Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 1 NORTH MACEDONIA COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 2 May 2024 © 2024 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington, D.C. 20433 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved Printed and manufactured in Washington, D.C. First Printing: [May 2024] This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be at- tributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to mem- bers of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting por- tions or all this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encour- ages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 3 CONTENTS Acknowledgments  4 Abbreviations  5 1. Introduction  6 2. Legal and institutional framework  7 3. Endowments  12 3.1 Health  12 3.2 Education  17 4. Economic opportunities  22 4.1 Labor market and employment status  22 4.2 Need and provision of care  28 4.3 Labour market segregation  32 4.4 Wage gap  33 4.5 Entrepreneurship and financial inclusion  34 5. Voice and agency  39 5.1 Attitudes towards women  39 5.2 Political participation  40 5.3 Economic leadership  42 5.4 Violence against women  43 6. Conclusion  46 7. References  47 Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This is one of six Western Balkans Country Gender Assessments (CGAs) prepared by a team led by Anna Fruttero and comprising of Chiara Broccolini, Armanda Car- cani, Alexandru Cojocaru, Roxanne Hakim, Olivera Kovacevic, Sanchi Kumal, Sel- ma Ljubijankic, Leonardo Lucchetti, Trang Nguyen, Ana Maria Oviedo, Ifeta Smajic, Bekim Ymeri, Zurab Sajaia, Marija Bashevska (North Macedonia), Bergin Kulenovic (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Juna Miluka (Albania and Kosovo), Jelena Žarković and Marko Vladisavjevic (Montenegro and Serbia), Dominik Koehler (SOGI), Emilia Ga- liano and Isabel Santagostino (WBL), Adela Llatja (GIZ), and Ermira Lubani (UN Women, Gender Responsive Budgeting). Designed by Human Indeed Studio. The team thanks Daniel Halim, Daniel Kirkwood, Lisa Kolovich (IMF), Miriam Muller and Will Seitz for their peer review; and Lundrim Aliu, Samra Bajramovic, Odeta Bulo, Besart Myderrizi, Mjellma Recaj, Jasminka Sopova, Evis Sulko, Sanja Tanic, Eranda Toque, and Dragana Varesic for support with the organization of consultations. The team is also grateful for guidance and support from Varalakshmi Vemuru (Practice Manager, Social Sustainability and Inclusion), Ambar Narayan and Sal- man Zaidi (Practice Managers, Poverty and Equity), Massimiliano Paolucci (Coun- try Manager, Kosovo and North Macedonia), Nicola Pontara (Country Manager, Serbia), Emanuel Salinas (Country Manager, Albania), Christopher Sheldon (Coun- try Manager, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro), Richard Record and Ind- hira Santos (Program Leaders). The team undertook consultations with and benefited from insights from various agencies of governments, civil organizations, donors, and international organiza- tions. The team thanks the many stakeholders who shared their knowledge and helped shape the contents of these Country Gender Assessments. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 5 ABBREVIATIONS CEO Chief Executive Officer EU European Union EUROSTAT The statistical office of the European Union EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions GEI Gender Equality Index GEGI Gender Employment Gap Index HCI Human Capital Index ILOEST ILO Modelled Estimates and Projections Database ILOSTAT International Labor Organization Statistics INSTAT Institute of Statistics ISCED International Standard Classification of Education LFP Labor Force Participation LITS Life in Transition Survey NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. PISA Programme for International Student Assessment SSO State Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics UIS Institute for Statistics UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WHO World Health Organization Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 6 1. INTRODUCTION Promoting gender equality and increasing women’s participation in the economy are vital for North Macedonia’s development. Actively involving and fully utilizing the diverse skills of the population, especially those currently not in the workforce, is key to reducing poverty and achieving equitable wealth distribution. Despite progress in institutional mechanisms and policy frameworks for gender equality over the past decade, implementation still faces significant challenges. While the gender gap has narrowed in sectors like health and education, persistent dispari- ties remain in economic opportunities, unpaid household responsibilities, proper- ty rights, political engagement, and leadership roles. This Country Gender Assessment offers empirical evidence and analysis on gen- der equality in North Macedonia, following the framework proposed by the World Development Report on Gender Equality and Development (WDR 2012). The re- port examines recent progress and ongoing challenges across three dimensions: Endowments, Economic opportunities, and Voice and Agency. Drawing from var- ious data sources, including health, education, labor market dynamics, and gen- der-based violence indicators, the analysis provides insights into the country’s gender issues. Using data primarily from the WDI, 2021 Labor Force Surveys (LFS), 2023 Life in Transition Survey, and other sources, the report highlights significant gender disparities in human capital and access to economic opportunities.1 The highlights can be summarized as follows: • North Macedonia stands to gain significant economic advantages from clos- ing gender gaps, as indicated by the value of 19.7 of the Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI), identifying the potential rise in long-run GDP per capita from equalizing employment rates between genders. • While women in North Macedonia have generally attained higher levels of education than men, particularly in higher education, academic performance for both genders remains below the OECD average, ranking among the low- est in the PISA survey. Gender segregation within educational fields remains a significant challenge. • Gender disparities persist in economic opportunities, with women’s partici- pation in the labor force significantly trailing behind that of men. Women are 1 This note focuses on gender disparities specifically hindering the well-being and economic welfare of women in North Macedonia. However, gender gaps can arise in the outcomes and opportunities enjoyed by females and males across several dimensions. (WDR 2012). In many instances, men—rather than women—may suffer as a result of gender disparities. Regardless of whether these inequalities create disadvantages for men or for women, gender equality matters intrinsically, as well as instrumentally, to foster economic efficiency and development outcomes (WDR 2012). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 7 more likely to work part-time, and the majority of caregiving responsibilities fall on them, impacting their career advancement and workforce participa- tion, especially as institutional care options are underutilized. • A phenomenon known as the “motherhood penalty” is observable in North Macedonia. Young women often transition from school to inactivity upon family formation, contrasting with young men who typically see decreased inactivity rates and increased employment. This divergence in employment rates between genders becomes pronounced during family formation. Promoting gender equality in North Macedonia offers substantial opportunities. Apart from being inherently fair, advancing gender equality is essential for foster- ing inclusive growth and reducing poverty. Improving women’s economic pros- pects, access to resources, and empowerment is critical for addressing key policy challenges in North Macedonia, including boosting labor productivity, stimulating private sector development, and enhancing resilience. The structure of the report is as follows. Section 2 delves into the legal and insti- tutional framework. Section 3 assesses gender equality from the perspective of human endowments. Section 4 discusses progress and challenges in economic opportunities. Section 5 focuses on issues related to voice and agency. 2. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Despite notable improvements in North Macedonia’s legislative and policy frame- work for gender equality over the past decade, challenges persist in implemen- tation, in part due to limited human and financial resources at both central and local levels. Overall, North Macedonia has made progress in its legislative framework for gen- der equality, scoring 85.0 out of 100 in 2023 on the World Bank’s Women, Busi- ness, and the Law (WBL) index.2 This marks an improvement from 1975 (Figure 1). However, compared to the EU-27 average, North Macedonia has progressed at a 2 The WBL 1.0. index assesses how laws and regulations impact women’s economic opportunities across various areas, including Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. The score is calculated by taking the average of each index, with 100 being the highest possible score. The index is based on the analysis of the domestic laws and regulations, updated to October 2023. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 8 slower pace, and it ranks among the countries with the lowest WBL index in the Western Balkans, alongside BiH and Montenegro. While North Macedonia performs well in certain areas such as freedom of move- ment (Mobility Indicator), laws affecting women’s decisions to work (Workplace Indicator), constraints related to marriage (Marriage Indicator), constraints on women starting and running a business (Entrepreneurship Indicator), and gender differences in property and inheritance (Assets Indicator), there is room for im- provement in laws affecting women’s work after having children (Parenthood Indi- cator), laws affecting women’s pay (Pay Indicator), and laws affecting the size of a woman’s pension (Pensions Indicator) (Figure 2). According to the new Women, Business, and the Law legal frameworks index (WBL 2.0),3 women in North Macedonia have 80 percent of the legal rights of men. This update provides a deeper insight into the legal underpinnings of gender equal- ity, revealing a notable decrease in North Macedonia’s scores compared to the previous WBL 1.0 index (Figure 3). Key areas such as women’s pay, pension, and entrepreneurship support lag significantly behind. The policy framework on gender equality is primarily driven by the new Strategy for Gender Equality 2022 – 2027, adopted in July 2022. This strategy has three main goals: i) establishing an effective and efficient system for the advancement of gender equality in the country on central and local levels; ii) improving women’s position in private and public life, with a specific focus on the labor market, agricul- ture, political participation, healthcare, education, peace, culture, and sport; and iii) eliminating gender stereotypes and promoting a culture of nonviolence and non-discrimination based on sex, gender, and gender identity, with a specific focus on elimination of gender-based violence and gender stereotypes and sexism).4 3 The new WBL 2.0. index includes two additional indicators – Safety and Childcare – and new and revised questions under the original WBL indicators. The analysis continues to be based on domestic laws and regulations. The new Safety indicator expands the measurement legislation on violence against women. Previously, WBL 1.0. addressed only two forms of violence: sexual ha- rassment in employment (under Workplace indicator) and domestic violence (under Marriage indicator). The new Safety indicator now covers two additional forms of violence against women: child marriage and femicide. The new Childcare indicator assesses childcare services offered in center-based settings to children from birth to two years and 11 months. 