2023/125 A KNOWLEDGE NOTE SERIES FOR THE ENERGY & EXTRACTIVES GLOBAL PRACTICE Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement The bottom line. Women bear the greatest burden from energy poverty, and forced displacement further entrenches gender inequalities. This Live Wire aims to advance our understanding of how energy access can help bridge gender gaps in displaced settings to ensure equitable and true universal energy access for all. Energy is indispensable for powering economic opportunities and providing basic services—two key pathways out of poverty. Electrical connections alone will not suffice; women must have the capacity, tools, and resources they need to fulfill their potential in a severely constrained environment. In displaced settings, can access to energy energy access (SDG  7). Policy makers suggest integrating provide a pathway out of poverty for women gender and energy actions within all SDGs, backed by gen- and girls? der-responsive global and national energy sector policies.1 Yes, access to energy can provide opportunities for This Live Wire aims to advance our understanding of how women to become economic agents and lift themselves energy access can help bridge gender gaps in displaced set- out of poverty tings to ensure equitable and true universal energy access for Women bear the greatest burden from energy poverty, and all, leaving no one behind. Given the multidimensional nature forced displacement further entrenches gender inequalities. and complexity of the topic, we explore the interconnections A 2018 progress review of the UN Sustainable Development of three themes—gender, energy, and forced displacement— Goals (SDGs) recognized the nexus of gend er and energy while providing guidance for future research. We also seek as fundamental to reaching gender equality (SDG  5) and to inform the design of future sustainable energy programs the equal importance of women’s role in achieving universal so as to contribute to the achievement of gender-equitable outcomes. We ask what approaches will help “transform tra- ditional gender roles and relations by empowering women through improved access to, or participation in the delivery Rutu Dave is a senior energy specialist at the of, modern energy services” (Clancy et al. 2019). World Bank and program lead for ESMAP’s Leaving No One Behind program. Authors 1. Energy here refers chiefly to the generation of electricity. The focus on Barbara Ungari is an operations analyst at electricity is due to its paramount role as a basic service. the World Bank and team member of ESMAP’s Leaving No One Behind program. Supported by Marco Indelicato is a senior energy access consultant at the World Bank Group. 2 Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement The nexus of gender, energy, and forced displacement has not What are the constraints on economic been widely researched, and additional sex-disaggregated empowerment of displaced women? data and analysis are needed to advance understanding Preexisting inequalities, including in access to energy, of the interactions among the three components. Such an become more entrenched when women and girls are analysis could help uncover the main drivers of deprivation forcibly displaced, often further undermining their and their correlation with energy access (and other basic ser- livelihoods and limiting their potential vices), endogenous and exogenous constraints, gender and social norms, technology, and policy and sector dynamics. It The World Bank’s 2021 report on Gender Dimensions of could also help identify sustainable solutions for empowering Forced Displacement (GDFD) sheds new light on the depri- women’s economic agency and thereby enabling them to vation that women and girls face in displacement settings. find a way out of entrenchment. While the degree of integration of forcibly displaced people into a host country is highly conditioned by government poli- Key terms used in this brief are defined in box 1. cies and other exogenous factors, displacement significantly increases the likelihood of households being multidimension- ally poor, with a compounding effect on gender equality. Displaced women are at a significant Displaced women are at a significant disadvantage across a range of outcomes compared with their male counterparts disadvantage across a range of outcomes and compared with women and men from host communi- compared with their male counterparts and ties. The gender gap also has significant effects on individual deprivation within households, with women less likely to have compared with women and men from host access to economic opportunities and basic services such as communities. health care and education. Box 1. Definitions of key terms Agency. The capacity of individuals to have the power conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of and resources to fulfill their potential. human rights, or natural or human-made disasters. Asylum seeker. A person who seeks safety from per- Internally displaced persons. Displaced persons who secution or serious harm in a country other than his have not crossed an internationally recognized state or her own and awaits a decision on the application border. for refugee status under relevant international and national instruments. In the event of a negative Refugee. A person who, owing