Strengthening Air Quality Management in Accra, Ghana FINAL REPORT IMPROVED POLLUTION MANAGEMENT AND REDUCED ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK IN ACCRA-TEMA METROPOLITAN AREA (P164417) Justice Odoi and Gary Kleiman August 2021 © 2021, The World Bank Group 1818 H Street N.W, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: (202)473 1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org Email: feedback@worldbank.org Some rights reserved Rights and Permissions This report is a product of the staff of the World Bank with This report is available under the Creative Commons Attribution external contributions. Note that the World Bank does not 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0) http:/ /creative commons. necessarily own each component of the content included in org/licenses/by/3.0. Under the Creative Commons Attribution the report. The World Bank therefore does not warrant that license, you are free to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt this the use of the content contained herein will not infringe on the work, including for commercial purposes, under the following rights of third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such conditions: infringement rests solely with you. Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: Odoi and Kleiman The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this 2021. Strengthening Air Quality Management in Accra, Ghana. documentdo not necessarily reflect the views of the World Justice Odoi and Gary Kleiman, The World Bank, Washington Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they DC. represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this report. The boundaries, colors, All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to denominations, and other information shown on any map in this the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement pubrights@worldbank.org. or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of the World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Strengthening Air Quality Management in Accra, Ghana Strengthening Air Quality Management FINAL REPORT in Accra, Ghana FINAL REPORT IMPROVED POLLUTION MANAGEMENT AND REDUCED ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK IN ACCRA-TEMA METROPOLITAN AREA (P164417) IMPROVED POLLUTION MANAGEMENT AND REDUCED ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK IN ACCRA-TEMA METROPOLITAN AREA (P164417) Justice Odoi and Gary Kleiman Justice Odoi and Gary Kleiman August 2021 I Table of Contents ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VI EXECUTIVE SUMMARY VII 1. INTRODUCTION 01 2. POLLUTION MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PROGRAM 07 3. PROGRAM OUTPUTS AND OUTCOMES 10 4. LESSONS LEARNED, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CRITICAL NEXT STEPS 28 World Bank Country Environmental Analysis Recommendations 28 AQMP Mid-Term Review Recommendations 29 Other International Partner Recommendations 30 Conclusion and Next Steps 33 REFERENCES 34 ANNEX: LIST OF PROJECT OUTPUTS 35 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Estimates of annual average fine particle pollution (PM2.5) across the GAMA 01 . Table 2: Instrumentation installed at University of Ghana and Adabraka. 12 Table 3: 2021 Monthly Average PM2.5 concentrations across 3 continuous monitoring sites in 15 Accra LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Weekly integrated PM2.5 concentrations at the fixed sites averaged by site-types 02 across measurement months. Bars are standard deviations of the weekly measurements in that month. The horizontal line in (A) shows the WHO annual AQG of 10 μg/m3. Reproduced from Alli et al. 2021. Figure 2: Estimated spatial pattern of ground-level air pollution based on (a) rotating surface 02 site measurements, (b) modelled average values using a satellite-ground monitor data fusion algorithm and (c) spatially interpolated data from ground-level measurements. Sources: Alli et al. 2021; Mudu 2021; MESTRI 2017. Figure 3: Rate of death associated with HAP and AAP (Global Burden of Disease database). 03 Source: Ghana CEA, World Bank, 2020. Figure 4: Premature deaths (left) and illness (right, in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) 04 associated with air pollution risk in Ghana (Source, Ghana CEA, World Bank, 2020). Figure 5: Location of continuous monitoring sites. Source: Greater Accra Metropolitan Areas 11 Air Quality Management Plan, 2018 III Figure 6: EPA Ghana air quality monitoring network in Greater Accra; Source: Greater Accra 13 Metropolitan Areas Air Quality Management Plan, 2018. Figure 7: US Embassy and EPA Ghana continuous monitor location. Source: Greater Accra 14 Metropolitan Areas Air Quality Management Plan, 2018. Figure 8: Hourly, daily and seasonal variability in PM2.5 continuous monitor concentrations. 15 Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 9: Monthly average PM2.5 concentrations by station type for Accra network. Source: 16 World Bank 2021. Figure 10: Screen view of Campbell Konect data management system for review and 17 validation of continuous air quality data. This figure shows an example of Adabraka PM concentrations as tables, graphs and AQI’s along with corresponding meteorological measurements. Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 11: 2019 Roadside source apportionment sampling sites in Accra (Stars denote site 19 locations). Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 12: 2019 PM2.5 concentrations and fractional composition by site at five roadside 19 sites. Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 13: Potential source contributions to carbonaceous fraction of PM2.5 at roadside sites 20 in Accra, Ghana in 2019. Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 14: 2020 non-roadside source apportionment sampling sites. The St. Joseph’s School 21 site is also referred to as Adabraka, the neighborhood in which it is located. Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 15: 2020 PM2.5 concentrations and fractional composition by site at three non- 22 roadside sites. Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 16: Source contributions to organic carbon (left) and elemental carbon (right) across 23 the eight filter collection sites in Accra. Source: World Bank 2021. IV Acronyms & Abbreviations AP Air Pollution MoU Memorandum of Understanding AAP Ambient Air Pollution AQ Air Quality AQM Air Quality Management AQMP Air Quality Management Plan ASA Advisory Services and Analytics BETF Bank Executed Trust Fund CEA Country Environmental Analysis DAP Data Acquisition Plan DQO Data Quality Objectives EPA Environmental Protection Agency, an agency of MESTI GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area GHG Greenhouse Gas GoG Government of Ghana GRA Ghana Revenue Authority HAP Household Air Pollution LUSPA Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority, an agency of MESTI MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies of GoG MESTI Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies MTR Mid-Term Review (of AQMP) MoF Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning MoTI Ministry of Trade and Industry PM Particulate Matter PMEH Pollution Management and Environmental Health QA Quality Assurance QAPP Quality Assurance Project Plans QC Quality Control SCD Systematic Country Diagnostic SOPs Standard Operating Procedures TP Training Plan WB World Bank WBG World Bank Group V Acknowledgements This report was prepared by a team consisting of Justice Odoi (Environmental Specialist, and Task Team Leader) and Gary Kleiman (Senior Environmental Consultant) and supported by Stefani Penn, Jim Neumann, Henry Roman, Melanie Jackson and Haley Kunkle of Industrial Economics (IEc) with contributions from Michael Hannigan and David Pfotenhauer at University of Colorado, Raphael Arku at the University of Massachusetts, Allison Felix Hughes, Emmanuel Osei-Twum and Reginald Quansah at University of Ghana as well as Alan Chan, Taylor Jones and Hilary Hafner at Sonoma Technologies, Inc. The report was developed collaboratively with partners at the Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana and the team would like to acknowledge the valuable technical support provided by Honourable Henry Kwabena Kokofu/Executive Director of EPA, Ebenezer Appah-Sampong (Deputy Executive Director for Technical Services), Emmanuel Kabenlah-Egya Appoh (Ag. Director, Environmental Quality), Esi Nerquaye-Tetteh (Acting Director/Environmental Quality, Standards and Laboratory Services), Maxwell Seyram Sunu (Senior Programme Officer, Environmental Quality), John Kofi Nyante (Senior Programme Officer, Environmental Quality) and Jerremiah Asumbere (Senior Programme Officer, Environmental Quality) The team is grateful to Kennedy Fosu for supporting the preparation of this report. Special thanks are given to Ernesto Sanchez-Triana (Global Lead, Pollution Management and Environmental Health) and Yewande Aramide Awe (Senior Environmental Engineer) for their constructive suggestions, pertinent guidance and support. This report was developed under the guidance of Sanjay Srivastava (Practice Manager, West Africa Team of the Environment, Natural Resources and the Blue Economy Global Practice). Pierre Frank Laporte (Country Director), and Agata Pawlowska (Manager, Operations) provided crucial support. The team would like to acknowledge the financial support for this study, through the Pollution Management and Environmental Health (PMEH) multi-donor trust fund supported by the Governments of Norway, Germany and the United Kingdom. VI Executive Summary Ambient concentrations of fine particulate would fill monitoring and planning gaps and to matter, or PM2.5, are high and remain a key strengthen capacity of EPA Ghana to build upon driver of the deleterious health effects of air their past practice, to sharpen their technical pollution. Various estimates of PM2.5 across capacity and to strengthen the analytical pillars the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) for air quality management (AQM) planning. are increasingly available as a result of long- term monitoring by the Ghanaian Ministry Unique among PMEH pilots, the GAMA pilot is of Environment, Science, Technology and conducted in collaboration with several other Innovation’s (MESTI’s) Environmental Protection development partners who have and continue Agency (EPA Ghana) as well as a number of air to support EPA Ghana in their AQM planning pollution monitoring campaigns by academic efforts. While the PMEH program had a mandate and international partner agencies. to establish a “full-scale” air quality management plan for each city that consisted of a list of Current air quality conditions present an core components of air quality management unacceptable health burden for the population planning, such as monitoring, inventory, health of GAMA and are not in line with international impact assessment, source apportionment, guidelines for air quality. Current WHO guidelines stakeholder engagement, policy design and for ambient concentrations of PM2.5 recommend implementation, many of these elements were no higher than 10 µg/m3 on an annual average already underway or being supported by other basis and 25 µg/m3 averaged over a 24-hour international partners at the time the pilot period, although these levels are set to be was established. This report highlights AQM updated later this month. As the data in Table 1 and planning achievements that resulted directly Figures 1 and 2 show, ambient concentrations are from the PMEH-funded activities, but also typically 2 to 10 times these values depending on features several AQM planning advances that location and season, with the Harmattan periods occurred through coordination and participation resulting in very significant increases in ambient of other international partners working toward a concentrations. As a result, air pollution is Ghana’s common objective of advancing AQM planning number one environmental risk, responsible for for GAMA. about 8 percent of total annual mortality, which is disproportionately borne by infants and the This report is intended to summarize the elderly. achievements of Ghana’s PMEH Program. Since the many deliverables should be viewed The economic (welfare) cost of air pollution collectively in how they achieve the overall is estimated at US$2.5 Billion or roughly 4.2% objectives of the PMEH program, this report of the country’s 2017 Gross Domestic Product has been drafted primarily for the benefit of (GDP). The cost of air pollution in Ghana’s two communicating the impact of the PMEH project largest cities, Accra and Kumasi, is estimated more effectively. The report begins with an at $264 million/year. A recent cross-sectional introductory chapter that provides context on analysis of cost of health care found that, air pollution in Ghana and the Greater Accra depending on the disease, a significant fraction Metropolitan Area, specifically. It draws mostly of health care costs related to treatment of air on academic research and recent World Bank pollution-related illness falls to patients. analysis conducted for the Ghana Country Environmental Analysis that was supported in To address the global challenge of pollution part, through PMEH activities. A short chapter mitigation, The Pollution Management and follows that provides some context on the PMEH Environmental Health (PMEH) multi-donor program and the Accra pilot. Then the core partnership was established in 2014 to make outputs and resulting outcomes of the PMEH links between air pollution, human health, activities are presented with supporting details climate change, and growth priorities, through to show how each aspect contributed to the next overarching analytical work and country specific iteration of the GAMA air quality management support. The PMEH pilot in Accra was focused on plan mid-term review that is currently underway. a strategically selected subset of initiatives that Finally, several sets of recommendations are VII presented that draw from the World Bank as energy—and how to reconcile the well as several other development partners sometimes-conflicting objectives and that have been working on Air Quality in Ghana demands of these sectors to achieve to provide a comprehensive view of how this environmental improvement. important work can be taken forward as EPA Ghana continues to address the challenges that Supporting EPA Ghana with their work in Accra air quality presents for a sustainable future in will help to create a model that the agency can Accra and across Ghana. use and apply in other major cities with air quality concerns, including Kumasi and Takoradi, where Further, support of EPA Ghana will help to there is interest in better understanding ambient solidify EPA Ghana as a regional leader in air pollution. quality measurement and management that will allow dissemination of expertise within West Africa and sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. The efforts undertaken through the PMEH project have provided insight into the most important and critical next steps that need to be taken in support of EPA Ghana’s air quality management efforts in Accra. These include: ●Assess and compare new, continuous methods with filter-based, manual sampling methods to identify potential issues and provide solutions to correct these issues in a way that will allow EPA Ghana to have more consistently accurate particle measurements from the full range of monitoring methods deployed. ●Determine which datasets or groupings of datasets will be used to assess regulatory compliance, analyze health impacts, or otherwise understand air quality burdens within the city and to establish regulatory guidance for the use of both gravimetric and continuous monitoring technologies in their compliance networks. ●Overhaul Ghana EPA’s analytical chemistry laboratory equipment consistent with international air quality measurement best practices (e.g; X-ray fluorescence instead of atomic absorption spectrometry). ●Develop an integrated air pollution prevention and control program focusing on key sectors (transport, waste and biomass burning or clean cooking) to reduce emissions. The program should place a special emphasis on how to coordinate financing and policies across three sectors most closely linked to the mitigation of air pollution—environment, transport, urban development and VIII 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Air Quality in Ghana Ambient concentrations of fine particulate air pollution is taking on the GAMA population, matter, or PM2.5, are high and remain a key while also leaving room for improved monitoring driver of the deleterious health effects of air practice to reduce uncertainties moving forward. 