du village: Nom du village: Code du ménage: Nom de l’enquêté(e): Sexe: M-F 1 Relation au chef du ménage/de la concession: Chef lui-même Un de ses épouses Autre - spécifiez Combien d’années cette concession se trouve déjà dans le village: Combien d’années la famille occupe cette concession: 2 Composition de la concession et caractéristiques de ces membres a) Nombre de personnes parclasse d’âge et sexe 0–15 16–30 31–45 45–60 60+ Total Homme Femme b) Nombre de personnes qui migrèrent saisonnièrement par classe d’âge et sexe Homme Femme c) Nom bre de personnes qui ont quittées le village de bon par classe d’âge et sexe Homme Femme d) Nombre de personnes parannées d’éducation et sexe Second 1er cycle 2ème cycle aire Supérie 0–6 7–9 10–12 ur 12+ Total Garcons < 15 ans Filles < 15 ans Homme > 15 ans Femme > 15 ans Donner les activités économiques de la concession par ordre d’importance en terme de revenue (1 = plus important, 8 = moins important, indique un “0� en cas que l’activité économique est insignifiant) Montrez si les actvites sont executé par les hommes ou les femmes. Au cas ou il n’ya pas de difference, marquez les deux Activités econom iques principales Executés par hom me ou femme Agriculture Importance Hommes Femmes Elevage/transhumance Pêche Emploie journalier (ouvrier agricole) Autre emploie privé (non-agricole) Com merce Fonctionnaire Autres - specifiez Observations: V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 55 3 Agriculture: Les activités culturales de l’année passée a. Avez-vous cultivé une des cultures ci-dessous pendant les 12 mois passées? b. Quel surface avez-vous cultivé de chaque culture? c. Avez-vous vendu un partie de votre récolte? Qui a géré le revenu du produit vendu? SVP marquez. Culture cultivé pendant 12 moins passés Surface cultivée Vendu? Qui gère le revenu? Oui Non Hommes Femmes 1 Sorgho 2 Petit mil 3 Riz 4 Manioc 5 Sorgho- Niébé 6 Petit mil - Niébé 7 Coton 8 Patat Douce 9 Maraîchage 10 Arachide 11 Manguier 12 Noix de Cajou 13 Gomme 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 d) Combien des terres est en votre propriété? Combien des terres est loué permanemment? e) Combien d’autres terres avez-vous loué pour votre campagne? Combien de terres est en métayage? 56 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 4 Elevage a. Est-ce que la concession possède du bétail? Oui Non Continuer avec les questions prochaines au cas où le ménage possède le bétail b. Combien de têtes du bétail le ménage possède? (ne comptez pas les animaux que vous gérez pour d’autres) c. combien de têtes du bétail a le ménage possédé il y a 12 mois? Combien de têtes on possède maintenant 1–2 3–5 6–10 >10 1 Bovins 2 Bétail de traction (ânes, chevaux) 3 Ovins 4 Volaille Combien de têtes on a possédé une année passée? 1–2 3–5 6–10 >10 1 Bovins 2 Bétail de traction (ânes, chevaux) 3 Ovins 4 Volaille 5 Pêche a. Est-ce que la concession s’engage dans la pêche? Oui Non Est-ce que la concession est membre d’un groupement ou une association de pécheurs? Oui Non Continuer avec les questions prochaines au cas où le ménage s’engage dans la pêche b. Quel type de poisson avez-vous pris? c. Avez-vous vendu du poisson frais pendant les 12 mois passés ? d. Avez-vous transformé (fumé, séché) et vendu du poisson pendant les 12 mois passés? Type de poisson Vendu frais? Transformé et vendu? Oui Non Oui Non 1 2 3 4 5 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 57 6 Les biens a. La concession possède quels biens? b. Si oui, combien de biens possède-t-elle? c. Si oui, il y a combien d’années que vous avez acheté ces biens? Type Bien possédé Nombre des biens possédé Oui Non Charrue Sarcloir Hache Faucile Pelle Équipement de pêche Bijoux Charrette Four amélioré Radio Bicycle/moto Maison toit en tôle Cuisine Type Bien possédé Acheté quand? Oui Non Four au gaz Frigo Etable bétail Portable Télévision Pirogue/bateau Maison en briques Voiture Autres Autres 58 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 7. Importance des hasards qui mettent en danger la subsistance a. Avez vous connu des périodes pendant votre vie avec des températures ou conditions pluviales plus ou moins favorables b. Pouvez vous indiquer quand ces périodes ont pris place ou autrement indiquer un événement important qui a pris place pendant ces périodes a) Hasards relatés à la b) Période(s) ou événements variabilité climatique qui ont pris place Existence de périodes avec moins de pluies pendant la saison des OUI/NON pluies ce qui a mené à des sécheresses Des années dans lesquelles la saison des pluies a eu des périodes OUI/NON de sécheresse prolongée, avoir asséché des cultures et amené un déficit en eau pour le bétail Des périodes défavorables pendant une année où il y a eu des pluies OUI/NON excessives qui ont amené à des inondations Des années pour lesquelles les pluies diluviennes ont causé des OUI/NON dommages aux cultures, au bétail ou aux biens Des périodes avec les températures extrêmes ayant causées des OUI/NON brûlures sur les cultures c. Rappelez-vous des périodes de sécheresse ou d’inondation pendant les 30 années passées qui ont changé forte- ment les façons de vivre des gens dans la région et qui ont causé des changements dans la façon de la produc- tion agricole ou du gagne-pain? Observation des enquêteurs: comparez la réponse-ci avec les réponses de la question 8 d. Indiquez les plus importants hasards climatiques qui affectent votre vie quotidienne Observation des enquêteurs: comparez la réponse-ci avec les réponses de la question 8 e. Pendant les 12 mois passés, il y avait des périodes dans lesquelles la concessions a eu des difficultés à nourrir tous les membres de la concession suffisamment? Si oui, pendant quels mois? Difficultés pendant les 12 mois passés? Oui Non Pendant quels mois? jan fév. mar avr mai juin juill aout sept oct nov dec V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 59 f. Pour les hasards climatique que vous avez connus, indiquez l’impact sur votre vie quotidienne 0 = pas applica- ble, 1 = très négatif, 2 = négatif, 3 = pas d’impact, 4 = positif, 5 = très positif g) Qui est le plus touché par le hasard: des hommes, des femmes, les deux? Personnes impliquées Production Usage des Animaux Prise de Biens Revenu agricole terres possédés poisson possédés monétaire Homme Femme Existence de périodes avec moins de pluies pendant la saison des pluies ce qui a mené à des sécheresses Des années dans lesquelles la saison des pluies a eu des périodes de sécheresse prolongée, avoir asséché des cultures et amené un déficit en eau pour le bétail Des périodes défavorables pendant une année où il y a eu des pluies excessives qui ont amené à des inondations Des années pour lesquelles les pluies diluviennes ont causé des dommages aux cultures, au bétail ou aux biens Des périodes avec les températures extrêmes ayant causées des brûlures sur les cultures h. Faites une classification des hasards donné ci-dessous par ordre du (1) moins important au (10) plus important i. Indiquez si ces hasards sont devenus plus ou moins menacent que il y a 5 an dans le passé. h) Classification des i) Plus ou moins menaçants Hasards hasards que dans le passé? Sécheresse à cause de la diminution des pluies pendant la saison des pluies OUI/NON Sécheresse à cause des périodes de sécheresse pendant la saison de la pluie OUI/NON Inondation à cause de la pluie excessive OUI/NON Dommage à cause des pluies diluviennes OUI/NON Changement des températures en moyen et OUI/NON Maladies humaines OUI/NON Maladies animales et attaques des cultures OUI/NON Diminution de la fertilité des sols OUI/NON Problèmes avec l’achat d’intrants et la commercialisation des OUI/NON Prix élevés des besoins alimentaires OUI/NON Autres - spécifiez: OUI/NON 1 = moins important 10 = plus important 60 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 8 Institutions a. Avec quels organisation ou groupement avez-vous régulièrement des contacts? b. Quelle est la fréquence de contact? (1 = jamais, 2 = de temps en temps , 3 = pendant la période de végétation, 4 = quelques fois par année, 5 = quelques fois par mois, 6 = chaque semaine) c. Depuis quand avez-vous une relation avec cette institution? d. A propos de quelle type de hasards vous êtes en contact avec cette institution? Le hasard a eu lieu quand? e. L’assistance fourni par ces institutions a-t-elle permis de vous préparez à mieux combattre les hasards climatiques qui mettaient votre concession en danger? a) Existence c) Contact est d) À propos quel e) Aide pour de contacts b) Fréquence rétabli dans type de hasard combattre les Institution avec institution des contacts quelle année? et quand? hasards climatique 1. Administration centrale OUI/NON OUI/NON 2. Administration régionale OUI/NON OUI/NON 3. Administration locale OUI/NON OUI/NON 4. Services techniques OUI/NON OUI/NON 5. Bailleurs de fonds internationaux OUI/NON OUI/NON 6. Organisation Non-Gouvernementale OUI/NON OUI/NON 7. Groupements OUI/NON OUI/NON 8. Ecoles OUI/NON OUI/NON 9. Banques OUI/NON OUI/NON 10. Comités villageois OUI/NON OUI/NON 11. Organisations religieuses OUI/NON OUI/NON 12. Groupement des femmes OUI/NON OUI/NON 13. Tontines/banque de microcrédit OUI/NON OUI/NON 14. Groupes d’entre-aide OUI/NON OUI/NON 15. Syndicats OUI/NON OUI/NON 16. Autres: OUI/NON OUI/NON 17. Autres: OUI/NON OUI/NON V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 61 9 Les stratégies principales des concessions/ménages pour accommoder les hasards climatiques a. Appliquez vous un des options d’adaption (données en bas) afin de combattre les impacts des hasards présentés dans la question précédente? Qui a décidé quel stratégie serait utilisé, l’un de hommes ou l’une des femmes de la concession? b. Quel hasard est réduit au cas que la stratégie d’adaption est mise en œuvre? 1 = sécheresse à cause de la diminution des pluies pendant la saison des pluies; 2 = sécheresse à cause des périodes de sécheresse pendant la saison de la pluie; 3 = inondation à cause de la pluie excessive; 4 = dommage à cause des pluies diluviennes; 5 = changement des températures en moyen et extrême ; 6 = autres Stratégie appliquée Stratégie appliquée Techniques Quel hasard Quel hasard agricoles: Appliquée? Homme Femme est reduit? Diversification Appliquée? Homme Femme est reduit? Utiliser des OUI/NON 123456 User d’autres OUI/NON 123456 semences sources que le bois sélectionnées pour énergie Ajuster la date de OUI/NON 123456 Migrer OUI/NON 123456 semis temporairement vers centres urbains ou l’étranger Ajuster la densité OUI/NON 123456 Migrer OUI/NON 123456 de plants temporairement vers d’autres régions rurales (plantations) Associer plusieurs OUI / NON 123456 Migration vers des OUI/NON 123456 cultures dans un endroits avec de champ bonnes terres / zones minières Ajuster l’application OUI/NON 123456 Commercialiser OUI/NON 123456 d’engrais et produits d’autres produits phytosanitaires forestiers que le bois (gomme, etc.) Ajuster les OUI/NON 123456 Cultiver des produits OUI/NON 123456 pratiques culturales maraîchers autours des habitations Améliorer le OUI/NON 123456 Commercialiser une OUI/NON 123456 stockage des plus grande quantité produits de produits récoltés Changement OUI/NON 123456 Apiculture OUI/NON 123456 d’utilisation de l’espace agricole Fertilisation par OUI/NON 123456 Pisciculture / OUI/NON 123456 cheptel familiale empoissonnement des mares Ajuster OUI/NON 123456 Ventes de plants OUI/NON 123456 l’alimentation (pépinières) des animaux Changer la OUI/NON 123456 S’engager dans OUI/NON 123456 composition du l’artisanat cheptel Changer le système OUI/NON 123456 Changer la OUI/NON 123456 de conduite/ composition et la transhumance fréquence des repas Autres OUI/NON 123456 User le capital de la OUI/NON 123456 famille en particulier le stock d’animaux Vente de terre OUI/NON 123456 62 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 9 Les stratégies principales des concessions/ménages pour accommoder les hasards climatiques Stratégie appliquée Stratégie appliquée Techniques de ges- Quel hasard Actvités commu- Quel hasard tion de l’eau: Appliquée? Homme Femme est reduit? nales: Appliquée? Homme Femme est reduit? Ajuster les OUI/NON 123456 Mise en défens/ OUI/NON 123456 techniques de Préserver ou captage de l’eau refaire les zones forestières (village, montage) pour lutter contre l’érosion Améliorer ou OUI/NON 123456 Bois sacré/culturel OUI/NON 123456 construire des (brise vents) terraces Construire des OUI/NON 123456 Pêche/chasse OUI/NON 123456 mini- collective retenues d’eau Construire des OUI/NON 123456 Banque de céréale OUI/NON 123456 Micro barrages (pour période de soudure) Faire l’irrigation OUI/NON 123456 Banque de OUI/NON 123456 des cultures semence Pompage/ OUI/NON 123456 Travaux collectifs/ OUI/NON 123456 irrigation à la solidarité calebasse Gestion des points OUI/NON 123456 OUI/NON 123456 d’eau Drainage OUI/NON 123456 OUI/NON 123456 Usage de l’eau OUI/NON 123456 OUI/NON 123456 dépolluée Améliorer OUI/NON 123456 OUI/NON 123456 l’alimentation en eau pastorale OUI/NON 123456 OUI/NON 123456 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 63 c. Remplissez les stratégies appliquées comme elles sont données à la question 8 d1. Combien de temps avez-vous mis à l’activité pendant le première année après l’application de la stratégie? d2. Qui a mis ce temps à cette activité? 1 = homme individuel; 2 = femme individuel; 3 = hommes de la commu- nauté ; 4 = femmes de la communauté; 5 = autres organisations g. Quels types des moyens de production avez-vous reçu de ces institutions? 1 = formation; 2 = travail; 3 = moyen de production 4= argent; 5 = alimentation. d4) Pour combien de FCFA avez-vous acheté les moyens de production ou matériels pendant la première année? d5. Qui a fait ces dépenses? d6. Quelle types de moyens de production en nature avez-vous eu? Et combien? e. Quelles sont les bénéfices de l’application de cette nouvelle stratégie? 1 = revenue monétaire supplémentaire; 2 = moins de risque ; 3 = croissance de revenue non-monétaire? f. Quelles institutions ont assisté au moyen de formation, aux moyens de production ou assistance technique à propos des hasards données à b) g. Quels types des moyens de production avez-vous reçu de ces institutions? 1 = formation; 2 = travail; 3 = moyen de production 4= argent; 5 = alimentation. Type et d) Temps Couts Qui a quantité Contributions c) Type de supplémen- Qui a fait supplémen- dépensé des couts Institutions des stratégie taires le travail? taires Couts ces couts? en nature Bénéfices impliquées institutions 12345 OUI/NON 12345 Tableaux 1 2 3 123456 séparée 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 12345 OUI/NON 12345 1 2 3 123456 64 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Table aux D e La Questi on d6: Types Et M o n t a n t s D e s M o y e n s D e s P r o d u c t i o n E n N a t u r e Stratégie Type et montant des moyens de production V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 65 I LLUS T RAT IVE PHOTOS PHOTO 1: AGRICULTURE PHOTO 2: ELEVAGE PHOTO 3: EMPLOI JOURNALIER PHOTO 4: PECHE PHOTO 5: AUTRE EMPLOIE PRIVÉ (NON-AGRICOLE) PHOTO 6: COMMERCE 66 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S PHOTO 7: FONCTIONNAIRE PHOTO 8: OTHER ? PHOTO 9: SÉCHERESSE (DIMINUTION DES PHOTO 10: MALADIES HUMAINES PLUIES PENDANT LA SAISON DES PLUIES PHOTO 11: SÉCHERESSE (PÉRIODES DE PHOTO 12: MALADIES ANIMALES ET ATTAQUES SÉCHERESSE PENDANT LA SAISON DE LA PLUIE) DES CULTURES V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 67 PHOTO 13: INONDATION À CAUSE DE LA PLUIE PHOTO 14: DIMINUTION DE LA FERTILITÉ DES EXCESSIVE SOLS PHOTO 15: DOMMAGE À CAUSE DES PLUIES PHOTO 16: PROBLÈMES AVEC L’ACHAT DILUVIENNES D’INTRANTS ET LA COMMERCIALISATION DES PRODUITS PHOTO 17: CHANGEMENT DES PHOTO 18: PRIX ELEVÉS DES BESOINS TEMPERATURES EN MOYEN ET EXTRÊME ALIMENTAIRES 68 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S A 1. C I NS T I TUTIONAL STAKEHOL DER QU E S TI O N N A I R E Nom du village Code du village: Nom de la région: Date de l’interview: 1. Quel est votre activité/position/ profession principal dans le vil- lage? Svp spécifiez. Depuis combien d’années vous êtes chargés de cette position? Quel est votre âge? Combien d’années d’éducation? 2. Les communautés se changent constamment à cause d’un grand nombre de changement hors de la commu- nauté. L’amélioration des communautés est menacée par plusieurs différents hasards a. Faites une classification des hasards donnée ci-dessous par ordre du (1) moins important au (10) plus important b. Indiques si ces hasards sont devenus plus ou moins menacant qu’il y a 5 ans dans le passé. Hasards a) Classification des hasards b) Plus ou moins Sècheresse (précipitation totale Variance dans la pluviométrie Inondations Variations de la température Maladies humaines Maladies animales et attaques Diminution de la fertilité des sols Problèmes avec l’achat d’intrants Prix élevés des besoins Autre (spécifier): 1 = moins important 1 = très positif 10 = plus important 2 = positif 3 = pas d’impact 4 = négatif 5 = très négatif Observations: V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 69 3 Institutions a. Quelles organisations ont leur présence dans votre village? b. Quels organisations s’engagent dans l’assistance de la population du village à mieux combattre les changement du temps qui mettent les concessions en danger? c. Quelle est la signification de ces organisations à assister la population à mieux se préparer pour le lutte contre le changement du temps? Et-ce que leurs activités rendent utiles pour la population et est-ce qu’elles peuvent atteindre beaucoup de villageois? b) engagement des strategies c) signification de leurs Institution a) Présent? d’adaptations? assiatnces? 