to a well-founded fear decision, the person must leave the country and may of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, be expelled, as may any non-national in an irregular or membership of a particular social group or political unlawful situation, unless permission to stay is provided opinions, is outside the country of his nationality and on humanitarian or other related grounds. is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country. Displaced persons. People or groups of people who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their Sources: Barker 2005: 448; IDMC 2017; Khoudour and Andersson 2017 homes or places of habitual residence, in particular (citing international conventions). as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement 3 Table 1. Key constraints on women in settings of forced displacement, with reference to the goals of economic opportunities and access to basic services Individual Situational Structural Economic • Lack of education and vocational • Poor mobility • Constraining integration policies of opportunities skills • Camp versus noncamp host country • Lack of identification or proper residency • Limited employment opportunities documentation • Difficulty of acquiring identification • Gender and social norms papers and work permits • Few employment opportunities • Exclusion from financial system • Time scarcity for women heads of • Poor access to energy and digital household infrastructure • Scarce availability of childcare • Limited access to information and • Absence of networks and scarcity of communications technology social capital Access to basic • Location dependent • Poor access to water and services sanitation facilities • Scarce access to shelter • Limited access to food and nonfood items • Limited access to education and health services Source: World Bank 2021. The GDFD research delivers data demonstrating that among constraints influenced by exogenous factors. Structural con- internally displaced persons, households with more women straints include policies; legal frameworks; and economic, and children with an education are at decreased risk of social, and cultural factors that affect women’s economic poverty. However, substantial barriers, including limited edu- participation, decision-making roles, and voice and agency cation and heavy care responsibilities, constrain economic in host communities. Such constraints limit women’s access opportunities for displaced women (Klugman 2022). to spaces (such as marketplaces), opportunities, and assets; employment; access to safe and reliable energy and digital Constraints to economic empowerment in circumstances of infrastructure; financial services; and access to information forced displacement can be classified as individual, situa- and communications technology. tional, or structural, according to the Bank’s GDFD report (table 1).2 The first group includes constraints that are innate At the individual level, constraints limiting economic partici- or acquired through socioeconomic factors out of the indi- pation are based on human endowments such as education vidual’s control, while the second and third groups comprise and vocational skills. Such constraints can influence how displaced women adjust to host communities, as women tend to be less educated and have fewer vocational skills 2. Making use of the Multidimensional Poverty Index, the GDFD report than men. Other individual constraints include gender and examines individual-level deprivations of women and men in forcibly social norms that limit opportunities to improve livelihoods. displaced households by measuring levels of education, health, living Traditional gender biases often make it difficult for women to standards, and financial security using 15 indicators that all pertain to seek employment in many contexts. Women who are heads /www.worldbank.org/ economic opportunities and basic services. https:/ of household have an added burden if they are displaced en/topic/poverty/brief/multidimensional-poverty-measure 4 Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement and are also the breadwinner and caretaker of a family that Because displacement exacerbates poor living conditions includes children, people with disabilities, or elderly members. and well-being, providing access to reliable energy becomes even more critical for displaced women and vulnerable Residence location is the prime example of a situational groups, and perhaps has an even greater positive impact in constraint, carrying both advantages and disadvantages displacement situations. for displaced women living in refugee camps (versus set- tlements) in terms of mobility, access to services, and other Maier, Constant, and Ahmad (2020) analyze the interactions matters (World Bank 2021). between gender and energy in situations marked by fragil- ity, conflict, and violence (FCV) in the Middle East and North Africa and across three domains: household, community, and Women who are heads of household have markets. Their research reveals that lack of access to reliable, an added burden if they are displaced and affordable, and clean energy affects women’s economic and social agency, “entrenching gender inequalities and widen- are also the breadwinner and caretaker of ing […] the gap between women and men in […] education, a