Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity Overview © 2025 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with Acknowledgments external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect This report is authored by a World Bank team led by Mauro the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, Testaverde and Daniel Garrote Sanchez, and including Ana or the governments they represent. Budimir, Matthew C. Martin, Helly D. Mehta, Andrea Sitarova, and Iva Tomic. The material reflects bilateral consultations The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data and workshops conducted in the Republic of Croatia, where included in this work. 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Cover photos from left to right: © hxyume / iStock The team appreciates managerial support and guidance © PeopleImages / iStock from Jehan Arulpragasam (Country Manager, Croatia) and © Aleksandar Malivuk / Shutterstock Paolo Belli (Practice Manager, Social Protection and Jobs © GBJSTOCK / Shutterstock for Europe and Central Asia). During the preparation of the © alvarez / iStock report, the team also received insightful comments and © Alessandro Biascioli / iStock useful material from World Bank colleagues, including Pablo © Tran Van Quyet / iStock Acosta, Josip Funda, Harry Moroz, Dhushyanth Raju, Indhira © SrdjanPav / iStock Santos, Ana Simundza, and Nithin Umapathi. © Darren Baker / Shutterstock Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 2 Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity Croatia is at a critical demographic crossroads. Against a backdrop of an aging and declining population, Croatia is transitioning from a country of emigration to one increasingly relying on foreign workers, with profound implications for the nation’s economic and social fabric. While recent reforms have strength- ened the migration governance structure, significant challenges remain in the selection, employment, and integration of foreign workers. This overview summarizes the report titled "Leveraging Immigration for Croatia's Prosperi- ty", which assesses Croatia’s migration system and proposes strategic policy actions to maximize the positive impact of immigration while addressing key challenges for Croatia’s economy. Demographic headwinds are generating labor shortages Croatia faces significant demographic headwinds, con- and economically disadvantaged regions. If current trends strained by continuous population decline and rapid aging. continue, projections suggest a further 19.1 percent drop in Over the last decade, the country has lost 400,000 resi- population over the next three decades. The demographic dents (figure 1a)—a staggering figure that positions Croatia decline is compounded by rapid aging. The proportion of among the top five of the European Union’s most affected elderly people—those aged 65 and older— surged from nations. This trajectory stems from falling birth rates and 17.9 percent in 2012 to 22.5 percent just ten years later, with sustained net migration outflows, particularly affecting rural forecasts indicating it could reach 30 percent by 2050. Figure 1: Population trends in Croatia a. Population change by 10-year period b. Working age population and dependency ratio % working population Old-age dependency ratio (rhs) 100.000 100,000 68% 0,68 0,38 38% 0 0,36 36% 0 67% 0,67 0,34 34% -100.000 -100,000 65% 0,66 32% 0,32 -200.000 30% -200,000 64% 0,65 0,3 Percent 28% -300.000 63% 0,64 0,28 26% -300,000 0,26 -400.000 0,63 24% -400,000 62% 0,24 22% 0,62 -500.000 61% 0,22 20% -500,000 2002-1992 2012-2002 2022-2012 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 2002-1992 2012-2002 2022-2012 0,61 0,2 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Natural naturalchange population of of change population % working population Net netmigration migration old-age dependency ratio (rhs) Total totalpopulation populationchange change Source: European Commission Eurostat database. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 3 These demographic shifts have created unprecedented Looking ahead, Croatia might need more than 300,000 pressures on Croatia’s labor market, with increasing short- workers by 2035. The demand for labor will continue to ages of workers and skills. The ratio of job vacancies to the increase in the coming years fueled by economic growth, registered unemployed population has plummeted in the last although at a moderate pace. Estimates of net job creation decade, indicating continued tightening in the labor market. based on projections of economic activity show a mild in- Since 2016, job openings have consistently outnumbered crease of around 36,000 workers between 2022 and 2035.3 available unemployed individuals (figure 2), leaving many On the other hand, given natural population trends, projec- businesses struggling to fill crucial roles. Recent surveys tions of the labor supply estimate an average annual decline show that Croatian firms are 50 percent more likely to report of around one percent during the same period,4 leading to a difficulty filling