69939 TEACHER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OVERVIEW OF POLICY BRIEFS (updated December 31, 2009) Acknowledgements of writers: Eric Allemano, Neil Baumgart, David Chapman, Helen Craig, Richard Kraft, Ralph Rawlinson, Hilary Thornton. Acknowledgement of Peer Reviewers: Don Bundy, Luis Beneveniste, Aidan Mulkeen, Deepa Sanker, Sofia Shakil, Emiliana Vegas, Jeffrey Waite, Aigly Zafeirakou A. CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: THE EARLY YEARS 1. Effective Teachers and Performance Standards Schools typically report the quality of their teaching staff as a distribution by levels of qualifications, a quality proxy readily available. Yet formal qualifications of teachers and other information frequently recorded on a database of teachers (e.g. gender, age, degrees held, certification) seldom predict effectiveness to raise student achievement. Stating that quality teaching should be based on what teachers know and should be able to do seems beguilingly simple. But an initial challenge is to condense the complex and diverse array of knowledge and skills expected of teachers into a common conceptual framework that we might label professional standards for teachers. It is clear that the standards need to be: owned by teachers themselves rather than imposed if they are to work effectively in improving teaching and learning; perceived as fair, challenging, and helpful in providing feedback to teachers on their performance; capable of affording due recognition to teachers when they improve their performance; valued by employers; used in key teacher management decisions; and respected by the public as an authentic measure of what teachers know and are able to do. Teaching standards are necessarily culturally based. While there are a number of international standards such as assessment and professionalism that can be found in almost every setting, there are others that remain specific to each country. Standards can be used for multiple purposes: (i) recruitment and retention; (ii) initial teacher training; (iii) induction, (iv) certification; (v) professional development; (vi) performance pay; (vii)career progression; and (viii) public confidence in the system.s 2. Accreditation of Teacher Education Institutions and Programs Accreditation serves several important quality functions: (i) assures the public that institutions have met rigorous standards; (ii) establishes common professional standards for the preparation of teachers and other school personnel; (iii) encourages excellence in curriculum and student performance, faculty and resources in college and university faculties of education; (iv) links national standards for teacher preparation with national standards for student learning; (v) helps to mobilize adequate resources to prepare quality personnel to improve student learning; and (vi) brings previously unaccredited institutions into the profession’s emerging quality-assurance system. Globally, accreditation of teacher education institutions is more common in highly decentralized countries, where the provision of teacher education and training is managed by many different institutions. In such countries, accreditation systems can be an effective tool for policy-makers to monitor and improve the quality of education provided to future teachers. 1 There tend to be three main approaches to managing the accreditation of teacher education institutions, which reflect choices of governance of these institutions: political- directly managed by ministries of education; institutional- attach teacher education to universities; and professional- strong and independent professional organizations representing teachers. Teacher accountability tends to be driven by one or more of the following factors: compliance with regulations, usually set by governments; adherence to professional norms, established by professions; and results-driven, or measures of student achievement. Accreditation cannot “guarantee� the quality of training received at a particular institution, but it can set standards which can lead to higher quality teacher graduates. It can serve as an accountability measure to provide greater assurance that teachers graduating from an institution have received an appropriate education to be successful in the classroom. 3. Teacher Certification Teacher certification is an important educational quality policy issue, not only because it is seen as a proxy of a teacher’s ability to meet professional standards, but also because it is linked to salary and career development issues, which have implications for stabilizing and improving the education work force. Teacher certification, also known as teacher licensing in many countries, has the purpose of clearly differentiating between those who are “qualified� to teach and those who are not. However, some certification requirements restrict a school’s ability to employ uncertified, but perhaps more highly competent teachers. Initial teacher certification usually reflects specific competencies in knowledge, attitudes and skills acquired in pre-service training. These standards must be measurable. Mentored practice in school settings is an important component in preparing teacher trainees for certification and entrance into the profession. Certification is also an important step in accountability. Requirements vary greatly from country to country, and even from state to state, but when properly designed and administered it provides one more source of evidence that a teacher meets at least minimal requirements to be in the classroom. Advanced licensure or certification can also be used to require teachers to be involved in continuous professional development (CPD), keeping up on the latest knowledge and pedagogy in their fields. Many countries also currently permit persons wishing to teach to go through some type of alternative certification program, often involving full-time teaching in a school, mentoring by master teachers, taking night and summer course work, passing written examinations, developing portfolio, and be observed by teaching experts. 