1. INTROD2.5 pollution. PM UCTION poses a significant and even fatal health risk where long-term exposure exists. The temporal pattern of ambient air pollution is Illnesses associated with PM2.5-related mortality significantly influenced by the Harmattan winds include lung cancer, ischemic heart disease, that carry high levels of mineral dust from the 1.1. Air Quality in Ghana stroke, acute lower respiratory infection, and Sahara Desert across the city during December chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) –March. Field measurements from 2020 (e.g., bronchitis, emphysema). Various estimates demonstrated the significant Ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter, or PM2.5, are high and remain aenhancement key driver of the of of PM2.5 across the Greater Accra Metropolitan ambient concentrations during this time period deleterious health effects of air pollution. PM2.5 poses a significant and even fatal health risk where long- Area (GAMA) are increasingly available as a which raised ambient PM2.5 levels between term result exposure exists.monitoring of long-term Illnesses associated with PM2.5-related by the Ghanaian 56 and mortality 71 µg/minclude 3 lung (Alli et cancer, al. 2021,ischemic heart See Figure disease, stroke, acute lower respiratory Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology infection, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) 1). While 2020 was a pandemic year that may (e.g., bronchitis, emphysema). and Innovation’s Various estimates (MESTI’s) of PM2.5 across Environmental have the Greater the reduced Accra Metropolitan Area anthropogenic (GAMA) fraction of air are increasingly Protection available Agency (EPA as a resultas Ghana) long-term of well as a monitoring by there pollution, the Ghanaian Ministry is no reason of Environment, to believe that the number Technology Science, and Innovation’s of air pollution (MESTI’s) Environmental monitoring campaigns Harmattan Protection Agency was affected, and(EPA Ghana) prior studiesas also well bya as academic number of air international and agencies. by academic partner campaigns pollution monitoring show this magnitude and of enhancement. international partner agencies. Table Table 1 1 provides provides a range a of range of that values values that provide provide a solid basis for estimating the current toll that air pollution is a solid basis for estimating the current toll that taking on the GAMA population, while also leaving room for improved monitoring practice to reduce uncertainties moving forward. Table 1. Estimates of annual average fine particle pollution (PM2.5) across the GAMA. Estimated annual average Source Year PM2.5 (µ g/m3) Comments Short-term sampling over 3 weeks; 4 low-income Arku et al.(2008) 2006 20-40 residential neighborhoods 30-70 (residential) 4 low-income residential neighborhoods (non- Dionisio et al. (2010) 2007-08 40-50 (roadside) Harmattan) 2014-2015 49 (ground-level) Satellite data processed through the DIMAQ Mudu (2021) 2010-2016 25-50 (satellite) Model (Shaddick and Wakefield, 2002). Every 6-day gravimetric sampling at 12 EPA Ghana, personal communication 2015-2020 46-127 metropolitan sites across Accra Global dataset of satellite derived annual average Southerland et al. (2021) 2015-2019 52-67 PM2.5 concentrations in urban areas 37 (commercial/business) 36 (high density residential) Rotating measurements at 55 sites across GAMA 28 (medium density residential) Alli et al. (2021) 2020 with seasonal adjustments. Note that 2020 was a 26 (peri-urban) pandemic year. 89 (Harmattan) 23 (non-Harmattan) 73 (Roadside) Every 6-day gravimetric sampling at 12 EPA Ghana, personal communication 2020 88 (Residential) metropolitan sites across Accra. Note 2020 was a 69 (Commercial/Business) pandemic year 64 (Harmattan) Continuous monitoring results from US Embassy U.S. Embassy FEM monitor 2020 21 (Non-Harmattan) in Accra. Note 2020 was a pandemic year The temporal pattern of ambient air pollution is significantly influenced by the Harmattan winds that carry high levels of mineral dust from the Sahara Desert across the city during December – March. Field measurements from 2020 demonstrates the significant enhancement of ambient concentrations during this time period which raised ambient PM2.5 levels between 56 and 71 µg/m3 (Alli et al. 2021, See Figure 1). 01 While 2020 was a pandemic year, that may have reduced the anthropogenic fraction of air pollution, there is no reason to believe that the Harmattan was affected, and prior studies also show this magnitude of Figure 1. Weekly integrated PM2.5 concentrations at the fixed sites averaged by site-types across measurement months. Bars are standard deviations of the weekly measurements in that month. The horizontal line in (A) shows the WHO annual AQG of 10 μg/m3. Reproduced from Alli et al. 2021. The spatial pattern of air pollution is becoming better understood with increased AQ monitoring providing an increasingly consistent picture of elevated levels of air pollution running Current air qualityNorth to South through the conditions core present The spatial pattern of air pollution is becoming of Accra better with additional understood enhancement with increased AQnear Tema (note that monitoring an the MESTRI spatial health unacceptable interpolation burdenlackedfor groundthe monitors in Tema). Figure 2 shows providing an increasingly consistent picture of three recent analyses of the estimated spatial pattern population of GAMA and are not in line of pollution across with GAMA. levels of air pollution running North to elevated international guidelines for air quality. Current Figure 1. Weekly integrated PM2.5 concentrations at the fixed sites averaged by site-types across measurement months. Bars are through Southstandard the core of Accra with additional deviations of the weekly measurements in that month. TheWHO guidelines horizontal for the line in (A) shows ambient WHO annual concentrations AQG of 10 enhancement near Tema. μg/m3. Reproduced from AlliFigure 2 shows three et al. 2021. of PM2.5 recommend no higher than 10 µg/ recent analyses of the estimated spatial pattern m3 on an annual average basis and 25 µg/m3 The spatial of pollution acrosspattern GAMA. of air pollution (note is becoming that the understood over MESTRIbetteraveraged with increased a 24-hour monitoring AQperiod (WHOproviding 2005), an increasingly consistent picture spatial interpolation lacked ground monitors in of elevated levels of although these levels are set to be updatedcore air pollution running North to South through the later Tema).of Accra with additional enhancement near Tema (note the MESTRI thatmonth. this As the spatial datainterpolation in Table 1 lacked ground and Figures monitors in Tema). Figure 2 shows three recent analyses of the estimated spatial pattern of pollution across GAMA. Figure 2. Estimated spatial pattern of ground-level air pollution based on (a) rotating surface site measurements, (b) modelled average values using a satellite-ground monitor data fusion algorithm and (c) spatially interpolated data from ground-level measurements. Sources: Alli et al. 2021; Mudu 2021; MESTRI 2017. Current air quality conditions present an unacceptable health burden for the population of GAMA and are not in line with international guidelines for air quality. Current WHO guidelines for ambient concentrations of PM2.5 recommend no higher than 10 µg/m3 on an annual average basis and 25 µg/m3 Figure 2. Estimated spatial pattern of ground-level air pollution based on (a) rotating surface site measurements, (b) modelled 2 average values using a satellite-ground monitor data fusion algorithm and (c) spatially interpolated data from ground-level measurements. Sources: Alli et al. 2021; Mudu 2021; MESTRI 2017. Current air quality conditions present an unacceptable health burden for the population of GAMA Official Use and are not in line with international guidelines for air quality. Current WHO guidelines for ambient concentrations of PM2.5 recommend no higher than 10 µg/m3 on an annual average basis and 25 µg/m3 2 02 1 and 2 show, ambient concentrations are presents Ghana with a challenge in air quality typically 2 to 10 times these values depending management. Total annual mortality attributed on location and season, with the Harmattan to ambient air pollution (AAP) in urban Ghana periods resulting in very significant increases (including all cities, even those not in GAMA) was in ambient concentrations. In 2018, EPA Ghana estimated to be about 4,600 cases and about proposed its own national standards for 24- 2,600 cases were estimated in rural Ghana. hour average concentrations of PM2.5 at 35 µg/ Total annual mortality attributed to household m3 but HO 2005), although thesedid notare levels set to be an propose annual updated laterstandard, this month. air pollution (HAP, which includes emissions given difficulties in separating the mostly within and nearby residential households) in and 2 show, ambient concentrations are typically 2 to 10 times these natural Harmattan contribution to PM during the urban Ghana were estimated at 3,900 cases son, with the Harmattan periods resulting in very significant increases December to March and approximately 5,000 cases in rural Ghana. EPA Ghana proposed its own national time period, standards significantly for 24-hour average affecting annual average concentrations. However, over the past two decades, HAP has but did not propose an annual standard given difficulties in separating Rate of death associated with HAP, AAP (Global Burden Estimated shown AAP cost per a dramatic year by urban decrease in itsarea (Estimatesrate associated bution to PM during the December to March time period, significantly authors). bydeath, of which may be in part due to government ons. of Disease database). efforts to replace traditional three-stone fires umber one  with LPG cookstoves. AAP has shown a slight  for about 8  increase. The Ghana Environmental Protection  World Bank Agency  (EPA) estimated that in 2015 about 2,800    lives were lost due to air pollution in the GAMA Bank Ghana   alone (EPA 2015). That represents 61% of national   020) that was   urban deaths, yet the population of GAMA is only activities, air   about 4% of the national population. This number rall risk for    is projected  to increase to approximately 4,600 ollution was  by 2030 if no action is taken to reduce the current                       00 premature and projected  future burden of air pollution. n urban areas                     re 3), thus a with a Air pollution’s disease burden is Plastic Waste Pollution nt. Total Figure 3: Rate of death associated with HAP and AAP (Global mbient air 2020. Burden of Disease database). Source: Ghana CEA, World Bank, disproportionately borne elderly (See Figure 4). Figure 2’s left panel by infants and the cluding all demonstrates how the elderly experience most was estimated to be about 4,600 cases and about 2,600 cases were AP-related premature deaths because this age More than 3,000 metric tons (MT) of plastic waste is generated across buried (GSS, 2013). Spatial disparities in access to waste management al mortality attributed Air to household pollution air pollution (HAP, which includes demographic is most sensitive to some of the Ghana every day, or 1.1 is MT/year, which number millionGhana’s is 10-14 percent one of the services exist between regions, as well as between rural and urban areas. ntial households) in urban Ghana entire municipal solidrisk, environmental were estimated responsible waste stream at 3,900 (Troutman and for cases and about Aseidu-Dankwah, 8 key health endpoints exacerbated by air pollution, Without e ective alternatives more than four out of every five households hana. However, over percent the past of et 2017; Miezah two total decades, annual al., 2015). mortality An estimated HAP has shown 86 percent(World a of Ghana’s dramatic Bank waste such as heart attack and stroke. Similarly, the improperly dispose of their wastes, including plastics. h, which may be CEAin part 2020). plastic to government due According load, roughly 2,500 MT/day to orefforts the World 1 million to replace Bank MT/year, Ghana traditional is mismanaged. right panel shows that a greater proportion of ves. AAP has Country shown may be placed inAnalysis Environmental a slight This challenge increase. The Ghana the context of (2020) Environmental that was the overarching waste non-fatal illness is borne by young children, who The result is widespread environmental and urban pollution, which has that in 2015 supported, about 2,800 lives in part,were lost through due to PMEH air pollution activities, inairthe are most susceptible to acute lower respiratory management system, in which over 30,000 MT of municipal solid waste become commonplace in almost every community in Ghana over the past resents 61% of national urban tract infection (ALRI), such as pneumonia. The day. Of thisyet each deaths, the population of GAMA 38 per-is pollution was are generated the sixth-ranked waste only overall risk for 14 percent is collected; death 20 years. Mismanaged plastics are dumped across the landscape, directly ation. This number in centis 2017. projected In Ghana, to increase air to pollution approximately was responsible4,600 by increase in risk of these diseases – resulting in is dumped in open spaces set aside as informal dumps; 24 per- or indirectly traveling to stormwater drains, rivers, and streams and even- for urrent and projectedapproximately 16,000 premature deaths that the large burden of disease discussed in the prior cent isfuture depositedburden pollution. of air containers”; at “community nine percent is dumped tually to the ocean. Packaging plastics serve as a primary component year, with about 8,500 in urban areas and 7,500 in paragraph – results in a further erosion of human isproportionately indiscriminately; borne (See 11 percent by infants is burned and in the the elderly open; and four percent is (See Figure 4). capital of increasing accumulations of improperly disposed wastes, resulting rural areas Figure 3), thus rapid urbanization in the country. ow the elderly experience most AP-related premature deaths because ve to some of the Ghana’s plastic key health waste generation, endpoints exacerbated by grade by air (Troutman pollution, and Aseidu-Dankwah, 2017; Miezah et al., 2015). larly, the right panel shows that a greater proportion of non-fatal illness most susceptible to acute lower Plastic type respiratory tract infectionExamples (ALRI), such Distribution, by Daily (MT) Annually (MT) grade (%) of these diseases – resulting in the large burden of disease discussed in LDPE (film) her erosion of human capital in the country. Yogurt cups, carryout trays, hamburger boxes, egg cartons, cups, cutlery, 25.31 760 277,145 (Low density polyethylene) electronics packaging, toys PET Food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, 23.00 690 251,850 mineral water, shampoo (Polyethylene terephthalate) HDPE Any other plastic in consumer waste 19.19 576 210,131 (High-density polyethylene) stream PP (rigid) (Polypropylene) Bottle lids, disposable cups/cutlery 10.61 318 116,180 PS (Polystyrene) Yogurt cups, carryout trays, hamburger 3.75 113 41,066 boxes, egg cartons, cups, cutlery, 3 electronics packaging, toys PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) Food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, 4.31 129 47,195 03 mineral water, shampoo Other Official Any other plastic in consumer waste Use 13.83 415 151,439 stream 24-hour means 300-800 600-1200 Dionisio et al. 25 50 70 (2010) Rate of death associated with HAP, AAP (Global Burden Estimated AAP cost per year by urban area (Estimates Annual means 50-350 Ghana EPA (2017) 10 20 of Disease database). by authors).         FIGURE . : Premature deaths (top) and illness (bottom, in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) associated with   air pollution risk in Ghana (Global Burden of Disease database).                                                                 Plastic Waste Pollution              More than 3,000 metric tons (MT) of plastic waste is generated across buried (GSS, 2013). Spatial disparities in access to waste management Ghana every day, or 1.1 million MT/year, which is 10-14 percent of the services exist between regions, as well as between rural and urban areas.    entire municipal solid waste stream (Troutman and Aseidu-Dankwah, Without e ective alternatives more than four out of every five households  2017; Miezah et al., 2015). An estimated 86 percent of Ghana’s waste improperly dispose of their wastes, including plastics. plastic load, roughly 2,500 MT/day or 1 million MT/year, is mismanaged.   