positions compared to their peers in Central cumulative drop in the workforce of 291,000 people by 2035. and Eastern European countries.1 The situation has been As a result, Croatia can face an increase in labor shortages particularly acute in specific sectors, with construction of 327,000 workers in the absence of policy changes in the and hospitality experiencing the highest vacancy rates, as coming decade (figure 3). well as strategic sectors such as healthcare and research. Firms have increasingly struggled to find cross-cutting digital skills.2 Geographically, high-emigration regions have seen the largest reduction in the ratio of employed to vacancies (figure 2), particularly Pannonian Croatia. This highlights the link between emigration, particularly of highly skilled workers, and labor and skills shortages. Figure 2: Ratio of registered unemployment to job Figure 3: Projected changes in labor supply and demand vacancies in Croatia (2022-35) 4.5 100 Thousands 4.0 50 Labor 3.5 0 Shortage 3.0 - 50 327,000 2.5 - 100 Workers 2.0 - 150 1.5 - 200 1.0 - 250 0.5 - 300 0.0 - 350 Supply Demand 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2023Q3 2020 2021 2022 Croatia croatia Source: Own elaboration based on UN DESA (2024) and CEDEFOP (2023). High emigration NUTS3 high emigration regions nuts3 regions Low emigration NUTS3 low emigration regions nuts3 regions Source: Croatian Employment Services (CES) (2004 – 2023). 3 CEDEFOP (2023). Projections based on historical elasticities of employment to GDP growth (0.2) in developed economies (ILO, OECD, and World Bank, 2015), and given the expected long-term economic growth in Croatia during the 2030s (1.7% in per capita terms or 1.1% in absolute terms, World Bank, 2022b), lead to slightly larger cumulative numbers – 65,000 net additional jobs between 2022 and 2035. 1 European Commission (2023). 2 4 World Bank (2022a). UN DESA (2024). Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 4 Immigration is being leveraged as a potential solution to address skills needs Demographic challenges can be addressed through dif- Figure 4: Immigration of foreign-born individuals in ferent channels. Croatia’s 2033 Demographic Revitalization Croatia Strategy outlines different key prioritizes. One focuses on a. First-time work permits per capita stimulating the environment for families and youth, in order Malta Malta to help increase the birth rate and labor force participation. Croatia Croatia Currently, there is an untapped workforce among several Cyprus Cyprus Lithuania Lithuania groups such as women, youth, and older individuals who Poland Poland work less than their European peers (World Bank, 2024). Slovenia Slovenia The 2033 strategy also aims to reduce emigration outflows Hungary Hungary Portugal Portugal and promote the return of part of the diaspora and their Luxembourg Luxembourg descendants. However, some of these policies, even if suc- Ireland Ireland Slovakia Slovakia cessful, will take time to be effective and will not be enough Finland Finland to fill the large projected gaps in the workforce. Spain Spain Denmark Denmark Romania Romania Croatia has increasingly turned to immigration as a solu- Latvia Latvia tion to these workforce challenges. Foreign-born residents Sweden Sweden Netherlands Netherlands comprise 12.7% of the population, though many are long- Estonia Estonia term settlers from neighboring countries who have already Czechia Czechia Greece Greece obtained Croatian nationality. Recent years have witnessed Germany Germany a sharp surge in labor immigration, with annual first-time Bulgaria Bulgaria France France work permits for foreign citizens rising from under 10,000 Austria Austria 2013 2023 before 2016 to close to 80,000 in 2023. In per capita terms, Belgium Belgium Italy Italy Croatia went from being among the bottom five countries in the EU with the lowest issuance of first-time work permits 0 5 05 10 15 10 20 25 15 20 30 35 25 30 35 40 50 55 45 50 40 45 55 work permits per 1,000 inhabitants for migrants by the time of EU accession to now ranking second (figure 4a). The refugee population has also grown b. Migration inflows and outflows in Croatia significantly, reaching 27,000 in 2023, largely due to displace- 80,000 ment from Ukraine following Russia’s invasion in 2022. This 80,000 70,000 shift has reversed historical migration patterns, resulting for the first time in a positive net migration balance since 2022 70,000 60,000 (figure 4b). This means that Croatia now has more individuals 60,000 50,000 coming into the country than leaving. 50,000 40,000 The profile of immigrants has significantly evolved in recent 40,000 30,000 years. While historically dominated by workers from neigh- 30,000 20,000 boring Western Balkan countries, Croatia is now receiving 20,000 10,000 migrants from more diverse places, with the fastest growing 10,000 0 group being South and East Asians, particularly from Nepal, India, the Philippines, and Bangladesh. The new wave of 0 foreign workers is predominantly male in their prime age Immigrants (figure 5), with an average age of 37.3 years. Immigrants Emigrants immigrants emigrants Emigrants Source: European Commission Eurostat database and CBS (2024). Note: Immigrants are those arriving in Croatia from abroad and emigrants are those that leave Croatia to reside in a third country. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 5 Figure 5: Profile of foreign-born individuals in Croatia mostly 70% low male -skilled 40% 20% of work have permits are in tertiary construction education 27% in hospitality Migrants provide important economic benefits to Croatia by addressing critical labor shortages and bolstering the welfare system. Foreign workers are actively contributing to the domestic economy. Generally, they have high em- 14% ployment rates — in some cases exceeding those of native Croats — because their legal status is often tied to employ- ment. Immigrants are primarily concentrated in high labor in demand sectors, with over 80 percent working in construc- manufacturing tion, tourism and hospitality, and manufacturing. Beyond their direct labor contributions, migrants stimulate the economy through local consumption and tax payments. Recent sim- ulations suggest that increased immigration yields modest but positive welfare effects for both non-migrant residents and Croatia as a whole (Bossavie et al. 2024). Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 6 There are relevant challenges associated with immigration The arrival of an increasingly diverse group of foreign work- expertise, particularly valuable in sectors that demand those ers may also create challenges if not well-managed. Inad- skills. This underutilization of talent and lower productivity equate information among foreign workers leaves them leads to lower earnings, which in turn reduces both tax rev- vulnerable to exploitation and prevents them from reaching enues to finance public services and consumer spending their full potential. Many arrive without suitable skills, while that can support economic growth. language barriers and cultural differences can impede their integration into Croatian society. Evidence suggests sub- Imperfect integration also affects public sentiment to- stantial skills underutilization in the labor market. Foreign ward immigration, which has become more negative in workers are twice as likely as Croatian nationals to work in recent years. Public support for immigration has declined, positions below their qualification level,5 not only due to with only 33 percent of citizens viewing it positively in 2023, limited language skills, but also to imperfect recognition down from 42 percent in 2021, placing Croatia below the EU of foreign credentials. Immigrants also face higher risks of average. This decline coincides with accelerated migration poverty, substandard housing conditions, and labor rights inflows. Attitudes vary significantly across demographic violations. groups, with older, less educated, and rural residents hold- ing more negative views. Recent surveys highlight growing Barriers to immigrants’ integration not only have nega- concerns about cultural differences and integration, though tive repercussions for immigrants themselves but also for many still acknowledge the economic necessity of foreign Croatia’s economy. When immigrants cannot fully utilize workers. Without addressing immigrants’ integration chal- their skills and experience, the country suffers reduced pro- lenges, public attitudes toward migrants may deteriorate, ductivity. For instance, when an immigrant engineer works potentially threatening social cohesion. as a technician, Croatia loses the opportunity to tap their Figure 6: Integration challenges and public perceptions a. Share of vulnerable workers b. Public opinion on immigration 40% For the culture 35% 2020 29.8 23.6 46.7 30% 25% 2023 39.3 22.2 38.5 20% 15% 2020 35.8 23.8 40.6 economy For the 10% 5% 2023 38.6 22.2 39.2 0% Share of workers with Overcrowding rate Share of persons at occupational risk of poverty or 0 20 40 60 80 100 downgrading exclusion foreign born domestic born bad neutral good Source: European Commission Eurostat database and European Social Survey. 5 22.5% of foreigners in 2023 were overqualified for their jobs compared to 13.5% of natives, according to Eurostat data. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 7 Croatia has developed its immigration system in recent years Croatia has made significant strides in developing a com- Croatia’s streamlined and partly digitized permit process prehensive immigration system over recent decades, with has become a competitive advantage, particularly in sec- particular emphasis on meeting evolving labor market tors facing labor shortages. The efficiency of the system needs. The country’s Strategy for Demographic Revitaliza- is evident in its processing times of two to eight weeks for tion until 2033 aims to achieve a sustainable positive net cases not requiring labor market assessment, notably faster migration balance, marking a crucial shift in the national than other EU countries such as Germany or Spain, which policy. The 2020 Aliens Act eliminated the quota system