4 Official Gazette, No. 170, 2020 Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 9 Figure 1. WBL 1.0. Index (1975-2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 90 80 70 60 50 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 ALB BIH XKX MNE SRB EU27 MKD Figure 2. WBL 1.0. Score by Indices (1975-2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 80 60 40 20 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Workplace Mobility Pay Marriage Parenthood Entrepreneurship Assets Pension Even with equal laws in place, achieving women’s rights and opportunities still faces significant challenges due to inadequate implementation and weak enforce- ment. WBL 2.0. supportive framework assesses the disparity between laws in the- ory and their application in practice (de jure vs de facto). It encompasses various instruments designed to facilitate the implementation of laws, including national policies, plans and programs, services, budgets, special procedures, and sanctions for noncompliance with certain standards. Data for North Macedonia reveal that the supportive frameworks needed to ensure the implementation of laws could be strengthened across almost all the indicators. In particular, supportive frameworks could be more robust in critical areas such as the legal frameworks governing the provision of childcare (Childcare Indicator), protection in the workplace against discrimination and sexual harassment (the Workplace indicator), and property and inheritance law (Assets Indicator) (Figure 4). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 10 Figure 3. WBL 2.0. Legal Score by Indices (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 WBL 2.0 legal score, EU-27 average 80 60 40 20 0 Mobility Workplace Marriage Assets Childcare Parenthood Safety Pay Entrepreneurship Pension Figure 4. WBL 2.0. Supportive Frameworks Score (2023) Source: World Bank: Women, Business, and the Law, 2024 100 80 WBL 2.0 supportive framework score, EU-27 average 60 40 20 0 Mobility Entrepreneurship Parenthood Assets Pension Childcare Pay Marriage Workplace Safety Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 11 SPOTLIGHT 1 – Gender-Responsive Budgeting Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) is an approach to budgeting that seeks to promote gender equal- ity by ensuring that public policies and expenditures are designed and implemented in ways that con- sider the different needs and priorities of women and men. It is an important tool to improve the trans- parency, accountability, effectiveness, efficiency, and equity of public expenditure. GRB brings into focus issues that are frequently overlooked within budget analysis and decision-mak- ing. These issues include the role that unpaid work plays in economic and social outcomes, especially the unequal distribution of and responsibility for unpaid work that is placed on women, and the extent to which women can voice their needs and participate in decision-making on budgets. GRB not only as- sists governments in innovating when it comes to the resources for financing the SDGs but also allows them to track allocations for gender equality and to assess the extent to which they are making this information publicly available and transparent. The Republic of North Macedonia has made significant efforts to advance gender equality and to in- tegrate GRB into national planning and policymaking. Since 2014, the methodology of GRB has been implemented by central government institutions in accordance with the provisions set forth under the Law on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men (2012) and the budget circular. The latter continues uninterruptedly to stipulate gender-specific obligations. In 2019 gender-specific provisions and guide- lines for central level budget users were included in the Government’s Strategic Planning Methodology, while the budget circular for local self-government units obliges municipalities to allocate resources for advancing gender equality at the local level. The Republic of North Macedonia moved forward with several new improvements related to GRB during 2021, namely the National Strategy for Gender Equal- ity (2022–2027) and the new Organic Budget Law, which was approved in 2022 by the Assembly and includes gender equality as a key principle. Source: UN Women Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 12 3. ENDOWMENTS North Macedonia has made strides in improving health outcomes, including life expectancy and infant mortality rates. However, certain public health aspects still lag behind those of comparable countries. Despite significant educational gains for women, including a reversal of the gender gap in enrollment, men are now trail- ing in educational attainment. Gender segregation persists in educational fields, exacerbating disparities. The 2020 Human Capital Index5 underscores these challenges, revealing that a girl born in North Macedonia today is expected to achieve only 57 percent of her potential productivity due to limitations in education and health, while a boy is projected to reach 54 percent. These figures fall below regional and EU averages (Figure 5). Figure 5. Human Capital Index (2020) Source: World Bank, 2020. 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% NORTH MACEDONIA ECA EU-27 Women Men 3.1 HEALTH Life expectancy has been steadily increasing since 2000. However, there is still room for improvement as North Macedonia’s life expectancy at birth was lower for both men and women compared to the EU-27 average. In 2020, women on average have a higher life expectancy at birth compared to men (76.77 years for 5 Source: World Bank (2020). The HCI calculates the contributions of health and education to worker productivity. The final index score ranges from zero to one and measures the productivity as a future worker of child born today relative to the benchmark of full health and complete education. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 13 women and 72.41 years for men (Figure 6). Over the period, the gender gap in life expectancy has remained stable (around 4.5 years on average). The average life expectancy is still below the EU average. North Macedonia has the second lowest life expectancy among Western Balkans, only followed by Serbia, although the lowest gender gap. Recent surveys show that the antenatal care for pregnant women as well as the post-natal care for mothers and newborns differ noticeably in rural and urban ar- eas as well among women from different ethnic backgrounds. In 2018-2019, 95.7 percent of the women aged 15-49 years with a live birth in the past two years had at least four antenatal care visits, while 81.1 percent had at least eight visits (the WHO recommended minimum for antenatal visits).6 Owing to these advancements, the maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) has declined from 12 in 2000 to 3 in 2020 (Figure 7), below the EU average. Compared to the countries in the Western Balkan region, North Macedonia has the second lowest maternal mortality ratio, after Montenegro.7 Figure 6. Life Expectancy at Birth by Gender (years), (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 11, 2024 85 80 75 70 65 60 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women- North Macedonia Men - North Macedonia Women - EU27 Men - EU27 6 UNICEF and SSO (2020) 7 National policy framework addressing the health of mothers and infants included the National Strategy for Safe Motherhood for 2010-2015 (unrenewed) and the Strategy for Sexual and Reproductive Health for 2011-2020 (unrenewed), as well as the Na- tional Safe Motherhood Committee (established 2010) and the National Perinatal Mortality Audit Working Group established by the Ministry of health in 2019, as an institutional response to the negative infant mortality rate trends in the 2010s (SSO, 2022; UNICEF, 2019). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 14 Figure 7. Maternal Mortality Rate (per 100,000 live births) (2000-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group, and UNDESA/Population Division, World Health Organization, 2023. Accessed: January 11, 2024. 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women - North Macedonia EU-27 Infant mortality rates have significantly decreased over the past two decades for both genders, leading to a decrease in the gender gap (Figure 8).8 However, the country’s infant mortality rate is still above the EU average and has the second highest infant mortality rate in the region of Western Balkans after Albania. In 1985, the male-to-female sex ratio at birth began to rise, peaking in 1990 at 1.09, up from 1.07. By 2021, North Macedonia’s sex ratio at birth reached 108 boys per 100 girls, notably surpassing the natural upper limit of 104 to 107 boys per 100 girls as established by Chahnazarian in 1988. This trend reflects a rise in son pref- erence, fueled by declining fertility rates and the availability of fetal sex-revealing technology in a society where son preference is prevalent.9 Regarding health conditions related to unhealthy behaviors, North Macedonia fac- es challenges. Obesity prevalence is increasing for both genders, with the gender gap narrowing in recent years. As of 2016, the prevalence of obesity was 22.1 percent for women and 22.6% percent for men (Figure 9). Similarly, in 2020, men exhibited a higher tobacco use rate, with a prevalence of 37.3 percent compared to 8.7 percent among women.10 8 While infant mortality continues to be more prevalent among boys than girls, this might be in line with sex differences in genetic and biological conditions, with boys being biologically weaker and more susceptible to diseases or premature death. 9 See also Guilmoto and Duthe’ (2013) and Duthe’ et al (2012). 10 Source: World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Accessed: January 11, 2024. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 15 Figure 8. Infant Mortality Rate by Sex (per 1,000 births) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UN DESA Population Division) at www.childmortality.org. Accessed: January 11, 2024. 20 15 10 5 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women - North Macedonia Men - North Macedonia Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Figure 9. Prevalence of Obesity (percent of population 18 years old and over) (2000-2016) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: World Health Organization (WHO): Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Accessed: January 11, 2024. 25 20 15 10 5 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 Women Men Figure 10. Adolescent Fertility Rate (births per 1,000 women aged 15 – 19) (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects. Accessed: January 11, 2024 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 North Macedonia Montenegro Albania Serbia BiH EU27 Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 16 Figure 11. Fertility Rate (births per woman) (2001-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Eurostat: Demographic Statistics. Accessed: January 11, 2024. 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 North Macedonia EU27 Kosovo Albania Montenegro Serbia BiH The adolescent fertility rate has notably decreased over the past two decades, although it remains higher than the EU-27 average. North Macedonia, like other Western Balkan countries, has seen a decline in adolescent fertility rates (Figure 10), with 16.4 percent of teenage girls between 15 and 19 years old giving birth in 2021, compared to 9.2 percent in the EU-27. Despite improvements in education and reproductive health awareness, North Macedonia still has the highest propor- tion of pregnant teenagers in the Western Balkans. Similarly, the fertility rate for the general population has persistently decreased below the replacement rate of 2.1 births per woman, dropping to 1.30 in 2021. This decline mirrors trends in the EU but is now lower than the EU average of 1.50 births per woman. North Macedonia has the lowest fertility level, compared to other Western Balkan countries, indicating a need to address factors influencing family planning decisions (Figure 11).11 With increasing life expectancy and decreasing fertility rates, there is a growing need for care for the aging population, which predominantly falls on women due to prevalent gender roles. The correlation between women’s labor force partici- pation and fertility rates highlights the importance of policies supporting work-life balance, such as public childcare, parental leave benefits, and flexible work ar- rangements. Additionally, addressing declining marriage rates requires challeng- ing social norms and gender role expectations to align with modern aspirations and ideals. 11 The observed decrease in the fertility rate in 2020, the lowest fertility rate since the country’s independence can be attributed to some extent to the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and its effect on the population in the country (SSO, 2022). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 17 3.2 EDUCATION The enrolment rates for primary and secondary education indicate a narrowing gender gap. By 2020, girls had achieved parity in primary school, were closing the gap with boys in secondary school, and held an advantage in pre-primary school settings. (Figure 12). The most significant gender gap is observed in tertiary ed- ucation, where women dominate with a gross enrollment rate of 50.6 percent in 2020, compared to men at 35.9 percent (Figure 13). Despite this, North Macedonia ranks fifth in the Western Balkans in terms of tertiary enrollment rates for women. Figure 12. Gender Parity Index for Gross Enrollment Rates by Education Level (2000-2021) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS. Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Note: The gender parity index for gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary, primary, and secondary education is the ratio of girls to boys enrolled in public and private schools at each level. Accessed: January 11, 2024 1.02 1 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.9 NM Preprimary NM Primary NM Secondary EU-27 EU-27 Primary EU-27 Preprimary Secondary 2000/01 2020/21 Figure 13. Gross Enrollment Rates in Tertiary Education (2000-2020) Source: The World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS. Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed: January 11, 2024. 80 60 40 20 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women- North Macedonia Men - North Macedonia Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 18 On average, women in North Macedonia achieve higher rates of educational at- tainment than men. In 2020, 25.1 percent of women between 25 and 64 years had attained tertiary education, compared to 21.4 percent of men in the same age group. This gender gap in educational attainment is more pronounced in younger age groups (Figure 14). For those aged 25 to 34, 44.1 percent of women had at- tained tertiary education, while the figure for men was 31.6 percent. However, as age increases, the gender gap shifts, with men in the 55 to 64 age group slight- ly outpacing women in tertiary education attainment (16.6 percent for men com- pared to 13.6 percent for women). Figure 14. Educational Attainment by Age-group (2020) Source: Eurostat; ISCED levels for primary education include less than primary, primary and lower secondary education (levels 0-2), secondary education includes upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education (levels 3 and 4), and tertiary education (levels 5 to 8) .INSTAT, LFS 2018-2020 FEMALE 25-34 years 35-44 years 45-54 years 55-64 years 0 20 40 60 80 100 Primary and lower secondary Upper Secondary Tertiary Education MALE 25-34 years 35-44 years 45-54 years 55-64 years 0 20 40 60 80 100 Primary and lower secondary Upper Secondary Tertiary Education Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 19 While there have been notable advancements in education for women in North Macedonia, the country still lags behind its counterparts in the Western Balkans and the European Union in terms of educational attainment. Compared to the EU-27, North Macedonia has lower levels of tertiary educational attainment for both men and women in the 25-64 age group. However, this trend is changing among younger generations. Additionally, when compared to other Western Bal- kan countries, North Macedonia has lower tertiary educational attainment levels for women compared to Serbia and lower levels for both men and women com- pared to Montenegro. Girls consistently outperform boys in school, as demonstrated by the PISA scores in 2022. The results indicate that girls surpass boys in reading, mathematics, and science. Overall, there is a 27-point gap between 15-year-old girls and boys, with the largest gap seen in reading scores (25 points), followed by science (16 points) and mathematics (6 points). However, both girls and boys in North Macedonia re- port lower results compared to EU countries. (Figure 15). Figure 15. Student Performance 15 Years: Harmonized Test and PISA scores (2022) Source: PISA scores, 2022 Harmonized test scores (2020) Science Mathematics 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 MN Girls MN Boys EU-27 Girls EU-27 Boys Despite the noted progress in tertiary education, fewer women in North Mace- donia enroll and graduate in STEM fields. Women are still more likely to pursue degrees in education, humanities, and social sciences, while men tend to opt for fields such as information and communication technologies and engineering,12 which offer higher earnings and growth prospects. However, the gender gap in STEM enrollment has been gradually narrowing in recent years as more women choose STEM fields for their future careers. Positive measures, such as awareness campaigns and scholarships for women in STEM, may have contributed to these changes (MLSP, 2022). Yet, by 2020, only 11 percent of women enrolled in tertiary 12 STEM fields - science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 20 education were in STEM fields, compared to 22 percent of men.13 This gender gap persists even at the tertiary education level, with 9 percent of women graduating in STEM fields in 2020, compared to 11 percent of men. Digital skills show small gender gaps. Younger women have more basic or above basic overall digital skills compared to young men. The gender gap favors women across all age groups, with the largest gap of 12.0 percentage points in the age group 16-24 years (Table 1). Digital skills increase with the level of education for both sexes, and the gender gap gets reversed for the highly educated (6 percent- age points favoring women with high formal education). However, North Macedo- nia still falls behind the EU-27 average and other countries in the region such as Serbia and Montenegro. Table 1. Individuals Who Have Basic or Above Basic Overall Digital Skills (percent, by sex, age group, and level of education) (2019) Source: Eurostat. Accessed: January 11, 2024.   NORTH MACEDONIA EU-27   Men Women Men Women AGE-GROUPS 16-24 years old 58 70 79.5 82 25-54 years old 34 35 64.3 62 55-74 years old 8 7 38.2 26 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Low formal education 13 9 35.6 27 Medium formal education 30 31 55.6 53 High formal education 62 68 86 82 13 Author’s calculations based on INSTAT educational statistics, 2020-2021 Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 21 SPOTLIGHT 2 - School Hours Parents of young children face the daunting task of juggling childcare responsibilities with earning an income. The scarcity of childcare facilities exacerbates this challenge, leaving parents with few options, such as relying on untrained caregivers, reducing work hours, or even quitting their jobs altogether. This issue extends beyond early childhood care; even when children reach primary school age, parents continue to grapple with the balance between work and childcare due to school hours and breaks. This struggle is amplified for single parents or households where both parents work full-time. Analyzing school calendars in the Western Balkans reveals that children spend only half the working hours of a full-time employee in school annually. This underscores the necessity for accessible and af- fordable preschool and afterschool care. The lack thereof not only impedes parents’ ability to work but also forces them into difficult decisions regarding their children’s care quality. Thus, the shortage of accessible and affordable preschool and afterschool care can have a profound impact on parents and families. It can limit parents’ ability to return to work or force them to make diffi- cult choices about the quality of care their children receive. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 22 4. ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES Despite women’s dominance in tertiary education, lower fertility rates, and longer life expectancy, these advancements have not been reflected in improved eco- nomic opportunities. North Macedonia still grapples with challenges like the wage gap, gender disparity in labor force participation rates, and significant occupation- al segregation. In 2022, the Gender Equality Gain Index (GEGI),14 which measures the potential increase in long-run GDP per capita from equalizing employment rates between genders, was 19.7 percent, highlighting the substantial economic and social benefits that would result from narrowing the gender employment gap. 4.1 LABOR MARKET AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS In North Macedonia, significant and enduring disparities persist in labor market outcomes between women and men. While female labor force participation has shown a gradual increase since 2000, it still lags far behind that of men. As of 2021, there exists a substantial gap of 23.6 percentage points in the labor force participation rate (53.1 percent for women compared to 76.7 percent for men) (Fig- ure 16). Despite efforts, these rates have plateaued for both genders, perpetuating the gender gap. North Macedonia displays wider gender disparities in labor force participation compared to the EU-27, primarily due to a lower proportion of wom- en participating in the labor force in contrast to the EU-27 (where it exceeds 68 percent). Meanwhile, male LFP levels are comparable between North Macedonia and the EU-27. 14 Source: Penning (2020). GEGI index measure of gender employment gaps equal to the long-run GDP per capita gains from increasing wom- en’s employment rates, so they are equal to men’s. The basic GEGI is defined as the gap between male and female employment as a share of total employment. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 23 Figure 16. LFP Rate (percent population 15-64 years old) (2000-2021) Source: Gender Data Portal. Original Source: International Labour Organization. “ILO Modelled Estimates and Projections database (ILOEST)” ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 11, 2024 80 70 60 50 40 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 Women - NORTH MACEDONIA Men - NORTH MACEDONIA Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Figure 17. Employment to Population Ratio by Sex (percent population 15-64 years old)(2010-2022) Source: See Jobs Gateway. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Men Women 2010 2015 2022 Similar to the labor force participation rate, North Macedonia also experiences enduring disparities in employment rates between men and women. Over the past decade, the employment-to-population ratio for males aged 15-64 has consistently exceeded that of females. As of 2022, the employment rates stand at 45.5 percent for females and 64.3 percent for males (Figure 17). Among the Western Balkan countries, North Macedonia exhibits one of the widest gender gaps in employ- ment rates, following BiH and Kosovo. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 24 Figure 18. LFP Rate by Education Attainment in North Macedonia (percent population 15-64 years) (2010-2022) Source: SEE Jobs Gateway. Accessed: January 11. 2024 Men 2022 Men 2010 Women 2022 Women 2010 0 20 40 60 80 100 Lower secondary Upper secondary Tertiary The gender gap in labor force participation and employment rates is notable among individuals without tertiary education. In 2022, men and women with only lower secondary education had a participation rate of 67 percent and 27 percent, respectively, indicating a significant gender gap (Figure 18). However, this gap de- creases considerably among those with tertiary education, where there are no significant differences in participation rates (94.2 percent vs 90 percent). The gen- der gap in the activity rate widens with age, peaking among the population aged 50-64 (at 34.8 percentage points in 2022).15 A similar pattern is observed for em- ployment rates (Figure 19). Gender gaps in employment rates are particularly pro- nounced among individuals with lower and upper secondary education (26 and 16 percentage points, respectively). However, for those with tertiary education, there are no significant gender disparities (2.2 percentage points). Upon closer examination of the employment rate among individuals aged 15 to 24 with tertiary education, a substantial gender gap exists within the same population (68 percent for men and 43 percent for women in 2020). This suggests that young, educated women either face lower employment prospects or are more selective in accept- ing job offers. The rates of youth not in education, employment, or training (NEET) are elevated for both young women (17.9 percent in 2021) and men (18.8 percent in 2021), but gender gaps have decreased since 2010 (Figure 20). Although NEET rates for both genders remain elevated compared to EU-27 countries, the gender gaps in NEET have been narrowing over the last 15 years. 15 SEE Jobs Gateway. Accessed: January 12, 2024. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 25 Figure 19. Employment to Population Ratio by Sex and Educational Attainment ( percent population 15-64 years old) (2010-2022) Source: See Jobs Gateway. Accessed: January 11, 2024 Men 2022 Men 2010 Women 2022 Women 2010 0 20 40 60 80 100 Lower secondary Upper secondary Tertiary Figure 20. Young People Not in Employment, Education, or Training (NEET) (2006-2021) Source: World Bank, Gender Data Portal. Original Source: ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 40 30 20 10 0 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 Women- NORTH MACEDONIA Men - NORTH MACEDONIA Women - EU27 Men - EU27 The transition to adulthood in North Macedonia follows distinct paths for young men and women. Typically, men experience a decrease in inactivity and an in- crease in employment rates after completing their education. On the other hand, women often transition from education to a period of inactivity, which aligns with the start of family-related activities from their late teens through their twenties and thirties (Figures 21-24). While the inactivity rate among men tends to stabilize or decline during these years, the rate of women not engaged in employment, edu- cation, or training (NEET) progressively rises, persisting until around age 40. This pattern highlights significant gender disparities in the transition from education to the workforce, influenced by societal roles and family responsibilities. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 26 Figure 21. NEET Rates by age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men Figure 22. Employment Rates by age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men Figure 23. Family Formation by age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 27 Figure 24. Share of Adults with Children 0-17 Y.o. by Age Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 Women Men Men’s inactivity in the labor market is mainly tied to factors such as education, training, or perceptions of job availability, while for women, it is primarily due to family commitments. Market-related reasons account for over 73 percent of men’s inactivity, compared to only 15 percent for women. Conversely, nearly 80 percent of women cite personal or family obligations as their main reason for inactivity, in sharp contrast to just 4 percent of men (Figure 25). Figure 25. Reasons for Inactivity by Sex (age 25-64 y.o.) Source: Labor Force Survey, 2021. Women Men 0 20 40 60 80 100 Care/Family Education Believe no work available Other In alignment with EU countries and other Western Balkan nations, both women’s lower labor market participation and their prevalence as part-time workers stand out (Figure 26). Part-time employment can present significant challenges for wom- en, including restricted career advancement and inadequate long-term economic and social stability. Additionally, it’s crucial to underscore the scarcity of viable part-time job opportunities (with fair wages) in North Macedonia. This scarcity like- Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 28 ly contributes to decreased labor market participation among women who have young children or caregiving responsibilities within their families. Conversely, in- formal or precarious employment is more prevalent among men.16 Figure 26. Share of Part-Time Employment by Gender (2013-2022) Source: ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 12, 2024 20 15 10 5 0 2013 2017 2022 Women Men 4.2 NEED AND PROVISION OF CARE The gender-based division of care responsibilities significantly affects women’s economic participation. Social norms often place a heavier burden of caregiving responsibilities on women compared to men. This burden is magnified when ac- cess to quality public or private care is limited, or resources to hire paid caregivers are scarce. Consequently, women, who disproportionately engage in unpaid work, often find themselves time-constrained, with less opportunity to participate in paid employment or work longer hours while juggling both paid and unpaid labor. This lack of time due to domestic responsibilities hampers women’s ability to complete their education, secure paid employment, dedicate time to starting or expanding businesses, and work as many hours for pay as men, pushing them towards infor- mal or lower-paying jobs. In North Macedonia, 48.7 percent of men and 37.7 percent of women agree with the statement that “A woman should do most of the household chores even if the husband is not working”.17 Consequently, women are the primary participants in unpaid care activities and domestic work in North Macedonia, leading to a signif- icant gap in household chore completion between women and men (Figure 27). 16 Sources: Gender Data Portal. Original Source: ILOSTAT. Accessed: January 12, 2024. SEE Jobs Gateway. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 17 LITS IV (2023) Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 29 Figure 27. Unpaid Domestic and Care Work (percent, 18+ population) (2019) Source: Gender Equality Index (GEI) North Macedonia 2019 (SSO, 2019); and GEI EU (EIGE, 2022) 100 80 60 40 20 0 Care work Household chores NM Women NM Men EU-27 Women EU-27 Men Men’s employment status doesn’t affect the average time spent on domestic work and childcare; both employed and unemployed men dedicate approximately one hour daily to unpaid work. However, for women, the contrast is striking, especially when compared with men in the same employment category. Employed women spend three times more time daily on domestic tasks and childcare than employed men. In contrast, unemployed women spend nearly five times more time on do- mestic work compared to unemployed men.18 The unequal distribution of domestic work and childcare often stems from the absence of comprehensive social, educational, and labor policies that address the reinforcement of gender norms and stereotypes at both individual and structural levels. Despite a recent increase in the number of kindergartens, access to child- care services remains limited, with 87 percent of children under the age of 3 not enrolled in childcare facilities, and satisfaction with the available services ranking lowest in the region.19 The COVID-19 pandemic and associated preventive measures have worsened the inequality in household chores and childcare responsibilities (UN Women, 2020). Women, especially mothers and those living with partners, have seen a significant increase in unpaid domestic work and childcare hours. Men reported spending more time on domestic tasks, particularly childcare, compared to the pre-pandem- ic period. However, these changes were less pronounced than those experienced by women. In North Macedonia, traditional childcare demands have been complemented by eldercare needs due to increased longevity: lower fertility rates and higher life 18 SSO, 2015 19 See: Data from EQLS, 2016. See also MLSP (2022), SSO (2022); Leshoska et al. (2022). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 30 expectancy are leading to a more aged population. These additional caregiving responsibilities may further burden women within households. Figure 28. Care Need in Households (percent of the population living in households with children, elderly and disabled, by country) (2023) Source: LFTS IV (2023) Bosnia and Herz. Serbia Albania Montenegro North Macedonia Kosovo 0 10 20 30 40 Only childcare Only elderly care Only disabled care The percentage of the population residing in households with young children (ages 0-6) and the elderly (ages 65+) serves as a crucial indicator of care requirements. In North Macedonia, living with elderly individuals (aged 65+) is more prevalent than living with young children (aged 0-6). Specifically, 36.3 percent of the population cohabitates with someone aged 65 or older, compared to 17.1 percent living with young children.20 While the presence of an elderly person may entail increased caregiving responsibilities for other adults, it could also result in reduced childcare duties if the elderly individual is providing care for grandchildren themselves. According to Life in Transition Survey (LFTS) IV, in North Macedonia 14 percent of the population resides in households solely requiring childcare, 8 percent in a household solely requiring elderly care, and 3.1 percent in a household requiring both (see Figure 28).21 Household members are the primary caregivers. In North Macedonia, 66 percent of households with childcare needs and 95 percent of households with elderly care needs opt not to use institutional care facilities. The most common reasons for not utilizing childcare facilities include childcare being provided by household members and concerns regarding the quality of the service. Similarly, elder care facilities are less frequently chosen due to caregiving provided by household members or the use of live-in support (Figure 29). 20 LITS IV (2023) 21 The LITS IV includes a question asking whether each household member needs care and whether they use institutional care facilities. . The question is asked for all children (0-6 years old), and elderly people. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 31 Figure 29. Reasons for Not Using Care Facilities by Type of Care Needed (2023) Source: LITS IV (2023) A. Reasons for not using childcare (percent of the population living in households with childcare needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality Safety concerns All places taken All children cared in the HH Other reasons B. Reasons for not using elderly care (percent of the population living in households with elderly care needs), by country Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia 0 20 40 60 80 100 Too far away Too expensive Low quality All places are taken Cared for in the family Cared for with live-in support Other reasons Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 32 4.3 LABOUR MARKET SEGREGATION Men tend to be overrepresented in industries traditionally seen as male-dominat- ed, like construction (11 percent of employed men compared to 1 percent of wom- en), mining, quarrying, and utilities (6 percent of men compared to 1.3 percent of women), as well as trade and transportation (28.7 percent of men compared to 22.9 percent of women) (Figure 30). Conversely, women are more likely to work in sectors typically considered female-dominated, such as manufacturing (17.4 percent of men compared to 23.5 percent of women), professional services (7.6 percent of men compared to 10.8 percent of women), and public administration and social services (16.7 percent of men compared to 29.3 percent of women). This concentration of women in specific industries not only leads to occupational segregation but also positions them more frequently in less profitable roles within each sector. For example women in agriculture working as unpaid contributing family workers, and those in manufacturing often being confined to low-paying positions characterized by limited advancement opportunities and substandard working conditions. Figure 30. Share of Employment by Sectors and Gender (2020) SSO, 2022 Men Women 0 20 40 60 80 100 Construction Trade, Transp., Hospitality Profes. Services Mining & quarry. Utilities Manufacturing P.A., Health, Edu., Other Social Serv. Agric, forestry, fishery Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 33 Figure 31. Share of Employment by Occupation and Gender (2020) Source: SSO, 2022 Men Women 0 20 40 60 80 100 Managers, professionals & technicians Clercks, services & sales Skilled agriculture workers Plants & machine operators Elementary occupations Armed Forces Women outnumber men in managerial, professional, and technical roles by 13 percentage points, which could reflect their higher levels of educational attain- ment (Figure 31). However, gender gaps persist in elementary occupations and clerical, service, and sales occupations (3 and 4 percentage points, respectively), leading to a prevalence of women as unpaid contributing family workers in agri- culture rather than as paid employees. This situation limits their involvement in income-generating activities. Additionally, significant gender gaps exist in occupa- tions traditionally associated with men, such as plant and machine operators and assemblers (15 percentage points), and skilled agricultural workers (3 percentage points), which predominantly involve physical labor. 4.4 WAGE GAP In the last decade, almost every developed nation has enacted regulations requir- ing the equitable treatment of women in the workforce.22 Despite progress in re- ducing the gender wage gap in numerous countries, it remains globally a relevant aspect of labor markets. According to ILOSTAT Global Wage Report 2018/19,23 the raw mean gender pay gap is equal to 18.8 percent,24 meaning that for every dol- lar men earn, women earn 81.2 cents. According to the same source, Northern, Southern and Western Europe have a lower raw gap of 13.325 percent, positioning 22 Data from Women, Business, and the Law (2024) show that 98 out of 190 countries had a law on equal pay for men and women. This has increased from 21 out of 190 countries in 1991. 23 See ILOSTAT, 2018 24 The data refers to the Factor weighted mean gender pay gap using hourly wages. The gender pay gap is higher when the esti- mate is based on monthly wages rather than hourly wages, and it’s equal to 20.5 percent, reflecting the fact that in most countries, women and men differ significantly with respect to working time – specifically, part-time work is more prevalent among women than men. 25 The highest average gap is noted in Sub-Saharan Africa (21.8 percent) and West Asia (20.8 percent). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 34 the region on a stronger foundation in the ongoing efforts to close the gender pay gap.26 Data from EU-SILC (2019) reveals that in North Macedonia, the gender pay gap is such that women earn 9.8 percent less than men (Table 2). Upon controlling for individual characteristics, occupation, and industry, the gender wage gap widens further. Specifically, the gap escalates to 14 percent after controlling for individual characteristics such as education level, age, and experience. This result may sug- gest a higher return to education and experience for men, potentially highlighting barriers for women in accessing the labor market and more lucrative sectors. It may also mean that, on average, employed women exhibit higher skill levels than their male counterparts. In other words, women, on average, have better labor market characteristics, which ‘hide’ the true magnitude of the gap. However, after controlling for individual and market factors such as occupation and industry, the wage gap narrows to 7.6 percent yet remains, suggesting the possibility of linger- ing discrimination against women. Table 2. Gender Wage Gap in Hourly Wages in the Western Balkans Note: Log the difference between female and male full-time employee hourly wages in each country. Individual controls: Education level, age and age squared, experience, and its square. Market controls: Occupation and Industry. Kosovo does not include experience due to high levels of non-response. Montenegro’s education and industry variables are less disaggregated than in the other countries. Source: EU-SILC, 2019 Country ALB MKD MNE SRB XKX YEAR 2020 2019 2019 2020 2018 RAW GAP -0.091*** -0.098*** -0.119*** -0.132*** 0.042* INDIVIDUAL CONTROLS -0.175*** -0.139*** -0.150*** -0.168*** -0.063*** IND. + MARKET CONTROLS -0.117*** -0.076*** -0.094*** -0.139*** -0.083*** 4.5 ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND FINANCIAL INCLUSION Entrepreneurship offers economic prospects for women and plays a role in job creation and overall economic development. Nevertheless, North Macedonia has fewer women-owned businesses, with female proprietors being more common in sole proprietorships. In 2019, women owned only 21 percent of enterprises in North Macedonia, significantly lower than the average share in European coun- tries (40.1 percent in 2021) and similar to other Western Balkans countries (22.5 26 The Foundation for the Advancement of Economics’ gender pay gap data for Western Balkans shows that the unadjusted wage gap for North Macedonia stands at 13.4 percent lower than the EU level of 16 percent. See the Foundation for the Advancement of Economics Policy note (2013). Data are from 2008. More recent data are not available. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 35 percent in the period 2016-2021). Additionally, women own a smaller share of larg- er enterprises compared to men (Table 3). Table 3. Active Enterprises by Size and Sex of Owner (percent) (2019) Source: SSO, Women, and Men in North Macedonia 2021   2019   Men Women Total Enterprises 78.9 21.1 1-10 employees 78.8 21.2 11-19 employees 88.8 11.4 20+ employees 82.9 17.1 Since 2011, a smaller proportion of women compared to men have owned formal institution accounts. This gender gap has widened over time; by 2021, 80 percent of women owned such accounts compared to 90 percent of men. Furthermore, both men and women in North Macedonia have lower ownership rates of financial institution accounts compared to their counterparts in EU-27 countries (Figure 32). Despite these challenges, North Macedonia boasts the highest share of financial account ownership for both men and women among Western Balkan countries, along with Serbia. Data on mobile money account ownership for North Macedonia is not available. Table 4. Borrowing from formal and informal channels, by sex (percent) (population 15+) (2011-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion, 2021     2011 2014 2017 2021 Borrowed from family Female 21 18.6 17.5 20.2 or friends Male 26.2 21.7 23.8 30 Borrowed from a formal Female 10.1 21 19.1 20.2 financial institution Male 11.1 29.2 21.9 24 In North Macedonia, 20 percent of women and 30 percent of men borrow through informal channels, often relying on family or friends for financial assistance. Over the past decade, rates of borrowing from informal sources have been slightly high- er for men (Table 4). Similarly, men have higher rates of borrowing from formal financial institutions. It’s noteworthy that the proportion of individuals borrowing Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 36 through informal channels is nearly twice as high in North Macedonia compared to the EU-27 countries in 2021, but slightly lower than the average for Western Balkan countries. Women are more frequent users of digital payments. Data on digital payments shows that in 2014, 45 percent of women and 63 percent of men made or received digital payments (Figure 33). These rates increased for both genders in 2017 to 61 percent for women and 70 percent for men. By 2021, the rates of digital payments had further risen to 69 percent for women and 80 percent for men. Figure 32. Financial Institution Account Ownership, by sex (percent) (population 15+) (2011-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion, 2021. Note: The chart shows the percentage of respondents who report having an account (by themselves or together with someone else) at a bank or another type of financial institution. 100 90 80 70 60 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Women - NORTH MACEDONIA Men - NORTH MACEDONIA Women - EU27 Men - EU27 Figure 33. Made Digital Payments in the Last Year, by sex (percent population 15+) (2014-2021) Source: World Bank, Global Financial Inclusion, 2021. EU-27 2021 North Macedonia 2021 EU-27 2017 North Macedonia 2017 EU-27 2014 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Women Men Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 37 Despite having equal legal rights to property, women and men often do not have the same access to information, leading to significant gender gaps in property ownership influenced by local customs and cultural norms. In North Macedonia, women have a disproportionately low share of property ownership compared to men, with 83.4 percent of properties owned by men (Mojsoska-Blazevski, 2016). Although there is no legislative barrier to women’s right to property ownership, the prevalent traditional gender norms affect the ownership and the inheritance practice, where properties are more often passed to men in families (Mojsos- ka-Blazevski, 2016; UN Women, 2019). However, there has been a gradual change in the past years, which might improve the property ownership of women in the foreseeable future (UN Women, 2019). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 38 SPOTLIGHT 3 - SOGI The Western Balkan countries have made strides in protecting fundamental rights, including those of sexual and gender minorities. However, the European Commission emphasizes the need for stronger implementation to combat discrimination and violence. The EU enlargement process offers an oppor- tunity for SOGI inclusion, with support from various development partners. Limited data on SOGI reveal the profound impact of discrimination, exclusion, and violence on LGBTI individuals and the region as a whole. Endowments - LGBTI individuals in the Western Balkans face significant challenges in education, em- ployment, and accessing essential services due to discrimination, bullying, and violence. A 2018 World Bank survey revealed alarming rates of negative comments and conduct towards LGBTI people in schools, with a notable impact on mental health, including increased suicide rates. Discrimination ex- tends to healthcare, where nearly 40% of respondents reported mistreatment or avoided treatment due to fear of discrimination. Widespread violence against LGBTI individuals further exacerbates the situation, with many cases going unreported. Additionally, accessing housing presents hurdles, as ev- idenced by higher refusal rates for same-sex couples compared to heterosexual counterparts. Mon- tenegro’s recent passage of a same-sex partnership law signals progress towards equality in various domains. Economic Opportunity - Data on labor market outcomes for LGTBI people remains extremely limited across the Western Balkans. A 2019 World Bank study in Serbia found that 15 percent of LGBTI people have experienced discrimination at work. Discrimination adversely affects their socio-economic out- comes; 10 percent of respondents have quit a paid job, and 7 percent have taken unexpected leave from work due to the discrimination they experienced. The same survey found that LGBTI people who reported experiences of workplace discrimination also reported lower incomes. A 2020 survey by the EU Fundamental Rights Agency found that LGBTI people in North Macedonia and Serbia frequently experience discrimination in the workplace: 25 percent of respondents in North Macedonia and 24 percent in Serbia respectively. Voice and Agency - Discrimination, exclusion, and violence remain widespread, and LGBTI people of- ten lack trust in the institutions designed to protect their human rights. Research in Serbia, for example, found that the vast majority of LGBTI people have low trust in the political system (95 percent), the legal system (93 percent), and the police (91 percent). The World Bank approaches sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) inclusion through its commitments to gender equality as well as social inclusion – two crucial components of the World Bank’s twin goals to eradicate extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity. Like heterosexual and cisgender women and girls, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgen- der, and intersex (LGBTI) people are held to and impacted by prevailing restrictive gender norms and thus struggle to equally participate in markets, services, and spaces. In the Western Balkans, the same restrictive norms that hinder women and girls from achieving their full potential lie at the root of stigma, prejudice, and violence against LGBTI people. Sources: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2020. A long way to go for LGBTI equality. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/ fra_uploads/fra-2020-lgbti-equality-technical-report_en.pdf World Bank Group. 2018. Life on the Margins: Survey Results of the Experiences of LGBTI People in Southeastern Europe. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30607 World Bank Group. 2019. A Comparative Analysis of the Socioeconomic Dimensions of LGBTI Exclusion in Serbia. World Bank. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 39 5. VOICE AND AGENCY Women’s agency in North Macedonia has substantially improved, especially through increased political participation and decision-making. However, concerns remain in terms of violence against women. 5.1 ATTITUDES TOWARDS WOMEN Social norms often shape gender roles and stereotypes, which can have negative effects on women’s outcomes by limiting their participation in the public sphere and their influence within the household. While most of the population perceives women and men as equally competent as business executives, there is a wider gender gap in perceptions of political leadership. According to the Life in Transi- tion Survey 2023, 90.7 percent of women and 83.1 percent of men perceive men and women to be equally competent as business executives. Although women tend to agree more with this statement, the gender difference is not substantial. However, there is a significant gender gap in perceptions of political leadership. For the statement “Men make better political leaders than women do,” 33.6 per- cent of women and 48.6 percent of men agree or strongly agree (Figure 34). Figure 34. Beliefs Related to Women’s Role in Public Life Source: LITS IV (2023) A. Women are as competent as men to be business executives (% of the population agreeing) 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Serbia Montenegro Women Men Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 40 B. Men make better political leaders than women do (% of the population agreeing) 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Albania BiH Kosovo North Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Women Men 5.2 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION The representation of women in parliamentary positions has increased significant- ly, from 3.33 percent in 1997 to 41.7 percent in 2022 (Figure 35). However, the share of women in ministerial positions has seen a much smaller increase, rising from 16.7 percent in 2005 to 21 percent in 2020 (Figure 36). This level remains low compared to the averages for both European countries (32.2 percent) and the Western Balkans (32.8 percent). Notably, the first government since the indepen- dence in 1991 did not include any women ministers. The first significant change occurred in 2004, with the appointment of two women ministers, but there was little change in subsequent years in the late 2000s (SSO, 2022). Between 2017 and 2020, governments had four women ministers out of 22, while the new gov- ernment in 2022 had three ministers and a woman serving as Deputy President of the Government in charge of good governance. Thus, there persists a significant gender gap, with the share of male ministers remaining notably higher than that of female ministers, and this gap has seen minimal change in recent years. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 41 Figure 35. Proportion of Seats Held by Women (percent) (1997-2022) Source: World Bank Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). Note: women in parliaments are the percentage of parliamentary seats in a single or lower chamber held by women. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 40 30 20 10 0 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 Figure 36. Proportion of Women in Ministerial Level Positions (percent) (2005-2020) Source: Gender Data Portal. Original Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). Women in Politics. Note: Women in ministerial level positions is the proportion of women in ministerial or equivalent positions (including deputy prime ministers) in the government. Prime Ministers/Heads of Government are included when they hold ministerial portfolios. Vice-Presidents and heads of governmental or public agencies are excluded. Accessed: January 12, 2024. 25 20 15 10 5 0 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 While changes in the Electoral Code have led to some progress, particularly in the representation of women councilors in local municipal councils, the number of elected women at the local level, especially as mayors, remains low compared to men. Throughout the years, there has often been a lack of women candidates for mayoral positions, and subsequently, few women have been elected as mayors (Reactor, 2021). Since the first local elections in 1996 up to the latest in 2021, a total of 660 mayors have been elected, of which only 18 were women, with the re- maining 642 being men (Reactor, 2021). In the 2021 local elections, only 25 wom- en ran as candidates in 17 municipalities out of 80 municipalities and the city of Skopje as a separate local administrative unit. Following the 2021 local elections, only two women were elected as mayors, including the mayor of the City of Sko- pje, out of a total of 81 municipalities. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 42 5.3 ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP In addition to political representation, women are significantly underrepresented in positions of economic power. They account for only 19 percent of board mem- bers in the largest traded companies, supervisory boards, or boards of directors (Table 5). Although there has been a slight improvement in the leadership of the central bank, with the appointment of the first woman Governor in 2018, men still occupy 100 percent of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) positions in the largest listed companies in the country (Reactor, 2022). A recent report indicates there is significant gender disparity in the management structures of public enterprises, with women notably underrepresented (Popovikj and Pankovski, 2020). In 2019, 28 percent of women were part of the manage- ment structures of the enterprises, comprising just 6 percent of CEOs, 30 percent of members of Management Boards, and 32 percent of members of the Supervi- sory Boards of public enterprises (Popovikj and Pankovski, 2020). These power imbalances cannot solely be attributed to educational attainment or lack of exper- tise, as employed women, on average, have higher educational attainment com- pared to men. Table 5: Distribution of Economic Power, North Macedonia and EU (2015-2020) Source: GEI 2019, 2021 (EIGE, 2022). EU-28 for 2015. North Macedonia EU-27   Women Men Women Men Share of members of boards in largest quoted companies, supervisory board or board of directors 2015 21 79 14 86 2018-2020 19 81 29 71 Share of board members of the central bank 2015 25 75 18 82 2018-2020 32 68 24 76 Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 43 5.4 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Violence against women remains a challenge in North Macedonia, with social norms often tolerating such behavior.27 Findings indicate a very high prevalence of various forms of violence against women (OSCE, 2019). More than half of wom- en report experiencing some form of gender-based violence since the age of 15. Additionally, 30 percent of women disclose experiencing sexual harassment since the age of 15, with 10 percent reporting such incidents in the 12 months preceding the survey. Psychological violence perpetrated by an intimate partner is particu- larly common. Both women and experts in the country highlight the shortage of shelters, which face sustainability challenges due to inadequate funding, primarily reliant on foreign donors. Women in rural areas encounter specific obstacles, in- cluding limited access to shelters near their homes and high financial dependence on their partners. Table 6. Experiences of Intimate Partner Domestic Violence (2019) Source: OSCE, Violence against women: North Macedonia (2019) TYPES OF VIOLENCE EVER LAST 12 MONTHS Any type of violence 54.0 20.0 IPV 44.0 12.0 Sexual harassment 30.0 10.0 IPV/non-IPV sexual and physical violence 14.0 4.0 Stalking 7.0 2.0 27 North Macedonia still lacks available comprehensive data on the prevalence of gender-based violence. Relevant institutions lack comprehensive and standardized mechanisms and procedures for continuous data collection and reporting on the prevalence of gender-based violence, even though, recently the State Statistical Office has initiated the process of methodological preparations for a national survey, aimed at continuous data collection and production of statistics on this alarming societal problem (Gender Equality Platform, 2022; GREVIO, 2022). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 44 Harmful traditional attitudes towards gender roles are changing, however, slowly (OSCE, 2019). There remains an important minority of women who retain a tradi- tional view of the role of women in society (OSCE, 2019). Nearly half of the wom- en (48 percent) think that domestic violence is a private matter and should be handled within the family, including 31 percent who agree that this should be the case. In comparison, across the EU, only 14 percent of women would agree that domestic violence is a private matter. While attitudes towards women who experience sexual violence are generally supportive, there is still a significant portion of the population holding concerning beliefs. Thirty percent of women believe that those who claim abuse or rape often fabricate or exaggerate their experiences, and a similar proportion believes that violence against women is frequently provoked by the victim (28 percent). Inter- estingly, women with tertiary education and those residing in urban areas are less likely to hold these views (OSCE, 2019). Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 45 SPOTLIGHT 4 – Intersectionality: gender and the Roma community The Roma constitute the largest ethnic minority in Europe, and they rank among the most marginal- ized, vulnerable to human rights violations and socially isolated communities in the European Union. According to the last census from 2021, there were 46,433 people counted as Romani in North Mace- donia, equal to the 2.53 percent of the population.2 Roma women face higher unmet medical needs, partly due to high costs or lack of insurance. Antenatal care coverage is lower among Roma women compared to national averages, and post-natal care is also less accessible. Barriers to education for Roma include poverty, early marriage, and exclusionary practices, impacting their future economic and social opportunities. Financial constraints and the need to work contribute to education barriers and early dropouts among Roma men, whereas for Roma women and girls, early marriage is a common barrier.. Following the context and access to primary and secondary education, Roma students have a low share of enrolment in tertiary education and in 2020/2021 the share of Roma women is slightly higher compared to men. While Roma enrolment in education is below na- tional averages, North Macedonia shows relatively higher completion rates for Roma in tertiary and secondary education. Labor market participation is significantly lower among Roma women, with gender gaps in employ- ment outcomes. Limited public transport and infrastructure in Roma and rural areas, along with safety concerns in public spaces, hinder their employment opportunities. Furthermore, Roma women are particularly susceptible to intimate partner violence, which often goes unreported due to various societal and institutional barriers. Traditional attitudes and norms among Roma and Albanian-speaking women may also restrict their access to necessary services and support. Notes: 1. Roma is used to refer to a number of groups (for example, Roma, Sinti, Kale, Gypsies, Romanichels, Boyash, Ashkali, Egyptians, Yenish, Dom, Lom, Rom, Abdal), including travelers, without denying the specificities of these groups. These groups are all considered under the wider Roma umbrella in the European Union (EU) Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies (European Commission 2011). 2. See State Statistical Office Census 2021. Sources: Robayo-bril et al., 2019; Hughson, 2014; UNICEF, 2014, World Bank, 2015 Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 46 6. CONCLUSION Gender equality plays a vital role in driving economic development and fostering a fairer society in North Macedonia. While commendable progress has been made in education, health, and political participation, there are still critical areas requir- ing attention to fully realize gender equality. Despite women in North Macedonia attaining higher educational levels than men, their presence in the labor market remains significantly lower, pointing to systemic barriers hindering their full eco- nomic participation. Women often encounter reduced employment opportunities and may withdraw from the labor market upon transitioning to motherhood. This not only impacts individual women but also has broader economic ramifications by underutilizing a significant portion of the workforce. Accessible childcare services can alleviate these barriers, leading to more equitable labor force participation rates between genders. Additionally, addressing the educational disadvantages faced by boys, particularly in higher education, is a challenge that North Macedonia must con- front to ensure that all individuals can reach their full potential. Driving these improvements necessitates a robust framework for collecting and analyzing gender-disaggregated data. Such data will empower policymakers to understand the specific needs and challenges faced by different groups, enabling tailored interventions. In conclusion, advancing gender equality in North Macedonia is crucial for social justice and unlocking the economy’s full potential, allowing both women and men to contribute equally and thrive. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 47 7. REFERENCES Adsera, Alicia. 2004. “Changing Fertility Rates in De Laat, Joost and Almudena Sevilla-Sanz. 2006. Developed Countries. The Impact of Labor Market Working Women, Men’s Home Time and Low- Institutions,” Journal of Population Economics, est-Low Fertility,” ISER Working Paper 2006-23. 17(1): 17-43. Duthe’, Geraldine, France Mesle, Jacques Vallin, Ahn, Namkee and Pedro Mira. 2002. “A Note on Irina Badurashvill, and Karine Kuyumjyan. 