This challenge may be placed in the context of the overarching waste The result is widespread environmental and urban pollution, which has management system, in which over 30,000 MT of municipal solid waste become commonplace in almost every community in Ghana over the past are generated each day. Of this waste only 14 percent is collected; 38 per- 20 years. Mismanaged plastics are dumped across the landscape, directly                                                                                                              cent is dumped in open spaces set aside as informal dumps; 24 per- or indirectly traveling to stormwater drains, rivers, and streams and even-                                                                                                                       cent is deposited at “community containers”; nine percent is dumped tually to the ocean. Packaging plastics serve as a primary component                                            indiscriminately; 11 percent is burned in the open; and four percent is of increasing accumulations of improperly disposed wastes, resulting Ghana’s An estimated 20.5 million plastic waste Ghanaians—over generation, 70 percent of the popu-by grade (Troutman sub-Saharan and Africa, Aseidu-Dankwah, while 2017; findings particular to Accra Miezah hold that theyet al., 2015). lation—burn solid fuels, like fuelwood, charcoal, and dung, in their are up to one-third of AAP (Chafe et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2014). 21 homes for cookinglife Figure 4: Premature deaths (left) and illness (right, in disability-adjusted years and heating. Plastic(DALYs) Householdstype associated use open fires or inef- Examples with air pollution Distribution, grade (%) by risk Daily (MT) inAnnually (MT) ficient cookstoves—often in confined, poorly ventilated spaces— FIGURE . : Estimated spatial distribution of annual Ghana (Source, Ghana CEA, World Bank, 2020). that generate PM pollution. Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) (2015) 2.5 average PM concentrations in Accra for 2014 LDPE (film) Yogurt cups, carryout trays, hamburger 2.5 boxes, egg cartons, cups, cutlery, 25.31 760 277,145 (Low reported that over half of density urban polyethylene) households rural and 90 percent of electronics (MESTI, toys 2014). packaging, households use solid fuelPETfor cooking (Table 3.3). Since 2005 Ghana Food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, 23.00 690 251,850 Air pollution in the GAMA is generated by a diverse set of sources including point sources (e.g., has reduced, by over 20 percent, the (Polyethylene HDPE proportion of the population terephthalate) mineral water, shampoo using solid fuels (HEI, 2019). Clean cookstove interventions and gov- Any other plastic in consumer waste 19.19 576 210,131 industrial sites), mobile sources (e.g., vehicles), and area sources (e.g., residential cooking and ernment programs to support liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) distribu-stream (High-density polyethylene) tion have played a key role in this transition (Box 3.2). Air pollution in the GAMA is generated by a costs (after insurance) represent the equivalent PP (rigid) (Polypropylene) Bottle lids, disposable cups/cutlery 10.61 318 116,180 set agricultural, lighting, diverse open dump of sources including point burning sourcesor small-scale of twice the commercial annual earnings enterprise HAP contributes directly PSto emissions, (Polystyrene) of some Ghana’s disease burden but is also patients major source of AAP. The cooking area in many compounds does etc.). a cups, carryout trays, hamburger Yogurt boxes, egg cartons, cups, cutlery, not electronics packaging, toys 3.75 113 41,066 Origin sites), includes of air pollution mobileboth from naturally (e.g., occurring (Santos (Harmattan wind-blown Saharan withdust and sea have closed walls or windows, so often exposure PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is not technically Food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, 4.31 129 47,195 (e.g., industrial sources et al. 2020). Only patients chronic indoors. As these emissions disperse into the neighborhood, mineralthey water, shampoo salt along the coastal regions) and man-made (cook stoves and open burning of wastes, etc.). Transportation, serve as both a direct health Otherrisk through HAP and a contributor to the Any other plastic in consumer waste 13.83 415 151,439 vehicles), and area sources (e.g., residential obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) had the health risk associated with AAP. One regional estimate holds thatstream such 14% of municipal solid waste emissions contribute approximately 10 percent of AAP across western 3,000 1,095,000 burning cooking of solid and waste lighting, and commercial agricultural, openand residential dump costburning of solid biomass of treatment fully covered fuels (e.g.by wood, available TABLE . : Fuel used by households in Ghana (DHS, 2016; Van Vliet, 2016; Van Donkelaar, et al., 2016) charcoal) The lighter the color the higher the PM concentration. are among burning the main sources or small-scale of air pollution commercial in GAMA enterprise (Zhou insurance. et Location al. 2013). Additionally indirect xxii Population that uses solid fuel costs associated Population that does not use solid fuel emissions, etc.). Origin of air pollution includes with lost earnings result in very high financial Accra 1.6 million 2 million The both economic from naturally (welfare) occurring cost of air pollution (Harmattan wind- is estimated impacts at on US$2.5 many of Billion or roughly the patients and4.2% of the families Other Urban 7.4 million 5 million count blown ry’s 2017 Saharan Gross dust andDomestic sea salt along (GDP) Product the (World least ableBank toCEA, afford 2020). it. The Of this economic study found that burden, 45 Rural Average household PM2.5 concentration 11.5 million 128 µg/m3 1.3 million 45-50 µg/m3 ambient coastal air pollution regions) slightly is currently (cook and man-made less costlypercent stoves than household air pollution, of the patients but as the in the sample came government from and open burning of wastes, etc.). Transportation, the first (poorest) and second (poor) quintiles 22 moves to address HAP (see later sections on consideration of a HAP guideline) and with increased rates of 3. AIR POLLUTION burning of solid urbanization, thiswaste may not andhold commercial for long. The andcost ofofairsocioeconomic pollution in Ghana’s statustwo (Santos et al. Accra 2020).and largest cities, residential burning of solid biomass fuels (e.g. Kumasi, is estimated at $264 million/year (World Bank CEA, 2020). wood, charcoal) are among the main sources The impacts of climate change and air pollution of Financial in GAMA (Zhou et al. 2013). costs of treatment of air pollution-related deteriorating disease are air quality also high. A threaten to erode recent cross-sectional development gains and worsen the health analysis of the health care costs of treatment found that, depending on the disease, a significant fraction of The economic (welfare) cost of air pollution of Ghanaians. This calls for relevant actors to health care costs related to treatment of air pollution-related is estimated at US$2.5 Billion or roughly 4.2% illness falls to patients (Santos et al. 2020). share results and experiences of their efforts of Even those with the country’s insurance 2017 Gross (approximately Domestic Product 40% of the population) and make air still haddata quality a fraction onlymore easilyof medical costs accessible covered (e.g. 65%, 79%, 73% and (GDP) (World Bank CEA, 2020). Of this economic 84% respectively for treatment of ischemic heart and understandable to the public. This disease, lung cancer, report and pneumonia stroke ambient burden, in children). air pollution These is currently medical costs slightly (after insurance) documents recent represent efforts by the equivalent EPA Ghana,of twice the the annual earnings of some patients (Santos et al. 2020). Only patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary less costly than household air pollution, but as World Bank and several international donors the government disease (COPD) moves had the to address HAP (see cost of treatment latercovered fully and partner by organizations available to do just that insurance. Additionally through indirect costs sections on consideration of a HAP guideline) and several supportive activities. associated with lost earnings result in very high financial impacts on many of the patients and families least with increased rates of urbanization, this may not able to afford it. The study found that 45 percent of the patients in the sample came from the first (poorest) hold for long. The cost of air pollution in Ghana’s The Government of Ghana (GoG) has and second (poor) quintiles of socioeconomic status (Santos two largest cities, Accra and Kumasi, is estimated et al. 2020). made efforts to measure and address the $264 at The million/year impacts of climate(World change BankandCEA, 2020). deteriorating consequences air quality threaten of air pollution. to erode The EPAgains development has a and long history of monitoring air quality in Accra. worsen the health of Ghanaians. This calls for relevant actors to share results and experiences of their Financial costs of treatment of air pollution- EPA Ghana established an air quality monitoring and make effortsdiseases related are quality airalso high. data more easily A recent cross-accessible network andin understandable the Greater Accra to the public. This Metropolitan report Area documents sectional recentof analysis efforts by EPA the health Ghana, care costs theof World Bank and between several 1997 and international 2001, EPA Ghana donors and partner partnered organizations treatment found to do just that, that through depending several on the disease, supportivewithactivities. World Bank to monitor particulate matter a significant fraction of health care costs related less than ten microns in diameter (PM10), total to The Government treatment of Ghana (GoG)illness of air pollution-related has made falls efforts to measure suspended and addressblack particulates, the consequences carbon, sulfur of air to pollution . The EPA patients (Santos et has a long history al. 2020). of monitoring Even those with air qualityand dioxide, in Accra. EPA carbon has established monoxide. an airEPA quality In 2005, monitoring network, in the Greater insurance (approximately 40% of the population) Accra Metropolitan Area Between 1997 and Ghana partnered with the U.S. Environmental 2001, EPA Ghana still had only a fraction of medical costs covered Protection Agency (USEPA) and U.S. Agency (e.g. 65%, 79%, 73% and 84% respectively for 4 for International Deelopment (USAID) to treatment of ischemic heart disease, lung cancer, monitor PM10, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, stroke and pneumonia in children). These medical nitrogen dioxide, lead, manganese, and ozone. Official U 04 Over the next ten years, they added limited There are still areas where monitoring quality, PM2.5 samplers into the network, measuring air data analysis and data management require quality at roadside, residential, and industrial strengthened procedures. Data on air pollution sites. In 2018, EPA Ghana worked with the in Accra are not easily accessible, though it USEPA to deploy a network of low-cost has to be recognized that Accra is in a better sensors measuring PM2.5 at sites across the position compared with other African cities, city. Ghana is already implementing several because of the existence of a long tradition policies and plans to improve air quality and of measurements and analysis of air pollution reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. data (Schwela 2012). Currently, the official EPA- These efforts are targeted at ultimately making Ghana website for Accra does not report data sure that economic development takes on ambient air pollution. In addition, EPA Ghana place in a sustainable manner to ensure the needs continued support in developing technical well-being of the citizens now and in future. justifications for policy actions that can help improve air quality. These justifications must be A legal and regulatory framework to address accessible to decision makers and stakeholders air pollution exists. The main laws that govern with the authority to act on recommendations. air quality in Ghana are the Environmental However, Ghana faces continuing gaps in Protection Agency Act 1994 (Act 490), and the capacity, including national air quality monitoring Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999 (LI capabilities and governance, environmental 1652), which regulates industrial activities. Ghana health surveillance and assessment of risks published standards for Environment and Health attributable to both ambient and household Protection – Requirements for Ambient Air air pollution, and a national policy framework Quality and Point Source/Stack Emissions (GS specific to the impacts of poor air quality. 1236) in 2019, and for motor vehicle emissions (GS 1219) in 2018. In 2018 EPA Ghana launched This report is intended to summarize the the (GAMA) Air Quality Management Plan achievements of Ghana’s Pollution Management (AQMP) to address air pollution-related health and Environmental Health (PMEH) Program. impacts via policies to reduce emissions from Since the many deliverables should be viewed vehicles, electricity generating units, industrial collectively in how they achieve the overall point sources, open burning of solid waste, objectives of the PMEH program, this report neighborhood impacts of cookstoves, and has been drafted primarily for the benefit of other anthropogenic sources (Environmental communicating the impact of the PMEH project Protection Agency Ghana, 2018). The AQMP more effectively. identified areas where capacity gaps can and should be addressed to further enhance their ability to implement the monitoring plan and emissions reduction performance. The AQMP identified the need to have a more refined understanding of human exposure across GAMA and an improved appreciation for the sources contributing to this exposure. The air quality monitoring system in GAMA requires further enhancement to more effectively assess certain emissions and to provide a continuous monitor capacity that can better inform the public in “real-time” during critical air pollution episodes (or used as an early warning system). 05 2. POLLUTION MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PROGRAM To address the global challenge of pollution a strategically selected subset of initiatives that mitigation, The Pollution Management and would fill monitoring and planning gaps gaps as Environmental Health (PMEH) multi-donor well as strengthen the capacity of EPA Ghana partnership was established in 2014 to make to build upon their past practice, to sharpen links between air pollution, human health, their technical capacity and to strengthen the climate change, and growth priorities, through analytical pillars for air quality management overarching analytical work and country specific (AQM) planning. Concretely, the four objectives support. Over 5 years, the Ghana pilot aimed to of the analytical work going into Ghana’s PMEH achieve three main objectives: program1 were to: 1. Strengthen air quality management i. to enhance and improve the existing support for developing countries regulatory structure and ambient to significantly reduce air pollution monitoring network, secure new through pollution management locations and update quality planning and investment. 2. assurance project plans (QAPP) for Strengthen analytics and raise the Accra and Tema municipalities to awareness on pollution and its health include additional species – including impacts in urban, rural areas. 3. continuous and speciated PM2.5 and Promote awareness of PMEH issues black carbon; among policymakers, business ii. to develop Household Air Pollution partners, city leaders, and the general (HAP) guidelines and HAP exposure public through effective knowledge test methods; management and cooperation. iii. to increase capacity for aspects of To achieve these objectives, the PMEH supports AQM planning through training on new cooperation and knowledge exchange between measurement techniques and the low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and development and application of source currently implements technical assistance for apportionment or other modeling that air quality management and climate change leads to a full-scale AQM plan (PM mitigation in China, Egypt, Ghana, India, Nigeria, sampling and chemical composition South Africa, and Vietnam. These countries analysis and source apportionment); were chosen to pilot city or regional level air and finally quality management programs and build the iv. to establish a robust and secure system capacity of governments to expand air quality fordata management that allows for monitoring on a national level. Activities are public access to air quality and other focused on air quality management, toxic site environmental information. management, and research to assist local governments in achieving their climate targets. Activities of the PMEH in Ghana are well aligned The PMEH has enabled countries to contribute with the recently updated Ghana Systematic to improved environmental health conditions for Country Diagnostic (SCD) which recognizes air an estimated 240 million people in those cities pollution as a major development challenge over the five-year period that the AQ pilots were causing economic losses. A new Country carried out. Partnership Framework (CPF) 2020-2026 is under preparation and this project responds PMEH Ghana Pilot to the Focus Area 3: Promoting Sustainable and Resilient Development. The World Bank launched The objective of the Bank Executed Trust the latest Country Environmental Analysis Fund (BETF) PMEH pilot project in Ghana is (CEA) for Ghana that contained a specific to improve capacity to address ambient air- focus on air pollution and includes several pollution and support development of a full- recommendations that are aligned with and scale AQMP for the Greater Accra Metropolitan supported by the updated AQMP. Area (GAMA). The GAMA pilot was focused on 1 As set out in the project concept note, March 2018. 