and can last one to six months (IOM, 2024). The expedited pro- introduced exemptions from labor market tests for shortage cessing times is a key reason for migrants increasingly to occupations and seasonal work. Further reforms in 2025 aim choose Croatia over other EU destinations despite receiving to extend work permit durations from one to three years, lower wages. simplify the process of changing employers, and implement stricter employer requirements regarding financial standing, The country has also made some progress in enhancing worker qualifications, and domestic-to-foreign employee migrant services to improve the overall migration expe- ratios. Croatia has also been proactively developing bilateral rience. Foreign workers with valid documentation receive labor and social security agreements with several countries full access to Croatia’s healthcare system, and the Croatian in the OECD, the Western Balkans, and Türkiye to facilitate Employment Service offers various active and passive labor labor mobility and ensure the portability of benefits for mi- market programs to eligible migrants, including access to grant workers. unemployment benefits. Recognizing language as a crucial barrier to workplace effectiveness, the government has introduced an innovative voucher scheme for Croatian lan- guage training. This voluntary program requires employer contributions of 30-50 percent of total costs, demonstrating a collaborative approach to integration support. Important gaps in the migration system remain Challenges remain in several areas that have implications India, and Bangladesh, and a stronger oversight of the work for the foreign workers’ labor market outcomes in the carried out by recruitment agencies. The latter generate country. These challenges include: (i) gaps in the govern- potential risks for migrants and impact on the availabil- ance frameworks and imperfect coordination between ity of the required skills in the labor market. The current stakeholders; (ii) limitations in the selection process of system involves recruitment agencies in both Croatia and foreign workers to import the skills needed in the labor the source country, which drives up costs for migrants, market; (iii) limited provision of services to foreign work- and could result in indebtedness and the acceptance of ers that hamper their integration process; and (iv) data substandard working and living conditions by migrants. gaps that prevent more informed migration policies from being implemented. The selection process of foreign workers has room for improvement to better align with labor market needs. Some gaps exist in Croatia’s immigration governance While progress has been made, a vision for the types of framework. An overarching migration strategy to coor- migrants and entry channels required could be further dinate responsibilities across government and non-gov- developed. Challenges include delays in responding to ernment actors is currently not in place. This results in a labor market needs, limited incentives to attract higher fragmented system with limited coordination, especially skills, and information asymmetries between firms and between the national and local levels. The country has workers. This has led to persistent skill mismatches and also yet to develop key bilateral agreements with major vulnerabilities for foreign workers. source countries of immigrant workers such as Nepal, Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 8 Figure 7: Migration challenges in Croatia Data Integration Gaps in collecting, transferring and service delivery and using data for migration The system of supporting services policy making. for migrants does not address the increasing integration needs. Governance Selection ○○ Gaps in the migration process framework. Room for better alignment to ○○ Imperfect coordination attract skills needed in the across stakeholders. labor market. ○○ Limited oversight of recruitment agencies. Integration support for foreign workers remains fragment- Figure 8: Measure of integration policies across EU ed and underdeveloped. Language training, credential countries recognition, and navigation of local bureaucracies are 100 key challenges, especially for newcomers from more geo- graphically distant countries of origin. Economic migrants 90 in Croatia heavily rely on support from their employers. In 80 general, services are fragmented across different public 70 and private providers, and migrants face barriers in ac- 60 cessing them due to language, imperfect information, and 50 digital divides. Overall, Croatia lags behind EU countries in terms of integration policies (figure 8). This can nega- 40 tively impact migrant workers, employers, and broader MIPEX Index (0-100) 30 social cohesion. 