1. Administration centrale OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 2. Administration régionale OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 3. Administration locale OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 4. Services techniques OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 5. Bailleurs de fonds internationaux OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 6. Organisation Non-Gouvernementale OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 7. Groupements OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 8. Ecoles OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 9. Banques OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 10. Comités villageois OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 11. Organisations religieuses OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 12. Groupement des femmes OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 13. Tontines/banque de microcrédit OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 14. Groupes d’entre-aide OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 15. Syndicats OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 16. Autres: OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 17. Autres: OUI/NON OUI/NON 1 2 3 4 5 1 = pas de tout important 5 = très important 4. Question de discussion: (type de service requis) a. Quel organisation(s) à votre avis est la plus utile ou la mieux disposée à aider la population à s’adapter aux risques de la variabilité du temps? b. Quel type d’aide ont besoin les ménages afin de s’adapter aux risques de la variabilité du temps? Formation, connaissance, contributions, aide financière, projets communaux par exemple dans le domaine de l’irrigation, la lutte contre l’érosion du sol ou la retenue d’eau . . . . ? c. Quels genres de problèmes entravent à votre avis les activités des organismes qui aident la population à s’adapter à la variabilité changeante du temps? d. De quel genre d’assistance externe ou d’aide ont besoin les organismes qui travaillent dans ce domaine pour améliorer leurs résultats? Aide financière, connaissance/formation, contributions/matériel, de secours des organismes gouvernementaux ou internationaux. . . . . ? 5. Questions générales sur l’organisation a. Nom de l’organisation b. Secteur géographique servi par l’institution (villages/zones) 70 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S c. Nombre des membres du personnel employé à temps plein par l’institution d. Nombre des membres du personnel employé à temps partiel par l’institution e. Genre du personnel: % des femmes. f. Évaluation de l’âge moyen du personnel (années) g. Nombre d’années de fonctionnement de l’institution (années). 6. Type d’institution a. Quel est le but/l’objectif des institutions? b. Quel type de service vos institutions fournissent-elles? Quelles sont les activités de l’institution? c. Quel est l’avantage que les membres obtiennent en rejoignant l’institution/participant à l’institution ? PART I E 2: Q uestions réser vées seulement aux acteurs représentant une institution/ organisation. 7. Membership/clients de l’institution a. Qui peut être membre ou qui peut recevoir des services? b. Quels sont les critères pour devenir un membre ou pour recevoir les services (est ce que cela dépend de la position sociale, économique ou du secteur géographique?) c. Y a-t-il des restrictions pour devenir membre ou pour recevoir des services ? d. Y a -t- il des limitations pour l’adhésion ou pour les services (c.-à-d. seulement un certain nombre d’années pendant lesquelles les membres peuvent recevoir le service) e. Est ce que l’institution fournit le même type de service à tous les membres? (est ce que le service dépend du groupe social ou du niveau social de besoin?) 8. Financement a. D’où provient le financement des institutions? b. Pour les institutions formelles : Quel est le budget annuel de votre organisation? Comment le budget est alloué aux dépenses pour le personnel et aux activités initiées? b. Pour les institutions formelles et informelles : A supposer que le budget de votre institution soit de 100 ’ jetons. Si vous devriez allouer ce budget aux services que vous fournissez, comment le feriez-vous? D’ailleurs, si ce budget devrait être alloué à différents types de membres ou à différents types de groupes au sein de la communauté, comment le feriez-vous? 9. Impacts climatiques a. Y a-t-il eu un événement extrême de temps qui a eu un impact sur le type de service que vous fournissez ou sur la demande du type de service que vous fournissez? b. Le service était-il encore applicable ou efficace pendant l’événement de temps? c. Quelles sont les stratégies qui ont été utilisées pour s’adapter au changement des conditions? d. Au cours des événements extrêmes de temps dans le passé, y avait-il eu différentes formes de distribution (itinéraire physique ou raccordements sociaux) d)es services? f. A votre avis, quel rôle les organismes ont joué dans la mise en oeuvre ou dans la promotion des stratégies d’adaptation? Renforcement de capacité? Financement? 10. Politiques gouvernementales a. Quelles politiques de gouvernement sont restrictives aux institutions? Quelles politiques de gouvernement soutiennent les institutions? b. Les politiques gouvernementales jouent-elles un rôle pour déterminer que vous travaillez avec les institu- tions dans le pays? V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 71 A 1. D. F OCU S GROUP DISCUSSION Dans chaque village, une discussion en groupe sera organisée. La discussion en groupe est une méthode qualitative avec l’objectif d’obtenir l’information en main et en détail sur des concepts, des perceptions et des idées d’un groupe. Les résultats de la discussion compléteront les résultats et les idées obtenues à partir des questionnaires sur les ménages, à partir des interviews des acteurs institutionnels et à partir des interviews d’expert. Les objectifs princi- paux de ces discussions de groupe sont: • pour obtenir plus d’idées sur les principales perceptions des risques (climatiques) auxquels les communautés et les ménages font face; • pour obtenir plus d’informations sur les changements des risques et des options d’adaptation; • pour obtenir plus d’informations sur les raisons de l’adoption ou de la non-adoption des différentes options d’adaptation; • pour obtenir plus d’informations sur les points d’avantages/désavantages/goulots d’étranglement/points forts/ faibles des différentes options d’adaptation; • pour obtenir plus d’informations sur les institutions facilitant l’adoption de certaines options d’adaptation; • pour obtenir plus d’informations sur les goulots d’étranglement empêchant les institutions de donner l’aide utile; • pour obtenir plus d’informations sur les différences dans l’adoption de stratégie entre les groupes socio-écono- miques avec la communauté. Dans les discussions en groupe, un groupe de 15 à 20 personnes du village seront invitées et avec l’aide d’un facilita- teur ces personnes sont stimulées à parler librement et spontanément au sujet des questions mentionnées ci-dessus. Un ‘ enregistreur ‘ garde un disque de la discussion de même que des réactions émotives et des aspects importants de l’interaction du groupe. Une évaluation de la tonalité émotive de la réunion et du processus du groupe nous permet de juger la validité de l’information collectée. La durée de chacune des discussions est approximativement deux heures. Il est proposé d’inviter des groupes de mélange d’hommes et de femmes. Dans chaque pays, dans un ou deux villages, seulement des groupes de femmes seront invités afin d’avoir plus d’idées sur l’effet du genre sur les points de vues et les opinions sur ces questions. Si les groupes mixes sont difficiles à former pour des raisons culturelles ou religieuses, dans trois villages un groupe d’hommes et dans trois villages un groupe de femmes sera invité. Les groupes devraient contenir différentes classes d’âge et doivent contenir également des gens qui ont éprouvé les sécheresses dans les années 70. En plus, il est recommandé d’inclure des personnes de différentes classes de richesse afin d’obtenir une bonne représentation de la composition de la communauté. La liste des personnes à inviter sera établie en commun avec les autorités locales et les représentants des projets actifs dans les villages. En utilisant les images et les photos de différents risques, risques climatiques et options d’adaptation, les questions de discussion suivantes seront avancées: • A quel risques liés au climat ou aux précipitations faites-vous face dans votre vie quotidienne? • Pour les risques de sécheresse: dans quelle mesure le début de la saison des pluies et la quantité de pluie tom- bée pendant la saison des pluies a changée pendant les dernières décennies? Adaptez-vous des stratégies de paysan si vous avez éprouvé des problèmes de sécheresse dans les années passée ? Y a-t- il des différences dans les plantes cultivées, dans les techniques de labourage, dans les dates de semence, dans les activités réa- lisées, dans l’équipement utilisé. . . . ? Avez- vous changé la composition de votre bétail possédé, la gestion de votre bétail . . . ? 72 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S • Pour des risques d’inondation: dans quelle mesure la quantité de pluie ou l’intensité avec laquelle il a plu a changé pendant les dernières décennies? Changez-vous les stratégies de culture et les stratégies de moyen d’existence si vous avez éprouvé de manière régulière des problèmes d’inondation ces dernières années? Y a-t- il des différences dans les plantes cultivées, dans les techniques de labourage, dans les dates de semence, dans les activités réalisées, dans l’équipement utilisé. . . . ? Avez- vous changé la composition de votre bétail possédé, la gestion de votre bétail. . . ? • Combien ces changements vous coûtent-ils en termes de ressources utilisées, en termes de besoins de main- d’œuvre, etc.? • Quelles organisations, autorités ou personnes sont les plus utiles pour apprendre plus au sujet de la façon se préparer à ces risques? Comment ces organisations peuvent-elles mieux accomplir ces tâches ? • Dans quelle mesure les choix dépendent de l’appartenance ethnique, de la classe de richesse, du genre? Au cours de l’atelier de création, une discussion sera faite pour savoir si les images, les matériaux ou l’équipement particuliers conviennent pour exemplifier des idées particulières ou pour stimuler des participants à exprimer leurs opinions. En fonction de la direction que prend la discussion , les questions doivent être formulées de manière à mettre l’em- phase sur les sujets particuliers. On devrait essayer de couvrir toutes les questions ci-dessus pendant la discussion. Pendant la discussion, l’enregistreur doit prêter une attention particulière pour savoir si les représentants des diffé- rents groupes socio-économiques répondent aux questions différemment, s’ils ont différentes perceptions, utilisent différentes options d’adaptation ou dépendent de différentes institutions. Les sommaires de la discussion de groupe incluent: • La date, l’heure et le lieu ; • Les noms et les caractéristiques des participants; • La description générale de la dynamique du groupe ( taux de participation, présence d’un participant domi- nant, niveau d’intérêt); • Les opinions des participants sur les questions discutées, enregistrées autant que possible dans leurs propres mots, particulièrement pour propos principaux; • Aspects émotifs (par exemple hésitation, sentiments forts liés à certaines opinion); • Discussions appropriées spontanées pendant les pauses ou après la clôture de la discussion. Il est proposé d’enregistrer plusieurs sessions à l’aide d’ un camcorder. Ceci soulage le traitement des résultats et nous permet de réévaluer les résultats et les manières par lesquelles les ateliers ont eu lieu. Les participants seront ques- tionnés pour savoir s’ ils approuvent le tournage de la session. Au cas où il serait intéressant, il serait possible de demander aux une équipe vidéo avec les représentants de la banque mondiale pour que le film puisse également être utilisé pour des fins de diffusion. 73 APPENDIX 2. DATA ANALYSIS A2.A. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE HOUSEHOLDS TABLE A.1. MAI N DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY SITES – SEE ALSO TABLE A2.1B BELOW Village Average household size % male members Dependency ratio Average age 1 Kandara 16.3 58 1.2 25.9 2 Touara 13.3 54 1.2 23.8 3 Kondogola 14.1 50 0.9 24.5 4 Fambougou 15.8 52 1.1 22.9 5 Togou 16.4 53 1.3 21.8 6 N’Tjila 14.8 52 1.1 24.2 Average 15.1 53 1.1 23.8 Notes: 1. Dependency ratio = (number of children under the age of 16 plus elderly people above 60) / (number of adults in between 16 and 60 years) TABLE A.2. DIF FERENCES IN EDUCATION AND MIGRATION – SEE ALSO TABLE A2.2B BELOW Temporary migraton Permanent migration Average age of Average age of % hh with %hh with % of hh with Average years of education migration migration temp. perm. migrated Boys Girls Men Women Migr. Men Women Migr. Men Women members 1 Kandara 0.7 0.5 0.0 0.0 52 26.3 22.5 12 28.1 0.0 62 2 Touara 0.9 0.6 0.0 0.0 56 28.6 23.4 8 34.5 22.5 60 3 Kondogola 2.2 0.7 0.0 0.1 48 30.0 22.5 12 27.5 22.5 52 4 Fambougou 0.9 0.5 0.0 0.0 52 23.6 24.6 4 22.5 0.0 52 5 Togou 0.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 56 23.0 10.5 2 22.5 0.0 56 6 N’Tjila 1.7 1.3 0.2 0.1 48 22.7 22.5 4 22.5 22.5 48 Total 1.1 0.6 0.1 0.0 52 25.7 21.3 7 28.1 22.5 55 74 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE A.3. MAIN ACTIVITIES OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE STUDY SITES %of the hh for whom the activity is the 1st, 2nd or 3d important activity Agriculture Livestock raising Fisheries Daily labor Trade and commerce 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 Kandara 100 0 0 0 16 20 0 22 20 0 16 10 0 20 4 2 Touara 94 4 0 2 10 38 4 72 10 0 0 4 0 4 10 3 Kondogola 92 8 0 2 26 20 0 0 10 2 20 4 0 14 14 4 Fambougou 100 0 0 0 46 8 0 0 0 0 10 6 0 16 10 5 Togou 100 0 0 0 40 2 0 2 0 0 8 0 0 4 6 6 N’Tjila 100 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 6 2 total 98 2 0 1 25 15 1 16 7 0 10 4 0 11 8 Work is especially done by Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women 1 Kandara 98 28 100 17 100 35 95 15 73 60 2 Touara 100 24 100 3 98 9 100 0 53 65 3 Kondogola 96 40 100 0 100 0 100 0 89 17 4 Fambougou 100 24 100 0 100 0 92 23 5 Togou 100 52 100 0 100 0 100 0 80 20 6 N’Tjila 100 58 100 0 100 0 50 50 total 99 38 100 4 99 17 98 6 75 40 TABLE A.4. MAIN T YPES OF CROPS GROWN Average acreage planted with (ha) Average area per household (ha) Cereals Vegetables Cash crops Root crops Fruit 1 Kandara 6.76 6.20 0.18 0.31 0.07 0.01 2 Touara 10.00 9.50 0.40 0.10 0.00 0.01 3 Kondogola 8.16 7.28 0.19 0.67 0.02 0.00 4 Fambougou 9.73 7.69 0.89 1.11 0.00 0.04 5 Togou 8.00 6.76 0.40 0.70 0.00 0.15 6 N’Tjila 6.61 5.16 0.10 1.18 0.03 0.15 Total 8.21 7.10 0.36 0.68 0.02 0.06 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 75 % of households cultivating Cereals Vegetables Cash crops Root crops Fruit 1 Kandara 100 32 44 12 2 2 Touara 98 28 16 0 2 3 Kondogola 100 18 72 2 0 4 Fambougou 100 64 76 0 2 5 Togou 100 22 80 0 8 6 N’Tjila 100 14 94 8 16 Total 100 30 64 4 5 % of producing households who sold any of their % of hh who sold Cereals Vegetables Cash crops Root crops Fruit 1 Kandara 24 16 6 18 50 100 2 Touara 50 47 0 25 0 3 Kondogola 92 78 67 64 100 4 Fambougou 88 72 56 79 100 5 Togou 58 46 18 33 75 6 N’Tjila 76 44 0 70 25 75 Total 65 51 30 55 45 73 Note: In the questionnaires some observations on cash crops, fruit trees and other trees were in hectares, others were in number of trees. In order to put all crop types under the same unit, number of plants were transformed into hectares using a conversion factor of 1 plant per 2m2 = 0.0002 ha. For fruit trees and other trees, the observations per hectare were transformed into estimates of number of trees using a conversion factor of 1 tree per 0.015625 ha or 64 trees per hectare. This factor was derived from the survey data. TABLE A.4B. DETAILS ON AREA CULTIVATED AND LAND OWNED Quartiles Average Standard Minimum 50% = 100% = acreage deviation acreage 25% median 75% max Land owned 1 Kandara 6.76 6.89 0.50 2.25 4.25 8.50 30.00 7.09 2 Touara 10.00 6.17 0.00 6.00 9.00 11.38 29.75 11.80 3 Kondogola 8.16 4.86 0.50 5.00 7.45 9.88 25.50 10.80 4 Fambougou 9.73 3.68 3.00 7.00 9.25 12.19 19.50 10.26 5 Togou 8.00 4.59 3.00 5.50 6.75 9.25 30.00 8.21 6 N’Tjila 6.61 3.25 1.50 4.06 5.75 8.38 16.00 7.40 Total 8.21 5.20 0.00 5.00 7.00 10.56 30.00 9.26 76 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE A.5. LIVESTO CK OWNERSHIP Average heads of livestock per household % of hh owning Breeding Traction livestock cattle Dairy cattle livestock Goats Sheep Poultry TLU 1 Kandara 98 2.9 0.0 2.1 0.2 3.7 