07 In July 2019, the World Bank and the EPA Ghana already underway or being supported by other completed a memorandum of understanding international partners at the time the WB ASA (MoU) which allows the World Bank’s technical was established. Unique among PMEH pilots, contractor to lead a consortium of local and the GAMA pilot is conducted in collaboration international organizations and experts to with several other development partners who address the Air Quality Management (AQM) have and continue to support EPA Ghana in their component of the PMEH program. The MoU AQM planning efforts. This report highlights AQM also outlined how the contractor would improve planning achievements that resulted directly EPA Ghana’s technical and institutional capacity from the PMEH-funded activities, but also to address air pollution issues by collaborating features several AQM planning advances that in the collection of air quality information occurred through coordination and participation for GAMA and the conformation of the air of other international partners working toward a quality monitoring system to international best common objective of advancing AQM planning practices. for GAMA. While the PMEH program had a mandate to This report provides a synthesis of the key establish a “full-scale” air quality management project outputs and outcomes of the PMEH plan for each city that consisted of a list of core Advisory Services and Analytics (ASA) in GAMA, components of air quality management (AQM) before briefly exploring recommendations and planning, such as monitoring, inventory, health initiatives that could potentially serve as a basis impact assessment, source apportionment, for continued collaboration with the WBG or stakeholder engagement, policy design and other international partners. implementation, many of these elements were 08 3. PROGRAM OUTPUTS AND OUTCOMES As a result of this report and the support of the events in contributing to poor air quality. EPA PMEH multi-donor trust fund, AQM planning Ghana has not mastered source apportionment in GAMA has advanced significantly. The but has advanced in their capacity to analyze following sections walk through the outputs additional constituents of fine particulate matter and corresponding outcomes across a variety and to use PMF receptor model software so that of areas that have strengthened AQM planning as they continue to collect and analyze additional capacity at EPA Ghana and within other partner samples, they will be able to conduct ongoing institutions working with EPA Ghana to reduce source apportionment and better understand air pollution in Accra and other cities and towns the sources contributing to air pollution now and of Ghana. be able to identify any changes in the future. Enhanced Capacity Enhanced Understanding of Spatial and Temporal Outputs: Through a technical support contract, Patterns of Air Pollution Through Continuous AQ a program of training and capacity building Monitoring provided a range of training for EPA Ghana staff on AQ monitoring procedures and protocols Outputs: EPA Ghana has worked with the World related to: Bank and local academics from the University of Gravimetric PM2.5 sampling and Ghana to install two new continuous monitoring analysis, sites, measuring PM2.5, PM10, black carbon, and Continuous PM2.5, Black Carbon (BC) meteorological variables. These sites are located and meteorological measurement, at University of Ghana in East Legon and at St. Laboratory analysis of metals by Joseph’s School in Adabraka and were chosen Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy based on EPA Ghana’s monitoring objectives and (AAS), ions by Ion Chromatography (IC) the ability to collect representative air quality and organics by Gas Chromatography samples at the appropriate spatial scale (Figure with Mass Spectrometry (GCMS), 5). Table 2 provides a detailed description of the Receptor modeling using Positive equipment installed at each continuous site. Matrix Factorization (PMF) statistical software, and Improved Knowledge of Health and Economic Data management, including validation Impacts of Air Pollution in GAMA PMEH in collaboration with EPA Ghana organized This training had initially been planned as a a dissemination workshop on Air Quality series of live in-person workshops and trainings Management in Ghana. The event brought using mostly international expert training; but together government officials, academia, was modified due to the COVID -19 pandemic researchers, NGOs, CSOs and the media to restrictions on travel to utilize on-the-ground discuss the growing problem of air pollution in expertise based at the University of Ghana, Ghana and how the World Bank is supporting combined with virtual implementation of Ghana in Tackling Air Pollution. The workshop video and zoom instruction to achieve project enhanced the knowledge of NGOS, CSOs and objectives in a timely manner. media to carrying out environmental campaigns, advocacy and awareness raising activities. One of Outcomes: EPA Ghana now has an enhanced the key outcomes of the workshop is the initiative understanding of the importance of rigorous to establish a coalition of researchers, NGOs, attention to standard operating procedures CSOs and the media platform on Environmental and quality assurance protocols necessary for and Air Quality in Ghana. high quality gravimetric analysis. They have improved understanding of the temporal and spatial patterns of air pollution across GAMA and the role of various emission sources and natural 10 Location Figure 5:5: Figure of continuous Location monitoring of continuous sites. Source: monitoring Greater sites. Accra Metropolitan Source: World Bank Areas Air Quality Management Plan, 2018. 2021. Table 2: Instrumentation installed at University of Ghana and Adabraka. Air Quality Dataset Supplies Justification Highly regarded as the next-generation of regulatory monitoring for PM2.5. Certified as a Federal Equivalence Method (FEM)- for PM2.5 (while also providing non-FEM PM2.5, PM10, and Teledyne API T640 PM10 and PM10-2.5 measurements), the T640 provides high PM10-2.5 accuracy and reliability with limited maintenance compared to alternative analyzers. STI, with US EPA, developed an SOP for this instrument. 11 Black Carbon Magee Scientific While there isn’t a FRM or FEM designation for BC (BC) AE33 instruments, as the US EPA does not regulate BC as a criteria pollutant, the AE33 is trusted by research and Figure 5: Location of continuous monitoring sites. Source: World Bank 2021. Table 2: Instrumentation installed at University of Ghana and Adabraka. Air Quality Air Quality Supplies Justification Dataset Dataset Supplies Justification regarded as Highly regarded Highly as the next-generation of the next-generation of regulatory regulatory monitoring for monitoring PM2.5 for PM . .Certified 2.5 Certifiedas as aa Federal Federal Equivalence Equivalence PM2.5, PM10, and Teledyne API T640 (FEM)- for PM2.5 Method (FEM)- also providing (while also providingnon-FEM 2.5 (while non-FEM PM PM2.5 , PM10, and PM and PM measurements), the T640 provides 10-2.5 Teledyne API T640 PM10 10 and PM 10-2.5 measurements), the T640 provides high PM10-2.5 10-2.5 high accuracy and reliability with limited accuracy and reliability with limited maintenance maintenance compared to alternative analyzers. STI, with the USEPA, compared to alternative analyzers. STI, with US EPA, developed an SOP for this instrument. developed an SOP for this instrument. Black Carbon Magee Black Carbon Magee Scientific there isn’t While there Scientific While FRM or a FRM isn’t an or FEM FEM designation for BC designation for BC (BC) (BC) AE33 AE33 instruments, as the US EPA does not regulate BC as a instruments, as the USEPA does not regulate BC as a criteria pollutant, the AE33 is trusted by research criteria pollutant, the AE33 is trusted by research and and regulatory groups alike when accurate and long-term BC measurements are needed. 9 A robust, widely-adopted, accurate, and field calibratable anemometer, the RM Young 5305V meets Wind speed and R. M. Young 5305V or exceeds both the USEPA and World Meteorological Official Use wind direction Organization (WMO) specifications for wind speed and wind direction measurements. The R.M. Young 41382VC is a high accuracy temperature Temperature and R. M. Young and relative humidity probe that meets or exceeds both relative humidity 41382VC the USEPA and WMO specifications for temperature and relative humidity measurements. In addition to the deployment of the two (two), and EPA Ghana (two). The sensors continuous monitors and three gravimetric relocated to Chorkor originated from East samplers, EPA Ghana has worked with the U.S. Legon (two). Figure 6 shows the locations of the Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to eighteen air quality sensors in Accra pre- and build upon Accra’s existing air monitoring system post-relocation. Sensor locations are classified and deploy a series of low-cost sensors.2 These by whether they were in the Jamestown or efforts included relocating eight active sensors Chorkor neighborhoods, or whether they were to the neighborhoods of Jamestown (six) and ‘Elsewhere’ within Greater Accra. Chorkor (two) to better understand air quality throughout the Neighborhood Pilot intervention project (implemented by E360 in 2019). The sensors relocated to Jamestown originated from Dansoman (two), North Industrial Area 2 The low-cost sensors utilized were Clarity Node sensors which measure pollutant levels via a Laser Particle Counter (LPC). Air quali- ty measurements were recorded by the Clarity sensors every minute, in what is considered near real-time, and hourly and daily PM2.5 concentrations were estimated as the average of the minute-by-minute data 12 Figure6: Figure 6:EPA EPAGhana Ghana air air quality monitoring network quality monitoring network in Greater Accra; Source. Source: World Bank 2021. Source: Greater Accra Metropolitan Areas Air Quality Management Plan, 2018. Air quality monitoring was carried out from July 2018 through February 2020. A gap in data availability for relocated Clarity sensors exists for the timeframe during which they were relocated, April 28th to May Air 2019. monitoring quality 3rd, A total of 18was carried sensors out from collected data during2021. Their period, the study co-location during seven more 2021 than provided in 2015. July 2018 through February 2020. A gap in data an opportunity to back-calibrate the Additionally, six of the 2015 sites are no longer active: South Industrial Area, Labadi T-Junction, Mallam2018-2020 availability for relocated Clarity sensors exists Junction, Graphic Communication Group Co., Weija, and sensor data Kasoa. The to improve estimated estimates annual averagesacross the city. from 2018 for the timeframe during which they were – 2020 vary between 16 and 118 ug/m3 by year and by site, but generally consistent with the values in relocated, April 28th to May 3rd, 2019. A total of 18 Separately from EPA Ghana’s monitoring efforts, Table 1. While the low-cost sensor data from this time period has not been calibrated against a reference sensors collected data during the study period, a continuous PM2.5 monitor was installed at the grade monitor, several of the sensors continue to operate and appear to show results generally consistent seven more than in 2015. Additionally, six of the US Embassy in Accra and began recording hourly with the three FEM monitors in GAMA 2015 sites are no longer active: South Industrial during 2021. Their co-location during 2021 provided an PM2.5 concentrations on January 30th, 2020. The opportunity Area, Labadi to back-calibrate T-Junction, the 2018-2020 Mallam sensor data to Junction, USimprove estimates Embassy data across the city. automatically to is uploaded Graphic Communication Separately from EPA Ghana’sGroup Co., Weija, monitoring and a continuous efforts, AirNow, PM online an 2.5 international monitor was installed atquality air the US data Kasoa. The estimated annual averages from management system. Embassy in Accra and began recording hourly PM2.53 concentrations on January 30 , 2020. The US Embassy th 3 We will be able to use 2018 – 2020 vary between 16 and 118 ug/m this data in combination with the newly data is uploaded automatically to AirNow, an online international air quality data management system. We 3installed year bywill be and by able to site, use data generally this but consistent in combination continuous with the newly data todata installed continuous better understand to better understand the with the values in Table 1. While the low-cost distribution of air pollution within Accra and as the distribution of air pollution within Accra and as part of a QA/QC check of the 2020 gravimetric sensor data from this time period has not been part of a QA/QC check of the 2020 gravimetric calibrated against a reference grade monitor, measurements. Figure 7 shows the location several 3 of the sensors continue to operate and of the US Embassy monitor in relation to EPA https://www.airnow.gov/international/us-embassies-and-consulates/#Ghana$Accra appear to show results generally consistent Ghana’s T640 monitors. with the three FEM monitors in GAMA during11 Official Use https:/ 3 /www.airnow.gov/international/us-embassies-and-consulates/#Ghana$Accra 13 measurements. Figure 7 shows the location of the US Embassy monitor in relation monitors. Figure 7: US Embassy and EPA Ghana continuous monitor location. Source: Greater Figure 7: US Accra Metropolitan Embassy and Areas EPA Quality Management Air Ghana Plan, 2018. continuous monitor location. Source: World Bank 2021. While this section outlines a plethora of continuous monitoring that has occurred ov that Whilehasthisbeen summarized section outlines a and assessed plethora of Outcomes: in a separate data report (See Annex A), the p continuous monitoring that has occurred Figure 8 shows the hourly, daily and seasonal in overaligning the past the timelines three for this monitoring years; (summarized and given variation in delays PM in procurement, concentrations 2.5 shipping an at the lockdowns as a result of the COVID January assessed in a separate data report (See Annex A), the project faced challenges in aligning pandemic. Despite the fact that not all mo Adabraka and University of Ghana sites for through June 2021 and at the US simultaneously, the abundance the timelines for this monitoring, of data given delays fromsite Embassy continuous monitoring for January 2020 has provid – June 2021. in procurement, shipping and finally due to These data provides an obvious enhancement several lockdowns of understanding as the temporal a result and spatial of the COVID patterns to the temporalof air pollutionof understanding across GAMA as pollution 19 pandemic. Despite the fact that not all episodes over the 6-day, 24-hour integrated Outcomes: monitoring has occurred simultaneously, the sampling that EPA Ghana had utilized prior to abundance of data from continuous monitoring the project. In addition, the ability to calibrate has provided a vastly improved understanding and utilize low-cost sensors, as illustrated in Figure 8 shows of the temporal and the hourly, spatial daily patterns of airandthe seasonal variation introduction, in PMthe vastly improves 2.5 concentrations spatial University of Ghana site for January through June 2021 and at the US Embassy s pollution across GAMA as shown below. understanding of where pollution is greatest and where communities are most exposed. June 2021. These data provide an obvious enhancement to the temporal understandin over the every 6-day 24-hour integrated sampling that EPA Ghana had utilized p addition, the ability to calibrate and utilize low-cost sensors, as illustrated 14 in th improves the spatial understanding of where pollution is greatest and where commun A B Figure 8. Hourly, daily and seasonal variability in PM2.5 continuous monitor