2012. the Changing Relationship between Fertility and “High Sex Ratios at Birth in the Caucasus: Modern Female Employment Rates in Developed Coun- Technology to Satisfy Old Desires,” Population and tries,” Studies of the Spanish Economy, 13(4): Development Review, 38(3): 487–501. 667-682. Fair Wear. 2021. “North Macedonia country study Amuedo-Dorantes, Catalina and Sara De la Rica. 2021” 2006. “The Role of Segregation and Pay Structure on the Gender Wage Gap: Evidence from Matched Fanelli, Ester and Paola Profeta. 2021. “Fathers’ Employer-Employee Data for Spain,” B.E Journal of Involvement in the Family, Fertility, and Maternal Economic Analysis & Policy, 5(1): 1-34. Employment: Evidence From Central and Eastern Europe,” Demography, 58(5): 1931-1954. Anderson, Thomas and Hans-Peter Kohler. 2013. “Education Fever and the East Asian Fertility Puz- Fernandez, Raquel and Alessandra Fogli. 2009. zle: A Case Study of Low Fertility in South Korea,” “Culture: An Empirical Investigation of Beliefs, ´ Asian Population Studies 9 (2): 196– 215. Work, and Fertility,” American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics 1 (1): 146–77. Bick, Alexander.2015. “The Quantitative Role of Childcare for Female Labor Force Participation Gender Equality Platform. 2021. “Safe abortion and Fertility,” Journal of the European Economic is basic healthcare-Period!” Press prelease, 28 Association 14(3): 639-668. September. Cukrowska, Ewa and Angela Kóczé. 2013. Gender Equality Platform. 2022. “Shadow Report “Interplay Between Gender and Ethnicity: Exposing on the Implementation of the Council of Europe Structural Disparities of Romani Women. Analysis Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence of the UNDP/World Bank/EC regional Roma survey against Women and Domestic Violence in North data,” Roma Inclusion Working Papers. Bratislava: Macedonia,” April. UNDP. Goldin, Claudia. 2014. “A Grand Gender Conver- D’Albis, Hippolyte, Paula E. Gobbi, and Angela gence: Its Last Chapter,” American Economic Greulich. 2017. “Having a Second Child and Access Review, 104(4): 1091-1119. to Childcare: Evidence from European Countries,” Journal of Demographic Economics 83 (2): 177-210. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor.2021. “2021/22 Global Report. Opportunity Amid Disruption,” Lon- Dahl, Gordon B., Katrine V. Loken, Magne Mogstad, don Business School. and Kari Vea Salvanes “What Is the Case for Paid GREVIO.2022. “Report Submitted by North Mace- Maternity Leave?,” Review of Economics and Statis- donia Pursuant to Article 68, Paragraph 1 of the tics, 98(4): 655-670. Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Del Boca Daniela. 2002. “The Effect of Childcare Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic and Part Time Opportunities on Participation and Violence (Baseline Report),” GREVIO/Inf(2022)5. Fertility Decisions in Italy,” Journal of Population Economics 15(3): 549-573. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 48 Guilmoto, Christopher Z. and Geraldine Duthe’. Lopes, Marta. 2020. “Job Security and Fertility De- 2013. “Masculinization of Births in Eastern Europe,” cisions,” Unpublished Manuscript, University Carlos Population & Societies, 506 (4): 1-4. III de Madrid. Milenković, Nataša. 2018. “Nowhere to Turn: Gen- Guner, Nezih, Ezgi Kaya, and Virginia Sanchez-Mar- der-based Violence Against Roma Women,” UNDP. cos. 2020. “Labor Market Institutions and Fertility,” CEMFI, Unpublished Manuscript. Miškovska Kajevska, Ana. 2018. “Suspending Democracy, Harming Gender Equality: The 2013 HERA. 2020. “Advancing Sexual and Reproductive Law on Pregnancy Termination in Macedonia,” In: Health and Rights in the National Policies of North Verloo, M. (ed.) Varieties of Opposition to Gender Macedonia: Evidence from the Monitoring of the Equality in Europe. New York & London: Routledge. National SRH Action Plan 2018 – 2020,” Policy Brief. Ministry of Economy. 2018. “Strategy for Women Entrepreneurship Development in the Republic of HERA. 2022. “With Better Access to Contraception Macedonia, 2019 – 2023,” Skopje, October. and Family Planning Services to Universal Health- care,” Public policy paper. MLSP. 2021. “National Action Plan for the Pro- tection, Promotion and Fulfillment of the Human ILO and EBRD. 2020. “COVID-19 and the World of Rights of Roma Women and Girls 2022 – 2024,” Work: Rapid Assessment of the Employment Impact Ministry of Labour and Social Policy, Skopje. and Policy Responses. North Macedonia,” Geneva, ILO. MLSP. 2022. “New Investments in Kindergartens in the Period 2014 – 2021,” Press release, Ministry of ILOSTAT. 2018. “Global Wage Report 2018/19: What Labour and Social Policy, Skopje. Lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps,”. ILO Geneva. Mojsoska-Blazevski, Nikica. 2016. “Labour Mar- Kleven, Henrik, Camille Landais, Johanna Posch, ket Transitions of Young Men and Women in the Andreas Steinhauser, and Josef Zweimuller. 2019. Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,” Geneva, “Child Penalties across Countries: Evidence and ILO. Explanations,” AEA Papers and Proceedings 109:122–126. Mojsoska-Blazevski, Nikica, Marjan Petreski, and Ayhan Öztas. 2017. “National Research on Low Kleven, Henrik, Camille Landais, and Gabriel Female Labour Market Participation (Quantitative Leite-Mariante. 2023. “The Child Penalty Atlas,” Based Evidence from a New Survey),” Skopje, UN NBER Working Paper 31649. Women. Korunovska, Neda, Jana K. Srbijanko, Sneska Ilikj, NDI. 2020. “Violence Against Women in Political and Tanja Maleska. 2015. “Women in Politics: Paths Parties in North Macedonia. Assessment Report,” to Public Office and Impact at the Local Level in National Democratic Institute, Skopje. Macedonia,” Reactor – Research in Action. Kunze, Astrid. 2005. “The evolution of the Gender OECD. 2018. “Program for International Student Wage Gap,” Labor Economics, 12(1): pp. 73–97. Assessment (PISA), Reading, Mathematics and Science Assessment,” March. Leshoska, Vaska, Irina Jolevska, Biljana Kotevska, and Blazen Maleski. 2022. “Gender-Based Dis- Olivetti, Claudia and Barbara Petrongolo. 2017. crimination and Labour in North Macedonia (II),” “The Economic Consequences of Family Policies: Reactor - Research in Action. Lessons from a Century of Legislation in High-In- come Countries,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 31 (1): 205- 230. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 49 Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban and Max Roser. 2020. Robayo-Abril, Monica, Carmen de Paz Nieves, and “Marriages and Divorces,” Published online at Trinidad Saavedra Facusse. 2019. “Closing the OurWorldInData.org Gender Gaps Among Marginalized Roma in the Western Balkans,” Washington, DC. World Bank. OSCE. 2019. “Well-being and safety of women: North Macedonia,” OSCE-led survey on violence Sproule, Katie, Natasha Dimitrovska,Marija Ristes- against women. ka, and Victoria Rames. 2019. “USAID/North Macedonia Gender Analysis Report,” Washington Pennings, Steven Michael. 2020. “A Gender Em- DC. Banyan Global. ployment Gap Index (GEGI) : A Simple Measure of the Economic Gains from Closing Gender Em- SSO.2021. “Enrolled Students in Undergraduate ployment Gaps, with an Application to the Pacific Studies, 2020/2021,” State Statistical Office of Islands,” Washington, DC. World Bank.Petreski, North Macedonia, Skopje. Marjan and Nikica Mojsoska-Blazevski. 2015. “The Gender and Motherhood Wage Gap in the Former SSO.2022. “Women and Men in North Macedonia: Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: An Econometric A statistical portray of trends in gender equality,” Analysis,” Working Paper 6, Geneva, ILO. State Statistical Office of North Macedonia, Skopje. Popovikj, Misha and Marko Pankovski. 2020. SSO and UNICEF. 2020. “North Macedonia and “Who’s governing there? Report for 2019,” Policy North Macedonia Roma Settlements Multiple In- brief No. 12/2020, Institute for Democracy Societas dicator Cluster Survey 2018-2019. Survey Findings Civilis – Skopje. Report.” Skopje. Raute, Anna. 2018. “Can Financial Incentives SSO. 2022b. “News Releases: Institutions for Child- Reduce the Baby Gap? Evidence from a Reform in care and Education – Kindergartens / Centers for Maternity Leave Benefits” Journal of Public Eco- Elderly Childhood Development 2012-2021,” State nomics 169: 203-222. Statistical Office of North Macedonia, Skopje. Reactor.2015. “Shadow report on the implemen- tation of the gender equality strategy in 2015,” UNICEF. 2014. “Realizing the rights of Roma Research in Action. children and women in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Reactor.2020. “Shadow report on the implemen- Serbia,” UNICEF Insights Issue 2. tation of the gender equality strategy 2018-2019,” Research in Action. UNICEF. 2019. “New national task force to conduct regular audits of perinatal deaths,” UNICEF Press Reactor. 2021. “Local Elections 2021, Review of release March 4th. Candidate Lists for Mayors and Selected Represen- tatives from a Gender Perspective,” Research in UNICEF. 2022. “Education Pathways in Roma Action. Settlements: Understanding Inequality in Educa- tion and Learning. Findings from MICS6 in Koso- Reactor. 2021b. “Men in Care (MiC): Caring Mas- vo*, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia,” culinities in North Macedonia, Country report,” UNICEF Report. Research in Action. UN Women. 2019. “Measuring Women’s Empow- Reactor. 2022. “Gender-Based Discrimination and erment in Agriculture with Survey-Based and Labour in North Macedonia,” Research in Action. Experimental Economics Method,” UN Women and Robayo-Abril, Monica and Natalia Millan. 2019. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Food, Ss. Cyril “Breaking the Cycle of Roma Exclusion in the West- and Methodius University Skopje. erns Balkans,” Washington, DC. World Bank. Country Gender Assessment North Macedonia 50 UN Women. 2020. “The Impact of COVID-19 on Women’s and Men’s Lives and Livelihoods in Alba- nia,” UN Women, Tirana. UN Women and DESA.2022. “Progress on the Sus- tainable Development Goals: The Gender Snapshot 2022.” Vladisavljeviu, Marko, Nevana Iavanovoic, Sonja Avlijas, and Suncicia Vujic. 2013. “Gender Pay Gap in the Western Balkan Countries: Evidence from Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia,” Policy Note, Foundation for the Advancement of Economics. Vasireddy, Sindhu, Ann Berrington, Bernice Kuang, and Hill Kulu. 2022. “Education and Fertility in Europe in the Last Decade: A Review of the Litera- ture,” Working paper No.103, Center for Population Change. World Bank. 2017. “Promoting Women´s Access to Economic Opportunities. FYR Macedonia,” World Bank. Washington DC. World Bank, 2020. “Assessment of Barriers and Opportunities Using Gender and Roma Lens in North Macedonia: Case of Transport, ” World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank. 2024. “Women, Business and the Law, 2024,” World Bank. Washington, DC. WHO. 2022. “Maternal Mortality Measurement: Guidance to Improve National Reporting,” Geneva: World Health Organization.