5.1 4.6 2 Touara 96 3.4 0.1 3.0 0.8 5.0 4.8 6.0 3 Kondogola 94 2.9 0.0 2.6 0.1 7.1 8.1 5.4 4 Fambougou 98 2.3 0.0 2.2 0.1 8.3 8.0 4.7 5 Togou 98 1.0 0.0 2.2 0.0 4.2 5.2 3.3 6 N’Tjila 66 0.5 0.2 1.1 0.1 1.8 1.6 1.8 Total 92 2.2 0.0 2.2 0.2 5.0 5.5 4.3 Average heads of livestock last year Breeding Traction cattle Dairy cattle livestock Goats Sheep Poultry TLU 1 Kandara 2.8 0.0 2.2 0.5 3.7 4.9 4.7 2 Touara 3.8 0.0 3.1 0.8 5.0 4.8 6.3 3 Kondogola 2.6 0.0 2.5 0.1 7.1 7.7 5.1 4 Fambougou 2.0 0.0 2.2 0.1 8.3 7.5 4.5 5 Togou 1.0 0.0 2.1 0.0 4.2 5.9 3.3 6 N’Tjila 1.6 0.3 1.7 0.0 1.8 2.6 3.2 Total 2.3 0.1 2.3 0.3 5.0 5.6 4.5 % difference compared to last year Breeding Traction cattle Dairy cattle livestock Goats Sheep Poultry TLU 1 Kandara –2.8 100.0 4.1 52.9 0.0 –3.3 1.6 2 Touara 11.6 1.6 9.6 0.0 –1.1 4.9 3 Kondogola –10.5 –5.6 0.0 0.0 –5.6 –6.5 4 Fambougou –16.6 –0.5 0.0 0.0 –6.4 –5.5 5 Togou –6.3 100.0 –2.9 0.0 12.0 –2.3 6 N’Tjila 67.1 29.6 33.9 0.0 41.3 42.9 Total 5.4 18.2 3.7 18.0 0.0 2.0 4.1 Notes: 1. TLU = tropical livestock units. TLU conversion factors: Cattle in herd: 0.7, Cows: 1.0, Sheep: 0.1, Goat: 0.08, Poultry: 0.01 (see Kassam et al., 1991). V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 77 TABLE A.5B. FISHERIES ACTIVITIES % of hh % of housholds catching % of fishing hh % of fishing involved in selling unpro- hh selling fisheries 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 cessed fish processed fish 1 Kandara 58 83 62 93 48 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Touara 84 71 40 76 60 10 2 29 29 10 74 57 3 Kondogola 10 60 60 100 0 0 20 0 0 40 60 40 4 Fambougou 2 100 0 100 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Togou 6 67 0 100 67 0 0 0 0 33 33 33 6 N’Tjila 0 Total 27 75 48 85 51 14 3 15 15 9 44 34 Notes: 1 = capitaine, 2 = silure, 3 = carpe, 4 = manogo, 5 = konkon, 6 = samu, 7 = tineni, 8 = poisson chien, 9 = bama. TABLE A.6. ASSET OW NERSHIP Quartiles Standard Mean deviation Min. 25% 50% 75% Max. 1 Kandara 33 19 5 22 29 39 119 2 Touara 37 17 9 25 35 46 83 3 Kondogola 31 22 3 20 27 34 133 4 Fambougou 27 12 8 20 28 31 69 5 Togou 27 15 6 17 24 32 77 6 N’Tjila 26 11 7 18 25 33 58 Total 30 17 3 20 27 35 133 Notes: 1. Four types of assets were distinguished, which were weighted from 1 till 4 to calculate a household specific asset ownership indicator. The four of assets were: 1) basic farming equipment including a plough, hoe, axe, sickle, shovel and fishing equipment; 2) basic assets including jewellery, cart, improved stove, radio and bicycle; 3) more luxury assets including iron roofed house, separate kitchen house, gas or petrol stove, refrigerator, stable for livestock and mobile phone; and 4) tv, boat, house built of cement and car. 78 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S FIGURE A.1. HISTOGRAM OF ASSET OWNERSHIP PER VILLAGE 25 20 Number of households 15 10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 Asset score Kandara Touara Kondogola Fambougou Togou N'Tjila V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I TABLE A.1B. DETAILED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY SITES Standard Average number of household members per age class Average Minimum Median Maximum deviation 15–30 15–30 30–45 45–60 60+ Total household household household household household Village size size size size size Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 1 Kandara 16.3 4 14 54 9.46 4.0 2.7 2.7 1.4 1.4 1.1 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.7 9.5 6.8 2 Touara 13.3 1 12 31 6.79 3.0 2.9 2.1 1.2 1.0 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.2 7.1 6.2 3 Kondogola 14.1 2 11 68 11.46 2.6 2.8 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.6 0.9 0.8 0.3 0.2 7.1 7.0 4 Fambougou 15.8 5 15 64 10.51 3.1 3.3 2.3 1.9 1.3 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.1 8.2 7.6 5 Togou 16.4 6 15 44 9.04 3.7 3.7 2.3 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.0 0.6 0.3 0.0 8.6 7.8 6 N’Tjila 14.8 3 14 56 8.92 3.2 2.8 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.6 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.3 7.6 7.1 Total 15.1 1 14 68 9.47 3.3 3.0 2.2 1.6 1.3 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.3 8.0 7.1 79 80 TABLE A.2B. DETAILED EDUCATION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY SITES Boys <=15 Girls <=15 Men >15 yrs Women >15 yrs 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 0–4 4–8 8–12 12+ Total 1 Kandra 1.5 1.4 0.0 0.0 1.7 1.2 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2 Touaraa 1.8 1.1 1.0 0.0 1.9 1.7 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3 Kondogola 1.6 2.1 2.0 0.0 2.3 1.6 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 4 Fambougou 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.6 1.4 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5 Togou 1.6 1.5 1.0 0.0 1.8 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6 N’Tjila 2.0 1.3 1.0 0.0 2.5 1.7 1.9 0.0 0.0 2.2 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.7 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 2.0 Total 1.6 1.5 1.2 0.0 2.0 1.5 1.4 0.0 0.0 1.6 1.3 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 1.3 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 81 A2.B. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CLUSTERS TABLE B.1. HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS Number of Share of Children Share of Males In Share of Females In Hh Members In Hh (<15 Yrs) Hh (>15 Yrs) Hh (>15 Yrs) Asset Score hh per cluster % Mean St. dev. Mean St. dev. Mean St. dev. Mean St.dev. Mean St.Dev. 1 73 24.3 15.52 10.13 40.17 13.64 31.54 11.38 28.29 11.27 30.64 14.35 2 35 11.7 15.86 11.24 43.16 20.21 30.92 17.16 25.93 11.13 41.83 22.30 3 43 14.3 18.33 10.88 41.79 13.55 33.66 12.77 24.55 7.76 64.70 111.67 4 17 5.7 13.94 9.36 39.95 19.33 30.54 20.10 29.51 16.01 28.88 12.90 5 78 26.0 14.13 7.01 45.78 14.90 28.24 12.58 24.71 10.80 25.00 8.14 6 49 16.3 12.45 8.49 43.12 19.18 31.83 18.52 25.04 11.80 19.63 10.74 295 98.3 15.00 9.44 42.72 16.20 30.89 14.55 26.05 11.14 33.51 46.26 Note: St.Dev. = standard deviation 82 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE B.2. AGRICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS Average acreage planted with (ha) Average acreage per hh Cereals Vegetables Cash crops Root crops Fruit 1 8.05 6.97 0.31 0.76 0.00 0.01 2 11.51 10.98 0.30 0.24 0.00 0.00 3 9.75 8.83 0.40 0.45 0.05 0.02 4 9.10 6.63 0.15 1.46 0.18 0.69 5 7.91 6.61 0.62 0.65 0.00 0.04 6 5.10 4.19 0.11 0.77 0.01 0.03 8.24 7.14 0.36 0.66 0.02 0.06 % of households cultivating St.dev. of acreage per hh Cereals Vegetables Cash crops Root crops Fruit 1 4.13 100 25 70 0 1 2 7.09 100 20 26 0 0 3 6.93 100 37 53 9 2 4 3.94 100 24 76 35 35 5 4.42 100 45 65 0 4 6 2.45 100 16 82 2 8 5.21 100 30 63 4 5 % of households selling % of hh who sold Cereals Vegetables Cash crops Root crops Fruit 1 73 59 44 69 100 2 63 57 14 56 3 35 28 6 17 50 0 4 94 76 0 77 33 83 5 62 45 46 49 100 6 73 51 13 60 100 50 64 50 31 55 45 73 Note: In the questionnaires some observations on cash crops (coffee and qat), fruit trees and other trees were in hectares, others were in number of trees. In order to put all crop types under the same unit, number of coffee and qat plants were transformed into hectares using a conversion factor of 1 plant per 2m2 = 0.0002 ha. For fruit trees and other trees, the observations per hectare were transformed into estimates of number of trees using a conversion factor of 1 tree per 0.015625 ha or 64 trees per hectare. This factor was derived from the survey data. TABLE B.2B. DETAILS ON AREA CULTIVATED Percentiles (ha) Average acreage (ha) Standard deviation Minimum acreage (ha) 25% 50% 75% 100% 1 8.05 4.13 0.50 5.00 8.00 11.00 19.50 2 11.51 7.09 2.00 6.25 11.00 13.50 29.75 3 9.75 6.93 2.00 5.38 8.50 11.00 30.00 4 9.10 3.94 2.25 5.50 9.25 12.25 16.00 5 7.91 4.42 0.75 5.31 7.00 9.50 30.00 6 5.10 2.45 0.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 12.50 8.24 5.21 0.50 5.00 7.25 10.63 30.00 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I TABLE B.3. LIVESTOCK CHARACTERISTICS Large livestock Small livestock No animals 1–2 animals 3–5 animals 6–10 animals >10 animals no animals 1–2 animals 3–5 animals 6–10 animals >10 animals Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % 1 0 0.0 0 0.0 52 71.2 10 13.7 11 15.1 4 5.5 0 0.0 9 12.3 10 13.7 50 68.5 2 1 2.9 6 17.1 14 40.0 6 17.1 8 22.9 4 11.4 2 5.7 7 20.0 3 8.6 19 54.3 3 0 0.0 10 23.3 18 41.9 7 16.3 8 18.6 8 18.6 5 11.6 8 18.6 4 9.3 18 41.9 4 3 17.6 5 29.4 8 47.1 1 5.9 0 0.0 2 11.8 0 0.0 2 11.8 1 5.9 12 70.6 5 0 0.0 74 94.9 3 3.8 1 1.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 5 6.4 16 20.5 11 14.1 46 59.0 6 24 49.0 25 51.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 47 95.9 1 2.0 1 2.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 28 9.5 120 40.7 95 32.2 25 8.5 27 9.2 65 22.0 13 4.4 43 14.6 29 9.8 145 49.2 Note: Freq. = frequency. 83 84 TABLE B.4. AVERAGE RANKING OF HAZARDS AND OBSERVATIONS ON WHETHER THE HAZARD HAS BECOME MORE THREATENING 1. Drought due 2. Drought due 5. Changed 9. Problems to less rainfall to periods of 4. Damage due average and 7. Animal or with input during the rainy drought during 3. Floods due to to excessively extreme 6. Human crop pests and 8. Decreasing purchase or 10. High food season the rainy season excessive rainfall heavy showers temperatures diseases diseases soil fertility output sales prices Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher threat threat threat threat threat threat threat threat threat threat Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank % Rank % 1 8.1 99 7.5 82 3.8 33 4.1 27 3.5 75 7.6 99 5.5 66 6.0 100 4.2 82 4.8 99 2 8.3 100 6.6 54 4.7 54 4.5 51 3.3 57 7.9 86 5.9 80 5.5 100 3.3 86 4.7 100 3 9.7 100 6.8 70 2.6 16 3.3 30 5.1 67 7.0 100 6.4 93 5.6 100 4.0 95 4.6 100 4 8.5 100 8.0 76 3.7 29 4.9 41 2.6 82 7.6 94 6.0 65 5.5 100 4.7 94 3.5 100 5 7.9 100 7.1 76 3.6 40 4.3 42 3.1 71 7.2 100 5.7 72 6.7 99 4.8 95 4.8 97 6 7.7 100 5.5 47 3.1 33 3.7 33 2.4 49 7.9 100 7.5 90 6.2 100 5.8 98 5.3 100 8.2 100 6.9 69 3.6 35 4.0 36 3.4 67 7.5 98 6.1 77 6.1 100 4.5 91 4.8 99 Notes: 1). The average rank is the average over all households from a cluster. The higher the number, the more important the hazard is perceived. 2) The columns ‘higher threat’ give the percentage of households from a cluster whom indicate the hazard has becoming more threatening in the last five years. C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 85 TABLE B.5. PERCENTAGE HOUSEHOLDS FACING FOOD SHORTAGES IN PARTICULAR MONTHS Number % of hh of months May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr 1 60 1.3 1 7 18 38 37 11 15 4 0 0 0 3 2 66 1.7 0 14 46 57 46 9 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 88 3.0 9 35 72 84 77 7 7 2 0 2 2 2 4 65 1.4 0 6 35 47 47 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 76 1.5 0 9 23 58 46 10 5 1 0 0 0 0 6 82 2.0 14 14 29 73 51 6 0 0 0 0 4 8 73 1.8 4 14 33 59 49 9 6 2 0 0 1 2 86 A2.C. STRATEGIES ADOPTED FOR VILLAGES AND CLUSTERS TABLE C.1. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS FROM CLUSTERS AND VILLAGES ADOPTING PARTICULAR STRATEGIES % of hh from cluster adopting a strategy % of households from villages adopting a strategy 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kandara Touara Kondogola Fambougou Togou N’Tjila Total Adapt planting dates 3 9 2 0 0 0 2 6 2 2 0 0 2 Adapt cropping densities 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 2 0 0 2 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application 40 43 14 35 44 53 4 35 39 39 68 60 41 Change the pastoral system (distance and frequency of mobility) 0 0 5 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 Change the herd composition 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 1 Apply different feed techniques, e.g. zero grazing 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 1 Change from pastoral to sedentary system 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Improve food storage facilities 14 17 0 6 4 0 18 10 10 4 0 0 7 Improved seeds 79 86 79 76 69 84 72 88 92 96 44 83 79 Intercropping 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 4 1 Change production practices 26 43 12 24 17 4 0 51 33 20 0 15 20 Change use of plots (rotation) 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 Use manure of family herd on the field 81 43 53 76 77 67 56 51 59 86 80 88 70 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 Use irrigation 8 63 19 12 9 6 0 65 2 0 30 0 16 Mini retention of water 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 Drainage 3 20 9 0 8 4 0 27 0 0 16 0 7 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 14 46 37 29 21 16 26 51 24 0 28 17 24 Temporary migration to other rural areas 23 6 2 12 18 6 6 2 22 51 0 0 14 Non-timber forest product commercialisation 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 Home-garden agriculture 4 0 5 12 4 2 6 2 6 0 4 4 4 Increase market sales 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 1 Handicrafts 4 3 7 6 1 2 8 0 4 2 4 2 3 Start fisheries 0 3 2 6 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 1 Reduce expenses by changing consumption 1 3 0 0 4 2 2 10 0 0 0 0 2 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 22 14 26 29 12 0 50 18 10 8 4 4 16 Other energy sources than wood 1 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 Migration to fertile soles or mines 4 0 7 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 2 bee keeping 1 0 0 12 1 4 0 0 2 0 0 13 2 Pisciculture 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 1 tree nursery 0 0 0 6 4 2 0 0 4 2 0 4 2 Selling land 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 Soil erosion prevention programmes (e.g. community terracing) 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Holy forest 0 3 26 6 1 2 12 12 0 0 0 6 5 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I Cereal bank 29 14 9 24 22 18 24 16 41 12 0 33 21 Seed bank 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 1 Communal support 3 0 9 0 6 0 8 2 6 4 2 0 4 87 88 TABLE C.2. RANKING OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR CLUSTERS AND VILLAGES % of hh from cluster adopting a strategy % of households from villages adopting a strategy 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kandara Touara Kondogola Fambougou Togou N’Tjila Total Adapt planting dates 16 11 16 16 13 16 12 17 Adapt cropping densities 11 12 13 16 12 20 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application 3 4 7 3 3 3 13 6 4 4 2 3 3 Change the pastoral system (distance and frequency of mobility) 14 13 27 Change the herd composition 16 17 8 23 Apply different feed techniques, like e.g. zero grazing 20 17 9 27 Change from pastoral to sedentary agricultural system 16 16 31 Improve food storage facilities 8 8 13 12 6 11 8 9 10 Improved seeds 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 Intercropping 8 16 9 23 Change production practices 5 4 8 6 7 8 3 5 5 6 6 Change use of plots (rotation) 13 16 31 Use manure of family herd on the field 1 4 2 1 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces 11 13 31 Use irrigation 10 2 6 8 9 6 2 16 4 7 Mini retention of water 16 16 31 Drainage 16 7 9 10 8 7 6 10 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 8 3 3 4 5 5 4 3 6 5 5 4 Temporary migration to other rural areas (e.g. plantations) 6 12 16 8 6 6 11 16 7 3 9 Non-timber forest product commercialization 20 13 31 Home-garden agriculture 11 14 8 12 11 11 16 10 7 9 13 Increase market sales 11 17 10 12 22 Handicrafts 11 14 12 13 17 11 9 14 12 7 13 15 Start fisheries 14 16 13 16 15 23 Reduce expenses by changing consumption (type and number of meals) 20 14 12 11 16 11 17 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 7 9 4 4 8 3 8 8 7 7 9 8 Other energy sources than wood 20 16 13 27 Migration to fertile soles or mines 11 12 7 17 bee keeping 20 8 17 8 16 7 16 Pisciculture 20 17 16 16 27 tree nursery 13 12 11 14 12 9 20 Selling land 17 10 31 Soil erosion prevention programmes (e.g. community terracing) 16 16 31 Holy forest 14 4 13 17 11 7 10 8 12 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I Cereal bank 4 9 9 6 4 4 5 9 3 6 4 5 Seed bank 14 16 10 23 Communal support 16 9 11 9 16 10 9 10 13 89 90 TABLE C.3. ANNUAL COST ESTIMATES OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR THE OPTIONS THAT HAD A POSITIVE COST ESTIMATE FOR AT LEAST 10 OBSERVATIONS (CFA FRANC (XOF), 1 US DOLLAR = 499.860 CFA) If only the observations are included for which If only the positive observations are included positive costs are reported (not always costs (sometimes households indicated they make If all observations are included are positive) no costs, but they report a cost) Mean 25% 50% 75% Stdev N Mean 25% 50% 75% Stdev N Mean 25% 50% 75% Stdev N Adapt planting dates 6,250 0 0 9,375 15,309 6 6,250 0 0 9,375 15,309 6 Adapt fertilizer/pesti- cide application 68,351 25,000 50,000 90,000 72,434 120 68,351 25,000 50,000 90,000 72,434 120 74,565 29,438 50,000 90,000 72,529 110 Apply different feed techniques, like e.g. zero grazing 3,750 0 3,750 . 5,303 2 5,000 1 Improve food stor- age facilities 1,905 0 0 0 8,174 21 31,125 7 20,000 2,500 20,000 . 