concentrations. Source: World Bank 2021. Table 3 presents the monthly average PM2.5 concentrations across the three monitor locations for the overlapping Figure months 8. Hourly, daily and seasonal variability in PM2.5 continuous monitor concentrations. Source: World Bank 2021. of available data. Overall, it appears that the US Embassy monitor records lower PM2.5 concentrations. Table However, Table 3 presents presents 3the thisthe monthly may reflect that monthly average PM the US average PM Embassy measuresacross are available 2.5 concentrations However, concentrations. the three this hourly at may monitor intervals locations for the reflect while the EPA Ghana overlapping concentrations acrossmeasures months the ofthree for the same available months monitor 2.5 are data. Overall, available it appears that the USat minute-by-minute that the US Embassy Embassy intervals. monitor records measurements are lower PM2.5 locations forconcentrations. However, this may reflect that the US Embassy measures are available at hourly intervals the overlapping months of available at hourly intervals while the EPA the EPA Ghana whileOverall, available data. measures it appears thatfor the monthsmeasurements the sameGhana are available at minute-by-minute for the same months intervals. Table Embassy US monitor 3: 2021 Monthly records Average PM lower across 2.5 concentrations PM2.5 are available 3 continuous at minute-by-minute monitoring sites in Accra intervals. Average Table 3: 2021 Monthly Average PM PM2.5 (µg/m3) 2.5 concentrations across 3 continuous monitoring sites in Accra EPA Ghana: EPA Ghana: AveragePM Average 2.5 (µg/m3) PM2.5 (µg/m3) Month University of Ghana Adabraka US Embassy January 2021 56.9 EPA Ghana: EPA Ghana: 62.2EPA Ghana: 41.5 EPA Ghana: Month February 21 Month University University 39.4 of of Ghana Ghana 46.1 Adabraka Adabraka US Embassy US 32.0 Embassy March 21 January2021 January 2021 56.9 31.7 56.939.8 62.262.2 28.1 41.5 41.5 April 21 February21 February 21 39.4 27.1 39.434.1 46.146.1 24.7 32.0 32.0 May 21 March21 March 21 31.7 13.7 31.723.7 39.839.8 11.2 28.1 28.1 2021 YTD April21 April 21 Average 27.1 32.9 27.140.4 34.1 34.1 29.0 24.7 24.7 May 21 May 21 13.7 13.7 23.723.7 11.2 11.2 2021 2021 YTD YTD Average Average 32.9 32.9 40.440.4 29.0 29.0 13 13 Note: The two EPA Ghana monthly averages were calculated from minute-by-minute measures Official Use while the US Embassy monthly average was calculated from hourly measures. Offi 15 AQ Monitoring Quality Improvements the filters collected for each filter-type from each of the three mini-vols at a targeted site Outputs: EPA Ghana has established a Quality can be used to analyze both the equipment Assurance Project Plan (QAPP) consistent with and the analytical laboratory process. Quartz data quality objectives (DQOs) established by filters continue to be sent to the University of EPA Ghana. Standard operating procedures Colorado Boulder for organics audit; while the and training consistent with those objectives Teflon filters continue to be sent to the audit and audits have been performed to ensure lab at the University of Denver for metals audit. that DQOs are being met. In addition, a data management system has been put in place Outcomes: New measurement methods have with validation procedures that enable staff to been employed and analysis has occurred that quickly identify and correct problems before has identified several potential quality issues significant data loss occurs and to ensure that need to be addressed in order to meet the routine collection of high-quality data. the established DQOs. As shown in Figure 9, new continuous methods of measurement For quality control purposes, four additional and low-cost sensors show significantly lower mini-vol gravimetric samplers were deployed ambient concentrations relative to gravimetric and rotated between each of the three measurements (particularly on Quartz filters). A targeted PM2.5 gravimetric sampling sites every review of existing operational procedures - to four weeks. Two of the additional samplers be addressed through strict adherence to new are equipped with quartz filters held in URG SOPs and QA protocols - is critical to identifying Corporation PM2.5 impactors and run at 2.0 the reason for any discrepancy and achieving lpm. The other two samplers are equipped DQOs established for these measurements. with URG Corporation PM2.5 cyclone inlets to EPA Ghana is committed to understanding sample with Teflon filters at 5.0 lpm. Due to the these issues and conducting studies to resolve fact that the four additional mini-vol samplers and eliminate operational issues that contribute are different models compared withthe mini- to systematic biases between methods and vols that were deployed as part of this project, improve overall accuracy to achieve DQOs. Figure 9. Monthly average PM2.5 concentrations by station type for Accra network. Source: World Bank 2021. The data for the continuous monitors maintained by EPA Ghana can be accessed through the Konect system 12 online (Exhibit 6.1). You must have a Konect account authorized by EPA Ghana to access these data. 16 With PMEH support, EPA Ghana has established a cloud-based Campbell Konect data management system The data for the continuous monitors maintained graphs, and charts or can be downloaded by EPA Ghana can be accessed through the for external analysis. The Konect system also Konect system online (Exhibit 6.1). 12You must allows the user to set up and manage alerts have a Konect account authorized by EPA triggered by outlying data, quality assurance Ghana to access this data. checks, or validation requirements. Figure 10 shows an example query. A detailed Standard With PMEH support, EPA Ghana has established Operating Procedure (SOP) document has been a cloud-based Campbell Konect data developed with detailed instructions on how to management system to upload, store and query perform a query, with an expanded description the continuous equipment for measures of BC, of query options. PM2.5, PM10, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, and temperature across the Adabraka This system will also support the real- and University of Ghana locations at varying time production of an online AQI for public time steps and temporal scales. These queries dissemination of air pollution levels for all can be viewed directly on the site as tables, continuous data after validation and authorized release. Figure 10. Screen view of Campbell Konect data management system for review and validation of continuous air quality data. This figure shows an example of Adabraka PM concentrations as tables, graphs and AQI’s along with corresponding meteorological measurements. Source: World Bank 2021. Understanding key sources of air pollution through source apportionment Outputs: EPA Ghana, with World Bank PMEH support, has pursued a number of actions to improve their understanding of which sources contribute to air pollution quantitatively. EPA Ghana maintains a laboratory with gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer (GC-MS), ion chromatograph (IC), and atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). These analytical devices require consistent tending, maintenance, and consumable supplies, including access to gases like Helium to consistently keep the GC-MS in vacuum for optimal function. Due to funding and access constraints and having received these devices secondhand, EPA Ghana has struggled to keep consumables in stock and therefore have struggled to keep the equipment functioning in a way that would facilitate quick and efficient analysis of gravimetric samples. As part of our ongoing capacity building with EPA Ghana and its laboratory team, some of the previously non-functional analytical devices critical for processing atmospheric samples have been brought online in the EPA Ghana laboratory and are anticipated to facilitate source apportionment analyses on past, current, and future gravimetric datasets. At the time of this report draft, we are presenting the partial speciation results of sampling efforts performed in 2019. These results include measures for: 17 • Elemental Carbon (EC) and Organic Carbon (OC) fractions using a Sunset Analyzer; • Trace organic species using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) Understanding Key Sources of Air Pollution In terms of sample collections, 71 24-hour quartz Through Source Apportionment Analysis fiber filter samples were collected between January 26 and May 26, 2019 at five roadside Outputs: EPA Ghana, with World Bank PMEH monitoring sites in greater Accra (Figure 11). EPA support, has pursued a number of actions to Ghana and CU Boulder analyzed these samples improve their understanding of which sources for organic carbon, elemental carbon (similar to contribute to air pollution quantitatively. EPA black carbon) and several organic markers by Ghana maintains a laboratory with a gas GC-MS. We measured average concentrations chromatograph/mass spectrometer (GC-MS), of PM2.5 across the five sites to be 74.4 μg/m3. ion chromatograph (IC), and atomic absorption Figure 12 shows individual site concentrations spectrometer (AAS). These analytical devices and compositions. The average OC and EC require consistent tending, maintenance, and concentrations across all sites were 15.4 μg/m3 consumable supplies, including access to gases (21%) and 8.3 μg/m3 (11%), respectively. Although like Helium to consistently keep the GC-MS in non-carbonaceous matter composes a majority vacuum for optimal function. Due to funding of the PM2.5 mass at all sites, we observe that and access constraints and having received the sampling sites in Kaneshi, Tetteh Quarshie, these devices secondhand, EPA Ghana has and Mallam Junction experience elevated EC struggled to keep consumables in stock and concentrations compared to the sites in Tantra therefore have struggled to keep the equipment Hill and Amasaman. functioning in a way that would facilitate quick and efficient analysis of gravimetric samples. As part of our ongoing capacity building with EPA Ghana and its laboratory team, some of the previously non-functional analytical devices critical for processing atmospheric samples have been brought online in the EPA Ghana laboratory and are anticipated to facilitate source apportionment analyses on past, current, and future gravimetric datasets. At the time of this report draft, we are presenting the partial speciation results of sampling efforts performed in 2019. These results include measures for: ●Elemental Carbon (EC) and Organic Carbon (OC) fractions using a Sunset Analyzer; ●Trace organic species using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) quantification methods; and ●46 emissions source molecular markers using the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) tool. The 2019 analytic results include only organic species as measured on quartz filters from gravimetric samplers using GC-MS at the University of Colorado Boulder (CU Boulder). The 2019 results do not include an analysis of the inorganic ions and target metals contributions. While we did not attain complete analysis and understanding of other mass sub-fractions of the PM2.5, the carbonaceous and organics analysis still provides valuable groundwork and proof of concept for future source apportionment efforts from within EPA Ghana’s air monitoring division. 18 Figure 11. 2019 Roadside source apportionment sampling sites in Accra (Stars denote site locations) . Source: World Bank 2021. Figure 12. 2019 PM2.5 concentrations and fractional composition by site at five roadside sites. Source: World Bank 2021.. From the extractable fraction of OC, CU Boulder was able to quantify the mass concentrations of 46 molecular markers for use in the apportionment of specific sources contributing to the carbonaceous 19 fraction of roadside PM2.5. Target compounds were selected for monitoring and estimating emission activity from vehicle activity, wood combustion, biogenic emissions, and various types of potential open- burning From the extractable fraction of OC, CU Boulder source profiles that can reliably explain their was able to quantify the mass concentrations concentrations across the samples. A final six- of 46 molecular markers for use in the factor solution was selected that represented apportionment of specific sources contributing the best statistical fit while also based on known to the carbonaceous fraction of roadside PM2.5. emission sources surrounding the sampling Target compounds were selected for monitoring sites. That solution identified wood combustion, and estimating emission activity from vehicle plastic waste burning, two separate vehicle activity, wood combustion, biogenic emissions, profiles, an unidentified but strong source of and various types of potential open- burning Bisphenol-A (BPA), and a factor that contained of waste. CU Boulder used the EPA’s PMF 5.0 potential signatures from meat cooking and tool (Norris et al. 2014) which mathematically smoldering waste (Mixed Sources). Figure 13 identifies correlation between the molecular shows the resulting factor median contributions tracers within the dataset and creates to OC and EC at each of the five sites. Figure 13. Potential source contributions to carbonaceous fraction of PM2.5 at roadside sites in Accra, Ghana in 2019. Source: World Bank 2021. 20 In addition, three new gravimetric PM2.5 samplers PM10) that EPA Ghana has been collecting were deployed at the Adabraka, University since 2005, these samples will be analyzed via of Ghana, and Dansoman sites (Figure 14) to chemical speciation to determine emissions collect filter samples necessary for source sources related to ambient PM2.5 concentrations. apportionment analyses at these non-roadside sites. EPA Ghana deployed one ARA N-FRM mini- To date, CU Boulder has received and vol (16.7 liters per minute flow rate) gravimetric analyzed 36 24-hour quartz fiber filters for integrated samplers and one Airmetrics MiniVol the carbonaceous fraction of PM2.5. The filters (5.0 liter per minute flow rate) gravimetric analyzed were collected between August 7, integrated samplers at each site to collect PM2.5 2020 and May 16, 2021 from the three non- on both Teflon and quartz filters. These samplers roadside monitoring sites, two of which are collect a 24-hour sample every six days and located alongside a Federal Reference Monitor continue to be collected, stored, and analyzed (FRM) shown in Figure 14. At the time of this in the laboratory at EPA Ghana to identify report, we present the EC and OC concentrations metallic, organic, and ionic species collected.4 from these samples. In conjunction with gravimetric samples (mostly Figure 14. 2020 non-roadside source apportionment sampling sites. The St. Joseph’s School site is also referred to as Adabraka, the neighborhood in which it is located. Source: World Bank 2021. Average concentrations of the 2020 collected PM2.5 across the three sites is 120.1 μg/m3, individual site concentrations 4 and bulk Metallic species quantified maycompositions are include: Al, Si, P, plotted S, Cl, inV,Figure K, Ca, Ti, 15.Ni, The Cr, Mn, Fe, average Cu, Zn, OC Br, Rb, Sr, Zr,and EC As, Mo andconcentrations Pb. Ionic species across all quantified sites will areNO include: 5.8 3 −, μg/m SO4 2 3 −, (4.8%) Cl−, Na+, and NH 4 +, 1.2 and μg/m K+. 3 Organic(1.0%) speciesrespectively. categories will Note that include: four Alkanes, samples Alkanoic (two acids, at PAHs, Adabraka Hopanes, and two at University Methoxyphenols, of Ghana) and plastic burning tracers are excluded from these calculations as they are missing the total PM2.5 mass concentrations. As with the 2019 results, the non-carbonaceous matter composes a majority of the PM2.5 mass at all sites. While Dansoman and University of Ghana present comparable OC (0.53 21 μg/m3 and 0.67 μg/m3, respectively) and EC (4.8 μg/m3 and 4.2 μg/m3, respectively) concentrations, Adabraka displays elevated OC concentrations (11 μg/m3) and EC (3.3 μg/m3). Average concentrations of the 2020 collected μg/m3) Average concentrations of the 2020 PM2.5 across the three sites is 120.1 μg/ collected PM2.5 across the three sites is 120.1 m3, individual site concentrations and bulk μg/m3, individual site concentrations and bulk compositions are plotted in Figure 15. The compositions are plotted in Figure 15. The average OC and EC concentrations across all average OC and EC concentrations across all sites are 5.8 μg/m3 (4.8%) and 1.2 μg/m3 (1.0%) sites are 5.8 μg/m3 (4.8%) and 1.2 μg/m3 (1.0%) respectively. Note that four samples (two at respectively. Note that four samples (two at Adabraka and two at University of Ghana) are Adabraka and two at University of Ghana) are excluded from these calculations as they are excluded from these calculations as they are missing the total PM2.5 mass concentrations. missing the total PM2.5 mass concentrations. As As with the 2019 roadside results, the non- with the 2019 results, the non-carbonaceous carbonaceous matter composes a majority matter composes a majority of the PM2.5 mass of the PM2.5 mass at all sites. While Dansoman at all sites. While Dansoman and University of and University of Ghana present comparable Ghana present comparable OC (0.53 μg/m3 OC (0.53 μg/m3 and 0.67 μg/m3, respectively) and 0.67 μg/m3, respectively) and EC (4.8 μg/ and EC (4.8 μg/m3 and 4.2 μg/m3, respectively) m3 and 4.2 μg/m3, respectively) concentrations, concentrations, Adabraka displays elevated Adabraka displays elevated OC concentrations OC concentrations (11 μg/m3) and EC (3.3 (11 μg/m3) and EC (3.3 μg/m3). Figure 15. 