4. Teacher Educators and Initial Teacher Education Programs Teacher educators were traditionally experienced teachers from primary and secondary schools, who were then appointed to work in Normal Schools/Teacher Training Institutes in preparing new teachers. With the initial teacher training period becoming extended, sometimes now up to a “regular� four or five year degree program within a traditional university or teacher training college, it is no longer acceptable for teacher educators to only have a Bachelor’s degree, and “practical� teaching experience. In most countries the Masters or Ph.D. is becoming the norm. The intellectual quality of teachers has dominated both discussion and research on teaching for many years. Much research has concluded that with few exceptions, future teachers in many come from among secondary graduates with lower entrance scores than their peers. While many 2 countries have put into place a variety of “screens� to better guarantee the quality of future teachers, in many countries there are still comparatively few barriers, and “contract� teachers with limited training make up a large percentage of the profession. Teacher education has been accused of being overwhelmingly theoretical in nature for much of the instruction, regardless of institution, and many countries have therefore put into place rules and regulations to require extensive school-based observation, tutoring and student teaching experiences. Some countries have also been experimenting with: five year programs and programs for adults coming to teaching from other occupations; extended observation, teacher aiding, practice teaching and internships in the schools; strengthening of initial certification and re-certification: continuous professional development (CPD) requirements; greater use of mentor and master teachers; and the elaboration of performance standards for teachers which also serve to guide requirements for initial teacher education programs. 5. Teacher Recruitment and Deployment (paper forthcoming) B. CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: THE YEARS AFTER INITIAL TRAINING 6. Induction Programs for Newly Trained Teachers Despite a long history of new teachers having a semester or year long student teaching experience, few new teachers are given sufficient support during their initial years as full-time teachers. New teachers need additional support to improve their practice and learn professional roles and responsibilities. This is particularly true in countries where initial teacher education programs remain overwhelmingly abstract and unconnected to the real world of the schools. There are many characteristics of induction programs, but among the most common are a new teacher orientation in which teachers learn key information about the school and profession. Mentoring relationships with veteran teachers provide opportunities for new teachers to observe, co- or team-teach, and plan joint lessons. While a single “mentor� teacher for each new teacher is perhaps the most common pattern, some schools provide a full support team with whom new teachers can interact for assistance and guidance. New teacher orientation workshops are common in many schools, with the most successful programs providing additional workshops and training throughout the teacher’s first years in the profession. Formal evaluation is critically important for new teachers to gain an understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, and meeting the standards of the profession becomes the joint work for the mentor and beginning teacher. Among the documented benefits of Induction Programs are: (i) retention in the profession; (ii) higher student achievement; (iii) increased teacher effectiveness; (iv) better recruitment and placement of teachers; (v) improved school climate; (vi) an expanded teacher repertoire; (vii) continuous professional development; (viii) greater teacher personal satisfaction; and (ix) improved classroom management. There are three major models of teacher induction programs: Teacher Mentoring Programs: More experienced teachers (mentors) are paired with a new teacher (mentee) in this model. At times a group of mentors work with all the new teachers in a particular school setting. These experienced mentors assist the new teachers in adapting to the school environment, developing appropriate lesson plans, managing the classroom environment and interacting with the administration, fellow teachers and parents. School-University Collaborative Induction Programs: A key to collaborative programs is the desire of both the 3 schools and partnering universities to work together on not just funding the costs, but having mutually shared interest in the success of new teachers. New Teacher Induction Programs: These programs not only introduce new teachers to the policies and practice of the teaching profession, but as importantly to the culture of teaching. It is also considered the most complete of the models, in that it generally involves a mentoring program and often involves partnerships with teacher training institutions. 