family that includes children, people with health care, economic participations, voice and agency” (p. 41). Table 2 provides a snapshot of gender-related inequal- disabilities, or elderly members. ities and vulnerabilities across the three domains in the FCV context. How can access to energy provide an effective pathway out of poverty for Given the different roles, responsibilities, and voices of women displaced women? and men within households, communities, and markets, “the impact and challenges of accessing and using energy Simply providing connections to electricity will not solve services are gendered,” affecting certain groups more than the problem others (Yang 2020). In addition to the more direct impacts— Beyond the displacement context, a lack of or limited access health hazards from cooking indoors with biomass and using to energy affects the economic and social agency of women lighting solutions powered by kerosene, safety risks tied to (and other vulnerable groups) significantly more than it does firewood collection, poor nutrition levels, and compromised most men. Empowering women to maximize their use of food safety from lack of refrigeration—other, less obvious energy after it has been provided requires a conducive eco- gender-specific gaps include unequal time use, resulting in system and the eradication of institutional norms plaguing time poverty; loss of opportunities for political, economic, and the energy sector. social participation in education; and limited income-gener- ation or entrepreneurial opportunities (Yang 2020). Table 2. Gender-related inequalities and vulnerabilities in the FCV context Household domain Community domain Market domain • Energy- and time-consuming household • Limited access to electricity • Subordination of women’s needs in a chores hindering education and economic male-dominated sector • Burden of finding alternative energy sources empowerment • Less access to finance for women • Lack of knowledge of technology and • Lack of street lighting affecting energy efficiency perception of insecurity • Disparity in decision-making • Increased vulnerability to threats Source: Maier, Constant, and Ahmad 2020. FCV = fragility, conflict, and violence. Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement 5 It seems increasingly likely that the same energy services economic, and social participation and for education. Access result in different social and economic outcomes for women to electricity may indeed save time on certain tasks, but how and men, partly because of the disparity in their level of tech- that time is used for the betterment of conditions is less clear. nical skills. Women have lower reading levels and less experi- ence with hardware. They are generally “time poor” and will The same is true for economic opportunities. Evidence sug- therefore respond differently to energy interventions. Clancy gests that electricity opens doors, such as the extension of and his colleagues (2012) measured the effects of modern working hours through lighting, access to productive tech- energy in households in terms of time, drudgery, well-being, nologies for start-ups, and other benefits; however, providing and economic opportunities for women. They presented evi- access alone is often not enough because women’s scope dence of a correlation between energy and transformation for responding to energy interventions is different and often in both women’s and men’s lives (although causality is more more limited than men’s (Clancy et al. 2012). Changing that difficult to prove). Time use is key, and unproductive time calculus is a central component of the World Bank’s Horn of use often results in women’s lost opportunities for political, Africa Initiative (box 2). Box 2. Regional Integration for a Sustainable Energy Supply in the Horn of Africa Health and education facilities in the borderlands of disabilities, internally displaced persons, and refugees, the Horn of Africa have limited access to electricity, sig- from energy access services, decision-making, and nificantly affecting the livelihoods of women, children, project benefits. and other vulnerable groups. Entry points for women’s empowerment include sup- As part of its efforts to promote regional integration port, awareness, and engagement to develop forms of and cooperation, the World Bank, under the Horn of income generation and linkages with productive uses Africa Initiative, plans to support the development of energy. Women’s participation should be planned of electricity access in the borderlands through its in a visible manner and by actively involving them in forthcoming HOA Regional Integration for Sustainable the delivery of energy services, as well as by facilitating Energy Supply (HOA RISES) Project. Gender inequality consultations with women about the day-to-day is high in the covered countries, including Ethiopia, management of camps for displaced persons and where women remain more vulnerable to risks owing related energy services. Service delivery will include to cultural norms and socioeconomic status. Produc- a dialogue with host communities to ensure that tivity gaps in agriculture and unemployment rates the business models are politically acceptable. Such for women are among the highest in Sub-Saharan exchanges offer the opportunity for gender-informed