24,749 2 Improved seeds 8,014 0 3,000 5,000 25,820 233 7,106 0 3,000 22,500 17,689 220 11,386 2,500 4,000 6,750 30,171 164 Change production practices 5,310 0 0 7,125 11,452 58 12,700 0 5,000 50,000 16,937 20 18,118 7,500 10,000 37,000 14,856 17 Use manure of family herd on the field 26,450 7,500 15,000 22,500 139,688 206 20,241 11,250 15,000 15,750 26,384 111 30,104 11,250 15,000 22,500 14,856 181 Use irrigation 28,549 0 8,313 50,000 39,694 48 28,549 0 8,313 5,000 39,694 48 54,815 21,625 50,000 68,750 39,823 25 Drainage 10,500 0 0 15,750 14,886 21 10,500 0 0 77,500 14,886 21 24,500 15,000 16,000 33,500 12,966 9 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 3,721 0 0 1,250 8,835 70 4,342 0 0 100,000 9,410 60 15,324 8,750 10,000 16,500 12,154 17 Temporary migration to other rural areas (e.g. plantations) 7,200 0 0 0 31,829 40 . 36,000 6,250 12,500 26,250 66,779 8 Home-garden agriculture 24,286 0 0 70,000 42,370 7 28,333 0 0 31,250 44,907 6 85,000 70,000 85,000 . 21,213 2 Handicrafts 39,500 0 22,500 100,000 45,853 10 43,889 0 45,000 2,000,000 46,353 9 79,000 47,500 100,000 100,000 28,810 5 Start fisheries 10,000 0 0 . 17,321 3 10,000 0 0 10,000 17,321 3 1 Draw down on live- stock, surpluses or savings 81,170 0 0 50,000 302,470 47 35,167 0 0 96,029 30 293,462 55,000 100,000 300,000 532,179 13 Cereal bank 167,097 0 0 20,000 547,400 62 833,333 0 0 1,029,857 12 470,909 13,750 26,250 530,000 848,836 22 Communal support 2,000 0 0 0 4,472 11 3,143 0 0 5,398 7 11,000 10,000 11,000 . 1,414 2 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE C.4. AVERAGE ANNUAL COST ESTIMATES OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR THE CLUSTERS AND VILLAGES FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT STRATEGIES (IN XOF) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kandara Touara Kondogola Fambougou Togou N’Tjila Adapt planting dates V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application 77,185 55,758 54,875 94,833 57,524 82,207 37,059 37,105 29,224 110,432 86,109 Apply different feed techniques, like e.g. zero grazing Improve food storage facilities - - Improved seeds 7,324 4,942 10,200 11,831 7,723 4,394 1,957 4,547 3,401 2,791 38,526 4,775 Change production practices - 9,500 - 28,333 7,000 - 37,250 Use manure of family herd on the field 18,875 28,571 6,000 16,200 22,110 21,833 2,833 6,773 25,000 29,613 20,720 Use irrigation 50,250 10,227 50,500 39,554 15,469 58,358 Drainage 7,143 23,917 3,846 21,313 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 4,688 5,188 4,444 - 4,643 3,125 - 2,833 13,958 1,786 - Temporary migration to other rural areas (e.g. plantations) Home-garden agriculture Handicrafts Start fisheries Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 20,000 20,000 76,667 6,250 - - 83,333 26,000 Cereal bank 1,000,000 - 1,200,000 1,000,000 - Communal support 5,500 91 92 A2.D. INSTITUTIONAL ACCESS FOR VILLAGES AND CLUSTERS TABLE D.1. NUMBER OF TIMES A HOUSEHOLD RECEIVES ASSISTANCE FROM A CERTAIN INSTITUTION AS PERCENTAGE OF THE HOUSEHOLDS IN A CLUSTER OR VILLAGES Micro- self National Regional Local Extension International Village Religious Women’s finance help auth. auth. auth. agency donors NGO Cooperatives Schools Banks comm.. comm.. groups institution group union 1 0.00 2.78 0.00 11.11 0.00 38.89 15.28 0.00 0.00 12.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2 0.00 0.00 14.29 0.00 0.00 77.14 11.43 0.00 0.00 22.86 0.00 0.00 2.86 2.86 0.00 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.65 0.00 23.26 32.56 0.00 0.00 6.98 0.00 0.00 9.30 16.28 0.00 4 0.00 5.88 5.88 11.76 0.00 29.41 35.29 0.00 0.00 5.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5 0.00 8.97 0.00 12.82 0.00 26.92 12.82 0.00 0.00 19.23 1.28 0.00 3.85 1.28 0.00 6 0.00 2.04 0.00 4.08 2.04 4.08 26.53 0.00 0.00 26.53 2.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 0.00 3.74 2.04 8.16 0.34 31.63 19.73 0.00 0.00 16.67 0.68 0.00 2.72 3.06 0.00 Kandara 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 18.00 52.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 8.00 14.00 0.00 Touara 0.00 2.00 12.00 4.00 0.00 80.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 14.00 0.00 0.00 4.00 4.00 0.00 Kondogola 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.00 0.00 38.00 8.00 0.00 0.00 28.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 Fambougou 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.00 2.00 52.00 4.00 0.00 0.00 18.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Togou 0.00 20.00 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 6.00 0.00 0.00 26.00 2.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 N’Tjila 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 38.00 0.00 0.00 12.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 0.00 3.67 2.00 8.00 0.33 31.33 19.67 0.00 0.00 16.67 0.67 0.00 2.67 3.00 0.00 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE D.2. PERCENTAGE OF TIMES A HOUSEHOLD RECEIVES ASSISTANCE FROM A CERTAIN INSTITUTION, IF IT ADOPTS A CERTAIN STRATEGY National Regional Extension Int. Village Religious Women Micro- auth. auth. Local auth. agency Donors NGO. Cooperatives Schools Banks comm.. comm.. groups finance inst. Adapt planting dates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I application 0 0 0 10.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Apply different feed techniques, like e.g. zero grazing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Improve food storage facilities 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Improved seeds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Change production practices 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Use manure of family herd on the field 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Use irrigation 0 0 0 95.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Drainage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 1.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Temporary migration to other rural areas (e.g. plantations) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Home-garden agriculture 0 0 0 28.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Handicrafts 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Start fisheries 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Draw down on livestock, sur- pluses or savings 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cereal bank 0 0 0 0 0 0 14.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Communal support 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Notes: 1 = National Authorities; 2 = Regional Authorities; 3 = Local authorities; 4 = Extension Agency; 5 = International Donors; 6 = Non-Governmental Organization ; 7 = Cooperatives; 8 = Schools; 9 = Banks; 10 = Village communities; 11 = Religious communities; 12 = Women’s groups; 13 = Micro-finance; 14 = self-help groups. N = number of times the option has been chosen. 93 94 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE D.3A. NUMBER OF TIMES A CERTAIN TYPE OF ASSISTANCE IS RECEIVED AS % OF THE TIMES ASSISTANCE IS GIVEN A. Times a Certain Type of Assistance is Received as Percentage of the Number of Cases in Which Assistance is Given Clusters (%) Villages (%) Training Labor Inputs Cash Food Training Labor Inputs Cash Food 1 0.0 0.0 57.9 10.5 31.6 Kandara 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.4 84.6 2 0.0 0.0 95.8 4.2 0.0 Touara 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 3 0.0 0.0 84.6 15.4 0.0 Kondogola 0.0 0.0 33.3 66.7 0.0 4 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Fambougou 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0 64.3 0.0 35.7 Togou 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 6 0.0 0.0 80.0 20.0 0.0 N’Tjila 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 Total 0.0 0.0 78.5 7.6 13.9 total 0.0 0.0 78.5 7.6 13.9 Note: Inputs includes seeds, equipment, wood, machinery, bricks, etc. TABLE D.3B. NUMBER OF TIMES A CERTAIN TYPE OF ASSISTANCE IS RECEIVED AS PERCENTAGE OF THE NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS Clusters (%) Villages (%) Training Labor Inputs Cash Food Training Labor Inputs Cash Food 1 0.0 0.0 15.1 2.7 8.2 Kandara 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 22.0 2 0.0 0.0 65.7 2.9 0.0 Touara 0.0 0.0 68.0 0.0 0.0 3 0.0 0.0 25.6 4.7 0.0 Kondogola 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 4 0.0 0.0 23.5 0.0 0.0 Fambougou 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0 11.5 0.0 6.4 Togou 0.0 0.0 54.0 0.0 0.0 6 0.0 0.0 8.2 2.0 0.0 N’Tjila 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 Total 0.0 0.0 21.0 2.0 3.7 Total 0.0 0.0 20.7 2.0 3.7 Note: Inputs includes seeds, equipment, wood, machinery, bricks, etc. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I TABLE D.4. TYPE OF ASSISTANCE INSTITUTIONS ARE GIVING TO THE HOUSEHOLDS National Regional Local Extension International Cooperatives Village Religious Women Micro-finance authorities (%) authorities authorities agency (%) donors NGO (%) Schools Banks community community groups institution Training 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Labor 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Inputs 0 n.a. n.a. 98 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Cash 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Food 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. No. of observ. 1 0 0 62 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 Note: Inputs includes seeds, equipment, wood, machinery, bricks, etc. N = number of observations. 95 96 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S TABLE D.5. TYPE OF ASSISTANCE HOUSEHOLDS RECEIVE, IF THEY ADOPT A CERTAIN STRATEGY Training (%) Labor (%) Inputs (%) Cash (%) Food (%) N Adapt planting dates 0 0 0 0 0 6 Adapt fertilizer/pesticide application 0 0 9.2 0 0 120 Apply different feed techniques, like e.g. zero grazing 0 0 0 0 0 2 Improve food storage facilities 0 0 0 0 0 21 Improved seeds 0 0 0 0 0 233 Change production practices 0 0 0 0 0 58 Use manure of family herd on the field 0 0 0 0 0 206 Use irrigation 0 0 95.8 0 0 48 Drainage 0 0 0 0 0 21 Temporary migration to urban areas or abroad 0 0 0 0 0 72 Temporary migration to other rural areas 0 0 0 0 0 40 Home-garden agriculture 0 0 28.6 0 0 7 Handicrafts 0 0 0 60.0 0 10 Start fisheries 0 0 0 0 0 3 Draw down on livestock, surpluses or savings 0 0 0 0 4.3 47 Cereal bank 0 0 0 0 14.5 62 Communal support 0 0 0 0 0 11 97 APPENDIX 3. SUMMARY OF FOCUS adonné de nos jours à plus de cultures céréalières. Depuis les années 1990, la population a constaté une GROUP DISCUSSIONS variation de la température qui est devenue plus forte qu’auparavant. c. L’enclavement du village par rapport aux autres V I LLA GE N° 1 : KANDARA villages. Cela rend difficile les échanges commer- ciaux des produits agricoles durant une bonne partie Le débat en assemblée s’est déroulée le 16-05-2009 chez de l’année. Le déplacement se fait pendant le chef de village. Quatorze personnes étaient présentes l’hivernage par pirogue et pinasse. lors de cette assemblée. La moyenne d’âge est de 45 ans. d. Les différentes formes de sécheresse (ou diminution L’activité principale reste l’agriculture (riz, sorgho, maïs) des pluies pendant la saison des pluies, périodes de pour la majorité des personnes présentes. sécheresse prolongée). Cela est caractéristique dans La population de Kandara est généralement confrontée la zone et reste la principale menace pour les activités aux risques suivants : de la zone. En effet depuis les années 1980, l’hivernage tarde à s’installer (mois de juillet) et à a. Risques liés au climat ou aux précipitations, dont pour conséquence la baisse du rendement des cultures. l’effet est 1) une mauvaise récolte, 2) la pénurie d’eau (cessation des crues du fleuve), 3) des maladies Le cas vécu par l’ensemble de la population est la sécher- humaines dues (paludisme, maladies intestinales, esse de 1984. La plupart des familles n’ont pas fait de etc. . .) aggravées par les difficultés d’accès aux cen- récolte au cours de cette saison. Beaucoup de jeunes sont ters de santé de Mougnan proches du village durant alors partis en exode à l’intérieur du Mali ou même à l’hivernage et 4) des maladies animales ayant déci- l’étranger (RCI). Certains ne sont mêmes plus revenus mées beaucoup de troupeaux laissant plusieurs au village. familles sans animaux. b. Les risques de sécheresse : Diminution de la fertil- Le constat général est que depuis les années 80, la dimi- ité des sols à cause du manque d’eau, de la baisse de nution de la quantité d’eau (pluie) est constante dans la la pluviométrie, de l’aridité des terres et du manque localité. On assiste à une série de bonnes et mauvaises de crue du fleuve Bani. En effet, la crue du fleuve saisons de pluies. Le couvert végétal est entrain de courante pendant l’hivernage jusqu’aux années 1975 disparaître sans même l’intervention de l’homme. et qui favorisait la riziculture dans la localité est rare Certaines espèces d’arbres de rôniers qui existaient actuellement. On la voit de façon spontanée en fonc- auparavant ont disparu. On note aussi la disparition de tion des années de bonnes pluies. C’est ainsi que la nombreuses espèces fauniques et aquatiques. Le cycle population qui naguère pratiquait la riziculture s’est hivernal n’est plus maîtrisable et est instable. 98 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Pour cela, les stratégies généralement adoptées sont cette rencontre. La moyenne d’âge est de 45 ans. entre autres: L’activité principale reste l’agriculture céréalière et la riziculture. La pêche est l’activité qui vient en • L’exode rural des jeunes qui vont à la recherche deuxième position. d’argent liquide pour les besoins des différentes familles. Ils pratiquent soit le travail salarié, la La population de Touara est confrontée aux risques riziculture dans les localités propices à cette activité suivants: (Tié, Tiouwa, Nakona, Samaye et Diora) • Le maraîchage pratiqué par les femmes ou par a. Risques liés au climat ou aux précipitations dont certains hommes. l’effet est 1) une mauvaise récolte ; 2) difficultés • Vente d’animaux en vue de faire face aux besoins de d’accès à l’eau potable ; 3) ensablement du fleuve ; la famille, 4) Maladies animales surtout parasitaires et 5) mala- dies humaines dues (paludisme, maladies liées à Les coûts supplémentaires de ces activités varient entre l’eau, etc. . .). L’éloignement des centers de santé 15 000 et 25 000F CFA par ha selon les localités. Après aggrave cette situation. les récoltes, 1 à 2 sacs de paddy sont cédés au proprié- b. Pour les risques de sécheresse le constat est que taire de la parcelle. Pour la gestion des animaux, les l’irrégularité des pluies ne permet pas une maîtrise propriétaires récupèrent le fourrage après les récoltes. des cultures ; le choix des zones de cultures et des Pour le cas de pertes animales dues aux maladies semences est souvent difficile car on ne peut pas animales et sous-alimentation, les gens font un prévoir s’il pleuvra abondamment ou pas suffisam- regroupement des bœufs de labour afin de faire face aux ment. Les pluies sont irrégulières et cela depuis plus travaux des champs. Au stade actuel les précipitations d’une décennie. Les quantités de pluies sont faibles pluviométriques étant faibles, le risque d’inondation est mais variables d’une saison à l’autre. On constate faible dans le village. D’ailleurs c’est le souhait de la également une augmentation sensible de la population car ceci aboutirait à une crue du fleuve. température. c. Pour les risques d’inondation le constat est que le Rôle des organisations, autorités ou personnes d’appui : risque d’inondation est toujours possible si l’état plu- Dans la recherche de solutions atténuantes à cette situa- viométrique revient à la normale. D’ailleurs un cas tion, les autorités villageoises pensent que l’appui des d’inondation s’est produit il y a 13 ans provoquant services techniques et les ONG est très prépondérante. l’écroulement d’une trentaine d’habitations. Une Aussi, l’apport des organismes financiers est aussi salu- délégation régionale (Chef d’arrondissement) est taire pour changer les situations. Les résultats probants même venue s’en quérir de la situation. Des vivres de certaines ONG d’appui sont encore visibles dans le ont même été distribués à toute la population. Il ya village. Il s’agit de la construction d’un magasin eu d’autres cas d’inondation mais à des degrés moin- et du surcreusement de canal et de la formation en dre que le premier cas. alphabétisation grâce à l’ONG CARE MALI ; la mise ne place d’une banque de céréales par l’ONG française Malgré le risque d’inondation, les gens préfèrent cela AFVP /AIVM. Une autre structure a contribué à mettre qu’au manque déficit de pluies. Depuis la fin des grandes en place une structure de micro-crédit dans le village. périodes de pluies, il n’y a plus de crues du fleuve et les zones qui étaient jadis inondables et propices à la rizi- Pour soulager la population, l’aménagement d’une voie culture et à la pêche sont devenues des zones d’accès par la construction d’une route latéritique est d’habitations. A cause de la sécheresse, la végétation est souhaité afin de permettre une meilleure mobilité durant très clairsemée et les grands arbres sont rares. Les berges toute l’année. du fleuve ne sont plus protégées si bien que le village est même menacé d’effondrement par endroit. V I LLA GE N °2 : TOUARA Touara était une zone de pêche et constituait même Le discussion en assemblée s’est déroulée le 19/05/2009 l’activité principale de la population. De nos jours, les chez le chef de village. Douze personnes ont pris part à gens se sont transformés en agriculteurs puisqu’il n’y a V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 99 plus de poissons à cause du déficit d’eau et de A certains moments de l’année (vent de l’occupation des zones de frayeurs. l’harmattan), on assiste à de sérieux vents de pous- sière. Le manque d’initiative pousse les jeunes à la Les stratégies généralement adoptées sont entre autres: coupe de bois et à la fabrique du charbon de bois préjudiciable à l’environnement. Le système de • Utilisation de semences améliorées, jachère était appliqué par le passé, mais à cause de la • Utilisation d’engrais chimiques et organiques démographie galopante, il n’y a plus d’espace. Les • L’adoption de la charrue comme outil de travail animaux manquent de fourrage d’où la faiblesse de • La construction d’étangs piscicoles, l’élevage dans le village. Les pluies sont irrégulières • Le maraîchage pratiqué par les femmes.e)- Les coûts et cela depuis plus de vingt ans. On constate égale- ment une augmentation sensible de la température. Les coûts supplémentaires sont les frais d’arrosage de c. Pour les risques d’inondation le constat est que le nos parcelles de riz et de maraîchage. risque d’inondation est toujours possible si la pluvio- métrie revient à la normale. D’ailleurs un cas Rôle des organisations, autorités ou personnes d’inondation s’est produit il y a 3 ans provoquant le d’appui : Dans la recherche de solutions atténuantes à pourrissement des semis. Un second semis a même cette situation, les autorités villageoises pensent que été fait et malgré cela, la récolte n’a pas bien donnée l’appui des services techniques et les ONG, des organi- à cause d’un arrêt précoce de la pluie. A part de cas, sations financières et autres types de projets de dével- c’est seulement la sécheresse générale des années oppement est très importante. 