7. Continuous Professional Development (CPD) Nations throughout the world are recognizing that it is not sufficient to provide only initial, pre- service teacher training and certification, with nothing additional required throughout the professional life of teachers. The professional development of teachers goes under a variety of names, including staff development, in-service education, or continuing education, but perhaps the most widely used today is Continuous Professional Development (CPD). This includes the range of formal and informal processes and activities that teachers engage in both inside and outside the school, in order to improve their knowledge and skills. Research on CPD concludes that it needs to be: targeted, ongoing, and embedded into the teacher’s workday. While teachers gain some valuable information from coverage of such topics as classroom management, disciplining students, or working with parents, these seldom have much effect on the three critical areas of professional development: content knowledge (deep understanding of their disciplines/subjects); pedagogical knowledge (particularly subject specific instructional strategies); and knowledge about the uniqueness of the age-group being taught. The one model noted for its effectiveness in changing classroom practice is school-based support. This typically involves the direct participation and joint control by teachers, and school principals, along with other officials, usually inspectors/supervisors. Activities typically include: individual consultations; peer coaching; school-based mentoring; visits to other classrooms; regular group teacher meetings and workshops; teacher guides and other professional materials; interactive radio; and the Internet and computers. Teacher resource centers can provide great assistance to teachers within the school in which the resource center is located, and to a lesser extent nearby schools. School twinning, partnership, unions and business networks can also provide needed support for teachers. The research appears strong that training teachers in generic teaching pedagogies has little positive effect on student achievement, but that the more focused the in-service training is on specific subject pedagogy, how students learn, and how to assess students, the greater the value in improving student mastery of basic skills, in addition to promoting reasoning and problem solving. 8. Teacher Support Networks The quality of a student’s education depends largely on the quality of teachers. This is especially important in the primary school level, when children’s learning is very formative and not so independent. The success of improved teaching practice is the key to helping children learn, and the success of each school to ensure this, is the key to overall quality improvement in the education system. Support to teachers is not just about more training, it is about a continuum of opportunities for teachers to become better at their classroom practice. Teacher support should also include a more thorough consideration of schools as social organizations, since this context influences teaching and learning. 4 Teacher support networks are needed if sound pedagogical practice and motivation are to be developed. These networks and their associated activities can be varied in structure and organization. As a general rule though, those that focus on continuous development to guide, monitor, and support necessary skills, knowledge and new ideas, tend to be more successful in bringing about change at the classroom level than those which seek quick fixes to fill up deficiencies, or programs that simply provide a qualification. Impact is even further enhanced when the support (skill development and resources) is brought directly into teachers’ classrooms, in contrast to support that is offered at a distance and requires time to travel. The school setting should be the prime focus of activity. The decision of what types of support networks are to be established ought to made in consultation with staff within the schools and/or school clusters since they are in the best position to determine what activities and structures will be most supportive of their work. A central principle of support networks is that the professional development of teachers is a process, not an event. It involves change over time and is achieved in stages during a teacher’s career as more experience is gained. The stages are impacted by: (i) the degree and accessibility of services and support that can be provided within the education system, and (ii) the willingness of teachers to want to learn and apply new ideas. Some of the models which have proven include the following. A combination of these is desirable: (a) School-Based Network, (b) Cluster (c) Business, and (d)Unstructured 9. Teacher Motivation: Incentives and Working Conditions Motivation comes from many sources. Some teachers are motivated by their love of children and of