Africa. The heavy social emphasis on the domesticity communication using gender-sensitive language and of women confines their responsibilities to tending to visuals when disseminating knowledge. Service delivery husband, children, and home. will also include outreach activities targeted toward women to build skills for future employment. Potential entry points for a gender-inclusive interven- tion have been identified, and a gender equality and /projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-oper- Sources: Yang 2020; https:/ social inclusion assessment of selected HOA countries ations/project-detail/P174175. will be commissioned to support project preparation, which will help prevent the exclusion of disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, such as women, persons with 6 Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement Women have always been underrepresented in the energy Most refugees are hosted by developing sector, both in private and public organizations and along the entire value chain, including in decision-making posi- countries—including some of the poorest tions. This may explain why policies and interventions have in the world. And many of those countries traditionally been gender-blind—assuming all users benefit equally from increased access. Energy policy makers tend to struggle to provide energy to their own be men; and public, private, and nongovernmental organi- populations. zations are primarily run by men. This results in a male-dom- inated structure notable for creating bias and overlooking Uganda is the largest refugee-hosting country in Africa, the needs of women and vulnerable groups. Expanding the with more than 1.5 million refugees, most living in 12 refu- engagement of women in the energy value chain could be gee-hosting districts located in some of the poorest and the first necessary step toward developing a long-term solu- least-developed areas of the country. These areas lack tion for achieving energy equality. adequate employment opportunities, health care services, education, and transportation infrastructure. Uganda lacks Is universal energy access for forcibly sufficient enabling infrastructure for electricity to provide displaced people achievable? adequate services to the refugee and host communities equally. Households average 1.5 light sources per family and Although progress in access has been noticeable, rely on kerosene; just half of health centers and only 20 per- significant challenges remain in ensuring all displaced cent of schools have access to electricity services; and the people have access to basic services COVID-19 crisis has exacerbated an already critical situation. No single solution exists to solve the energy crises faced by In response, the World Bank has proposed an International forcibly displaced people and to address the specific needs Development Agency credit to scale up sustainable energy of individual groups. Outside of camps, displaced settings solutions in the region for both refugee and host communi- vary significantly. Most displaced people live either in infor- ties by addressing an array of multidimensional challenges mal settlements or in rented accommodations, in urban or beyond connection alone. The project will include gen- rural settings, and with varying levels of access to energy. der-targeted interventions focused on addressing energy This adds a layer of complexity for policy makers and devel- access for women-headed households and enterprises as opment stakeholders to consider when exploring how best well as access to finance. The emphasis will be on building to provide access to basic services and equally needed pro- awareness, fostering entrepreneurship, bolstering careers in ductive opportunities, especially for women. the energy sector, and empowering women in refugee com- munities with universal transferable skills. Most refugees are hosted by developing countries—including some of the poorest in the world (OECD 2017). And many of Connecting the dots: What does the those countries struggle to provide energy to their own pop- intersection of gender, energy, and forced ulations. For these reasons, humanitarian and development displacement reveal? actors have enlarged their perspective on the importance “Energy equity” can be a powerful enabler to empower of energy in ensuring the well-being of refugees; they are women and vulnerable groups in displacement settings now also considering the power infrastructure needs of the host country. This is evidenced by the Syrian refugee crisis in First, viewing consumers as a homogenous group does not Lebanon, which is adding significant pressure to an already help. Access should not be evaluated based on connectivity constrained electricity system. Accordingly, the UNHCR 2019 but rather on where, how, and for whom access is needed. Global Refugee Forum called for increased access to modern Gender-disaggregated data are essential to addressing and clean energy for refugee and host communities (Maier, this issue, especially in displacement contexts, because the Constant, and Ahmad 2020). impact and challenges of accessing and using energy ser- vices are gendered (Yang 2020). Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement 7 Second, energy is indispensable for powering economic and displaced women and girls who obtain such certifica- opportunities and providing basic services—two key path- tion are still less likely than men to use the technology owing ways out of poverty. But connections will not be effective to its costs and their lack of awareness of its life-enhancing unless women sense their agency and have the capacity, capabilities (World Bank 2021). Countering these barriers will tools, and resources they need to fulfill their potential in a require additional skill building to ensure women are on par severely constrained environment and to make the leap with men in maximizing technology use. from victims to economic agents. Access to digital tools would contribute Third, sector reforms sensitive to these challenges are needed, both to mainstream gender in the methodology of significantly to the economic participation energy projects and to break into a male-dominated sector and livelihoods of displaced women and girls; and cultivate a more diverse, equitable, and receptive value chain. To provide the impetus for such reforms, additional this would require building the underlying research, data, and analysis are needed to gather more infrastructure and ensuring that an adequate evidence of the benefits women can derive from access to energy. power source is always available, while at the same time ensuring that technology is In the meantime, how do we create social and economic agency? When correlating energy access with women’s accessible to all. empowerment in contexts of forced displacement, it is essential to collect and learn from disaggregated data that Affordability is another major constraint that needs be recognize household diversity. These data can help loosen included in holistic development programming, including constraints and develop sustainable strategies that reach both the cost of acquiring technology and, more relevant beyond simply providing access to modern energy, includ- to this research, energy affordability. The cost of connection ing supplying tools such as education and vocational skills, and high tariffs may be out of reach for the poorest and which can catalyze employment, entrepreneurship, and most vulnerable groups, strengthening the case for greater leadership. Vocational training targeted at refugee women consideration of the individual needs of different consumer “could yield significant gains not only on the beneficiaries segments when planning interventions to ensure that no one but on the host economy; however, most educational, and is left behind. vocational programs are traditionally designed for men” (World Bank 2021: 28). What practices should policy makers and development actors consider? Access to digital tools would contribute significantly to the Understanding the intersectionality of gender, energy, economic participation and livelihoods of displaced women and displacement is key to effectively ensuring gender and girls; this would require building the underlying infra- equality for energy interventions in displacement structure and ensuring that an adequate power source settings is always available, while at the same time ensuring that technology is accessible to all. Owning or having access to Responsive integration should start immediately after dis- information and communications technology (ICT) would placement occurs by building the foundations for long-term facilitate the connection to capacity-building programs, development-oriented actions in humanitarian aid settings especially during extreme events such as the COVID-19 prior to direct project intervention. Energy must be part of pandemic. ICT products would help women access digital the equation, and access to modern energy should be a banking, paving the way to financial inclusion through cash pillar of the intervention framework. Beyond providing basic transfers. Sourcing the technology itself may be challenging services, planned development must also consider build- without proper national identification or documentation, ing women’s endowments and agency, with energy as the 8 Understanding the Interaction between Gender, Energy, and Forced Displacement enabler. This approach could significantly reduce the risk of and regulatory frameworks in overburdened and poorly vulnerable groups becoming victims and begin forging a structured systems. All the more reason programmatic path to empowerment through economic voice. development should consider the overall condition of the local enabling environment and tailor sector policy support Beyond providing basic services, planned to address the energy needs of forcibly displaced people and host communities by strengthening integration policies and development must also consider building opening labor markets, among other actions. women’s endowments and agency, with The mutual reinforcement of gender and energy to reach energy as the enabler. SDGs 5 and 7 should not stop there. Gender and energy are key drivers of the integration and achievement of all 17 SDGs. National authorities have primary responsibility for the well-being of the displaced, but countries’ energy access This Live Wire was cleared by Gabriela Elizondo Azuela, practice plans often fall short of including displaced segments (GPA manager, ESMAP, and peer reviewed by Nathyeli Yethzi Acuna 2018). 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