1973–1974 qui a été bien ressentie dans le village. V I LLA GE N° 3 : KONDOGOL A Les stratégies généralement adoptées sont entre autres: La discussion en assemblée s’est déroulé le 21/05/2009 • Utilisation de semences améliorées, chez le chef de village. Quinze personnes ont pris part à • Utilisation d’engrais chimiques et organiques cette rencontre. La moyenne d’âge est de 40 ans. • Démarrage précoce des cultures L’activité principale reste l’agriculture céréalière et la • Le maraîchage pratiqué par les femmes. riziculture et secondairement l’élevage. • L’exode rural des jeunes La sécheresse reste la pire menace pour toutes les activi- Les coûts supplémentaires sont surtout liés à tés des zones enquêtées. La population de Kondogola est l’acquisition de l’engrais chimique et des semences. Les confrontée aux risques suivants: semences sont le plus souvent acquises soit par achat directe sur les marchés ou par échange en nature à a. Risques liés au climat ou aux précipitations sont égalité de poids (1 kg de semence = 1 kg de céréales). 1) La répartition inégale de la pluviométrie depuis près de 10 ans environ; 2) La réduction des précipi- Rôle des organisations, autorités ou personnes tations; 3) L’augmentation de la violence des vents; d’appui: Pour une atténuation de ces risques, la popula- 4) La déforestation; 5)La réduction de la fertilité des tion pense à l’appui des services techniques et les ONG, sols; 6) Maladies humaines dues (paludisme, mala- des organisations financières et projets de développe- dies liées à l’eau, etc. . .); 6) Maladies animales; ment est très importante. C’est aussi le lieu de créer des 7) La sous-alimentation et 8) Exode des jeunes. emplois pour les jeunes. b. Pour les risques de sécheresse le constat est que l’irrégularité des pluies a contribué à la réduction des V I LLA G E N ° 4: FA M B O U G OU espaces cultivables et diminué fortement le rende- ment des récoltes. Il y a près d’une trentaine La discussion en assemblée s’est déroulée le 23/05/2009 d’années, le couvert végétal qui était encore percep- chez le chef de village. Quinze personnes ont pris part à tible, n’existe plus et cela est dû à la coupe abusive de cette rencontre. La moyenne d’âge est de 40 ans. bois et du manque terrible de bonne pluviométrie. L’activité principale reste dominée par l’agriculture céré- On assiste donc à une forte dégradation des sols. alière et secondairement l’élevage. 100 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Les effets de la sécheresse restent les indices les plus • La coupe de bois et sa vente palpables dans la zone avec comme conséquences les • La production du charbon de bois risques suivants: • L’exode rural des jeunes • Le petit commerce, l’emploi journalier a. Risques liés au climat ou aux précipitations sont • Démarrage précoce des travaux champêtres 1) La répartition inégale de la pluviométrie depuis près de 30 ans environ ; 2) La réduction des précipi- Les coûts supplémentaires sont liés à l’acquisition des tations ; 3) L’augmentation de la violence des vents semences, des engrais, etc. . . Les semences sélectionnées avec des colonnes de poussières très importantes ; sont le plus souvent acquises soit par achat directe sur 4) La déforestation excessive ; 5) La réduction de la les marchés ou par échange en nature à égalité de poids fertilité des sols ; 6) La forte érosion des terres ; (1 kg de semence améliorée = 1 kg de céréales sèches). 7) Couvert végétal parsemé ou inexistant ; L’avènement des semences améliorées a permis de 8) Maladies humaines dues (paludisme, maladies produire mieux, mais toujours insuffisant à cause des liées à l’eau, etc. . .) ; 9) Maladies animales ; 10) La faibles quantités de pluies dans la zone. sous-alimentation ; 11) Exode des jeunes. b. Pour les risques de sécheresse le constat est que Rôle des organisations, autorités ou personnes l’irrégularité des pluies a contribué à la réduction d’appui : Les projets de développement, les services des précipitations pluviométriques annuelles et des techniques et les ONG sont les institutions les mieux espaces cultivables. Elle est inégalement répartit indiqués pour combattre ce phénomène selon les auto- dans le temps et dans l’espace. Le rendement des rités locales. Il n’y a aucune contrainte quant à cultures a beaucoup diminué. Il y a près d’une l’évolution de telles institutions sur le terrain. La trentaine d’années, le couvert végétal était encore commune est habituée à l’intervention d’ONG depuis dense et renfermait même des animaux sauvages déjà des années. qui ne présente actuellement que de vastes éten- dues de clairières. La cause principale en est la coupe abusive de bois, mais aussi la forte baisse de V I LLA G E N ° 5: TO GO U la pluviométrie. Les sols sont fortement dégradés avec une augmentation sensible de sable. La discussion en assemblée s’est déroulée le 25/05/2009 chez le chef de village. Vingt et une personnes ont pris L’harmattan est plus violent que jamais donnant part à cette rencontre. La moyenne d’âge est de 50 ans. lieu à des vents de poussière impressionnant. L’activité principale reste dominée par l’agriculture céré- La violence des vents due à la déforestation a beau- alière et secondairement l’élevage. C’est une zone de coup contribué à l’appauvrissement des sols. culture de riz en submersion et encadré par l’Opération Riz Ségou (ORS). Les pluies sont irrégulières et cela depuis plus de vingt (20) ans. On constate également une augmen- Comme un partout dans les localités visitées, la tation sensible de la température. Les arbres se commune de Togou n’échappe pas à la sécheresse due à dessèchent à cause du manque criard d’eau (nappe une insuffisance de pluies. Les indices les plus palpables phréatique très éloignée). dans la zone sont les suivants: c. Les risques d’inondation sont à écarter dans la localité. Cependant, les constructions étant faites en a. Risques liés au climat ou aux précipitations : 1) La banco, des effondrements de concessions sont possi- répartition inégale de la pluviométrie depuis près de bles en cas de fortes pluies. 30 ans environ ; 2) La réduction des précipitations ; 3) Diminution des crues qui favorisait la riziculture ; Les stratégies généralement adoptées sont entre autres: 4) La déforestation excessive ; 5) La réduction de la fertilité des sols ; 6) Maladies humaines dues (palu- • Utilisation de semences améliorées, disme, maladies liées à l’eau, etc. . .) ; 7) Maladies • Utilisation d’engrais chimiques et organiques animales ; 8) Exode des jeunes. V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 101 b. Pour les risques de sécheresse le constat est que Les stratégies généralement adoptées sont entre autres: l’irrégularité des pluies a contribué à la réduction des précipitations pluviométriques. Elle est iné- • Utilisation de semences améliorées, galement répartit dans le temps et dans l’espace. • Utilisation d’engrais chimiques et organiques Le rendement des cultures a beaucoup diminué. • Adoption de nouvelles techniques de labour On assiste à une disparition de la végétation due • L’exode rural des jeunes non seulement à l’action de l’homme, mais aussi • Le petit commerce, l’emploi journalier du manque de pluie et des actions nocives des ter- • Démarrage précoce des travaux champêtres mites blanches. Il y a près d’une trentaine • Mise en défens d’une zone de près de 2000 ha et d’années, le couvert végétal était encore dense et dont la régénérescence des plants tarde à se réaliser renfermait même des animaux sauvages qui ne depuis 4 ans. présente actuellement que de vastes étendues de clairières. La cause principale en est la coupe abu- Les coûts supplémentaires sont liés à l’acquisition des sive de bois, mais aussi la forte baisse de la pluvio- semences, des engrais qui coûtent actuellement très chers métrie. Les sols sont fortement dégradés avec une n’eût été le lancement du programme Initiative-riz (1 sac augmentation sensible de sable. L’harmattan est d’engrais subventionné coûte 12 500F CFA le DAP et plus violent que jamais donnant lieu à des vents de 10 000F CFA l’Urée contre 24 000F CFA sur le poussière impressionnant. La violence des vents marché). Les semences améliorées sont acquises par achat due à la déforestation a beaucoup contribué à directe sur les marchés ou par échange en nature à égalité l’appauvrissement des sols. Les pluies sont irrégu- de poids (1 kg de semence améliorée = 1 kg de céréales). lières et cela depuis plus de vingt (20) ans. On constate également une augmentation sensible de Rôle des organisations, autorités ou personnes la température. Les arbres se dessèchent à cause d’appui : En plus de l’appui de l’Etat, les autorités du manque criard d’eau (nappe phréatique très locales pensent que l’aide des projets de développement, éloignée). Le vent devient de plus en plus fort et des services techniques et des ONG est prépondérante recouvre même souvent les jeunes pousses de pour combattre ce phénomène. L’appui doit évoluer dans plants en cas de retard des pluies. Une espèce les secteurs suivants : 1) Agriculture ; 2) Intrants agri- d’insectes détruit des jeunes plants dès les pre- coles ; 3) Equipements agricoles ; 4) Appui des compé- mières semaines. A partir de l’année 2008, une tences locales ; 5) Appui dans le domaine scolaire. Il n’y variété de riz sauvage nuisible à la riziculture a aucune contrainte quant à l’évolution de telles institu- est apparue. tions sur le terrain. Les services techniques (Agriculture, c. Les risques d’inondation sont possibles si la pluvio- Opération Riz Ségou, Eaux et forêts, Elevage) travaillent métrie devient normale. En effet, en 2003, l’eau de en étroite collaboration avec la population. Il n’y aucune pluie a provoqué un débordement du canal. Cette contrainte dans leurs interventions. eau a été acheminée jusqu’au niveau du village par un chenal naturel qui a ainsi provoqué D I S C U S S I ON AV E C LE S FE M M E S l’effondrement d’une trentaine de maisons. Le vil- lage a reçu la visite des autorités du ministère de Lors d’une rencontre organisée pour les femmes de l’Agriculture avec un don en espèce de 100 000F Togou, celles qui ont bien voulu se présenter sont les CFA. La même année, toutes les parcelles rizicoles suivantes : Mme Fanta TRAORE, Secrétaire de ont été gorgées d’eau détruisant toutes les cultures l’Association Timinadia ; Mme Oumou DRAME, provoquant un déficit alimentaire. Membre de l’Association Timinadia ; Bah KOITA dite d. - La couverture sanitaire est très faible due au DJIRE, Membre de l’Association Timinadia ; Tata manque de personnel et d’équipements. Le choléra DJIRE, Présidente Association Benkadi. s’est propagé dans la commune en 2005 et a même fait des victimes. L’apport de Médecins sans Tout comme le constat fait par les chefs de ménage, les Frontières a été bien apprécié par tous pour la prise femmes pensent que la sécheresse est à la base de tous en charge des malades. les maux actuels de l’environnement. Dans le domaine 102 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S du maraîchage, les femmes ont constaté le phénomène l’USAID pour l’aménagement d’un périmètre maraîcher de l’assèchement rapide des puits dû à la baisse notoire de 2 ha depuis 2003 de la nappe phréatique. Ceci rend difficile le maraî- chage qui est l’activité principale des femmes dans la V I LLA G E N ° 6: N ’TJ I LA localité après la riziculture. Il y a près de 4 ans, un autre problème est apparu dans le milieu à savoir le La discussion en assemblée s’est déroulée le 28/05/2009 dessèchement des plantules malgré un apport suffisant chez le chef de village. Vingt et une personnes ont pris d’eau. Aucune solution satisfaisante n’a pu être trouvée part à cette rencontre. La moyenne d’âge est de 40 ans. jusque là. Cette situation s’est même accentuée cette L’activité principale reste dominée par l’agriculture céré- année 2009. alière et secondairement l’élevage. C’est une zone de culture de rente le coton et est encadré par la Elles pensent que la nature du sol a changé et est devenu Compagnie Malienne pour le Développement des pauvre. Après les difficultés rencontrées dans le domaine Textiles (CMDT). du maraîchage, viennent celles des maladies animales et humaines qui sont ressenties énormément par la popula- Comme partout ailleurs, la commune de N’Tjila tion. L’accès à l’engrais est aussi un problème crucial n’échappe pas à cette diminution pluviométrique qui dans la localité. s’installe d’année en année. L’hivernage qui commence généralement aux environs du 25 mai, débute ces dix Les différentes stratégies adoptées sont entre autres: dernières années vers le 30 juin. Ce qui constitue une difficulté majeure pour les producteurs habitués à semer • Démarrage précoce des aménagements des semences tardives. • Utilisation de semences améliorées, • Utilisation d’autres types de spéculations (pomme de Les indices les plus palpables dans la zone sont les terre au lieu d’oignon, de tomate, de gombo) suivants: • Utilisation d’engrais chimiques et organiques • Le petit commerce, l’emploi journalier a. Risques liés au climat ou aux précipitations : a) La diminution du cycle de l’hivernage ; b) La réparti- Les coûts supplémentaires sont liés à l’acquisition des tion inégale de la pluviométrie depuis près de 10 ans semences, des engrais qui coûtent très chers sur le environ ; 3) La réduction des précipitations ; 4) La marché (un sac d’engrais non subventionné coûte déforestation ; 5) La réduction de la fertilité des 24 000F CFA sur le marché). Les semences améliorées sols ; 6) Maladies animales. sont acquises par achat directe sur les marchés. La b. Pour les risques de sécheresse le constat est que semence de pomme de terre qui coutait 22 500F CFA le l’irrégularité des pluies a contribué à la réduction caisson a été cédé à 30 000F CFA en 2009. des précipitations pluviométriques. Elle est iné- galement répartit dans le temps et dans l’espace. Rôle des organisations, autorités ou personnes Le rendement des cultures a beaucoup diminué. d’appui: Les femmes pensent que l’atténuation de ces Pour le moment la végétation est encore dense risques ne peut venir que de l’appui non seulement de malgré une forte pression de l’homme sur elle par l’Etat, mais surtout des projets de développement, des la coupe e bois. Les pluies sont irrégulières et cela services techniques et des ONG. L’illustration concrète depuis plus près de dix (10) ans. Pour la campagne est le cas de l’Association Danaya qui a bénéficié de de commercialisation 2007–2008, le prix du kg du l’aménagement d’un périmètre maraîcher et d’un fonds mil a atteint exceptionnellement 150F CFA. Ce de roulement pour ses activités de la part de l’ORS en qui ne s’était jamais arrivé auparavant dont le pic 2005. A ce jour l’association dispose d’un fonds de était 100F CFA. Ils en concluent que les pluies ne roulement de plus de 3 millions de FCFA. L’association satisfont plus les besoins hydriques des cultures de Timinandia a bénéficié de l’appui financier de l’APLEF la zone. pour des activités de petit commerce, de fabrique de c. - La santé animale n’est très pas du tout reluisant savon. L’association Benkadi a bénéficié de l’appui de dans la commune. Il y a près de trois ans la V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 103 trypanosomiase chronique a décimé presque la Les coûts supplémentaires sont liés à l’acquisition des totalité des animaux de la zone. La population n’a semences, des engrais qui coûtent actuellement chers sur presque plus de bœufs de labour, ce qui rend diffi- le marché (1 sac d’engrais subventionné coûte 12 500F cile l’exploitation des champs. Selon les renseigne- CFA le DAP et 10 000F CFA l’Urée contre 24 000F ments fournis par l’agent sanitaire, cette situation est CFA sur le marché). Les semences améliorées sont survenue à la suite de l’auto-médication et de acquises par achat directe sur les marchés ou par échange l’utilisation de produits achetés en vrac sur le en nature à égalité de poids (1 kg de semence améliorée marché. Il y a donc eu un effet d’accoutumance à ces = 1 kg de céréales). L’utilisation d’herbicide est également produits. Actuellement, le mal recule grâce à pour nous des coûts supplémentaires (2000F/bouteille). l’intervention des services techniques par une sensi- bilisation accrue et d’une médication efficace. Rôle des organisations, autorités ou personnes d’appui : En plus de l’appui de l’Etat, les populations Les stratégies généralement adoptées sont entre autres: pensent que l’appui des bailleurs de fonds, des projets de développement, des services techniques et des ONG • Utilisation de semences améliorées à cycle court (3 à permettront d’aider au mieux les populations à lutter 4 mois au lieu de 4 à 5 mois), contre ces risques. L’appui doit évoluer dans les secteurs • Adoption de la culture attelée suivants: a) Agriculture; b) Intrants agricoles et • Utilisation d’engrais chimiques et organiques semences plus hâtives; c) Equipements agricoles; d) • Démarrage précoce des travaux champêtres et Appui des compétences locales; e) Appui en animaux de du semis traction; f ) Appui pour l’aménagement de parcelles rizi- • L’exode rural des jeunes coles dans les terres inondables du fleuve Bagoé. 