teaching, some by more external factors such as a stable salary or the advantages of having more leave time. To the extent that education leaders understand what motivates teachers, it may be possible to provide incentives in ways that promote better quality education. But it is easy to oversimplify. Most teachers are motivated by a complex combination of internal and external factors. Incentives used to motivate some teachers may antagonize others. Among the incentives for motivating teachers are: recognition and prestige; salary differentials; job stability; pensions and benefits; professional growth opportunities; adequate infrastructure and teaching materials; mastery of subjects to be taught; and being able to adequately respond to stakeholders. There are a wide variety of specific monetary incentives including the beginning salary; salary scale or schedule; merit pay; cost of living allowances; hardship and travel allowances. In-kind supplements include free or subsidized housing; food assistance; plots of land; low interest loans; scholarships for children and free books. The benefit packages of teachers includes such things as paid, sick and maternity leave; medical insurance; pension and retirement benefits; and in many countries the opportunity to make considerable extra money through tutoring, grading examinations or developing curriculum materials. While most of those listed have significant monetary implications, committed teachers throughout the world are also deeply motivated by a wide range of professional incentives, such as classroom materials, supervision, teacher training and career opportunities. International experience in using teacher incentives is mixed. Sometimes they do not produce the intended desired teacher behaviors. When they do work, results are often modest. Careful attention needs to be given to ensuring that: (i) the benefits being offered actually have incentive 5 value to the teachers, (ii) education managers have the capacity to administer the benefit system in a fair and consistent way, and (iii) the benefits justify the cost. When those conditions are met, incentives can be a useful tool for improving the quality and efficiency of education. 10. Teacher Supervision and Monitoring (paper forthcoming) 11. Teacher Collaboration (paper forthcoming) 12. Professional Development Frameworks (paper forthcoming) 13. Role of Unions/Professional Associations to Support Teachers (paper forthcoming) C. ADDITIONAL TOPICS 14. HIV and AIDS and Teachers According to UNAIDS, an estimated 8.6 million people were living with HIV in Asia in 2006. Two-thirds of HIV/AIDS infections in the region occur in India, with an estimated 2.5 million infections (0.23 per cent of population), making India the country with the third largest number of HIV patients, after South Africa and Nigeria. HIV/AIDS is not only a health issue, but a threat to other sectors, including education. As a result, the education sector must develop responses to the epidemic both at a national policy level and at the school level. This policy brief identifies issues and policy options for ministries of education in countries with low HIV and AIDS prevalence, such as those in Asia, to prevent the HIV/AIDS epidemic from spreading and defeating efforts to promote educational quality. Educational quality is affected in areas where HIV is spreading e.g. as teachers infected with HIV fall ill, they are increasingly absent from class and eventually die in the absence of access to anti- retroviral therapy (ART); many uninfected teachers (particularly women) are obliged to absent themselves from school to care for family members who are infected with HIV; teachers who are HIV-positive (or suspected of being infected) are often victims of stigma and discrimination. Some are ostracized or expelled from their schools: and HIV/AIDS is an educational quality issue in that it affects the “educability� of students. The disease has a negative impact on children and youth who lose their parents. These “AIDS� orphans often suffer from depression, discrimination and malnutrition and have difficulty staying in school. Many end up as street children or child laborers, vulnerable to various forms of exploitation. Among the things that schools need to do are: (i) organize a voluntary HIV testing campaign; (ii) organize on-going district-level monitoring or teacher and pupil presence and attrition; (iii) anticipate provincial or national needs in teacher replacement and financial resources due to HIV and AIDS impact; (iv) have transparent and equitable rules for the treatment of HIV-positive teachers and students; (v) ensure that the classroom is a safe place for learning; (vi) provide access to prevention, testing, treatment, care and support; (vii) assure confidentiality and non- disclosure of HIV status; (viii) assure job security and provisions related to benefits; and (ix) have disciplinary and grievance resolution procedures in place. Teacher training at both the pre- and in-service levels on how to teach about HIV/AIDS prevention and how to work with orphans is 6 critical, as is age appropriate curriculum materials. Infection is preventable, and it is imperative that schools take a leading role if the spread of the disease is to be controlled. 15. Specific Skill Development including use of technology and multi-grade instruction (papers forthcoming) 7