2020 PM2.5 concentrations and fractional composition by site at three non-roadside sites. Source: World Bank 2021. The elevated EC and OC concentrations observed at Adabraka likely reflect increased traffic in the area, as well as increased e-waste and refuse burning, compared to the sites further from Accra’s city center at Dansoman and University of Ghana. The lighter traffic density experienced at the University of Ghana and Dansoman sites, which reduces the influence of vehicle emissions, is also reflected by the higher OC to EC ratios (6.7 and 8.5) than is seen in Adabraka (3.7). As with the Tantra Hill and Amasaman sites in 2019 the higher ratios of OC to EC at Dansoman and University of Ghana are likely caused by mixing and transport of OC from secondary formation and from other combustion sources with varying ratios of primary OC and EC emissions. Outcomes: Source apportionment analyses for samples collected from roadside sites in 2019 indicate the 22 majority of PM10 concentrations are derived from standard petrol combustion and diesel vehicle combustion. The fraction of EC at each site is related to primary elemental particles from combustion while The elevated EC and OC concentrations make the assumption that emission sources observed at Adabraka likely reflect increased contributing to the organic fraction of PM traffic in the area, as well as increased e-waste did not deviate too greatly between the two and refuse burning, compared to the sites time periods, and that source apportionment further from Accra’s city center at Dansoman analysis can still provide meaningful insights and University of Ghana. The lighter traffic into common, non-seasonal, emitters in Accra. density experienced at the University of Ghana We obtained a five factor PMF solution using and Dansoman sites, which reduces the the complete dataset of speciated organic influence of vehicle emissions, is also reflected tracers. Chemical profiles were resolved and by the higher OC to EC ratios (6.7 and 8.5) than are shown in Figure 16. Because a majority is seen in Adabraka (3.7). As with the Tantra Hill of the dataset fed into the PMF analysis was and Amasaman sites in 2019 the higher ratios of from the roadside filter collection network, the OC to EC at Dansoman and University of Ghana profiles from this analysis are similar to those are likely caused by mixing and transport of from the PMF analysis of the roadside filters. No OC from secondary formation and from other substantial changes to the resolved profiles are combustion sources with varying ratios of noted due to the addition of filter samples from primary OC and EC emissions. Adabraka, University of Ghana, and Dansoman. The only substantial change in the analysis was Because larger datasets provide great the presence of a stronger correlation between robustness for PMF analysis, we combined BPA and the vehicle and plastic burning tracers the quantified results from samples collected in the 2020 filters, resulting in a stronger fit of the during this project with those quantified five factor solution where BPA did not emerge from EPA Ghana’s roadside filter collection as an independent source. network. The samples quantified from the two filter collection networks span different, non-overlapping sampling periods. We thus Figure 16. Source contributions to organic carbon (left) and elemental carbon (right) across the eight filter collection sites in Accra. Source: World Bank 2021. 23 Outcomes: Source apportionment analyses for shown to cause the same harmful health effects samples collected from roadside sites in 2019 as AAP including cardiovascular, and respiratory indicate the majority of PM2.5 concentrations diseases and premature death. With HAP being are derived from standard petrol combustion responsible for over 11,000 premature deaths and diesel vehicle combustion. The fraction of in Ghana alone, it is imperative that policy and EC at each site is related to primary elemental decision-makers consider a course of action particles from combustion while the fraction that will promote adoption and sustained of OC at each site is related to secondary implementation of cleaner fuels and more formation of organic particles. Mallam Junction energy efficient technology within homes (GBD/ experiences a larger fraction of particles due State of Global Air 2020). These health effects to waste burning than the other sites, as this cost 2.3 percent of Ghanaian gross domestic monitor is located approximately 100 meters product (GDP) yearly – or the equivalent of $1.4 upwind of a major dump site. billion U.S. dollars (CEA, World Bank 2020). As part of PMEH support, a review was carried out Preliminary source apportionment analyses on clean cooking intervention implementation of filters collected at the Adabraka, UG, and factors and limitations in transitioning from Dansoman sites in 2020/2021 find that the ratio traditional to cleaner energy technologies in of elemental carbon (EC, which is similar to support of reducing HAP exposures in Accra. “black carbon” or BC) to organic carbon (OC) is The review assesses current knowledge and highest at the Adabraka site and lower at the UG provides perspective on setting effective HAP and Dansoman sites, indicating more primary guidelines in the local Accra context. Based on emissions near Adabraka than the other non- the review of current peer-reviewed literature city center sites. on HAP, a recommendation that EPA Ghana consider setting an initial HAP guideline for Accra A combined analysis of all sites between 2019 to promote improved ambient and household and 2021 shows that though individual days air quality has been included within the AQMP showed specific profiles contributing larger mid-term review recommendations. fractions to the overall OC and EC, on average no singular emission source was identified as The Kintampo Health Research Centre and a major contributor at these sites. Adabraka, Ghana Health Service, in collaboration with which in general has higher measured Researchers at Columbia World Projects, concentrations of carbonaceous PM, showed Columbia University, and the University of the greatest contribution to OC and EC from California (USA) conducted The Ghana Energy the mixed sources profile, while University of Use Survey in all 16 regions of Ghana between Ghana and Dansoman both showed greatest 19 February and 27 March, 2021. The survey contribution from wood burning. With the instrument was designed to capture pertinent exception of Kaneshie, Tetteh Quarshie, and household demographics and important Mallam Junction, the sites in this network are determinants of cooking fuel usage, as observed located away from any dominating pollution in previous studies in Ghana and around the source, and represent a potential assessment world. Key areas of focus included cooking of the background carbonaceous PM in Accra. fuels and technologies, energy costs, and However, the non-carbonaceous fraction that energy needs. We also investigated household cannot be analyzed as part of EC/OC make up knowledge and perceptions about cooking, the majority of particles at each of these sites. health, and new cooking technologies. These Ongoing analysis of metals and ions will help data will help inform the efforts to promote identify the origin of the non-carbonaceous fine a sustainable, equitable transition to clean particulate. household energy in Ghana. EPA Ghana continues to collect source The WHO Urban Health Initiative (UHI) also apportionment samples and has enhanced developed an integrated framework to enable capacity to assess all components of PM2.5 local policymakers to evaluate and identify and perform receptor modeling on the results evidence-based strategies to reduce the moving forward. burden of air pollution. Based on the results of WHO UHI training workshops on using available Household Air Pollution tools at that workshop conducted by the Household Energy Group in Ghana 3–6 July and Outputs: A key contributing factor to AAP in Accra 13–16 August 2018, the UHI team developed a is household air pollution (HAP), which has been report providing an evidence-based framework 24 to compare the impacts of different urban Improved Stakeholder Engagement on AQ policies on health and provide an assessment Management of whether current efforts are likely to achieve policy goals over the next 10 years. Outputs: Both before and after the August 2018 launch of the AQMP, many local and Outcomes: Based on the range of new data international stakeholders became involved in and analytics available on residential energy air quality management work in Accra. Industrial use and the implications of reducing solid Economics, Inc., has provided support to the biomass combustion in homes, EPA Ghana USEPA and World Bank for their engagements is set to evaluate the magnitude of impact of with EPA Ghana to first draft the AQMP and to interventions, perform a risk bias evaluation and install new air quality monitors to expand EPA assess the certainty of evidence used in the Ghana’s air quality monitoring network. Since proposed new guideline, which has been based the time of the AQMP launch, the World Bank on an improved local database and knowledge has hosted quarterly calls with organizations of HAP impacts and costs relative to what was involved in local air quality management. The available prior to the PMEH program. purpose of these calls was to share the work that each institute has been engaged in to allow Improved Knowledge of Health and Economic for collaboration and to reduce redundancy of Impacts of Air Pollution in GAMA efforts, acknowledging the resources required by local government staff to manage projects with Ouputs: As part of the routine review of external groups. These stakeholder meetings environmental issues that the World Bank have included project team members from the undertakes with all client countries, the 2020 USEPA, World Bank, World Health Organization, Ghana Country Environmental Analysis (Ghana ICLEI, UN Habitat, UN Environment, Columbia CEA, World Bank 2020) included a specific University, University of Colorado Boulder, chapter on air pollution during this cycle. This Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), University work included a baseline assessment of air of Cape Coast, University of Ghana, Sonoma quality and the mortality and morbidity burden Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, of air pollution in both urban and rural settings University of Massachusetts, C40 Cities, Climate across the country. This project thus enabled and Clean Air Coalition, Environment 360, and a Cost of Environmental Degradation analysis the U.S. Embassy in Accra. that quantifies and monetizes the impact of air pollution on the population. The report also Outcomes: Coordinated air quality improvement included a review of the role that household efforts within the city include: air pollution plays in contributing to ambient ●Climate and Clean Air Coalition/WHO’s air pollution in both urban and rural settings Urban Health Initiative, working with and illustrated the distributional impacts of EPA Ghana and the Accra Metropolitan air pollution, which is often at its worst in the Authority to understand the impact of poorest neighborhoods. Finally, a review of the air pollution on the local community’s air pollution governance framework highlighted health; both opportunities as well as gaps and ●Environment 360’s open burning challenges for the government in addressing air intervention in Jamestown, working pollution nationally. to provide education to the local community to reduce open burning of Outcomes: The recommendations from the CEA waste; are provided below in Chapter 4 and serve as a ●USEPA, Carnegie Mellon, and Columbia key input for the GAMA AQMP mid-term review. University’s deployment of a low-cost These recommendations are broken down by sensor network; timeframe and have been incorporated into ●University of Massachusetts Amherst’s recommendations for the AQMP implementation air quality measurement project, matrix that will guide AQM planning in GAMA which has collected continuous over the next two and half years until the next measurements of PM2.5, NOx, and scheduled AQMP update. black carbon at 150 sites across Ghana, working to generate high- resolution land use regression models to understand local health impacts and to analyze the relationship between 25 air pollution exposure and respiratory Many of the products of this activity are featured infections in children born to exposed in this report and have been incorporated mothers; to various extents into the mid-term review ●C40’s Climate Change Resilience Plan, process of the GAMA AQMP. Climate Action Plan and Air Quality in Climate Action Planning Project (CAP- A new partner, The Clean Air Fund, has launched AQ), which is supporting Accra by an African Air Quality Initiative that is poised estimating the air quality and health to potentially continue support for enhanced implications of Accra’s climate change AQM planning in Accra, including many of mitigation scenarios, as recently the recommended actions listed in Chapter published in the city’s Paris-compatible 4. In addition, the U.S. Department of State is Climate Action Plan; pursuing support on a regional scale and is ●SEI, supported the development of considering various grantees and many of the emissions inventory specific to the city partners currently working with EPA Ghana of Accra; and listed above are in contention for this funding. ●World Bank and Industrial Economics,   working with EPA Ghana deploy continuous (at two sites) and gravimetric (at three sites), air quality monitors providing training and maintenance of laboratory instruments necessary for gravimetric analysis of filter-based air quality samples, and support data management, analysis, and source apportionment efforts. 