104 APPENDIX 4. SUMMARY OF INSTITUTIONAL STAKEHOLDER INTERVIEWS Questio n 1: Gener al Stati sti cs of Resp o n d e n t s Village Years person ID code Village Region Main activity/position of respondent in the village holds this position 1 1 kandara Mopti Directeur d’ecole 6 2 1 kandara Mopti Chef sous-secteur agriculture 17 3 1 kandara Mopti Chef service de la conservation de la Nature 10 4 1 kandara Mopti Agriculteur, Secrétaire général de l’Association BADEYA TON 14 5 1 kandara Mopti Agriculteur, Président Association Santé Communautaire (ASACO) et du Comité de gestion scolaire (OGS) 13 6 2 kondogolo Ségou Directeur d’ecole 11 7 2 kondogolo Ségou Chef sous secteur Agriculture 7 8 2 kondogolo Ségou Ménagère, Secrétaire Administrative Association JIGITUGU 13 9 2 kondogolo Ségou Animateur, Secrétaire Administratif coopérative DIANTO YERELA 3 10 3 touara Mopti Chef service de la conservation de la Nature 3 11 3 touara Mopti chef poste secteur elevage 10 12 3 touara Mopti Chef de secteur Agriculture 4 13 3 touara Mopti Commerce/Agriculture, Présidente Association TANYE 4 14 3 touara Mopti Commerce/Agriculture, Présidente Association NYETA 6 15 4 togou Ségou president association pour le developpement de togou et de l’asso- ciation des riziculteurs du complexe de Dioro 7 16 4 togou Ségou secretaire association TIMINADIA 5 17 4 togou Ségou secretaire association DANAYA 7 18 4 togou Ségou chef de zone de l’ors de dioro 1 19 5 fambougou Ségou Coordinateur du Projet PRECAD 5 20 5 fambougou Ségou Agriculture, Présidente Association BENKADI 6 21 6 n’tjila Sikasso president association des planteurs de n’tjila 5 22 6 n’tjila Sikasso Président Association des Exploitants de charbon 3 23 6 n’tjila Sikasso president cooperative des producteurs de coton 6 24 6 n’tjila Sikasso Président Association KOTOYONGONTALA 7 25 6 n’tjila Sikasso Président de l’Association des Eleveurs 6 26 6 n’tjila Sikasso Secrétaire Technique (CMDT) 2 27 6 n’tjila Sikasso Chef sous secteur Agriculture de Niéna 4 V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 105 Questio n 2: Hazar ds Faced by Vi l l ages Have hazards become more or less threatening Importance of hazards (1 = least important; 10 = most important) (1 = a lot less; 5 = a lot more) Decreased soil fertility Decreased soil fertility Temperature change Temperature change Animal or crop pests Animal or crop pests Rainfall variability Rainfall variability Human diseases Human diseases High food prices High food prices Sales problems Sales problems Drought Drought Floods Floods Village 1. Kandara 6.4 5.4 5.8 5.0 7.0 5.8 3.8 7.8 7.0 4.4 4.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.2 5.0 4.2 4.0 2. Kondogola 8.8 8.3 3.8 3.8 5.3 4.0 7.3 4.5 6.3 4.5 4.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 3.8 3. Touara 8.6 8.0 4.2 4.2 6.2 5.4 5.8 6.0 3.8 4.6 4.6 3.2 3.2 4.2 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.4 4. Togou 8.8 7.3 2.8 4.0 5.0 4.5 6.5 7.0 6.8 4.8 5.0 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.8 3.5 3.3 4.0 5. Fambougou 7.0 6.0 5.0 7.0 7.5 7.0 4.0 4.5 6.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 6. N’tjila 7.8 7.6 4.1 4.7 5.7 5.8 6.3 6.4 4.8 4.3 4.6 2.9 3.1 3.6 4.3 3.9 3.8 3.7 Average 7.8 7.6 4.2 4.2 5.7 5.6 5.9 6.3 6.0 4.5 4.6 3.0 3.2 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.8 3.9 Ranking 1 2 8 8 6 7 5 3 4 4.4 4.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.2 5.0 4.2 4.0 Obse rvations by the Respondents • L’action de l’homme est à la base de tous ces problèmes. Il s’agit de la coupe abusive de bois qui est la principale cause de la dégradation de la nature et source de conflits. • Le manque de crue est un problème dans la zone. • La baisse de la pluviométrie s’observe d’une décennie à une autre. Actuellement cette baisse est plus accentuée. Dans la région, la crue est un phénomène très important pour la réussite des producteurs de riz pour faire une bonne production. Il y a eu de fortes pluies en 2007 et qui ont même emporté des cultures La zone est inond- able et les pistes d’accès sont impraticables durant la saison hivernale. • L’action de l’homme est à la base de tous ces problèmes. Il s’agit de la coupe abusive de bois qui est la principale cause de la dégradation de la nature et source de conflits. • La baisse de la pluviométrie s’observe d’une décennie à une autre. Actuellement cette baisse est plus accentuée. • Dans la région, la crue est un phénomène très important pour la réussite des producteurs de riz pour faire une bonne production. Il y a eu de fortes pluies en 2007 et qui ont même emporté des cultures. La zone est inond- able et les pistes d’accès sont impraticables durant la saison hivernale. • La crue qui permettait de drainer l’eau au niveau des parcelles de riz ne se fait plus. Le fertilité des sols a forte- ment diminué avec pour conséquence une baisse du rendement • La crue qui permettait de drainer l’eau au niveau des parcelles de riz ne se fait plus. Le fertilité des sols a forte- ment diminué avec pour conséquence une baisse du rendement • Durant mes cinq dernières années la pluie est irrégulière et n’arrive pas à terme. • L’eau potable est insuffisante dans le village. Il n’y a qu’un seul forage au niveau du village, 106 Q ues ti o n 3: O rg ani z ati on s Pre se nt i n th e Vi l la g e s Importance of the institutions for helping the population to adapt to climate change Organizations present in the village (%) (1 = not at all important; 5 = very important) Village code People interviewed Local administration Extension agency International donor NGO Cooperative School Bank Village community Religious group Women’s group Microcredit bank Self-help group Union Local administration Extension agency NGO Cooperative School Bank Village community Religious group Women’s group Microcredit bank Self-help group Union 1 5 40 40 0 40 100 100 0 80 100 100 80 80 0 4.5 4.5 3.0 4.0 4.8 3.8 3.4 4.8 3.3 3.8 2 4 50 25 0 25 75 100 0 50 75 100 100 75 0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.3 4.8 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3 5 60 60 0 100 60 100 40 60 40 100 100 60 20 4.0 5.0 4.8 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.3 3.0 4.4 3.4 2.3 4.0 4 4 50 25 0 25 100 100 0 25 50 100 100 100 25 3.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.5 4.3 3.5 4.0 3.0 5 2 50 50 0 100 100 100 0 50 50 100 100 100 0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.5 4.5 3.0 3.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 6 7 100 86 0 29 100 100 29 29 57 100 100 100 29 3.6 4.5 4.5 3.0 3.9 4.0 3.5 2.5 4.6 3.0 3.7 3.0 27 63 52 0 48 89 100 15 48 63 100 96 85 15 3.9 4.7 4.5 3.7 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.3 4.5 3.4 3.5 3.3 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 107 Questio n 4a: Whi ch Or gani zati on( s) ar e i n Yo u r O p i n i o n M o s t H e l p f u l o r B e s t t o H e l p t h e Popula tion Adapti ng to the Ri sks of We a t h e r Va r i a b i l i t y ? Village 1 • Les services techniques (Elevage, Ministère du Dévelopement Rural) sont en mesure d’aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • L’Etat (services techniques) , les institutions financières et les ONG sont les plus indiqués pour préparer les populations à mieux s’adapter aux risques de la variabilité du temps. Il faut donc mettre en place des organisations paysannes fortes. Lorsque les organisations paysannes sont mieux préparées, l’intervention des autres structures (Etat, ONG, Projets, ect..) devient plus facile. • Les services techniques (Elevage, Ministère du Dévelopement Rural), le Commissariat à la Sécurité Alimentaire et les ONG peuvent aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • L’Etat et ses démebrements et les ONG sont les mieux indiquées pour nous aider à faire face aux difficultés.L’opération pluie provoquée est une bonne contribution pour une bonne pluviométrie. • Le salut des populations se trouve entre les mains des services techniques, les ONG et Bailleurs de Fonds. 2 • Les services techniques et les ONG sont en mesure d’aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • ONG, Projets de développement, Services techniques, Organisations paysannes (OP), Services de recherches scientifiques • Les Bailleurs de fonds, les Projets de développement, les ONG et les organisations paysannes fortes peuvent aider à réduire les risques • Les Bailleurs de fonds, les ONG et les organisations paysannes fortes peuvent aider à réduire les risques. 3 • Les services techniques (Elevage, Ministère du Dévelopement Rural), et les ONG évoluant dans le domaine de la protection de la nature peuvent aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • LesCollectivités décentralisées, les Organisations paysannes, les services techniques et les ONG sont les plus indiqués pour préparer les populations à mieux s’adapter aux risques de la variabilité du temps. • L’Etat, les Organisations paysannes et les ONG sont les mieux indiqués pour préparer les populations mieux s’adapter aux ris- ques de la variabilité du temps. • Les organisations locales peuvent aider à réduire les risques. Mais il faut l’apui des services techniques, les ONG et des bail- leurs de fonds. • Les organisations locales comme la notre peuvent aider à réduire les risques. Mais avec les myens modestes, il faut l’apui des services techniques, les ONG et des bailleurs de fonds. 4 • Les projets de développement sont les mieux indiquées pour nous aider à faire face aux difficultés. L’opération pluie provo- quée est une bonne contribution pour une bonne pluviométrie • Les projets de développement, l’Etat et les ONG sont les mieux indiquées pour nous aider à faire face aux difficultés. • Les projets de développement, l’Etat (services techniques) et ONG sont les mieux indiquées pour aider la population à faire face aux risques de variabilité. • L’Office Riz Ségou (ORS) est une structure qui est mieux indiquées pour appuyer les populations aux risques de variabilité du temps. A cette structure, il faut ajouter les ONG. 5 • Il faut une synergie entre l’Etat, les ONG et la population pour qu’elle s’adapte au mieux à la variabilité du temps. • Appui des Bailleurs de fonds, des ONG et projets de développement pour aider à réduire les risques. 6 • Les services techniques, les projets de développement et les ONG sont les mieux indiqués pour aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • Les services techniques, les projets de développement et les ONG sont les mieux indiqués pour aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • Les services techniques, les projets de développement, les bailleurs de fonds et banques et les ONG sont les mieux indiqués pour aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • Les services techniques, les projets de développement, les bailleurs de fonds et les ONG sont les mieux indiqués pour aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • Les services techniques, les bailleurs de fonds et les ONG sont les mieux indiqués pour aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • Les services techniques et les ONG peuvent aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. • Les services techniques, les projets de développement et les ONG peuvent aider la population à mieux s’adapter aux risques de variabilité du temps. Note: 1. Kandara, 2. Kondogola, 3. Touara, 4. Togou, 5. Fambougou, 6. N’tjila 108 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Questio n 4b: What Type of Assi stance d o H o u s e h o l d s N e e d i n O r d e r t o A d a p t t o t h e R i s k s of Weath er Var i abi l i ty? Tr ai ni ng, Knowl ed g e , I n p u t s , F i n a n c i a l A i d , C o m m u n a l P r o j e c t s o n e . g . Irrigation, S oi l Er osi on Pr eventi on or Wa t e r H a r v e s t i n g , . . . . ? Village 1 • L’aide demander porte sur l’appui-conseils, la sensibilisation, appui sanitaire, appui en investissement en infrastructures de base. • Appui en moyens logistiques, en équipements et mobiliers de bureau, financier. Il faut également améliorer les conditions de travail des agents techniques pour obtenir d’eux des résultats satisfaisants. Les domaines les plus visés sont : les aménage- ments, l’équipement agricole, la formation et un appui financier. • Vulgarisation des techniques de fertilisation des sols; technique de transformation de la fumure organique; régénération naturelle avec le balazan pour la fertilisation des sols; sédentarisation des troupeaux dans les champs. 2) Mise en place de système d’énergie renouvelable pour compenser le déficit en bois de chauffe. 3) Appui à l’augmentation des points d’eau pota- ble; mise en œuvre de projets communaux. 4) Appui financier et formation de la population • Nous pensons que l’aide des ménages passe nécessairement par son appui en équipements. Dans la zone, le surcreusement de l’ancien canal naturel d’amenée d’eau du fleuve au niveau des terres rizicultivables soulagera toute la population. • Les ménages ont besoin de plusieurs types d’aide à savoir : formation, information-éducation, aménagement des zones de riziculture par le surcreusement d’un canal. 2 • Réalisation de projets de développement, appui-conseils, la sensibilisation, appui en investissement en infrastructures de base, en intrants agricoles. • Aide technique, matérielle, aménagement de retenues d’eau et/ou de petits périmètres et étangs piscicoles. L’aménagment de petits périmètres permettra de diversifier les activités. Des programmes du genre “Initiative Riz� est une bonne action pour booster les populations. Renforcement des capacités organisationnelles. • Appui en équipements, en formation et appui financier. • Dans l’immédiat, les ménages ont besoin d’appui financier et alimentaire. A court ou long terme, il faut faire des aménage- ments, assurer une bonne commercialisation des céréales, développer l’aviculture et vulgariser la pisciculture. 3 • Information/Education, aides alimentaires, réalisation de microprojets, révalorisation des ressources locales, amélioration de la commercialisation. • Les ménages ont besoin de formation, d’aide financière, de distribution alimentaire, d’appui en médicaments et en intrants agricoles. • Il faut apprendre aux ménages à produire, à identifier des activités réalisables dans chaque zone et appuyer la population dans les secteurs retenus. Les domaines les plus visés sont : les aménagements, l’équipement agricole, la formation et un appui en fonds de roulement. La réalisation du seuil de Djenné permettra une matrise de l’eau par le système gravitaire. • Les ménages ont besoin d’équipements et d’intrants agricoles (engrais). • Les ménages ont besoin de formation et d’équipements (moulin) 4 • Nous pensons que l’aide des ménages passe nécessairement par la formation, l’éducation et l’appui en équipements et en financement. Nous sommes dans une zone de riziculture, mais le périmètre n’est pas du tout aménagé. Le rendement est faible. Un aménagement du périmètre à maitrise totale est souhaité pour rendre service à la population. • Nous pensons que l’aide des ménages passe nécessairement par l’appui financier, la formation, en produits phytosanitaires et intrants agricoles • Aide en argent pour les femmes et appui en formation. • Mise en place de projets de développement communaux 5 • Renforcement des capacités organisationnelles des popualtions. Appui technique, ce qui permettra de gérer beaucoup de problèmes. • Appui financier, formation, aménagement de points d’eau potable. 