20 10 Limited data availability hinders the implementation of evidence-based policies. Currently, data on the composition 0 MLT POL PRT NLD ESP FRA EST DNK GRC AUT ROU LVA SWE FIN CYP LTU BEL IRL CZE HUN DEU HRV LUX ITA BGR SVN SVK and profile of the migrant population is limited. Challenges include lack of detailed demographic and skills data, frag- Source: MIPEX (2020). mentation and limited standardization of data, imperfect Note: The MIPEX score is based on a set of indicators covering eight interoperability of systems across ministries, and delayed policy areas (labor market mobility, family reunification, education, political participation, permanent residence, access to nationality, anti- information sharing with local authorities. discrimination, and health). A maximum of 100 is awarded when policies meet the highest standards of equal treatment. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 9 Policymakers can further invest in actions to better harness the potential benefits of immigration Croatia can strengthen its migration policies, drawing enhancing the governance framework; (2) strengthening on global practices and innovative models. There are five regulations on recruitment agencies; (3) better aligning the broad areas where policy makers can focus their efforts to selection process to economic needs; (4) further investing better harness the economic and social benefits of well-man- in integration support for migrants; (5) and better leveraging aged immigration for long-term economic development: (1) technology and data to improve the overall migration system. Policy Recommendations Responsible Institutions #1 Developing migration Ministry of Demography and Immigration, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of and integration strategies Labor, Pension System, accompanied by Family and Social Policy, detailed action plans Ministry of Science, Education and Youth, and Strengthening local governments the immigration governance Ministry of Labor, Pension Broadening the scope and infrastructure coverage of Bilateral Social System, Family and Social Policy, Ministry of Foreign and Security Agreements European Affairs, CES Develop skills training Ministry of Labor, Pension and mobility programs System, Family and Social (for example, Global Policy, Ministry of Foreign and Skills Partnership) European Affairs ○○ Croatia can develop a comprehensive migration strategy ○○ To reinforce formal migration pathways, Croatia can ex- that identifies priority migrant profiles crucial for its eco- pand its network of bilateral and multilateral labor and nomic development, supported by concrete action plans, social security agreements with key sending countries. timelines, and adequate funding. This strategy should These agreements can facilitate data sharing, ensure the encompass mechanisms to attract, train, and integrate portability of benefits, and strengthen legal protection for foreign workers effectively, incorporating public aware- mobile workers. ness campaigns to align public sentiment with national priorities. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 10 ○○ Global Skills Partnerships (GSP) present a particularly GSP framework aligns naturally with Croatia’s objectives promising model for Croatia. This innovative approach in- for a more responsive immigration system to labor market volves training workers in their countries of origin, focusing needs. The country can leverage its established shortage on the skills demanded in both sending and receiving na- occupation list, recent TVET reforms, existing relationships tions. GSPs ensure mutual benefits, addressing brain drain with origin countries, and various financing mechanisms concerns and meeting Croatia’s specific skills needs. The to implement an effective GSP model. Policy Recommendations Responsible Institutions #2 Improving the licensing and regulation of recruitment agencies Strengthening regulations and enforcement on Strengthening monitoring Ministry of Labor, recruitment agencies Pension System, Family and incentive mechanisms and employers for recruitment agencies. and Social Policy Monitoring and enforcement mechanisms, particularly for employers ○○ Croatia needs to establish recruitment agencies’ licensing ○○ For employers, Croatia should invest in robust monitoring and monitoring to reduce migrants’ costs and enhance and enforcement mechanisms to ensure labor law compli- their legal protection. This includes developing comprehen- ance. This requires implementing risk-based inspections sive training of agencies, improving performance transpar- and balancing penalties for violations with incentives for ency with rating systems, and promoting industry self-reg- compliance. ulation through professional associations. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 11 #3 Policy Recommendations Responsible Institutions Enhancing the Labor Market Information CES, Ministry of Labor, Aligning Systems (LMIS) to include Pension System, Family and the selection process forecasts of skill and Social Policy of foreign workers with occupation demands labor market needs Making the application more transparent, trackable, Ministry of Interior, CES and streamlined ○○ Croatia can strengthen its labor market information sys- ○○ The selection process would also benefit from greater tem through comprehensive data collection, advanced transparency to ensure that both employers and migrants analytics, and expanded consultation with employers and clearly understand the eligibility requirements and eval- unions. A robust system would enable migration policies uation criteria. to better address projected shortages and regional invest- ment plans. The UK’s Migration Advisory Committee offers a valuable model for assessing skills needs and informing responsive immigration policies. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 12 Policy Recommendations Responsible Institutions #4 CES, Ministry of Science, Better matching and usage Education and Youth, of foreign workers' skills Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Croatian Agency for Science and Higher Education Ensuring a more effective matching of skills and integration Improving access to services for Ministry of Labor, Pension of migrants in Croatia the integration of System, Family and Social foreign workers in Policy, CES, Ministry of Interior the labor market Foster one-stop-shop and case management Local governments approaches ○○ Croatia can improve information provision to migrants ○○ Integration support for migrants can be expanded through during recruitment, offering detailed job information and comprehensive service provision such as orientation pro- requirements in migrants’ native languages. This approach grams, language training, and improved access to labor reduces costs, protects workers, and improves job-skill market programs. International evidence shows that lan- matching. guage courses integrated into initial training programs significantly improve labor market outcomes. ○○ Strengthening systems to recognize foreign qualifications is essential for maximizing migrant employability and ad- ○○ One-stop-shop service centers offering centralized infor- dressing skills shortages. This requires enhanced coopera- mation and services through case management models tion with origin countries on quality assurance standards. can provide more effective assistance. The delivery can be enhanced by offering services in multiple languages and through various channels. Local authorities can lead outreach efforts and service innovation, while central au- thorities can encourage local experimentation, evaluating and scaling up successful initiatives. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 13 #5 Policy Recommendations Responsible Institutions Implementing digital Ministry of Interior, Leveraging data solutions to enhance Ministry of Justice, Public integrated migration and technology for management Administration and Digital Transformation, CES effective migration systems Ministry of Interior, Enhancing data CBS, CES, different collection efforts ministries with roles on migration ○○ Enhanced data collection on immigrants would enable ○○ Administrative process digitization can streamline pro- more informed policy making. A centralized dashboard cedures, improve service access, enhance inter-agency tracking immigrant profiles, skills, and integration out- coordination, and support enforcement efforts. Encour- comes can help optimize service delivery to meet evolving aging migrants’ adoption of the Croatian eID is crucial for needs. Local authorities can develop tailored monitoring facilitating digital government interactions. systems that feed into national frameworks. ○○ A more data-driven, technology-enabled, and coordinated approach to migration governance can position Croatia to better address its evolving labor market and demographic challenges. Looking ahead: a collaborative future As Croatia navigates the complexities of immigration, it is The policy measures discussed in this overview can help essential for both policy makers and citizens to recognize the Croatia create a more effective, equitable, and resilient im- potential for growth and innovation that a diverse workforce migration system that benefits both native and foreign-born can bring. By embracing immigration as an important human populations while supporting the country’s long-term devel- resource strategy, the country can tackle labor shortages opment goals. Success will require sustained commitment and stimulate sustainable economic development. from all stakeholders, but the rewards—a more vibrant, thriving Croatia—are well worth it. Leveraging Immigration for Croatia’s Prosperity | Overview 14 Bibliography Bossavie, L., Garrote Sánchez, D., and Makovec, M. (2024). The Journey Ahead: Supporting Successful Migration in Europe and Central Asia. Europe and Central Asia Studies. Washington, DC: World Bank. CEDEFOP (2023). Cedefop Skills Forecast Database. Available at: https:// www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/skills-intelligence/ European Commission (2023). Business and Consumer Survey. Directorate- General for Economic and Financial Affairs (DG ECFIN). European Commission (2024). Eurostat Database” Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/main/data/database ILO, OECD, and World Bank (2015). G20 Labor Markets in 2015: Strengthening the Link between Growth and Employment. 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