26 4. LESSONS LEARNED, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CRITICAL NEXT STEPS The efforts undertaken through the PMEH in air quality measurement and management project have provided insight into the most that will allow dissemination of expertise within important and critical next steps that need to West Africa and sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. be taken in support of EPA Ghana’s air quality management efforts in Accra. Supporting EPA World Bank Country Environmental Analysis Ghana with their work in Accra will help to create Recommendations a model that the agency can use and apply in other major cities with air quality concerns, The 2020 CEA explored several aspects of AQM including Kumasi and Takoradi, where there planning that could serve the GoG in advancing is interest in better understanding ambient environmental management nationally and pollution. Further, support of EPA Ghana will recommendations have been broken down by help to solidify EPA Ghana as a regional leader time-frame in Box 1 below. Box 1. Recommendations to Improve Air Quality (Source: Ghana Country Environmental Analysis, World Bank, 2020). Short-term Recommendations (1-2 years) • Improve enforcement of existing air pollution regulations (MESTI/EPA)* • Finalize the draft AQM policy (Cabinet, MESTI) • Create a multi-stakeholder platform to coordinate AQM planning across public, pri vate, non-profit sectors (Cabinet) • Reinforce/recruit staff with proper training and expertise in AQM to document levels of air pollution, monitor trends, and quantify improvements (MESTI/EPA) • Make the case for clean air policies as an avenue to protect human capital and develop economic opportunities (MESTI/EPA) • Establish a robust data management and public data dissemination system that can support decision-making and provide information to the public on when to take self-protective measures (MESTI/EPA) • Support behavior-change communication that helps households, especially women, to adopt practices that reduce health risks from HAP (MESTI/EPA) Medium-term Recommendations (2-5 years) • Bolster the institutional framework in a way that facilitates achievement of AQM policy objectives, e.g. creation of a “Clean Air Czar/Commissioner” (Cabinet, MESTI) • Enhance AQM regulatory and enforcement authority of the EPA (Parliament, MESTI) • Author HAP/AAP guidelines, regulations, by-laws that account for socioeconomic and cultural differences across neighborhoods and rural/urban settings (Parliament, MLGRD/MMDAs) • Maintain collaboration with Nigeria and other Economic Community of West African States countries to reduce vehicle emissions: setting limits for sulfur in fuels at <50 ppm† (MESTI) • Lower import duties on environmentally friendly cars; raise duties on higher-emission secondhand vehicles (MoF/GRA) • Transition away from solid biofuels; establish HAP guidelines for clean cookstoves to regulate residential combustion levels (MESTI/EPA, MoTI) • Analyze causes and effects of trash burning in Accra, other major urban areas and develop suitable policies and mechanisms to prohibit/control it; encourage public-private partnerships to finance municipal services for waste collection, disposal, recycling (MESTI/EPA, MLGRD/MMDAs, MSWR) 28 Long-term Recommendations (5+ years) • Improve understanding of air pollution sources; work with universities, research institutes to use existing expertise and build future capacity for analysis of pollution issues (MESTI) • Provide sustained funding to hire/retain qualified staff to deliver on AQM goals (MESTI, MoF) • Mainstream and coordinate AQM policy planning, implementation, and enforcement across national, regional, local levels of Government (MDAs, MLGRD/MMDAs) • Quantify air pollution costs and AQM benefits using natural capital accounting (at macroeconomic level) and cost-benefit analysis (at project level) to target priority sectors for action (MESTI, MoF) • Given the high personal exposures observed in households using solid biomass fuels, provide air quality monitoring in rural settings to address HAP (Wiedinmyer et al., 2017) (MESTI/EPA) • Impose sufficient distances between industrial, commercial, residential zones in city planning (MESTI/LUSPA43, MLGRD/ MMDAs) • Design LPG cookstove interventions for rural and urban communities; study supply chains and market conditions to identify incentives for LPG distribution companies and clean cookstove manufacturers/suppliers; target subsidies to transition away from solid biomass fuel use; employ results-based financing to reach program goals (e.g. World Bank, 2016) (MESTI, MoTI) Notes: *Acronyms for all agencies and departments are provided in the acronyms list at the front of this document. †Setting limits for sulfur in fuels at 50 ppm or lower (by 2020) will enable Ghana to follow through on the 2015 Transportation Policy Roadmap, which calls for adopting EURO emission standards for automobiles and diesel trucks. AQMP Mid-Term Review Recommendations ●consideration of a new separate Based on the CEA recommendations, the standard for BC as a component achievements of the PMEH program, and of PM2.5. other AQM planning efforts undertaken by international partners and described within the ●Goal 2: Collaborative Governance in AQMP MTR Recommendations deliverable (See the Implementation of the AQMP: Annex A), EPA Ghana is poised to move their The MTR will consider new objectives AQM planning efforts forward on several fronts. around clean cooking and Municipal Here, we highlight some of this potential in terms Solid Waste (MSW) collection. of project outcomes that are consistent with the overall Project Development Objective (PDO), as ●Goal 3: Air Quality Management in the broken down by the five goals that EPA Ghana Greater Accra Region is Supported by has established for AQM planning in GAMA: Effective Systems and Tools: The MTR includes new continuous methods for ●Goal 1: Ambient Concentrations of AQ monitoring and recommends: Air Pollutants Comply with the New Ambient Air Quality Standard & ●EPA Ghana should build on Regulations (for PM10. PM2.5, SO2, NO2, the Campbell Konect data CO, O3) in the Greater Accra Region management system to develop, as a Result of Emission Reductions: implement and support a real- Stemming from new data and research, time, online AQI after validation the MTR recommends: and authorized release. ●establishing a guideline for HAP ●additional QA/QC studies to to complement existing PM2.5 operationalize and achieve DQOs standards. and align various measurement ●a review and potentially methods for PM2.5 updates of the level and form of ●additional monitoring in Tema existing standards for PM2.5 and Metropolitan Area and other PM10 based upon new baseline AQ data. 29 major cities in Ghana. The To the extent that these findings and presence of the harbor and the recommendations are adopted by EPA Ghana industries located at Tema has for inclusion in the AQMP MTR, they become substantial impacts on respirable an effective part of GoG AQM planning and air particulate matter (APM) established objectives for the next compliance concentrations. period under their AQMP. This represents ●further integration of climate a significant outcome toward improving air and AQM planning efforts via quality across GAMA and a basis for replication downscaled (municipal level) throughout the country. decision support tools and studies. Other International Partner Recommendations u● pdated health benefits research including baseline health World Health Organization and Urban Health incidence and population data. Initiative Partners Analysis by the WHO and other CCAC partners as part of the Urban Health Initiative has Goal 4: Air Quality Decision-making provided significant analysis regarding the cost is Informed by Sound Research: effectiveness and health benefits of action in the The MTR recommends: areas of reducing municipal solid waste burning, ●enhancing capacity within EPA transportation emissions and HAP. Their findings Ghana for use of decision support are available elsewhere (Mudu et al. 2021, Essel tools (LEAP-IBC and Pathways- and Spadaro 2021 and Edwards et al. 2021) but AQ) for policy analysis with key recommendations are provided here: multiple benefits assessments. ●the improvement of specific Municipal solid waste (from Mudu et al. 2021): laboratory capabilities to perform Three scenarios were modelled – ceasing waste source apportionment tasks. burning; expanding composting and recycling; landfill gas capture – that were found to reduce emissions of GHGs and SLCPs compared with the BAU scenario and that had a range of health Goal 5: Knowledge and Understanding benefits commensurate with the level of PM2.5 Amongst Decision-Makers,Stakeholders, reduced. and the General Public in the Greater Accra Region is Enhanced: Suggested policy interventions: Build political will and commitment to ●The mid-term review include health and well-being issues in recommendations document SWM by considering HIA. results of the E360 pilot on Encourage the decrease of waste open waste burning and production (restrict the import of waste collection efforts, the Urban from developed countries and limit the Health Initiative’s outreach and use of plastic). communications efforts with Create and/or enforce regulatory health workers, C40’s climate frameworks on waste burning and action planning and the CCAC indiscriminate dumping. Breathe Life campaign’s Support waste prevention and communal efforts at awareness raising recycling initiatives. around air pollution generally. Encourage public participation in ●Publicly disseminate online environmental management issues. AQI of air pollution levels on Regulate urban land use, land ownership EPA Ghana website or Met and improve urban planning. Services website. Increase population data collection to guide local and national planning. Consider extended producer responsibility. 30 Suggested actions: responsibility-sharing and prescribe standards for operations of all commercial road transport Increase waste collection and waste services. treatment. Facilitate the separation and collection Household Air Pollution (from Edwards et al. of waste. 2021): A household energy working group under Improve waste treatment infrastructure. the UHI projected changes over the next 10 Increase equipment and operational years under current policies (business-as-usual funds to support waste management scenario), and under moderately progressive activities. and more aggressive scenarios, which led to Collect reliable waste generation reductions of both HAP exposure as well as the data to assist with planning of waste HAP contribution to AAP and provided a double management programmes benefit to cooks in the GAMA region. Transportation (from Essel and Spadaro 2021): At a household level, a main barrier to The UHI examined three future transportation successful clean cooking interventions is scenarios relative to a reference scenario in communication which when unchecked inhibits which the demand for transport is predicted to the widespread adoption of clean household increase three-fold, personal car ownership is energy. Better documentation on the evidence expected to double, and there will be greater surrounding beliefs around food taste and LPG utilization of the public transport system. Three safety would provide the basis for effective alternatives focused on existing and planned media communication campaigns, in addition actions, a transit-oriented development (TOD) to targeted campaigns to promote LPG as an focused strategy and a future with increased aspirational fuel. use of electric public transit, walking and cycling. Other key elements of a strategic master plan In order to achieve the large health and would include addressing the widespread economic benefits that could accrue under the availability of unregulated and cheap charcoal various alternative scenarios (e.g., up to 5,500 in urban areas, economic modelling of pricing averted premature deaths from improvements structures to increase penetration of LPG in lower in air quality plus an additional 33,000 saved lives income populations combined with targeted due to increased physical activity during the incentives programs for LPG refills. Similarly, time period between now and 2050 for Scenario economic modelling of electricity pricing 3), it will be necessary to improve the efficiency structures to increase penetration of induction and effectiveness of transport infrastructure and cookstoves would assist in transitioning the services. In particular, consumers need greater population to clean household energy. In access to greener vehicle technologies, a addition, long-term plans to improve LPG more comprehensive and decarbonized public cylinder recirculation models for households, transportation system, such as the BRT and light as well as piping of LPG into residential rail is needed in GAMA. Appropriate government communities, would ensure reliability of supply incentives and financial investments are chains, and reduce the need for charcoal as a needed to facilitate the transition to sustainable secondary fuel. Finally, quality assurance for transport modes. Investments in walking clean cooking technologies and monitoring of and cycling infrastructure, as well as other impacts would be key to obtaining objective sustainable alternatives will be required to information on the effectiveness of policies and eliminate emissions, improve urban air quality, programs. improve quality of life, and reduce the mortality risk among all age groups in the population of C40 Climate Action Planning GAMA. Finally, it is worth noting that C40 Cities Leadership Group has been assisting the The current transportation system in GAMA, Accra Municipal Assembly with climate action which remains in the hands of sole proprietor planning and has launched both a resilience operators who mostly operate paratransit and plan and a climate action plan that would minibus services through informal operations, reduce GHG emissions by 73%, aiding GAMA on needs to be properly regulated. Government its way to achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. efforts should aim to develop regulations for By fully implementing the ambitious scenario, urban transport that ensure oversight and Accra can reduce PM2.5 by 21 μg/m3 in 2050. The 31 sectors that have the highest potential to reduce Energy/Buildings: PM2.5 in that year are switching away from the open burning of waste, new residential energy ●Affordable electricity – reducing efficiency for cooking and water heating, (as a the cost of electricity and ensuring result of decreased solid fuel use), modal shift to sustainable access for all citizens, BRT buses and walking, together with a switch including by increasing investments in to cleaner on-road fuels, followed by industrial renewable generation energy efficiency measures. These actions are ●Building permitting – an efficient expected to prevent over 500 premature deaths building permitting process that per year in 2050, as a result of reduced exposure incentivizes energy efficient and resilient to ambient PM2.5. The majority of health benefits buildings, in new developments as well are expected to accrue from a reduction in open as retrofitting old buildings burning within the waste sector, changes in new ●Energy efficient appliances – transition residential buildings (cooking and water heating to energy efficient appliances in improvements) and a shift in various modes of residential and commercial buildings, on-road transport, with the use of cleaner fuels. and improve efficiency in industrial processes While the recommendations within the CAP apply only to Accra proper, they represent a Transportation: model for other parts of GAMA to achieve the health climate benefits that have been identified The mitigation of air pollution from road for Accra across the region. The Ambitious transport will require appropriate investments Scenario described by the C40 reports calls for and initiatives such as: the following actions: ●Urgent reduction of rush hour Solid Waste: congestion by making public transport options attractive to commuters; ●Universal waste collection - to achieve ●Investment in sustainable mass public 100% waste collection, which will transportation systems; eliminate indiscriminate waste disposal ●Establish a non-motorized transit and eradicate open burning in the long network, in particular to connect public term. Source separation of municipal transport hubs and commercial/ solid waste will reduce the collection institutional facilities (e.g. schools); of mixed waste to the barest minimum. ●Improve the quality of sidewalks ●Develop efficient and effective waste including tree-planting for shade; treatment and processing systems ●Prepare for a transition from fuel to (such as recycling and composting) - electric vehicles (to absorb excess to divert waste from final disposal sites, electricity generation capacity in which will extend the life of landfills. Ghana); Diverting organic waste (such as food ●Encourage car-sharing and car-pooling waste, paper and cardboard) from schemes. landfills will reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Land Use: ●Providing safe waste disposal infrastructure (for solid waste and ●Enhance service delivery within Accra wastewater) - to ensure Accra has Metropolitan Assembly, in particular to adequate capacity for the disposal and protect environmentally sensitive areas treatment of all waste streams, and and to better serve socio-economically to facilitate progression up the waste deprived communities. hierarchy. ●Contribute to raising Ghana’s ranking on the World Bank Ease of Doing Business Index by expediting development planning and building permitting from the current 90 day-cycle to an improved 30- day cycle. ●Improve the efficiency of revenue collected from property rates through an electronic billing system. 