6 • Les ménages ont surtout besoin de formation, de l’aménagement de puits, de l’aménagement de périmètres maraîchers clôtu- rés, d’aide financière. • Les ménages ont surtout besoin de formation, d’équipements et d’intrants agricoles et d’aide financière • Les ménages ont surtout besoin de formation, d’équipements et d’aide financière. • Les ménages ont surtout besoin d’aide financière, d’équipements et d’aménagement de bas-fonds. • Appui des éleveurs en médicaments vétérinaires. Vaccination exhaustive des animaux, appui financier des éleveurs ou en ani- maux de trait. • L’aide dont à besoin les ménages est multiforme : formation,contributions, aide financière, projets communaux. • Les ménages ont surtout besoin de formation, d’éducation, d’aide financière et surtout matérielle. Des projets communaux sont souhaitables. Note: 1. Kandara, 2. Kondogola, 3. Touara, 4. Togou, 5. Fambougou, 6. N’tjila V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 109 Questio n 4c: What Ki nd of Pr obl ems H a m p e r t o Yo u r O p i n i o n t h e A c t i v i t i e s o f t h e O r g a n i z a t i ons Who are Ass i sti ng the Popul ati on to Ad a p t t o C h a n g i n g We a t h e r Va r i a b i l i t y Village 1 • Aucun problème n’entrave les activités des organismes d’aide à la population. Il faut tout simplement une collaboration étroite entre les organisations existentes en vue d’une formation des structures locales. • On note souvent de l’incompréhension dans la collaboration, la réticence de certains leaders et le choix des approches d’intervention. • L’analphabétisme et l’ignorance des populations est une facteur négatif pour la mise en place des programmes des organismes. • CARE MALI une ONG a construit un bâtiment utilisé comme Banque de céréales qui a fonctionné pendant 5 ans à cause des problèmes de trésorerie. La léthargie des autorités villageoise est un handicap aux activités des organismes. • Le nombre élevé des nécessiteux et de leur mauvaise organisation. 2 • Aucun problème n’entrave les activités des organismes d’aide à la population. • Les missions des organismes ne correspondent pas souvent à un besoin réel des populations. A cela, il faut ajouter l’analphabétisme de la population. • Il n’ y a aucune entrave pour les activités des organismes. Il y a généralement une bonne collaboration entre les différents acteurs. • Il n’ y a aucune entrave à l’encontre des activités des organismes. D’ailleurs les populations sont impliquées dans la mise en œuvre des projets. 3 • Les difficultés d’accès à certaines zones pendant l’hivernage (enclavement) , l’insuffisance des moyens des services tech- niques, manque de radio de proximité pour la diffusion des messages, niveau de connaissance très bas de la population. • Le manque de moyens financiers réduit la bonne évolution des organismes et l’ampleur des problèmes. • Les problèmes qui surviennent sont entre autres : incompréhension dans la collaboration, la réticence de certains leaders et le choix des approches d’intervention. • Insuffisante de fonds pour couvrir correctement les charges de fonctionement, • L’analphabétisme de la population, la méfiance et l’insuffisance de fonds 4 • Il n’y a pas de problèmes entre organismes d’aide et la population. 5 • Contraintes en terme organisationnelle, individualisme a pris le dessus sur le communautaire. Cela joue énormément sur la mise en œuvre des activités des ONG sur le terrain. Les seuls contraintes sont l’analphabétisme des populations (certains villages n’ont aucun intellectuel en leur sein), ceci rend difficile souvent la collaboration. 6 • Nous nous adonnons à cette activité de production de charbon parce qu’il n’y a pas d’autres initiatives pour nous. Les respon- sables sont à la base de tous les problèmes qui entravent les activités des organismes pour leurs intérêts personnels. Aussi, nous constatons que l’aide financière au développement n’arrive pas le plus souvent à la base. • Le remboursement sur la base dite “dette collective ou à responsabilité partagée “ empêche les producteurs à s’engager cor- rectement dans la production de coton. C’est la cause de l’abandon par beaucoup de personnes de la production de cette cul- ture.Il y a aussi le retard important observé pour le paiement des frais de coton. • Il n’ y a aucune entrave pour les activités des organismes. Note: 1. Kandara, 2. Kondogola, 3. Touara, 4. Togou, 5. Fambougou, 6. N’tjila 110 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Questio n 4d: What Ki nd of Exter nal As s i s t a n c e o r H e l p d o O r g a n i z a t i o n s W h o a r e Wo r k i n g i n th is F ield N e ed i n Or der to Impr ove th e i r R e s u l t s ? F i n a n c i a l H e l p , K n o w l e d g e / Tr a i n i n g , I n p u ts / M a te rial, Back- up Fr om Gover nmental o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n s , . . . . . ? Village 1 • Appui financier, formation et secours de l’Etat et des organismes internationaux. • Appui en moyens logistiques, en équipements et mobiliers de bureau. • Le service a surtout besoin de moyens logistiques, financier et de personnel. • L’assistance externe doit être faite en équipements, matériels de travail, infrastructures de base et financière. • L’assistance externe doit être financière. 2 • Aide financière, formation, secours des organismes gouvernementaux et internationaux. • Appui en moyens logistiques, en équipements et mobiliers et financier. • L’appui financier, en équipement et en formation. 3 • Le service a surtout besoin de moyens logistiques et financier. • Le manque de moyens de la structure diminue l’efficacité des interventions des agents. Les organismes ont besoin d’équipements, de matériels de bureaux, de moyens de déplacement, de bons locaux de travail. • Le manque de moyens de la structure diminue l’efficacité des interventions des agents. Appui en moyens logistiques, en équipements et mobiliers de bureau. Il faut également améliorer les conditions de travail en donnant des bureaux adéquats de travail aux services techniques • L’assistance externe doit prendre en compte la formation et l’appui financier. 4 • Les organisations ont besoin d’aide financière de la part des organismes internationaux • Les organismes ont besoin d’aide financière pour créer ou renforcer des activités déjà en cours. • L’ORS encadre 24 communes et a donc besoin d�appui financier important pour chager le système actuel en maîtrise totale de ses terres rizicoles. Un appui des organismes gouvernementaux et internationaux est souhaitable. 5 • Le PRECAD, après ces quelques années d’activités, mérite un renforcement de ces capacités financières. • L’appui financier pour la réalisation de projets générateurs de revenus. 6 • Les organismes ont besoin d’aide financière de l’Etat et des organismes internationaux. • Une aide financière est donc nécessaire pour créer des activités génétrices de revenus. • L’aide financière, la formation, l’appui en équipements sont nécessaires aux organismes pour améliorer leur résultats. • L’aide financière est nécessaire aux organismes pour améliorer leur résultats. • L’aide financière, le secours des organismes gouvernementaux et internationaux sont nécessaires aux organismes pour améliorer leur résultats. • Les organismes ont surtout besoin d’aide financière. Note: 1. Kandara, 2. Kondogola, 3. Touara, 4. Togou, 5. Fambougou, 6. N’tjila Q ues ti o n 5 a nd 6: G en er al Q ues ti on s on I ns t i t u t i o n s % Age of ID Institution Employees women institution Objective of the institution Type of service provided Kandara 1 etablissement scolaire 3 0 6 ecole enseignement 2 sous-secteur agricole de 1 0 17 assurer l’autosuffisance alimentaire - Formation des populations et appui à la préservation mougnan minimiser les attaques des déprédateurs de l’écosystème 3 Service de la Conservation 1 0 10 Développement et sauvegarde de Appui -conseils de la Nature (SCN) de Néma l’écosystème Badeya Kafo (33 villages) V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 4 Association Badéya 54 13 14 Entraide pour faire face aux difficultés Octroi d’argent, prestation de services agricoles, favo- communes. Participer au développement riser le contact entre les jeunes. économique et social du village. Appui aux plus nécessiteux.Amélioration des conditions de vie des producteurs de riz et sauvegarde de leurs intérêts 5 Société coopérative pour le 11 18 5 Lutte contre la pauvreté dans le village, Constitution de stock de céréales destinés à la vente Développement et la créer un cadre d’échange et assurer une aux populations de Kandara. Sécurité Alimentaire de sécurité alimentaire de la communauté Kanadara (S.C.D.S.A.K.) Kondogolo 6 ecole de Kondolgola 4 0 7 ecole enseignement 7 Sous secteur agricole de 4 25 7 Assurer l’autosuffisance alimentaire tout Formation des populations et appui à la préservation Cinzana Gare en augmentant la productivité agricole et de l’écosystème la production. 8 Association JIGITUGU TON toutes les 100 13 Entraide, amélioration des conditions Maraîchage, activités liées à l’exploitation d’une plate- femmes socio-économiques des femmes. forme multifonctionnelle, micro-crédits. L’association a bénéficié de l’aménagement d’un périmètre maraîcher de 2 ha par l’ONG FODESA en 2006. 9 Coopérative DIANTO 32 0 3 Developpement du village de Kondogola, Aménagement de champs collectifs, piisciculture, YERELA développement de l’agriculture battage du mil et du fonio, gestion de banque de céré- ales et appui aux nécessiteux en matériels et intrants. La coopérative a bénéficié de l’aide de l’ONG SASAKAWA GLOBAL 2000 pour la réamlisation de bâtiments pour machines et de salle polyvalente. Elle a bénéficié d’une décortiqueuse et d’une batteuse et de la formation des membres. (continued next page) 111 % Age of 112 ID Institution Employees women institution Objective of the institution Type of service provided Touara 10 Service de la conservation 8 0 depuis Sensibilisation, reboisement, développe- Appui -conseils, encadrement des paysans en matière de la nature toujours ment et sauvegarde de l’écosystème de reboisement. Contrôle de la protection de l’environnement. 11 Poste vétérinaire de Konio 2 50 Dévelopement du secteur de l’élevage; Vaccination des animaux contre les grandes maladies organisation des éleveurs et protection animales. des animaux. 12 Service de l’Agriculture de 12 8 Dévelopement du secteur agricole; Appui aux producteurs (vulgarisation) en matière Djenné organisation du monde rural par la créa- d’amélioration des techniques de protection et de tion de structures approrpiées. transformation 13 Association TANYE 35 100 5 Entraide, amélioration des conditions Octroi de micro-crédits aux membres. socio-économique des membres. 14 Association NYETA 78 100 7 Entraide, développement socio- Agriculture, riziculture et microcrédits. économique des membres. Togou 15 Association des riziculteurs 0 Amélioration des conditions de vie des Production du riz et sensibilisation des membres de du complexe de Dioro producteurs de riz et sauvegarde de leurs l’association intérêts 16 Association TIMINIDIA de 45 100 5 Regroupement des femmes pour mener Achat et vente de céréales; appui à toutes les togou des activités génératrices de revenus femmes ; octroi de crédits 17 Association DANAYA de 150 100 7 Amélioration des conditions de vie des Activités de petit commerce : achat-vente de céréales, togou femmes dans le domaine de la santé, de commerce de tissus. l’école et de l’habillement. 18 Office Riz de Ségou (ORS) 42 Appui conseils, promtion de la filière riz à L’ORS a pour mission fondamentale de proposer et travers des actions de développement d’exécuter tous les programmes en projets concou- intégré. La mise en place de moyens de rant à la promotion de la filière riz à travers des production, d’équipements , entretien et actions de déceloppement. A) - Emploi des jeunes, d’intrants agreicoles (semences amélio- b) - Promotion des activités des femmes et responsa- rées et engrais chimiques). bilisation des organisations paysannes; c) - Protection de l’environnement et gestion des ressources naturel- les; d) - Formation continue du personnel d’encadrement et des producteurs; e) - Amélioration du service de l’eau dans les périmètres; f) - Intensification de la production agricole dans les zones d’intervention; g) - Divertification de la produc- tion agricole (vivriers, maraîchères, avicole, etc…); h) - Equipement des groupements de producteurs et installation d’infrastructures communautaires avec l’appui des bailleurs de fonds ; i) - Désenclavement de la zone de production et développement des infrastructures socio-sanitaires communautaires; j) - Création d’un fonds de soutien aux sinistres C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Fambougou 19 Projet de Renforcement des 5 20 3.5 Améliorer les conditions de vie des popu- - Renforcement des capacités organisationnelles par Capacités pour une lations, augmenter leurs revenus. la formation - Reforcement des capacités techniques - Agriculture Durable Maintien des infrastructures de la statioin agronomique de Cinzana - Mise en place de fonds compétitifs pour le recherche 20 Association BENKADI 60 100 11 Amélioration des conditions de vie des Activités de récoltes et de micro-crédits adhérentes. Octroi de micro-crédits. Aide aux ménages au moment des récoltes. N’tjila 21 Association des Planteurs 300 1 4 Aider et informer la population sur les Plantation des anacardiers et autres arbres fruitiers; avantages de l’arboriculture. Entraide des greffage des arbres V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I membres de l’association. 22 Association des Exploitants 25 20 2 Entraide socio-économique pour atténuer Agriculture, élevage et production de charbon de charbon les souffrances des adhérents. 23 Coopérative des Producteurs 12 0 5 Amélioration des condions de vie socio- Mensuration des champs, gestion du magasin. de coton de N’Tjila économique des producteurs de coton adhérents . 24 Association 200 100 7 Amélioration des condions de vie socio- Prestation de service à la poluation, cotisation des KOTOYONGONTALA économique des membres, entraide . membres, petit commerce 25 Association des Eleveurs 34 6 6 Recherche de l’entente, amélioration des Regoupement des éleveurs, Elevage des animaux, condions de vie des membres . embouche et commercialisation. 26 Compagnie Malienne pour le 21 2 depuis Appui-conseils aux organisations pay- Développement de la culture du coton et du Maïs; Développement des Textiles des sannes et exploitants. encadrement des producteurs et commercialisation (CMDT) annees des produits. 27 Sous secteur agricole 2 0 depuis Encadrement des producteurs, diminution Appui -conseils, encadrement. toujours des attaques des prédateurs, assurer l’autosuffisance alimentaire. 113 114 Q ues ti o n 7: Member s hi p and Cl i e nts of Ins t i t u t i o n s Who can become member or What are the criteria for Are there any restrictions Does the institution provide the same ID receive services? becoming a member on becoming member Are there any limitations for membership type of service to all members Kandara 4 Tous les ressortissants du village Aucune condition, il faut Tout le monde bénéficie Pas de limitation d’adhésion ni de fourniture Oui, l’Association fournit le même peuvent être membre de en faire la demande. au même titre des béné- de services. Il n’y a pas de restriction. Il faut type de service à tous. l’association. Il n’y a pas du tout fices de l’Association seulement respecter les textes de de restrictionnà cela. l’association. Ceux qui ne sont pas en règle L’association est apolitique et vis-à-vis du paiement de leurs dettes (mau- non religieuse. vais payeurs) sont exclus des bénéfices de l’Association. Les gens qui ne sont pas crédibles ne bénéficient pas non plus des avantages de l’Association. 5 Tous les ressortissants du village Adhérer aux statuts et Pas de restriction pour Non pas non plus de limitation, Oui, l’institution fournit le même type peuvent adhérer en y acceptant être autochtone du vil- devenir membre, il suffit de service à tous les membres sans les statuts et tous en bénéficient. lage. d’être du village, aucune distinction de rang social ou de niveau social. Kondogolo 7 Oui, le service fournit le même type de service à tou 8 Toute femme du village peut être Paiement droit Les femmes non mariées Non, pas de limitation pour l’adhésion . Pas de restriction, le même type de membre de l’association. d’adhésion 50F CFA et et les étrangers ne sont traitement est fournit à tout le des frais de cotisation pas acceptés. monde. 500F CFA/personne et par mois. 9 Toute personne ressortissant du Paiement droit Pas de restriction, il suffit Non, pas de limitation pour l’adhésion . Pas de restriction, chacun obntient village peut être membre à con- d’adhésion 500F CFA et de remplir les conditions le même type de traitement en fonc- dition qu’elle adhère aux statuts des frais de cotisation d’adhésion. tion de sa contribution. et règlement de la coopérative. 