32 ●Improve spatial planning awareness impacts, or otherwise understand air quality and capacity development for staff of burden within the city and to establish regulatory the Physical Planning Department guidance for the use of both gravimetric and continuous monitoring technologies in their Mainstream Climate Change in Development compliance networks. Processes: Laboratory Equipment Overhaul: An Transparent, responsive and accountable overhaul of EPA’s laboratory equipment will governance allow them to improve their measurement Effective Local Government structures system to be consistent with international Improved access to finance for Local air quality measurement best practices. Governments EPA Ghana has struggled to keep their Gas Partnerships between Local Government, Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), businesses, and other actors Ion Chromatography (IC), and Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) functioning. These Conclusion and Next Steps instruments were given to EPA Ghana second- hand over many years, putting them into varying The Task Team recommends consideration of states of functionality. Similar to limitations additional efforts and the following next steps: with availability of consumable supplies within the monitoring process, laboratory equipment Monitoring and Laboratory Methods Audit: requires an array of consumables, including Concerns regarding the significant difference access to gases like Helium to create a vacuum between gravimetric sampler-based within the GC-MS system to allow proper measurements and continuous measurements functionality, proper vials to allow auto-sampling of both PM10 and PM2.5 indicate a need for a within the IC, and element-specific lamps within thorough audit of EPA Ghana’s monitoring, the AAS so that it may analyze different metallic filter handling, storage, and laboratory analysis compounds. system for managing gravimetric data. This process include a number of steps that are Integrated Air Pollution Prevention and sensitive to external factors, including the Control Program for Ghana: The need for availability of consistent power for consistent Ghana to develop an integrated air pollution flow rate at the measurement device, use of prevention and control program focusing on key oven and compressed air to ensure quartz filters sectors (transport, waste and biomass burning can be measured without retaining additional or clean cooking) to reduce emissions. The water from the humidity in the air or allowing program should place a special emphasis on gas phase reactions of pollution in the air (or, how to coordinate policies across three sectors better, preferential use of the more expensive most closely linked to the mitigation of air Teflon filters for use with gravimetric mass pollution—environment, transport, and energy— measurements over quartz), storage within a and how to reconcile the sometimes-conflicting freezer at the appropriate temperature and objectives and demands of these sectors to use of desiccant to remove excess humidity, achieve environmental improvement. This will proper filter handling, and standard weighing enhance and support potential applications for techniques. An in-person audit will help to Climate Investment Funds or Global Climate identify potential issues and provide solutions Fund applications. to correct these issues in a way that will allow EPA Ghana to have more consistently accurate The solutions to air pollution challenges are particle measurements. likely to require continuing investment of dedicated resources, which could potentially Air Quality Datasets: EPA Ghana should assess be linked to specific policy and institutional the relative reliability of each measurement, reforms to improve project effectiveness and following completion of audits of sampling and potentially be replicated nationally. The ability analysis and implementation of any required to implement other recommendations on AQM corrective actions to improve data quality, along planning and effectiveness may be critically with current research on the reliability of each dependent upon establishing a “next phase” method. This will help them to determine which development program in one of these areas datasets or groupings of datasets they will use with an included AQM component. to assess regulatory compliance, analyze health 33 References Alli, A.S, Clark, S.N, Hughes, A, Nimo, J, Bedford-Moses, J, Baah, S, Wang, J, Vallarino, J, Agyemang, E, Barratt, B, Beddows, A, Kelly, F, Owusu, G, Baumgartner, J, Brauer, M, Ezzati, M, Agyei-Mensah, S, Arku, R.E, (2021). “Spatial-temporal patterns of ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) pollution in Accra”. Environmental Research Letters, 16 074013. https:/ /doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ ac074a Arku, R.E, Vallarino, J, Dionisio, K.L, Willis, R, Choi, H, Wilson, J.G, Hemphill, C, Agyei-Mensah, S, Spengler, J.D, Ezzati, M, (2008). “Characterizing air pollution in two low-income neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana”. Sci Total Environ., 1;402(2-3):217-31. https:/ /doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.04.042 Dionisio, K.L, Arku, R.E, Hughes, A.F, Vallarino, J, Carmichael, H, Spengler, J.D, Agyei-Mensah, S, Ezzati, M, (2010). “Air Pollution in Accra Neighborhoods: Spatial, Socioeconomic, and Temporal Patterns”. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(7), 2270-2276. https:/ /doi.org/10.1021/es903276s DVLA 2017. Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority, Ghana. Vehicle registration data 1995–2017. Essel D, Spadaro JV. Health and economic impacts of transport interventions in Accra, Ghana. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020. Licence: World Health Organization; 2020. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Edwards R, Agbevivi D. Evidence-based strategies to reduce the burden of household air pollution in Accra, Ghana. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. MESTI (Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation). 2014. National Environmental Policy. Accra, Ghana. Mudu P. Ambient air pollution and health in Accra, Ghana. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Mudu P, Nartey BA, Kanhai G, Spadaro JV, Fobil J. Solid waste management and health in Accra, Ghana. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Norris, G., R. Duvall, S. Brown, and S. Bai 2014. EPA Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) 5.0 Fundamentals and User Guide. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-14/108 (NTIS PB2015-105147). Santos AC, Nonvignon J, Blankson P-K, Johnson A, Aikins M. Economic costs of air pollution in Accra, Ghana. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Schwela D 2012. Review of urban air quality in sub-Saharan Africa region: air quality profile of SSA countries. World Bank, Washington DC. Southerland, V.A, Brauer, M, Mohegh, A, Hammer, M.S, van Donkelaar, A, Martin, R.V, Apte, J.S, Anenberg, S.C, Pre-print. Global urban temporal trends in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and attributable health burdens. http:/ /dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3871717 World Bank 2020. Ghana Country Environmental Analysis, April 2020. World Bank, Washington DC. World Bank, 2021. Accra Air Quality Data Report: 2018-2021, Final Report prepared 16 September, 2021 by Industrial Economics, Inc., The World Bank, Washington DC. WHO 2005. “Ambient Air Pollution.” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/teams/ environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health/ambient- air-pollution. Accessed Sept 8, 2021. Zhou Z, Dionisio KL, Verissimo TG, Kerr AS, Coull B, Arku RE, Koutrakis P, Spengler JD, Hughes AF, Vallarino J, Agyei-Mensah S, Ezzati M. 2013. Chemical composition and sources of particle pollution in affluent and poor neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana. Environ Res Lett 8(2013). doi: 10.1088/1748- 9326/8/4/044025 34 ANNEX: LIST OF PROJECT OUTPUTS This Annex presents an overview of the deliverables for the Improved Pollution Management and Reduced Environmental Health Risk in Accra-Tema Metropolitan Area (P164417) as related to the capacity support to Ghana Environmental Protection Agency to strengthen AQM in Accra. The descriptions below describe each activity and how they complement each other in order to attain the overarching goal of comprehensive AQM planning for GAMA, as well as how they have influenced EPA Ghana’s thinking on AQM planning more broadly. Deliverable 1: Review of air pollution ground-level monitoring system. PMEH conducted a technical review of laboratory equipment, field monitoring, and continuous sampling equipment in Ghana. The review carried out a gap analysis and proposed a pathway for strengthening ground-level monitoring for GAMA. The technical review concluded that while manual PM10 compliance ambient monitoring capacity is comprehensive and robust, source-based analysis with chemical filter sampling is lacking. Partly based on this report, EPA Ghana and the WB team agreed to shape the PMEH Program around strengthening the capacity of understanding the sources of pollution. The addition of a source apportionment network and the enhanced focus on Short-lived Climate Pollutants (SLCP) and GHGs also has influenced the training activities to achieve sustainability for these multiple objectives after the conclusion of PMEH support. Deliverable 2: Data Acquisition Plan (DAP). PMEH worked closely with the EPA Ghana to develop an air quality monitoring Data Acquisition Plan which addresses some of the gaps laid out in the 2018 GAMA AQMP. Specifically, the plan provides details on monitor operation, monitor siting, detection limits, and data quality objectives. The plan provided the framework necessary to generate air quality datasets using the required instrumentation. It then describes a plan for instrument deployment, calibration, maintenance, and operations tasks and schedules. It also describes the process for co- locating some already-deployed low-cost sensors with monitors verified as US Federal Reference Monitors (FRMs). Again, it describes the data management and quality assurance procedures needed to generate air quality datasets and recommends a plan for data validation and verification. The plan is currently being implemented and has enabled the deployment of continuous instrumentation (including Black Carbon) with a quality assurance plan and standard operating procedures (SOPs) for all equipment. This has resulted in an improved database of information to update EPA Ghana’s 2018 GAMA AQMP. Deliverable 3: Training Plan (TP). PMEH worked closely with the EPA Ghana to develop an air quality monitoring Training Plan. The plan describes the capacity building and expertise required to generate the air quality datasets introduced in the DAP, including the objectives related to each facet of the overall air quality management strategy in Accra. It also provides a training schedule with dates relative to completion of in-country deployment of continuous air quality monitors. The plan details each of the topics of the training and capacity building materials with respect to installation, calibration, operation, and maintenance of field monitoring and laboratory analysis instruments and techniques. Using the TP, PMEH has provided capacity building and training for the EPA for air monitoring and laboratory source attribution analyses. Deliverable 4: COVID-19 Training Contingency Plan. The global pandemic occurred mid- implementation of the DAP and TP, requiring a radical restructuring of equipment deployment and TP activities. This memorandum describes how project consultants were able to rely on greater use of local consulting partners, remote and virtual training programs and to refocus efforts toward EPA Ghana training in a way that enabled the project to remain on schedule despite the many challenges this presented. This required diligence on the part of the team to ensure that our client and local partners continued to support the monitoring campaign in a manner consistent with the signed MoU yet respecting public health conditions on the ground in Ghana. Deliverable 5: Standard Operating Procedures (SOPS) for Deployment and Startup of Filter Sampling Equipment. A range of equipment was deployed to improve the underlying database for air quality for Accra. This includes enhancements to the existing AQ monitoring system and source apportionment capacity of EPA Ghana. Carefully documented SOPs (9 in all) were created that are 35 specific to the equipment that EPA Ghana is utilizing to improve that database of AQ measurements. The specific SOPs are complemented by instrument manuals and laboratory forms. A critical element of the enhancement is the addition of a cloud-based data management system that enables EPA Ghana to house all AQ measurements in a single location and ensure resilience of the dataset to loss from fire, theft, or vandalism of local computer equipment. Deliverable 6: Quality Assurance Project Plan. This document proposes a Quality Assurance (QA) Plan to support EPA Ghana’s air quality monitoring plan for GAMA in accordance with several monitoring goals included in their 2018 AQMP for GAMA. This QA Plan describes the processes needed to maintain the quality of air quality datasets, as introduced in the DAP (deliverable 2 above). This QA Plan covers data collected through continuous monitoring and gravimetric sampling and affiliated laboratory and data management analyses; it does not cover data collected through the use of low-cost sensors or personal exposure monitors (e.g. for HAP). EPA Ghana may expand this document to include data collected using these other instruments at another time. A QA handbook from USEPA is also provided to help with QAPP implementation. Deliverable 7: Household Air Pollution Guideline. As the Bank is precluded from developing regulatory or legislative products for client countries, this draft memorandum is intended to provide background context and recommendations for EPA Ghana to consider as they embark on their regulatory process of developing and adopting a guideline for the control of Household Air Pollution (HAP), which is one of the largest contributors to Ambient Air Pollution in GAMA. The report reviews implementation factors and limitations in transitioning from traditional to cleaner energy technologies in support of reducing HAP exposures in Accra and assesses current knowledge on setting effective HAP guidelines. Based on the review of current peer-reviewed literature on HAP, this report recommends EPA Ghana consider setting an initial HAP guideline for Accra to promote improved ambient and household air quality. Deliverable 8: Air Quality Data Report. The PMEH project aimed to expand the scientific evidence supporting air quality policies, efforts, and analyses in Accra by providing additional high-quality air quality measurements for use by EPA Ghana. This report includes a spatial and temporal characterization of air pollution in Accra based on six months of continuous measurements implemented through contract funds. It addresses key questions such as, ‘what air quality was observed and with what air quality measurement system before the PMEH project?’, ‘how has this work changed the status of air quality management in Accra?’, ‘how has this project pushed forward the efforts that were started via US EPA Megacities partnership?’, ‘what type of analyses are possible now that were not possible 3 years ago?’ The report recommends that EPA Ghana performs standard checks of the data to flag unreliable measurements in accordance with the Data Acquisition Plan (DAP) and with equipment and laboratory-specific SOPs. The report shows that source apportionment analyses for samples collected from roadside sites in 2019 indicate the majority of PM10 concentrations are derived from standard petrol combustion and diesel vehicle combustion. The fraction of elemental carbon (EC) at each site is related to primary elemental particles from combustion while the fraction of OC at each site is related to secondary formation of organic particles. Deliverable 9: GAMA AQMP Mid-Term Review Recommendations. Similar to the HAP guideline, this report provides recommendations for EPA Ghana to consider as it undertakes its Mid-Term Review (MTR) of the 2018 GAMA AQMP. This provides updated text, data and analysis for consideration by EPA Ghana to include in each section of the existing (preliminary) 2018 AQMP. It attempts to capture the PMEH funded work as well as the large body of other air quality monitoring and AQ management planning activity that is ongoing in Accra with the support of a wide range of donors and academic institutions. To the extent that this is now reflected in recommendations for the AQMP MTR, EPA Ghana can achieve the goal of improving the underlying database upon which the 2018 AQMP was based. A key chapter of the report is the revised Implementation Matrix, which benefits from new policies and actions for the GoG to consider based upon the updated data and analysis, as well as AQM recommendations contained in the World Bank 2019 Ghana Country Environmental Analysis that featured a special chapter on air quality. 36 based. A key chapter of the report is the revised Implementation Matrix, which benefits from new policies and actions for the GoG to consider based upon the updated data and analysis, as well as AQM recommendations contained in the World Bank 2019 Ghana Country Environmental Analysis that featured a special chapter on air quality. 1. AQ monitoring network review performed by DRI 2. Data Acquisition Plan (DAP, 2a) w/appendices (2b) 37 Official Use 37 3. Training Plan (TP) 4. COVID-19 Training Contingency Plan 5. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) This includes a database of several individual a. through o. SOPs for specific equipment, equipment manuals and operational notes to aid in the use of all equipment in the AQ monitoring network 6. Quality Assurance Project Plan for Accra Monitoring Network (QAPP) 38 Official Use 38 7. HAP Guideline Recommendation Report 8. AQ Monitoring Data Report 9. GAMA AQMP Mid-Term Review Discussion draft available now. To be finalized Recommendations by Ghana EPA 39 Official Use 39 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org