1000F CFA/personne et par mois. Touara 11 Oui, la structure fournit le même type de service à tous. 13 Toute personne du village peut Acceptation des mem- Les hommes ne sont pas Oui, la limitation pour l’adhésion est fixé à Oui, l’institution fournit le même type être membre à condition de bres et paiement de membres. 50 personnes. de service à tous les membres sans prouver son sérieux. 2500F CFA et être du aucune distinction de rang social ou village de Touara. de niveau social. Le service est donné selon le besoin exprimé par chaque individu. C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 14 Toute femme mariée du village Faire la demande Aucune restriction pour les Non, pas de limitation pour l’adhésion . Le service est fonction de l’activité peut être membre si elle en fait d’adhésion et payée 100 femmes sauf que les de chacune. la demande. F CFA et cotisée pour hommes ne sont pas 500F CFA. membres. Togou 15 Les membres sont choisis par village. Mais tous les pro- ducteurs les services de l’Association 16 Toutes les femmes sont mem- Paiement de 1000F CFA Pas de restriction. Pas de limitation d’adhésion. Oui, par le partage équitable entre bres de TIMINADIA pour adhésion. les membres. 17 outes les femmes du village peu- Il faut être du village et Oui, les étrangers n e sont Pas de restriction. Oui, le même type de services est V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I vent être membre de payer 1000F CFA pas membres. fournit à tous les membres. l’Association comme frais d’adhésion. 18 Les fonctionnaires de l’Etat sont Pour être membre, il faut Aucune restriction. Oui, suivant les besoins en personnel, les Oui, le service fournit le même type envoyés au niveau de la struc- faire un test de recute- tests de recrutement sont organisés. de service à tous. ture et les contractuels sont ment. recrutés à la suite de concours de recrutement. Fambougou 19 Recrutement pour être membre En tant que coordinateur, Aucune restriction. Oui, les besoins en personnel son limités. Oui, le service fournit le même type de la structure. le recrutement s’est fait de service à tous. surt appel d’offre inter- national. Pour les autres travailleurs, le recrute- ment est fait à la suite d’un test de recrutement. 20 Toute femme mariée et ressortis- Il suffit d’être mariée. Pas de restriction, il faut Pas de restriction, chacun obntient sante du village peut être mem- simplement être femme le même type de traitement . bre de l’association si elle la mariée. désire. N’Tjila 21 Tous ceux qui le désire peuvent Pour y adhérer, il faut non Pas de limitation Oui, le même type de service est adhérer à l’association. tout simplement payer fournit à tous. 2500F CFA. 22 Toute personne du village et Pour y adhérer, il faut Non. Les gens recoivent Pas de limitation pour l’adhésion. Oui, même type de service est four- même de la commune qui le payer 500F CFA et cotis- les mêmes services. nit à tous. désire peut adhérer à er mensuellement 250F l’association. CFA. (continued next page) 115 116 Who can become member or What are the criteria for Are there any restrictions Does the institution provide the same ID receive services? becoming a member on becoming member Are there any limitations for membership type of service to all members 23 Tous les hommes du village peu- Pour l’adhésion, il faut Non, pas de restriction. Pas de limitation pour l’adhésion, mais la Oui, même type de service est four- vent être membre de la coopéra- être producteur de coton. personne doit être du village et être nit à tous. tive. producteur de coton. 24 Toutes les femmes du village Paiement des Frais Non, pas de restriction. Pas de limitation pour l’adhésion. Oui, même type de service est four- peuvent être membre de d’adhésion 200F CFA. nit à toutes les adhérentes. l’association. 25 Toute personne ressortissante Paiement des Frais Non, pas de restriction, il Oui, cette limite est fixée à 50 personnes. Oui, le même type de service est de la commune de Waténi peut d’adhésion 25000F CFA faut accepter les condi- fournit à tous les adhérents sauf les être membre de l’association. + les frais de cotisation tions d’adhésion. mauvais payeurs sont exclus. fixés à 1000F CFA. 26 Les fonctionnaires de l’état, les C’est sur concours de Les recrutements sont Le recrutement est lié aux besoins en Oui, le service fournit le même type contractuels sont des travailleurs recrutement que l’on faits en fonction des personnel. de service à tous mais variable de la société. Tous les pro- devient agent de la besoins de la société. selon la catégorie. ducteurs de coton reçoivent les CMDT. services de la CMDT. 27 Les fonctionnaires de l’état. Ils C’est sur concours de Les recrutements sont Le crutement est lié au besoin en Oui, le service fournit le même type sont recrutés sur concours. recrutement à la fonction faits en fonction des personnel. de service à tous. publique. besoins de la société. C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I 117 Questio n 8: Fundi ng ID Where do institutions get funding from What’s the budget? How is it allocated ? Kandara 4 Cotisation des membres Le budget est de 50 000F CFA. Aucun fonds n’est destiné au personnel, 5 cotisation en nature 1255000 fcfa. Tout le budget (100%) est alloué aux activités car le fonds n’est pas assez important. Kondogolo 8 Cotisations des membres, financement reçu d’ONG 300000 fcfa. 95% du budget sont alloué aux servcies, souvent partenaires. Il faut aussi ajouter les bénéfices des même les 100%. prestations de l’association. 9 Appui du partenaire SASAKAWA GLOBAL 2000 250000 fcfa, 50% du budget sont alloué aux services Touara 13 Cotisations de chaque membre par le versement de 300000 fcfa. Pour un crédit de 2500F CFA, 125F CFA reste au 100F CFA par semaine. niveau de la caisse. Pour un crédit de 5000F CFA, le rem- boursement se fait en deux mois avec un intérêt de 500F CFA . 14 Cotisations des membres. 125000 fcfa. Le budget est alloué à l’achat de carburant, engrais et autres charges de fonctionnement. 80% des fonds sont alloués aux services. Togou 15 16 Cotisations et vente de céréales. 750 000 à 800 000F CFA par an. Tout le budget est distribué sauf le reliquat qui n’atteint pas le montant minimum de crédit à allouer à quelqu’un. 17 Nous avons obtenu au départ une aide de 1 250 000F Tout le budget est alloué aux adhérentes sauf la somme qui CFA de l’USAID pour 25 personnes. n’atteint pas 50 000F CFA. 18 Le financement du service est assuré par l’Etat et les Le budget du service atteint les 4 milliards de F CFA/an. Bailleurs de fonds et Pertenaires financiers et les redevances eau. Fambougou 19 Le financement du Projet PRECAD est assuré pour le Le budget est de 100 millions de F CFA/ an avec 25% affectés moment par la Fondation SYGENTA (Suisse). au personnel. 20 Les ressources générées par les activités de Si l’association dispose de fonds, les 100% du budget sont l’association. alloués aux servcies. N’Tjila 21 Frais d’adhésion. Pas de budget important seulement 25 000F CFA/an. 22 Frais d’adhésion et de cotisation. Le budget actuel atteint les 500 000F CFA/an.Sur un budget de 100 jetons, seuls 75 sont alloués aux différents types de mem- bres. 23 Pas de budget, le travail de la coopérative c’est le bénévolat. 24 Droit d’adhésion + revenus des activités. Le budget de l’association est estimé à 200 000F CFA. 60% du budget est alloué aux activités des membres. 25 Droit d’adhésion + cotisations. Le budget de l’association est estimé à 750 000F CFA. 90% du budget sont alloués aux activités des membres. Le crédit est de 60 000F CFA par personne et remboursable après 7 mois d’activités en raison de 6500F CFA d’intérêts. 26 Bailleurs de fonds internationaux et l’Etat malien. 27 Etat malien. 118 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Questio n 9: Cl i mate Impacts a. Has there been an extreme weather event that has impacted the type of service you provide or the demand for the type of service you are providing? b. Was the service still applicable or effective during the weather event? c. What strategies were employed to adapt to the change in conditions? d. During extreme weather events in the past, were there different forms of distribution (either physical route or social connections) of the services? e. Were the same number of people served? Were there more people seeking assistance? Fewer people seeking assistance? f. What role do you see organizations playing in implementing or promoting adaptation strategies? Capacity building? Funding? ID a b c d e f Kandara 2 Il y a 10 ans, l’Isohyète oscillait entre oui adoption de la culture de Sésame non La mise en œuvre de l’opération 400 à 500mm , actuellement l’Isohyète et du Niébé. “Initiative riz a permis d’aider les oscille autour de 600mm. Cette situa- structures en place. Chacun a pu tion a rendu difficile la cultures des constater son impact sur la cul- céréales sèches. Pour remédier à cette ture du riz. situation, nous avons proposé la cul- ture du sésame et du Niébé comme mesures compensatoires. 3 Oui, pendant les périodes d’hivernage, non le service est arrêté au niveau des V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I zones inondées, car les pistes devien- nent impraticable. 4 Non, aucun évènement important n’est survenu. 5 Non, aucune difficulté dans ce domaine. Kondogolo 6 secheresse oui au cours de la sécheresse de 1973–1974, il y a eu des cas de dis- tribution de céré- ales par l’Etat. 7 En 2007, le retard d’un mois a été Oui Appui en matériels Oui, mousti- Les villages les plus Evaluation de l’impact de observé dans la mise en place de d’assainissement, de mousti- quaires, bidons touchés ont béné- l’inondation par les services tech- l’hivernage, puis un mois d’inondation. quaires pour les localités les plus d’eau et matériels ficié de cette aide. niques , puis appuie en nature. Ce qui a eu pour conséquence des touchées par cet évènement. La d’assainissement. dégâts importants sur les cultures. 1/3 population a aussi adopter les seulement des superficies ont été cultures sur différentes terres exploitées. Une concession s’est (sableux, limoneux, bas-fonds et effondrée sur son occupant. Les ser- gravionnaire) suivant le cycle vices techniques sont venus faire le hivernale. constat. 8 Oui, la nappe d’eau est profonde due oui Aucune stratégie pour le moment non Aucun appui de l’Etat. Seulement au manque de bonne pluviométrie. à notre portée. Nous continuons nous avons eu l’appui d’un bien- Nous avons des difficultés à puiser à faire le travail manuellement. faiteur qui nous a fourni deux l’eau pour arroser notre périmètre panneaux solaires avec pompe maraîcher. immergée. Malgré l’insuffisance de cet équipement , il allège énormément notre travail d’arrosage. (continued next page) 119 120 ID a b c d e f 9 Oui, le retard dans le démarrage de oui Recherche de l’autosuffisance non L’ONG a financé les infrastruc- l’hivernage avec la mauvaise récolte. par la recherche d’autres parte- tures de base (bâtiments et naires, car tous les fonds obte- machines), former les membres nus sont récupérés par l’ONG. de la coopérative en gestion d’entreprise. Touara 10 Oui, pendant les périodes d’hivernage, Dans le souci d’aider la popula- non Mise en place du programme le service est arrêté au niveau des tion, l’Etat a mis en place des PELCD (Programme envi- zones inondées, car les pistes sont banques de céréales. ronnemental de lutte contre le impraticables. Le déplacement est lim- Désertification) ité et se fait par pirode. 11 Il y a plus de 10 ans, une sécheresse Oui Il y a eu des actions de Oui. Il y a eu des Oui, tout le monde a A aprt l’appui en don de extrême qui s’est observée dans la sensibilisation. dons de céréales été servi céréales, aucune autre action localité, a atteint l’état de santé de dans toute la d’envergure n’a été faite. beaucoup d’animaux. Beaucoup d’ani- commune maux sont morts par suite de sous- alimentation. Nous avons procéder à la sensibilisation de la poupaltion. 12 Dans les années 2002, il n’y a pas eu Oui Il y a eu des dons de céréales oui Oui, tout le monde a La mise en œuvre de l’opération de crue, ce qui a eu pour consé- (maïs) dans toute la commune été servi “Initiative riz a permis d’aider les quence une mauvaise production. sans distinction. structures en place. Chacun a pu constater son impact sur la culture du riz. Togou 15 Non, aucun évènement important 16 Non, aucun évènement important 18 non non Fambougou 19 Lors de la campagne 2007- 2008, il y non Le constat des dégâts a été fait Oui, il y a eu des Evaluation de l’impact de l’inon- a eu un retard dans le démarrage de par les autorités administratives distributions de dation par les services tech- l’hivernage suivi d’une inondation. La et les ONG de la place. Chacun céréales. niques et les ONG , puis période hivernale s’est terminée par a eu à apporter son appui selon distribution de l’aide en nature. un arrêt brusque de la pluie. La popu- ses moyens aux populations. lation n’a donc pas fait de bonne récolte d’où une situation d’insécurité alimentaire. 20 Oui, le retard dans le démarrage de oui Recherche de l’autosuffisance non L’ONG a financé les infrastruc- l’hivernage avec la mauvaise récolte. par la recherche d’autres parte- tures de base (bâtiments et naires, car tous les fonds obte- machines), former les membres nus sont récupérés par l’ONG. de la coopérative en gestion C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S d’entreprise. N’tjila 21 La diminution des précipitations plu- non Attendre les périodes favorables non viométriques rend difficile la crois- de l’hivernage pour planter les sance des arbres et la réussite du arbres. greffage est souvent nulle. 24 non non non 25 Les maladies animales ont eu un oui Sensibilisation, traitement des non Le service vétéri- aucun impact négatif sur les activités entre animaux, appui des services naire a beaucoup fait 2007 à nos jours. techniques. dans la sensibilsia- tion et le traitement des animaux malades afin d’éradi- V I L L AG E S U R V E Y R E S U LT S : M A L I quer le mal récurrent dans la localité. Il s’agit bien selon les services d’élevage de la trypanoso- miase chronique. 26 Oui, nous avons observé une inonda- Non. Il a été décidé d’éviter l’aména- Non. Mais renon- Seuls les personnes La sensibilisation des product- tion pendant la campagne agricole gement des sites à risques cement aux frais touchées par ce eurs. 2007–2008 et 2008–2009. Les sur- d’inondation pour les spécula- des intrant phénomène ont faces emblavées en coton et maïs ont tions précues. Ensuite la popual- bénéficié de cette été englouties d’eau. Les productions tion a été épargné de mesure d’annulation ont été perdues remboursement des frais des de frais d’intrants. semences et intrants reçus. 27 La campagne 2007-2008 . On a assis- Non, le service Réduire la mise en valeur des non té à une destruction des cultures suite n’était plus zones inondables à l’inondation. Les rendements ont été applicable. faibles. 121 122 C O S T I N G A DA P TAT I O N T H R O U G H LO C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S Questio n 10: Gover nment Pol i ci es Sup p o r t i n g I n s t i t u t i o n s What government policies are restrictive to institutions? Do supportive or restrictive government policies play a role in ID determining whether you work with institutions in the country? Kandara 2 La mise en œuvre de l’opération “Initiative riz a permis d’aider Les politiques gouvernementales permettent aux structures les structures en place. Chacun a pu constater son impact sur d’évoluer conjointement sur le terrain. la culture du riz. Kondogolo 6 Le libéralisme est un facteur important comme poilitique d’aide Chacun est libre de mener ces activités dans le cadre légal des aux institutions. règles du pays. 7 Cas de l’opération “Initiative riz qui a permis galvaniser beau- Les politiques gouvernementales favorisent l’évolution des coup de producteurs. organismes sur le terrain. 8 La liberté de création de regroupement sociaux est une bonne politique de soutien. 9 La liberté de création de regroupement sociaux est une bonne politique de soutien. Touara 10 Aucune oui, les textes favorisent la bonne collaboration 11 L’Etat appui très peu les services techniques locales qui souf- La politique de l’Etat a toujours favorisé la possibilité de tra- frent du manque de moyens financiers et équipements. vailler avec les institutions sans contrainte. 12 Il n’y a aucune politique du gouvernement qui soit restrictive Il existe une collaboration étroite entre les autres institutions / aux institutions. Des politques comme celle de l’Initiative Riz organismes s et le service de l’agriculture de Djenné. soutiennent les institutions. Togou 18 Il n’y a aucune restriction de l’Etat envers les institutions. Nous travaillons en étroite collaboration avec tous les services techniques de la localité. Fambougou 19 Il n’y a aucune restriction de l’Etat envers les institutions Nous travaillons en étroite collaboration avec les services tech- niques sur la mise en œuvre de programmes sectoriels. 20 La liberté de création de regroupement sociaux est une bonne politique de soutien. N’tjila 21 Aucune restriction. 26 Aucune Oui, les textes favorisent la bonne collaboration. 27 Aucune restriction. Les textes nous autorisent à collaboer avec toutes les institu- tions oeuvrant dans le développement rural. the world bank 1818 h Street, nw washington, d.C. 20433 USa tel: 202-473-1000 Fax: 202-477-6391 Internet: www.worldbank.org/sdcc